Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

ENVIRONMENTAL

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OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

THE WORLD BANK

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GUIDELINES

AFFAIRS"
 OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

THE WORLD BANK

ENVIRONMENTALGIJIDELINES

JULY 1984

>~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FOREWORD JULY 1984

ENVIRONMENTAL
INDUSTRIALWASTECONTROLGUIDELTNES

As an integral part of its appraisal and supervision function,

the World Bank is required to evaluate the adequacy and effectivenessof
pollution control measures for projects involving industrial operations.
These evaluations are concerned not only with effects on environment, but
with effects on the occupational health and safety of industrial workers as
well.

To assist Bank's missions, the Office of Environmental Affairs

has developed a series of guidelines covering industries and pollutants
most frequently, or considered most likely, to be encountered in the Bank
lending programs.

Each industry, or major pollutant, which may be common to a num-

ber of industries, is treated separately. Guidelines are designed to pre-
sent only an overview of a particular industry or pollutant rather than ex-
haustive coverage.

Each guideline covers a number of aspects, including:environmen-

tal factors, permissible pollutant levels, and principal control methods.
If applicable,the guideline includes a discussion of gaseous, liquid and
solid waste aspects of the same industry or pollutant.

Application of these guidelines must be adjusted to each specific

situation. Permissible pollutant levels given, are considered to be a-
chievable at reasonable costs by existing treatment and control technolo-
gy. Where these performance levels cannot be achieved, the appraisal and/
or supervisory mission should fully document deviations and reasons for
these deviations, be they technical, regulatory or other. Wqhere local reg-
ulations regarding permissible pollutant levels differ from those presented
in these g idelines, the stricter regulationsshould prevail.

Individual guidelineswill be revised periodicallyby the Office

of EnvironmentalAffairs as sufficientnew knowledge becomes available to
warrant changes. Additional guidelines covering specific industrieswill
be written as required. While these guidelines were prepared primarily for
use by Bank staff, their use by others is welcomed and encouraged. Further
information concerning environmental activities of the World Bank are
available by writing to:

Office of Environmental Affairs

The World Bank
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433
U.S.A.
ii
THE WORLDBANK MAY1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

GUIDELINES

ALUMINUM
INDUSTRYWASTES

1. Aluminum is considered to be the most abundant metal in the

earth's crust. The aluminum industry is international in vcope. Aluminum
manufacture, fabrication, and use are currently worldwide. Wastes result-
ing from industrial operations are significant, and hence their effects
must be considered in environmental impact assessrmnts.

MANUFAXTURING
PROCESS

2. The basic material used in the manufacture of aluminum metal is

bauxite ore. Major sources of this mineral are found in Jamaica, Haiti,
Costa Rica, Surinam, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Ghana, Guinea, Sierra
Leone, Cameroon, Sumatra, Java and Borneo, and Australia.

3. The nost commnly used method for production of aluminum metal

from bauxite ore is the Bayer Process, followed by the Hall-Heroult Pro-
cess. Thus, aluminum production may be considered a two-step proces_:.

4. In the Bayer Process bauxite is digested with hot, strong alkali

solution (generally sodium hydroxide) to form a solution of sodium alumi-
nate, and a mud residue (commonly referred to as "red mud"). The solution
is cooled and the mud residue removed by settling and/or filtration. Hy-
drated aluminum is calcined to produce alumina (Al203), following carbon
dioxide injection.

5. The Hall-Heroult Process, then electrically reduces alumnina to

alu inum metal. The process consists of alumina electrolysis in a fused
sal electrolyte consisting of cryolite (Na3 Al F6 ) with minor additions of
other fluoride salts. The process is carried out in a cell (pot) - cor-
sisting of a carbon anode, a cathode, and the electrolyte -- contained in a
carbon-lined steel box. Liquid metal is alloyed with and cast ilito ingots.
Ingots are shaped for final use by casting, rolling, forging and/or extru-
sion.

6. The industry is currently investigating the possibility of pro-

ducing alumina fran alumina-bearing raw materials, as an alternative to the
Bayer Process. Recycling is also a source of aluminum metal, with material
coming mainly from new scrap, aluminum cans, and discarded automnbile bo-
dies.
 - 2-

ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS

A - BAUXITE MINING

7. Major envirormental concerns in bauxite mining are lard reclama-

tion, runoff water control, dust control and infrastructure impacts.

8. It is generally accepted that in cases o.f mining and related

operations land should be restored to an equal or more useful state than
existed before the start of such operations. Reclamation measures and
costs should be carefully assessed and included in projected mining costs.

9. Rairwater -unoff control can be both difficult and costly under

certain conditions. Runoff waters should be carefully considered in terms
of suspended solids, pH, dissolved solids, and metals. Dust problems may
arise from mining, handling, and shippinlgof bauxite ore. Ore cperations
can also generate urnvantednoise fron blasting and the use of heavy excava-
tion and transportation equipment. Irnfrastructure needs can include access
roads and facilities, personnel housing, and community services.

B - BAUXITE PROCESSINGAND REFINING

10. The principal environmental concerns for bauxite to produce alum-

inum, include: (1) disposal of bauxite residue (red mud); (2) dirt losses;
(3) emissions from fuel burning; (4) waste liquid and slurry streams, other
than bauxite residue; (5) noise; and (6) infrastructurejinpacts.

11. The annunt of bauxite residue can vary from a half to one ton dry
weight per ton of alumina produced; depending upon type of bauxite and man-
ner in which it is processed. Mud normally contains 20 to 30 percent of
solids. While chemical con-position can vary widely, a representativesam-
ple will generally range as follows:

Component % (Dry Basis)

Fe2 O3 30-60

A1203 10-20
SiO2 3-20

Na2O 2-10

CaO 2-8

TiO2 Trace-10

Loss On ignition 10-15

pH 12-12.5 (Sol. Fraction)

 -3-

12. A number of disposal methods for these residues have been invest-
igated. Some form of dunping is currently considered to be the best meth-
ods, including (1) land iLnpoundment; (2) ocean dumping by ships, barges, or
pipelines; and (3) seashore reclamation.

13. Land inpoundment in a diked impervious area is most frequently

used, and is the method to be generally errployedfor Bank-supportedpro-
jects. Care must be taken to avoid contamination of ground waters. The
settling ponds can remove 30 to 60 percent of the solids. In some cases,
water from the impoundment area can be returned as process make-up water.

14. Sea disposal is practiced in a number of areas. At same sites in

the Mediterranean, the residue is discharged via pipelines into underwater
canyons at depths belcw 2,000 meters. In Japan, sea dumping is permitted,
but only to areas and by methods specified by government regulations. Gov-
ernment approved disposal areas are located over 300 kilometers from
slhore. Use of bauxite residue for seashore reclamationis permitted in Ja-
pan on a limited basis, but has been found to be very costly.

15. For Bank-sponsored projects, sea disposal may be used in special

cases only; under carefully con-trolled conditions, and with the assurance
that there will be no harmful effects to sea life.

16. fHandling bauxite during transfer to and from transportation

source through stcLage and processing can generate significant fugitive
dust emissions, as well as handling of alumina fran processing to ship-
ping. Although both bauxite and alumina are inert materials, their escape
into the atmosphere can create a nuisance problem. Exhaust gases from alu-
mina calcination may also be a source of undesirable dust emissions.
Abandoned bauxite impoundment areas can also lead to appreciable dust gen-
eration if allowed to become entirely dry.

17. Fuel burning for steam generation and aluminum calcinationcan

produce emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Stacks for these
facilities should be designed to meet applicable ambient air quality stand-
ards, or World Bank Guidelines, whichever is stricter.

18. Infrastructure effects may extend some distance from the plant
site. Consideration should be given to access roads, bauxite unloading and
aluminum shipping facilities,water supplies, power needs, housing for the
work force, and comrrunityfacilities.

C - ALUJMINAREDUCrION

19. Gaseous and particulate emissions are produced in primary reduc-

tion. Gaseous emissions are predominantly hydrogen fluoride (HF), with
traces of other fluoride conpounds. Particulate emissions are not well de-
fined, hcwever, contain substantial fluorides. The proportion of gaseous
to particulate fluorides will vary considerably, depending upon the type of
cell being operated.
 4

20. While fluorides are the principal substance of concern, attention

must be given to other potential waste problems. Scrap carbon, used pot
linings, and precipitator dusts should also be Lonsidered. The use of wet
scrubber systems mtay require liquid waste treatment.

STANDARDSAND CONTROLS

21. Contaminantsof principal concern in production of aluminum .Tet-

als are fluorides, in various formnv. Standards defining allowable levels
have been established in various countries. On the basis of these and cur-
rently available technology, the Bank has established limits which are to
be adhered to for its projects involving this type of industry. Limita-
tions are as follows:

A. Bauxite Mining

1. No dispc al of mine tailings to waterways or

to tne sea, except under very special circumstances and very
carefully controlled conditions.

2. A reclamation program is to be established for handling mine

tailings. The project sponsor is to submit a proposed plan
of action, which will be evaluated as part of the project
appraisal.

3. The reclamation program is to be initiated within three (3)

years of the start of project operations.

B. Bauxite Processing and Refining

No disposal of red mud into either the waterways

or into The sea.

C. Primary Alurinum Smelting

1. Liquid Effluents

Kg. per Mg*

Contaminant Al. Produced

Fluorides (Total) 0.05

TSS 0.01
pH 6 to 9

2. Gas Effluents

Stack heights and stack releases should be such that air con-
centrationboth inside and outside the plant will conform to
the followinglimits:

* 1 Mg = 1 megagram = 1 metric ton.

 -5-

a. Annual Mean
3
10ug/rr
Fluorides (as HF)
Fluorides (Insol.) 30 ug/m3

b. Eight-Hour Peak

Fluorides (as HF) 100pg/m3

3
Fluorides (Insol.) 300,,ug/n

c. Total Emissions

Total fluoride discharge is to be no greater than 1 Kg.

per Mg of aluminum produced, and discharge of total
pairticulate is to be no greater than 5 Kg. per Mg of
aluminum produced.

In applying these standards it is essential that currently

recognized and accepted methods of analysis be used to
measure contaminants concentrations of interest.
Standard methodology is generally available, and may be
found in the literature.
 -6-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "The Aluminum Industry arnd the Environment." IJNEP Industry Sector

Seminars, Aluminum Meeting, Paris, 6 to 8 October 1975. Papers and
Documents. (1975).

2. "Environnental Aspects of the Aluminum Industry-An Overview." UNEP

Industry Programme. Paris (May 1977).

3. "Environmental Recomnendations for Siting and Operation of New Primary

Aluminum Industry Facilities." International Primary Aluminum
Institute. London (1977).

4. "Environmental Considerations of Selected Energy Conserving Man-

ufacturing Process Options." Alumina/Aluminum Report. U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency. Doc. EPA 600/7-76-034 h. Wash-
ington (December 1976).

5. "Air Pollution Control in the Primary Aluminum Industry." Sing-

master & Breyer. New York (1973).

6. "Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines

and New Source Performance Standards for the Bauxite Refining Sub-
category of the Aluminum Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufactur-
ing Point Source Category." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Doc. EPA 440/1-74/019-c (March 1974).

7. "Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines

and New Source Performance Standards for the Primary Aluminum Smelt-
ing Subcategory of the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source
Category." Doc. EPA -440/1-74-019-d (March 1974).

8. "T)evelopment Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New

Source Performance Standards for the Secondary Aluminum Smelting Sub-
category of the Aluminum Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufactur-
ing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-74-019-e (March 1974).

9. Bauxite, Alumina and the Environment (ISSN. 0378-9993. UNEP, Industry

and EnvironmentOffice. July/ August/September,1981. Vol. 4 No. 3
17 Rue Margueritte,75017, Paris, France.
 -7-

THF WORLD BANK July 1982

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

GUIDELINES

CANE SUGAR INDUSTRY

1. On the basis of general manufactujring prictices, cane sugar pro-

duction falls into one or the other of two groupings - raw cane sugar pro-
cessing and cane sugar retining. These represent separate major steps in
the process and are frequently carried out at separate locations. For the
purposes of these guidelines each grouping will be discussed separately un-
der each of the principal headings. Although in a few cases raw cane and
refined sugar are produced in the sanr plant, the two types are treated
separately since physically separate production facilities are generally
utilized. There are substantial differences in the processes, as well as
in the quality and quantity of waste effluents.

2. In each case organics ard solids are the pollutant of signifi-

cance. Pollution loadingsare generally expressed in ternm of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS). The hydrogen ion
concentration (pH) is also important in measurir- pollution effects of
these wastes.

PROCESSES
MANUFACTURTNG

Raw Cane Sugar Processing

3. Sugar cane is a giant perennial grass, containing varying amounts

of sucrose in the juice of the matLre plaknt. The exact sucrose concentra-
tion depends upon the variety of cane, agricultural practices, and other
factors. The harvested cane will typically contain 15 percent fiber and 85
percent juice, by weight. In turn, the juice will average 80 percent
water, 12 percent sucrose,and 8 percent invert sugars and impurities.

4. The harvesting and loading of sugar cane on transport vehicles

mav be accomplished either manually or mechanically, depending upon the
availabilityand cost of labor. The methods used will appreciably affect
the amounts of dirt, trash and mud entering a mill. High loads of these
materials are undesirablefrcm both the processingand waste water handling
viewpoints, and are generallyhigher where mechanical harvesting and load-
ing are utilized.

5. The manufacturingprocess consists of cane washing and cleaning,

milli'- or extraction of the juice from the stalk, clarification, filtra-
tion, evaporation and crystallization. Washing is generally employed when
mechanical harvesting and loading are used. After cleaning, the cane
 -8-

is cut into chips, sb-edded and fed into a series of mills for crushing and
extraction of 40 to 50 percent of the juice. The cane fiber fromnthe final
mill, known as "bagasse", is usually fed to a boiler and used to produoe
steam.

6. The juice fron he mills contains large amounts of impurities.

Screening removes the coarser shreds, wtiichare returned to the mills.
Lime, heat and a small amount of phosphate are used to rem-ovemuch of the
remaining impurities through precipitation, settling and decantation in
continuous clarifiers. Following clarificationthe juica is divided into
the clarified and precipitatedmud portions. Rotary vacuum or otler types
of filters are used to thicken the precipitated materials and recover a
part of the juice. The liquid from the clarification system is about 85
percent water and 15 percent soluble solids. Before crystallization, the
solution is reduced by evaporation to obtain a syrup containing about 60
percent soluble solids.

7. The concentrated luice from the evaporation is crystalllized,

gently agitated and disclarged c.o high-speed centrifuges to separate the
crystal fron the syrup. Crystals remaining in the centrifuge are washed
with hot water to remove remaining syrup and the crystalline sugar trans-
ferred to storage for subsequent :hipping or furtlher processing.

8. A typical process flow diagram is presented in Figure 1.

Cane Sugar Refining

9. The raw material for refining consists of the crystallinesugar

produced by the raw cane factories. The raw sugar contains a film of mo-
lasses, as well as various impurities such a bagasse particles, organics,
inorganic salts and microorganisms. The refining process involves the re-
moval of nmst of this film and the associated impurities. The steps gener-
ally followed include affination and melting, clarification, decoloriza-
tion, evaporation, crystallization and finishing. A typical process flow
diagram is presented in Figure 2. Processes will vary in detail from refi-
nery to refinery. Suchl differences are particularly evident in decolora-
tion methods, where the medium may consist of bone char, granular activated
carbon, powdered activated carbon, vegetable carbon, ion-exchange resins or
other materials.

10. In some cases a refinery may produce liquid sugar only, or both
liquid and crystallinesugar. For liquid sugar the affination,decoloriza-
tion, and evaporation steps are usually the same. After evaporation,the
sugar solution is filtered, cooled and stored in the liquid form for later
distribution. A typical process for liquid sugar refining is presented in
Figure 3.
 -9-

SOURCESANDCHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

Raw Cane Sugar Processing

11. In raw cane sugar processing, water is used for cane washing,
cooling of vapors from barometric co.-adensers, slurrying of f;.ltercakes,
boiler bottom ash and boiler fly ash, boiler makeup, maceration, floor wash
and clean up and miscellaneous cooling.

Figure 1 - Typical Process Flow Diagram for Raw Cane Sugar Production.

_ . -

(.AOa) 4
C te

I-IA

4j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

t.~~~~~~~~~~h
,~ EU

-E
4u - .-

~~ a) 1. ~~~ EEL
-) 4 0
~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~.-"
EA U- +J

s-c,

4A~~~~~~~A~

[ Ea0
1 e
4;~
C3~~~~~~~~~~~)
~ ~ ~ i -- ~C S
a
 - 10 -

Figure 2- Typical Process Flow Diagram for Refined Crystalline Sugar

Production.

Raw Sugar Not Water

| AFFINAT'ION ' I

~1144RCENTRIFUGALS NIELTEER7- - cLARF TO

4-E
Minglini9 Syrup FILTRATIC0N PRESSURE
Cake FILTRATION
Disposal
Scum and
Cake Disposal
ECOLORIZATIO

TION

| VACUUPAS|

Final
Molasses

LGRANUAT
IGN

PACING
ORP
STORAGE
 - 11 -

Figure 3 - Typical Process Flow Diagram for Refined Liquid Sugar

Production.

Raw Sugar

AFFINATIDN

AETI,ON HOc'AE

4 FILT~~~~~~~~~~~~~W FT WA

~~E1 ~LRS TIC::

RefneSuaater

Refinedn
Sua
 - 12 -

12. Water use will vary considerably between plants. to differ-

ences in water conservation and recirculation practices. quantitites
of waste water generated in a plant may not correspond to the total water
intake because of moisture content of sugar cane, amounting to 70 to 75
percent; a portion of the fresh water added in the process enters into the
filter cake and bagasse; and a portion of the fresh water is lost through
evaporation.

13. IWastewater productionwill be affected by (1) the condition of

the cane upon arrival at the factc-ryin terms of the mud and trash content;
(2) harvesting technique,whether by hand, mechanically,or a combinaiton
of the two; (3) the availabilityof land for waste water treatmentof dis-
posal; (4) length of processing season; (5) climatic variations; (6) size
of plant; (7) nature of soil; (8) process variations; (9) nature of water
supplies.

14. The characterof the total waste water dischargeswill depend not
only upon the characteristicsof the component streams, but also upon the
extent of in-plant waste reduction practices. The principal sources are
the filter aud, barometric condenser cooling waters, and cane wash water.
Some pollution is added by numerous small streams originating in the pro-
cess. In general, purely hazardous or toxic pollutants (such as heavy met-
als and pesticides) will not be found in wastes discharged from cane sugar
factories.

15. While a number of parametersmay be consideredin evaluating the

effects of these wastes, it has been found that three are of principal sig-
nificance: (1) BOD5, for measuring the organic oxygen-consumingmaterials;
(2) TSS for measuring the loading of suspended materials which could inter-
fere with water supply andd other legitimatestream use; and (3) pH for as-
sessing the acidity or alkalinityof the wastes.

Cane Sugar Refining

16. As in the case of raw cane sugar plants, water use will vary
widely due to differences in processes, water reuse, conservationtech-
niques, and other aspects. Water suppliesare usually taken from two sour-
ces. One will be a low quality water, generally from a nearby surface sup-
ply, for condenser cooling. The other will be a high quality water, such
as from a nunicipal source, for process, washing and related purposes.
Water intake for a crystalline refinery is about double that for a liqgiid
sugar refinery.

17. Waste water discharges may originate from condensers, filter

backwash, truck and equipment washing, floor drains, boiler feed blcwdown,
and miscellaneous cooling.

18. Although waste water volumes and quality from refineries will
vary widely, the sources may be generally grouped as follows:
 - 13 -

(1) Crystalline refinery using bone char for decolorization -

principally char wash water and barometric condenser cooling
water.

(2) Crystalline refinery using carbon for decolorization -

principally barometric condenser cooling water, process
waste, ion-exchange regeneration solution, and carbon
slurries.

(3) Liquid refinery utilizing affination and remelt - similar to

a carbon crystalline refinery but with a lower barometric
condenser cooling water flow.

(4) Liquid refinery not using affinration, remelt and vacuum pans
- similar to number (3) but with a lawer barometric
condenser cooling water flow.

(5) Combination crystalline and liquid refinery, with separate

process-dischargeis a combinationof numbers (2) and (3).

19. The parameters of principal pollutional significancefor cane

sugar refiningwastes are BOD5, TSS and pH. On an individualbasis, cheni-
cal oxygen demand (COD), temperature, sucrose, alkalinity, total coliforms,
fecal coliforms, total dissolved solids, and nutrients may be of signifi-
cance. Based on available evidence cane sugar refining wiastes are not
kncwn to contain hazardous or toxic substances.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

20. As has been previously stated, for both raw sugar processingand
cane sugar refining plants, the BOD5, TSS and pH are the pollution para-
meters of principal concern,and should therefore receive principal consid-
eration by appraisal and supervision missions. The effluent limitations
presented belcw are consideredto be economicallyachievableby the use of
best available technology for new plants.

Raw Sugar Cane Processing

21. The quality and quantity of plant discharges will be influenced

by several factors. Such factors include raw nmaterials, harvesting tech-
niques, length of grinding season, climatic variations, growing cycle, to-
pography, precipitation, irrigation practices, and other relevant aspects.

22. Generally the nmst significant factor influencing operations and

wi.ste water characteristics will be the mud, dirt, and trash content of the
cane upon arrival at the factory. Harvesting techniques--whether nmechan-
ical, hand, or a combination of tle two--will determine the amounts of
these rraterials entering the plant. The levels of undesirable materials
will affect processing operations in terms of : the presencae or absence of
cane washing and the quality of spent can-e wash water; the efficiency of
sucrose production; and the amounts of filter muds and bagasse produced.
 - 14 -

Factories processing hand harvested cane generally do not utilize cane

washing, and thus should more readily produce a high quality effluent.

23. Table 1. lists the permissible effluent concentrations for

maximum daily average discharges, expressed in terms of kilograms of
pollutant per megagramr of field cane.* Field cane is defined as the cane
crop as harvested, including field trash and other extraneous materials.

24. As an approximation for relating pollutant discarges to output of

finished product, experience indicates that on the average 1 megagram net
cane will produce 75 kg. of raw cane sugar. Field cane may contain from
zero to as high as 50 percent field trash and extraneous materials,
depending upon the location, harvesting methods, and other local factors.
Net cane is defined as field cane minus the weight of extraneous materials.

Table 1. -- Effluent Limitations for Raw Sugar Cane Procesing Plants.

Harvesting BOD5 TSS

Method Max. Daily Max. Daily r-H

Mech. or com-
bined hand/mech. 0.20 0.48 6 - 9

Hand 0 0 6-9

Cane Sugar Refining

25. For purposes of applying effluent standards, cane sugar

refineries are grout d according to whether producing crystalline or liquid
sugar. Current li atioris to be applied to Bank projects are given in
Table 2, expressed as kilograms of pollutant per megagram of melted sugar.

26 As an approximation for relating pollutant discharges to finished

product, experience has shown that on the average 100 kg of raw cane sugar
will yield about 93 kg of crystal-ine sugar, at 960 Brix. Degrees Brix is
defined as the percentage of suci .e, by weight, in a pure sugar solution.

* 1 megagram = 1 metric ton

1 Mg = 1 MT
 - 15 -

Table 2 -- Effluent Limitationsfor Crystallineand Liquid Sugar Refining

Plants 1/

Category BOD5 TSS

2/ Max. Daily Max. Daily pH

Crystalline 0.18 0.11 6 to 9

Liquid 0.30 0.09 6 to 9

CONTROL AND TREATMENT

27. Flows resulting from the production of sugar, spanning from the
harvesting of cane to the refined product, are amenable to a nimber of
techniques for reducing or eliminating waste discharges. This includes
both in-plant aid end-of-pipe procedures.

Raw Cane Sugar Processing

28. TreaLrnent and disposal at cane sugar factories may range fran
essentially no treatment to corrplete land retention (by irrigation or other
means) for eliminating all discharges to surface waters. In-house measures
could include development of new harvesting methods for reduction or
elimination of cane wash waters; dry hauling or impoundment of filter muds
and bottom ash; recirculation or reduction of various cooling water flows;
and inproved plant housekeeping practices.

29. Existing end-of-pipe technology is considered rudimentary. The

procedures currently employed include: (1) impoundment of all contaminated
waters; (2) recirculation of cane wash waters; (3) dry hauling or oomplete
cotainment of ashes and filter mud slurries; (4) recirculation of condenser
waters or use for irrigation; (5) screening and disposal of leafy trash;
and (6) elimination of excess bagasse discharges.

1/ Assumes cooling and recyling of barometric condenser cooling water.

2/ For combined crystalline - liquid refineries applicable limitation may

be determinedby taking weighted average of crystalline to liquid pro-
duction.
 - 16 -

30. A number of potential end-of-pipe technologies are currently un-

der investigation,including: (1) biologicaltreatment (stablizationponds,
activated sludge and others); (2) the use of tube settlers and other means
for removing solids without the use of coagulants; (3) modification of cane
washing systems to reduce soil loadings in the waste waters; and (4) the
use of polymers to accelerate settling of waste water discharges.

Cane Sugar Refining

31. Current technology for the control and treatment of cane sugar
refining waste waters consists principally of process control (i.e. recyc-
ling and reuse of water, prevention of sucrose entrainment in barometric
condenser cooling water, and recovery of sweet waters), impoundment (land
retention), and disposal of process waters to municipal sewerage systems.
In-plant control measures are important in the total pollution control ef-
fort. A principal purpose of these measures is to prevent sugar losses,
which may be looked upon as profit losses by the refiner and as organic
pollutant contributions by the environmentalist.

32. In addition to reducing sugar losses, other measures wouild in-

clude effective dry-handling techniques for sludges and filter cakes, maxi-
mum recovery and reuse of various process streams, and improved housekeep-
ing.

33. A number of end-of-pipe techniques are available, ranging frcm

preliminary to advance waste treatment systems. These would include (1)
flow equalizatlon; (2) chemical treatment (pH adjustment, chlorination);
(3) primary treatment (settling, sedimentation, and clarification); (4) bi-
ological treatment (activated sludge, trickling filters, stabilization
ponds and lagoons); (5) advance waste treatment (carbon adsorption, micro-
screening, reverse osmosis); and (6) ultimate disposal (evaporation la-
goons, spray irrigation).

34. When land disposal of waste water is practiced, contamination of

ground water resources must be prevented, whether such disposal is by see-
page beds or by deep well injection.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Meade, G.P. "Cane Sugar Handbook". 10th Ed. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, (1977).

2. "DevelopmentDocument for Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines

and ProposedNew Source PerformanceStandards for the Raw Cane Sugar
Processing Segment of the Sugar Processing Point Source Category".
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Doc. EPA 440/1-75/044 (February
1975).
 - 17 -

3. "Develcpment Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New

Sugar Processing Point Source Category". U. S. Envirominental Protection
Agency. Doc. EPA 440/1-74/002-c (March 1974).

4. "Sugar Manual". Hawaii Sugar Planters Association. Honolulu (1972).

5. "A System Approach to Effluent Abatenent by Hawaii's Sugar Cane In-

dustry". In Proceedings Fourth National Synposium on Food Processing
Wastes. Doc. EPA 660/2-73-031, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, (December 1973).

6. "Consumptive Use of Water by Sugar Cane in Hawaii", University of

Hawaii, Water Resources Research Center, Technical Report No. 37
(1978)

7. Biaggi, N. "The Sugar Industry in Puerto Rico and Its Relation to the
IndustrialWaste Problem". J. Water Pollution Control Federation. 40,
8 (August 1968).

8. Miller, J. R. "Treatment of Effluent from Raw Sugar Factories". In

Proceedings of the InternationalSociety of Sugar Cane Technologists,
(1969).
 - 18 -

THE WORLD BANK JUNE 1983

O0'FICEOF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

CEMENT MANUFACTURING

GUIDELINES FOR DISPOSAL OF WASTE

1. Cement manufacturing plants vary widely in volume and caTposit-

ion of pollutants discharged. Differences arise from process variations,
in-plantpractices,housekeeping,and other factors.

2. Three basic steps are normally utilized in cement manufacture:

(1) raw material grinding and blending, (2) clinker production, and (3)
finish grinding.

3. Raw materials include lime (calciumoxide), silica, aluminum, and

iron. Lime, the largest single ingredient normally amces from limestone,
cement rock, oyster shell, marl, or chall:- all of these sources consist
primarily of calcium carbonate. Other raw materials are introduced as
sand, clay, shale, iron ore, and blast furnace slag. These materials may
be added initially, with feed to the process, or further in the process se-
quence sudc as in the clinker grinding stage.

4. Two types of processes are available, nominally termed "wet" or

"dry". In the wet process, raw materials are ground, mixed with water and
the slurry fed to the kiln. With the dry process raw materials are dried
before or during grinding. Dry ground materials are fed to the kiln.

5. The kiln is a long cylindrically shaped oven, internally lined

with refractory brick. It rotates slowly on a axis slightly inclined from
the 'norizontal. The slight axis inclination allows kiln contents to drop
forward as the kiln rotates. High temrperature combustion gas produced at
tle lower end of the kiln flows upward, counter current to solid material
mrving down the kiln. Coal, gas, or oil may be used to generate this com-
bustion gas. Mbst kilns are equipped to fire more than one type fuel. As
material moves down the kiln, its temperature increases to about 14000 C,
at which point it fuses to form hard, small pieces termed "clinker". Upon
leaving the kiln, clinker is rapidly air cooled, coffbined with a small
amount of gypsum* and ground into fine powder. The ground cement is then
cooled and shipped to the consumer, either in bulk or bags.

* Gypsum level of the final cement product, regulates cement setting time
at the site of its use.
 - 19 -

Crushing1

Wet Process Dry Process

Propor-i.j.cnir.o o
and 7Mi-Xing ofl,Wae_adm__a -
Psaw .Mqteals o-* Water and Mixirng o
in 1r nRaw Matrials

ndicg Water rinin

!So roge iv ' rg | I Homogeni- ngz

and Blendir.ir and B1encine
iEvaporation fSr

.- r us'- K r.~'

~~~~o1er~~~~~~~~~~~1

lClirkser Cenie~~~~~ie
Coo'ler "i-r

Finish
Grinding and

FSaement Cooler

Storage
Bagging
Shioping

Figure 1 -Flow Sheet for Typical Wet and Dry Cement Manufacturing Processes.
 - 20-

6. Flow sheets for typical wet arnddry manufacturingprocesses are

shown in Figure 1.

7. Cement plants are categorizedas "leaching"and "non-leaching".

Kiln dust leaching systems are used in leaclhingplants to avoid loss of
high alkali dusts. Dry dust is mixed with water to make a slurry about 10%
solids. In the slurry, alkali from the dust dissolves into the water
phase. The slurry then flows to a clarifier. Clarifier underflow, con-
taining 40 to 60% solids returns to the kiln, while overflow is discharg-
ed. Clarifier overflow is the mnst severe sourca of water pollution for
the cement industry. An alternative for reducing this problem is to use
low alkali raw materials.

SOURCES OF WASTE

8. Cement manufacture can result in pollution of air, water, and

land resources.

Air

9. Air pollution can originate at several operations in cement manu-

facture. These sources and their associated emissions are as follows:

Sources Emissions

Raw Materials - Particulates(dust)

Grinding, Handling

Kiln Operations Particulates(dust),C0, -

and Clinker Cooling SOS, NOX, Hydrocarbons,
Aldehydes,Ketones

Product Grinding, Particulates(dust)

Handling, Packaging,
Shipping

10. A major source of particulate matter (or dust) at mnst cement

plants is the kiln. Kiln rotation and high-velocity flow of combustion
gases entrain large quantities of dust (as much as 10 to 20% of the kiln
feed) out the feed inlet of the kiln.

Water

11. Highest levels of water pollution occur when water is allowed to

contact collected kiln dusts. Three most significant sources where this
contact may occur are: (1) the leaching operation (most important) which
removes soluble alkali and recovers solid insolub'Le portions for reuse, and

Wb,
 - 21 -

discharges overflow (leachate)as waste, (2) disposal of entire wet dust

slurry with no recovery or reuse (slurry is fed to a pond, solids settle
and overflow is discharged),and (3) aqueous effluents from wet scrubbers
are used to wash dusts from kiln gas emissions.

12. Process cooliing is the major use for water in dry process cement
manufacture (drying equipment and air compressor operation, and cooling of
kiln bearings, burner pipes, etc.). Therefore, dry process water effluents
should not normally be contaminated unless poor wacer management is prac-
ticed. Slurry water used to feed raw materials into the kiln for the wet
process evaporates (dissipates in the air as vapor) so it does not become a
water effluent discharge.

13. Auxiliary activities such as electric power generation (with a

steam boiler), slurry tank cleaning, washing of bulk hauling trucks, cool-
ing tower blow-down, and raw material washing are wastewater sources, but
normally of minor significance.

Land

14. Kiln dust, raw materials, clinker, coal, and other substances
are frequently stored in piles on plant property. Unless proper measures
are taken, rainfall may percolate through these piles, dissolve (or leach)
soluble pollutants and carry them with the surface runoff waters. Also
water polluted in this mannrer can migrate through the subsurface layers be-
neath the material storage piles and contaminate groundwater sources.

OF WASTES
CHARACTERIZATION

15. Dust renoved from kiln gases is primarily a mixture of raw ma-
terial, amd clinker particles. These gases also contain alkalies (froa the
raw materials) and fuel which volatilized in the kiln. While raw material
alkalies are insoluble in their natural state, high kiln temperatures,
chemically mmodifies the alkali component of its mineralogical matrix so
that alkali becores both volatile at high temperatures and water soluble at
lcw temperatures.

16. Plants which produce low alkali cement and use high alkali raw
materials do not recyle dust to the kiln. Disposal of this dust is a seri-
ous plant problem. In addition to dust, cement plant emissions also con-
tain significant quantities of CO, SOx, (sulfur oxides) and NOx, (nitrogen
oxides), as well as lesser quantities of hydrocarborns, aldehydes, and ke-
tones.

17. The seven most significant parameters for evaluating water pollu-
tion of cement industry effluents are: pH, total dissolved solids, total
suspended solids, alkalinity, potassium, sulfate, and temperature. Average
values for these parameters which are in water effluents created by scrub-
bing kiln dusts are shown in Table 1.
 -22-

Table 1 - Average Values of Pollution Parametersfor Leachingand

Non-LeachingPlants.

Parameter Leaching Non-Leaching

pH (no units) 9.9 8.2

TDS 6.6 mg/mg (a) 0.27 mg/Mg

TSS 0.9 0

Alkalinity 1.38 " 0.09

Potassium Salts 3.3 0.08 "

Sulfates 6.7 0

Temperatures +3w0o C +3.00 C

increase (b)

(a) Milligramsper megagram of product.

(b) Typical temperaturerise in cooling water discharges.

18. Surface water runoff from rain may be contaminated with dust ac-
cumulated at the plant site. Runoff fram dust piles, coal piles, and raw
material storage may also add to this problem. The pollutionpotential of
runcoff waters from these sources are highly variable. Coal pile runoffs,
for example, may frequently show pH values of 4.0 or less.

EFFLUENT LIMITATION

19. Permissiblelevels of gaseous, liquid, and solid waste discharges

for both leachingand non-leachingplants are given below. If these cannot
be met, appraisalor supervisorymissions must thoroughlydocumentany var-
iation and reasons for not meeting these limitations.

Air Pollutants

20. Air pollutants originate in kiln gases, clinker cooler exhaust

gases, and (to a much lesser extent) in the boiler flue gas. Stack gases
should be analysed for SOx, NOx, and particulates. If coal that contains
mercury is used for kiln heating, flue gas should also be analyzed for mer-
cury. Ambient air pollution levels will depend not only on pollution con-
centratiors,in the effluent, but also on stack height, local atmospheric
conditionsa-1 local terrain.
 - 23 -

21. The following pollutaint limits for the most important emissions
are to be adhered to in all but unusual circumstances:

S02 - At Ground Level

Inside Plant Fence Annual Arith. Mean: 100 pg/m3

Max. 24-hr Peak 1000 pg/m 3
Outside Plant Fence Annual Arith. Mean: 100 pg/m3
Max. 24-hr Peak 500 pg/m3

Particulates (dry basis)

from kiln 150 g/Mg Feed

from clinker coooler 50 g/Mg Feed
ground level outside
plant fence 80 Ug/m3
Stack discharge* 50 mg/rm3

* This limit may replace combined kii. and clinker cooler discharge if it
appears more acceptable.

Liquid Pollutants

22. Based on currently available technology, liquid effluent disposal

should be within the following limitations:

All Plants

-- No cooling water discharge. If recycling is

not feasible, cooling waters may be discharced
provided its temiperature rise is not over 30 C.

-- No water discharge to slurry waste dusts.

-- Nb discharge of slurry spills or slurry tank wash
water.
-- MaintainpH level of effluent discharge between 6.0
and 9.0.

Non-Leaching Plants

-- Suspended solids under 5g/mg Product.

-- Total dissolved solids no greater than levels in
water incoming to the plant.

-eaching Plants

-- Suspended solids less than 150 g/Mg Product.

- Total dissolved solids less than 1.5 Kg/Mg Product.
TDS may be adjusted to reflect ccmrposition of raw
materials.
 - 24 -

Material Storage Piles

- No rainfall allowed to percolate through piles and
runoff in uncontrolled fashion.

Equipment Washing, Road Washing, Etc.

-- Not over 150 g/Mg Product during equipment

cleaning operations, or during periods of
rainfall.

Solid Wastes/Material Storage

23. KiLn dust, coal, and other materials piles should be so arranged
as to avoid any arbitrary rainfall runoff. Where such runoff cannot be
avoided, the effluent should be channelled, centrally collected, and sub-
jected to sedimentation and any* other necessary neasures for reducing or
eliminating pollution. Also, if any rainwaters can migrate under storage
piles to contaminate a groundwater resource, storage areas may have to be
lined.

CONTROLANDTREAIMET OF WASTEL.

24. Kiln cperation is the wajor source of dust and gaseous pollu-
tants. Larger dust particles can. ho rernoved by cyclones or other mechani-
cal devices. Small dust particules can be removed by electrostatic precip-
itators, bag filters, or wet scr.._)rs. In most cases, collected dust is
recycled to the process for reuse ;- raw material. Dusts from other sec-
tions of cement production are gene za )1ly removed through local exhaust sys-
tens oodbined with some form of raeoh:3iiical collection.

25. Both wet process and dry *.rocess plants achieve essentially com-
plete waste water reuse with availa,.l technology, except in certain dust
contact operations. Tn all wet process plants, except those leaching col-
lectedi dust, effluents from ancillar.. operations (plant clean-up, truck
washing, cooling, etc.) can be used -... prepare slurry feed to the kiln.
This water evaporates in the kiln, ar.y organic matter is burned off, any
nonvolatile inorganic material remains with the product, thus, no water ef-
fluent is produced. Cooling towers or ponds may be necessary to recycle
excess water.

26. Use of waste waters for feeding the kiln is not possible in dry
process plants. Here, however, virtually coriplete recycling of liquid ef-
fluents is possible if cooling towers or ponds are used. The only dis-
charge is normally a :-mall volume of cooling tower "blow-down" or bleed
water that is required to prevent buildup of dissolved solids in the
recirculating water. In some cases, these small volumes can be
evaporated. Cooling streams can be segregated and steps taken to prevent
dust entry into cooling water systems.
 - 25 -

27. For leachingplants, the water is necessarilyexposed to contami-

nants and recycling is generally not fe-,sible. Principalpollution param-
eters of leachingbasin effluents are pH, alkalinity,suspendedsolids, and
total dissolved solids (primarilypotassium and sulfate). Treatment is ef-
fected by neutralizationand carbonation. Although removal of dissolved
solids is generally not practiced for leachate streams, results indicate
that evaporation, precipitation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and elec-
* trodialysis, individually or in combination,can be quite effective.

28. Laboratory analyses for any liquid effluent should include pH,
total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, alkalinity, potassium,
salts, sulfate, and temperaturerise.

29. Solid materials, includingwastes, are generally stored in piles

on plant property. These can be contained or treated (diking, latex spray-
ing, etc.) to prevent rain runoff into adjacentwaters. Diked areas should
be of sufficientsize to contain an average 24-hour rainfall.

ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS

30. Application of these guidelines and control mechanisms should

ensure cptimum utilizationof raw materials and result in some reductionof
energy requiremTents. Major factors in minimizing energy consumption will
be the plant design and cperation.

31. Fuel requirements of a cement plant should vary froa 6.23 to 6.91
gigajoulesper megagram of product* for the wet process and from 3.14 to
4.0 gigajoules/megagram of product for the dry process. Fuel consumption
for new plants should be at the lower limit, and it should fall below the
upper limit for existing plants. Conformance to these limits should
minimize any impact on the environment. VWere fuel consumption for a new
plant is estimated to be at or near the higher value, the reasons rust be
fully explained by the appraisal mission.

* One gigajoule = one billion joules.

One gigajoule/megagram = 238.9 calories/gm
 - 26 -

BIBLIOCWAPHY

1. "Information Sources on the Cement and Concrete Industry". UNIDO

Guides to Information Sources, No. 2. United Nations Industrial
Development Organization. New York (1977).

2. "Emission Measurement Techniques for Particulate Matter from Power

Plants, Cement Manufacturingand the Iron and Steel Industry". Or-
ganization for EconomicCooperation and Developmnt. Paris (1975).

3. Developmnt Document for Effluent Limitations,Guidelinesand New

Source PerformanceStandards for the Cement ManufacturingPoint Source
Category". U.S. EhvironmentalProtectionAgency. Doc. No. EPA/440/1-
74-005-a.

4. "Papadakis,M. and M. Venuat. "Industriede la Chaux, du Ciment, et du

Platre", from Collection "Les Industries,Teurs Productions,Leurs
Nuisances". Industrie-2. DUNOD. Paris (1970).
 - 27 -

THE WORLDBANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

CHLOR-ALKALIPLANTS

(CHLORINEAND CAUSTIC SODA)

1. Chlorine and caustic soda (NaOH) production constitute important

segments of the inorganic chemicals industry. The largest world producers
of chlorine include Canada, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy,
the United Kingdom, and the United States. Annual production by individual
countries for 1979 varied from 0.87 to 11 million metric tons.

2. Except for the United Kingdom the same countries,along with Ro-
mania and Russia, are the largest world producers of caustic soda. For
1979, the annual production varied from 0.7 to 11.3 million metric tons in
the individualcountries,as 100 percent NaOH.

3. Chlorine and and its co-product,caustic soda, ace used in large

quatitities in the production of plastics, organic and inorganic chemicals,
in the pulp and paper industry, in water supply and wastewater treatment,
and in several other industrial processes.

MANUFAC'TUINGPROCESSES:

4. Chlorine and caustic soda are produced almost entirely from the
electrolysis of a sodium or potassium chloride solution (rines) by one of
two major processec -- the mercury cell or the diaphragm cell. These two
processes differ in cell design and in the quality and quantity of wastes
generated. Other processes, such as the membrane process, have been devel-
oped through the pilot plant stage but operating data are not currently
av ailable. DT avoid any discharges of mercury to the environment, new
World Bank projects involving chlor-alkaliplants should not utilize the
mercury cell process.

5. In the purification of the brine, the sodium chloride solution

(brine or salt dissolved in water) is treated with sodium carbonate and
sodium hydroxide to precipitate impurities such as calcium, magnesium, and
iron. The precipitated hydroxides and carbonates are then settled in a
clarifier and the underflow, referred to as brine mud, goes to a lagoon or
to filtration.

6. Brine muds from mercury cell plants usually contain small amounts
of mercury,because of recyclingof the spent brine from the cells. Before
transfer to the cells, treated brine is evaporated if necessary to remove
 - 28 -

the excess water and then pH-adjusted. Spent or depleted brine fram the
cells is acidified and dechlorinated (using vacuum and/or air stripping)
before being saturated with salt and recycled.

Mercury Cell Process

7. The mercury cell consists of two sections: the electrolyzer and

the deconposer or denuder. A general process flow diagre - is shown in Fig-
ure 1. The electrolyzer consists of an elongated steel trough slightly in-
clined from the horizontal. Mercury flows in a thin layer at the bottmn,
acting as the cathode of the cell, and the brine flows concurrently on top
of the mercury. Parallel .raphite or metal anode plates are suspended from
the cover of the cell. Electric current flowing through the cell decam-
poses the brine, liberating chlorine at the anode and sodium metal at the
cathode. The metallic sodium forms an amalgam with the mercury. The amal-
gam from the electrolyzer flows to a denuder. The spent brine is recycled
to the brine purif cation process.

8. In the denuder, the sodium-mercury amalgam is the anode and the

cathode is iron or graphite. De-mineralizedwater is added, and this re-
acts with the amalgam to form hydrogen and caustic soda. The mercury is
returned to the electrolyzer. The hydrogen gas can be vented or cooled by
refrigerationto remove water vapor before sale or before use as a fuel.

9. The chlorine from the cell is cooled to remove water and other
impurities. The condensate is usually steam stripped and then either re-
turned to the brine system or discharged as a waste. The chlorine gas,
after cooling, is further dried by scrubbing with sulfuric acid. The di-
luted acid is regenerated for reuse, sold, or used for pH control. The
chlorine gas is then compressedand liquified.

10. The liquefyingprocedure results in a residualmixture of noncon-

densable gases known as tail or sniff gases. This residue is usually
scrubbed with caustic or lime, generating a hypochlorite solution, which is
decomposed, used on site, sold, or discharged as a waste.

11. The caustic soda formed at the denuder has a concentration of 50

percent NaOH. Some of the impuritiespresent in the solution can be re-
moved or reduced by the addition of certain chemicals, followedby filtra-
tion of the caustic. In most cases the caustic is sent to storage or evap-
orated if a more concentrated product is required.

Diaphragm Cell Process

12. The process flow diagram for the diaphragm cell process is pre-
sented in Figure 2. In this process, the treated brine solution is elec-
trolyzed to form chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide. The cell con-
tains an asbestos diaphragm separating the anode from the cathode. Chlo-
rine is liberated at the anode, while hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are pro-
duced at the cathode. The negatively charged hydroxyl ions (anions) will
react with the positively charged sodium ions (cations) to form caustic.
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 - 31 -

In the past graphite, with lead to provide the electrical contact and sup-
port, was generally used for the anode. In recent years the graphite
anodes have been replaced by titanium anodes, having a platinum or ruth-
enium oxide coating. The advantages of the metal anodes include increased
power efficiencies,longer anode life, and a reduction in potential pollu-
tant loads of lead and chlorinated organics. Cathodes are generally made
of metal. In the Hooker "S" cell, for example, the cathode is made of
crimped steel wire directly covered with asbestos. When in use, the cath-
ode unit is completely submerged. The asbastos covering then functions as
the diaphragm, separating the anode fram the cathode.

13. The chlorine gas is processed in the same way as in the mercury
cell process, and produces the same residuals. The hydrogen gas can be
vented or cooled to remove the water vapor, and either marketed or used as
a fuel.

14. The resulting caustic (or sodium hydroxide)has a concentration

of about 14 percent NaOH and a sodium chloride conter.trunning as high as
17 percent. The caustic is usually filtered to remove some of the impuri-
hies and then evaporated to 50 percent NaOL,in multiple effect evaporators.
The vapor resulting from the last of the evaporators is condensed in baro-
metric condensers, by contact with cooling water, or in surface condensers
using non-contact cooling water. Sodium chloride remains as a solid salt,
and this is returned to the brine system. Further purification of the
caustic is sometimes necessary for certain applications (suchas rayon pro-
duction). Extraction or adsorption techniques are effective in removing
small amounts of impurities.

WASTE SOURCES AND CHARACTERISITICS

Air Emissions

15. Emissionsfren mercury and diaphragm cell plants include chlorine

gas, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen. Gaseous chlorine is
present in the gas from liquefaction, from vents in tank cars and tank con-
tainers during loadiing and unloading, and from storage tanks and process
transfer tanks. Other emissions include mercury vapor fran mercury cathode
cells and chlorine from compressor seals, header seals, and the air blcwing
of depleted brine in mercury cell plants.

Liquid Effluents - Mercury Cell Process

16. Brine mud, produced from purification of the brine, usually con-
tains magnesium, calcium, iron and other trace metals such as titanium,
nolybdenum, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Calcium and iron are removed
as oxides. Small amounts of mercury also are found in the mud, fram the
recycling of the unconverted brine to the purification unit after dechlori-
nation.
 - 32 -

17. Cell room wastes include leaks, spills, area wash down, and cell
wash waters. The volume depends upon housekeeping practices, and may vary
from 0.01 to 1.5 cubic meters per metric ton of chlorine produced. This is
the major stream requiring treatment because of the high levels of mercury
present. If graphite anodes are used, the wastes may also contain lead and
chlorinated organics.

18. Condensation from the cell gas is contaminated with chlorine. In

most cases the condensates are recycled to the process after chlorine re-
covery. Both contact and non-contact water are utilized for chlorine cool-
ing and for removal of water vapor. Concentrated sulfuric acid is used in
the dryer to remove residual water from the chlorine gas after first stage
cooling. The acid is used until it is reduced in concentration to 50 to 70
percent. Then it is regenerated, used for pH control in a treatment sys-
tem, or marketed.

19. The tail gas containing the uncondensed chlorine gas fran the
liquefaction stage, along with some air and other gases, is scrubbed with
sodium/calcium hydroxide to form sodium/calcium hypochlorite solution. Ad-
ditional hypochlorite solution is produced when the ecquipment is purged for
maintenance. The hypochlorite can be used on site in another process,
sold, or treated before discharge. Tail gas scrubber discharges will vary
from 0.04 to 0.58 cubic meters per metric ton of chlorineproduced.

20. The 50 percent caustic produced at the denuder is filteredto re-

move salt and other impurities. The filters are backwashed periodically as
needed. The backwash water can be discharged to treatment, or filtered
with the filtrate which is recycled to the brine system. The filtered
solids may either be disposed of to land or reprocessed for recovery of
mercury.

21. Cooling of the hydrogen results in a condensate, which can either

be sent to treatment facilities or to mercury recovery and returned to the
denuder.

22. In summary, the total waste flow from mercury cell plants is re-
ported to average 2.1 cubic meters per metric ton of chlorine produced.
This does not include brine mud wsters, which are reused instead of dis-
charged and hence do not affect total flow.

23. The pollution parameters of importance in the mercury cell plants

are total suspended solids (TSS), mercury, and hydrogen ion concentrations
(pH). Other toxic metals which may be present, besides mercury, include
arsenic, antimony, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, silver, thal-
lium and zinc. The principal sources of these metals are considered to be
the raw salt or brine and the corrosion reactions between chlorine and the
materials in the process equipme'nt. Other than mercury, the levels of the
other toxic metals found in the wastes are not considered to be signifi-
cant.
 - 33 -

Liquid Effluents - DiaphragmCell P-rocess

24. Brine purificationproduces the brine mud as a waste, consisting

of precipitatedhydroxides and carbonatesof calcium,magnesium, iron, and
other metals. The muds are filtered or settled in lagoons, with the
filtrate or overflow either discharged or recycled to the brine syste-ns.
The filtrate volume will average about 0.42 cubic meter per metric ton of
chlorine produced.

25. Cell roon wastes include leaks, spills, area washdown and cell
wash waters. The cell wash waters contain high levels of asbestos. Where
graphite anodes are used in the cells, the wastes may also contain signifi-
cant quantities of lead. Waste flows from cell roan operations will vary
widely, and will average about 0.38 cubic meters per metric ton of chlorine
produced from metal anode plants. Graphite anode plants will average 1.2
cubic meters per metric ton of chlorine produced.

26. Condensation from the indirect cooling of cell gas is contamina-

ted with chlorine. The chlorine is re-moved and/or recovered fran the liq-
uid stream before discharge or recycle. Flows will average 0.49 cubic
meter for metal anode plants and 0.78 cubic meter per metric ton of chlor-
ine produced for graphite anode plant.

27. Concentrated sulfuric acid is used to dry the chlorine gas after
the first cooling stage. When the concentration is reduced to 50 to 70 pe-
rcent, the spent acid is regenerated, sold, or used for pH control, as is
the case in mercury cell plants.

28. Uncondensed chlorine gas fram the liquefaction stage is scrubbed

with sodium or calcium hydroxide to produce the corresponding hypochlo-
rite. The hypochlorite can be used in other processes, sold, or discharged
with or without treatment. Waste flows from this source average 0.17 for
metal anode plants and 0.11 for graphite anode plants, in ternms of cubic
meters per metric ton of chlorine produced.

29. Backwashing of filters used to clarify the caustic product way

produce significant quantities of wastewaters. These are wholly or par-
tially recycled to the process. Caustic filter backwashing is necessary to
remove sodium sulfate at graphite anode plants, since the accumulation of
sulfate ions can interfere with cell performance.

30. Hydrogen gas cooling produces a stream which is usually dis-

charged. The volume of flow is very small and not considered to be of sig-
nificance.

31. Where vapors from caustic evaporators are water-cooled, a signif-

icant amount of wvstewater can be generated in "once through" installa-
tions. Recirculation of the cooling water will greatly reduce this dis-
charge, but will require a cooling step and a blowdown discharge. Average
wastewater flows from the individual units in the diaphragm cell process
 - 34 -

are given in Table 1. The total plant flow in any specific case will de-
pend upon the practices (such as recirculation, by-product recovery, etc.)
employed at the particular plant.

32. The pollution parameters of significance include total suspended

solids (TSS),hydrogen-ionconcentration(pH), chromium, copper, lead, nic-
kel and zinc. Asbestos, used for the diaphragm separating the anode from
the cathode, is a major toxic pollutant also found in these process waste-
waters. However, due to the lack of a standardized analytical procedure
there is as yet no general agreement on acceptable limitations. As a rough
approximation, a concentration of 300,000 fibers per liter is considered to
be an acceptable limit at this time. Other toxic metals may also be pre-
sent in these wastes but the levels are generally not considered to be of
significance.

Table 1. Average Wastewater Flows from DiaphgramCell Plants.

Flow-m3 per Metric 'IbnChlorine

Source
Metal Anode Graphite Anode
Plant Plant

Cell room wastes and cell wash 0.38 1.2

Chlorine Condensate 0.49 0.78

Spent Sulfuric Acid 0.01 NA*

Tail Gas Scrubber 0.17 0.11

Caustic Filter Wash NA* 5.4

Brine Filter Backwash NA* 0.45

Caustic Cooling Blowdown 0.86 NA*

Brine Mud 0.42 NA*

* NA = Not Available
 - 35 -

Solid Wastes

33. The major sources of solid wastes in chlorine plants, for both
the diaphragm and mercury cell processes, are the brine muds. The solids
concentrationin the filter backwashing can vary from 2 to 20 percent, and
range in volume from 0.04 to 1.5 cubic meters per metric ton of chlorine
produced. Solids are also present in the caustic filter washdown and the
cell room wastes. In a diaphragm cell plant, the waters will contain sig-
nificant quantitiesof asbestos, originating fron washdowns and cell repair
or cleaning. Total mercury loss from mercury cell operationsaverages 7.5
grams of mercury per ton of chlorine liquefied. Some portion of this can
be expected to be present in the solid wastes discharged from the plant.

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

Air Emissions

34. Air emissions, when discharged to the atmosphere should be main-

tained within the following limitations:

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Max. 8-hr. Aver. 10 mg/m3

Max. 1-hr. Aver. 40 mg/m3

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

~~~~~~~~~20 3
mg/rn

Chlorine Gas (as Cl-)

Max. 30-min. Aver. 3

0.3 mg/mr
Max. 24-hr. Aver. 0.1 mg/m3

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Max. 15 minutes 4 mg/m3

Mercury (Hg)

Per ton of chlorineproduced: 3 grars

Liquid Effluents

35. Liquid effluents from plants using the mercury cell process, are
to be maintainedwithin the following limits:
Max. Max.
24 hr. Aver. 30 day Aver.
Kg per Metric Ton of Chlorine Product.

TSS 0.64 0.32

Mercury 2.8 x 10-4 1.4 x 10-4
pH 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units
 - 36 -

36. Ebr plants using the diaphragm cell process, effluents should
meet the following limitations:

Max. Max.
24-hr. Aver. 30-day Aver.
Kg. per Metric Ton of Chlorine Product.

TSS 1.1 0.51

Chromium 2.3 x 10-3 8.8 x 10-4
Copper 1.1 x 10-2 4.4 x 10-3
Lead 2.6 x 10-2 1.0 x 10-2
Nickel 1.1 x 10-2 4.4 x 10-3
Zinc 1.1 x 10-2 4.4 x 10-3
pH 6 to 9 Units 6 to 9 Units

CONTROLAND TREATMENTOF WASTES

Air Emnissions

37. Airborne emissions can be kept within required air quality limi-
tations through the use of cyclones, scrubbers,strippers,and other meth-
ods. In many instances, the gases may be recovered and reused or marketed
as saleable products.

Liquid Effluents

38. Management and housekeepingpractices should receive first con-

siderationin establishingmeasures for reducing or eliminating wastewater
discharges, and these could include control of water usage, recovery of
useful or saleableby-products,and process imodifications.

39. The brine treatment and cell roam areas slhouldbe equipped with
fiberglass gratings to collect all spills and leaks. Mercury bearing
wastes should receive sulfide precipitation, followed by pressure filtra-
tion. This will also remove the other heavy metals which may be present in
the stream. The precipitated mercury waste may be stored in a lined pond,
transferred to a secure landfill, or processed for recovery of the mer-
cury. The filtrate fron the sulfide filtration is recycled back to the
process. Where further treatment is needed the filtered effluent can be
passed through granular activated carbon beds for removal of residual metal
sulfidesand metallicmercury.

40. At diaphragm cell plants, the prevailing practice is either to

control asbestos wastes by settling or filtering cell wash wastewaters or
to neutralizeand settle effluents before discharge. Recycling of treated
streams is common, although not always the case. Plants using graphite an-
odes treat lead-bearing wastes by chemical precipitation and settling or
filtration before discharge.
 - 37 -

41. The control of toxic organic campounds varies greatly between

plants. For example, in a plant where the end use of the chlorine is the
manufacture of a chlorinated product, the bulk of the chlorinated organic
impurities are not removed.

42. Where a mnre purified chlorine product is required, the organics

are accumulated in the reboiler of the chlorine scrabber. The residues are
batch-treated for separation and recovery of the organic phase materials,
which are then sold as feedstock for the manufacture of related products.
The aqueous phase may be stripped for removal of additional organics and
chlorine, and then recycled or discharged

43. The use of metal rather than graphite anodes increases cell power
efficiency and greatly reduces the pollutant loading of lead and toxic or-
ganics.

44. By changing fron contact to noncontact cooling of the vapors from

caustic soda concentration, or by recirculating barometric condenser water,
the amount of wastewater generated can be considerably reduced.

45. New diaphragm materials are being developed, which can apprecia-
bly reduce power consumption and minimize or eliminate asbestos dischar-
ges. The modified d±aphragms include polymer modified asbestos membranes,
polymer membranes and ion exchange membranes.

46. The use of high pressure and refrigeration for chlorine recovery
will reduce the clhlorine content of tail gases. Before venting of the
tail gas to the atmosphere, the comnon practice is to scrub it with caustic
soda and produjce a hypochlorite solution. The hypochlorite can be sold,
used on site, or discharged.

Solid Wastes

47. The solids contai-ed in the brine muds, as well as those result-
ing from other parts of the )lant operations should first be examined for
possible by-product recovery, either on site or elsewhere. When on site
disposal is required, these residues may be transferred to ponds, drying
beds, or dumped in land fills. Since such residuesmay contain mercury or
other toxic substances, extreme care should be taken to avoid runoff or
drainage into surface waters or seepage into ground waters. Disposal
grounds may need to be sealed and provided with surrounding walls to
prevent both seepage and surface runoff.

ENERGYCONSIDERATIONS

48. In the electrolytic chlor-alkali production process the energy

requirements will be very large. The process requires an average of 21.6
giga-joules of energy per metric ton of chlorine produced (1 giga-joule
equals 1 billion joules).
 - 38 -

49. This energy will be in the form of electric power, whtich may
either be brought in from outside sources or generated on-site. Where
power is brought in frcm outside sources via a grid system, the available
energy varies from 30 to 45 percent of the energy content of the fuels used
to generate the electricity. If the power is generated at the chemical
plant site the available energy can be increased to a range of 60 to 80
percent by, for example, the use of pass-out steam for other factory opera-
tions such as distillation or drying.

50. The above energy requirementsdo not incltude the energy required
by the equipment used for treatment and disposal of plant wastes. These
requirements will vary according to the treatment and disposal techniques
adopted, and must therefore be determined on a case-by-case basis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. UN Economic and Social Council. "Air Pollution Problems of the Inor-

ganic Chemricals Industry". Proceedings of Seminar held in Geneva,
Switzerland, 1-6 tNvember 1976. Doc. ENV/SEM. 7/3, CHEM/SEM. 5/3. (22
July 1977).

2. Economic Commission for Europe "Annual Review of the Chemical Industry

1979". DDc. ECE/CHE0/34. United Nations. New York (1980)

3. Jarrault, P. "Limitations des Emissions de Polltuants et Qualite de

L'Air. Valeurs RegLementaires dans les Principaux Pays Industrial-
ises". Institut Francais de L'Energie. Paris (1978).

4. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Compilationof Air Pollutant

Emission Factors". Second Edition. Doc. AP-42. Washington (March
1975).

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Development Document for Effluent

LimitationsGuidelines and Standards for the InorganicChemicals Me,nu-
facturing Point Source Category" (Proposed). DocumentEPA
440/1-79/007. Washington (June 1980).

6. U.S. EnvironmentalProtecionAgency. "TreatabilityStudies for the In-

organic Chemicals Manufacturing Point Source Category". Docurnent EPA
440/1-80/103. 'washington (July 1980).

7. APHA, AWWA,WPCF. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Wqater and

Wvastewater". 15th Edition. American Public Health Association. New-
York (1980).

8. Shreve, R.N. "SelectedProcess Industries". McGraw-HillBook Co. New

York (1950).

9. The Chemical Society. "Conservatio,iof Resources". A Symposiunheld

at the University of Glasgow, 5th-9th,April, 1976. Special Publica-
tion No. 27. London (1976).
 - 39 -

THE WORLD3ANK
_MY 1983

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMKETAL

GUIDELINES

DAIRYPRODUCTSINDUSTRY

1. Ihe dairy products industrial operations are difficult to treat

because of wide variations between individual plants in raw material in-
puts, processes used, varieties of products manufactured, volumes of wastes
generated as affected primarily by internal plant practice and other fact-
ors. These guidelines will present general information on typical plant
operations, which may then be applied and/or adapted to specific projects.

INDUSTRIALPROCESSES

2. Dairy products plants may be categorized by specific product out-

put. Categories and products generally included in each category are shown
in Table 1.

3. Plants may perform a oombination of these product cperations, al-

though there are plants which have only one or two process categories.
Typical manufacturing processes for these products can be found in the sug-
gested references cited below.

4. For example, processingof fluid milk includes clarifying,cream

separation, pasteurizing,honiogenizing and possibly deodorizing. For but-
ter production, a culture of bacteria is added to cream, the mixture is
"ripened" and agitated under controlled terperatures until butter and but-
termilk are separated.

5. Cheese is produced through addition of a "starter" to whole milk

or skim milk under controlled temperature conditions. An acid or enzyme is
added to this mixture to form lactic acid which, in turn, results in curd
formation . Curd is separated, washed, and subjected to various additional
processes, depending upon the type of cheese being made.

SOURCESOF WASTES

6. Dairy industry effluents are primarily all liquid. Main sources

of wastes result from:

a) Washing and cleaning of tank trucks, cans, pipinq

and other equipment.

b) Spills fran leaks, overflows, equipment

malfunctions, careless handling and other similar
causes.
 - 40

Table 1 - General Categories and Products for Dairy Processing Plant Operations

Category Products

Receiving Station Raw Milk

iluid Products Market milk (ranging from 3.5'

to fat-free), flavored milk
(chocolate and other) and cream
(of various fat concentrations,
plain and whipped).
Cultured Products Cultured skim milk ("cultured
buttermilk") yoghurt, sour cream
and dips of various types.

Butter Churned and continuous-process

butter.

Natural and Processed Cheese All types of cheese oods

except cottage cheese and
cultured cream cheese.

Cottage Cheese Cottage cheese and cultured

creaatcheese.

lce Cream, Frozen Desserts, Ice cream, ice milk, sherbert,

Novelties and other Dairy water ices, stick ccnfections,
Desserts frozen novelty products, frozen
mellorine, puddings, other
dairy-based desserts.

ice Cream Mix Fluid mix for ice cream and other
frozen products.

Condensed Milk Condensed whole milk, condensed

skim milk, sweetened condensed
milk and condensed buttermilk.

Dry Milk Dry whole milk, dry skim milk,

and dry buttermilk.

Condensed Whey Condensed sweet whey and condensed

acid whey.
Dry Whey Dry sweet whey and dry acid whey.

Note: While some plants carry out operations in only cne of these categories
(single-productplants) most plants produce a combination of two or
more of the above categories.
 - 41 -

c) Processinglosses such as evaporatorentrainment

bottle and case washer discharges,containerbreakage
and product change-overin filling machines.

d) Wastage of spoiled products, returned products, or

by-products such as whey.

e) Detergents and other compounds used in working and

sanitizing solutions that are discharged as wastes.

f) Entrainment of lubricants from conveyors, stackers

and other equipment.

g) Routine operation of toilets, washrooms and eating

facilities.

h) Waste materials that may be contained in incming

raw -waterwhich ultimatelygoes to waste.

7. The greatestamount of waste originates fram the first five sour-

ces listed above and is directly related to various dairy products handled
at the plant. Typical contributions of waste materials to the total final
waste load, as estimated for a fluid milk plant in terms of 5-day biochemi-
cal oxygen demand (BOD5), are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 - Estimated Waste Contribution, as BOD5 , By Source -

Fluid Milk Plant.

Waste Source (as BOD5) Percent

Milk, milk products and other

edible products 94

Cleaning product 3

Sanitizers Very Small

Lubricants Very Small

Sanitary and domestic wastes 3

(employees)

Total 100
 - 42 -

Table 3 - Final Effluent Limitatior.sfor Dairy P5ojucts Industry - By

Individual Product Category a

Effluent Liaitation(a)
Individual _
Product B0D{b) TSS(b) pH

Receiving Station 0.010 0.014 6 to 9

Fluid Products 0.076 0.096 *

Cultured Products 0.076 0.096 it

Butter 0.426 0.534 it

Natural and
Processed Cheese 0.970 1.210 to

Cottage Cheese 0.168 0.210 it

Ice Cream Mix O.Q68 0.084 of

Ice Cream 0.264 0.330 of

Condensed Milk 0.190 0.236 it

Dry Milk 0.156 0.194 *

Condensed 'rhey(
c) 0.060 0.076

Dry W'hey 0.150 0.190

I 0 .15
(a) For new sources

(b) As Kg/Mg of Finished Product.*

(c) At 40% solids

* Mg = megagram
1 Mg = 1 metric ton
 - 43 -

CHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

8. Several water quality parameters may be used to assess the pollu-

tion potential of wastes from processing of dairy products. Three parame-
ters are considered most significant: Jay biochemical oxygen derand
(BOD5), total suspended solids (TSS), and hydrogen ion concentration
(pH). Parameters of lesser significance include, chemical oxygen demand
(COD), temrperature, phosphorousas phosphates, nitrogen as ammonia and ni-
trates, and chlorides.

9. WIastesare largely organic in nature. The major pollution effect

is to decrease dissolved oxygen in receiving waters. The BOD5 test is
most useful as a measure of this potential to decrease dissolved oxygen.

10. Suspended solids will adversely affect turbidity of receiving

waters, as well as causing a build-up of bottom deposits. T'hisis particu-
larly objectionable when solids are organic in nature, as is the case for
diairy wastes. Bottom deposits of organic sludge may exert a heavy oxygen
demand on receiving waters. Anaerobic decomposition may produce 'nydrogen
sulfide or other intermediateproducts which can cause noxious odor prob-
lems and can be toxic to aquatic life.

11. A pH outside the acceptablerange may have an adverse direct im-

pact on the receivingwaters or may have secondary effects sucha as increas-
ing the solubilityof heavy metals. There may also be increased toxicity
to aquatic life, increased corrosiveness of water supplies, increased costs
of water treatment, renderinlg of waters unfit for certain processes such as
food and beverage canning or bottling, and other similar effects. Thoughn
individualwaste strearnsmay exhibit unusually higi or low pH values, the
combined discharge from a plant generally results in a final effluent with-
in acceptable ranges of this parameter.

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

12. Table 3 presents permissible levels of biochemical oxygen demand,

total dissolved solids and pH. These levels are to be met by individual
discharges from the product category indicated. Loadings apply to single-
product plants only. Limitations for the final effluent of a multi-product
plant should be determined from these, using a weighted average based on
the contribution and reduction to be affected by each of the categories
comprising plant operations.

13. Where a plant discharges to a municipal sewage collection and

treatment system, effluent limitations are governed by local regulations.
Depending upon ch-aracter and volume of the industrial wastes, some pre-
treatment may be required to render them acceptable to the municipal sys-
tem.
 - 44 -

14. In determining plant effluent loadings and applying these stand-

ards, it is essential that currently well recognized and accepted labora-
tory analytical techniques be utilized. Detailed procedures may be found
in the literature.

CONTROLANDTREATIMENT
OF WASTES

15. Control and reduction of waste dischiarges can be achieved through

(1) in-plant control and management; (2) end-of-pipe treatment; and (3)
discharge to municipal systems. In most cases a combination of two of
these is utilized.

16. In-plant control and management techniquesshould always be ap-

plied, regardless of final disposal of plant effluents. Final discharges
will be reduced in strength and/or volumes, thus reducing loading on treat-
ment systems.

17. Internal measures most ccmmonly used include: (1) a comprehen-

sive waste monitoring system to provide a basis for effective waste manag-
ment; (2) an equipment maintenance program to minimize product losses; (3)
a product and process scheduling system to assure cptimum equipment utili-
zation; (4) a product quality control program to prevent loss of products
to waste streams; (5) development of uses for waste products; and (6) con-
stant improvement of processes, equipment and systems.

18. The major concern in treatment of dairy wastes is to reduce the

concentrationof oxygen-demandingmaterials,and thus make wastes generally
amenableto one fonn or another of biological treatment. More ccnnmnly ap-
plied techniquesinclude activated sludge, trickling filters, aeration la-
goons, stabilizationponds, spray irrigation,ridge and furrow irrigation,
and anaerobicdigestion. In general practice, wastes are treated by a com-
bination of these techniques, depending upon volumes, strengths, effluent
standards,and other conditions.

19. Probably the most difficult problem in disposal of dairy wastes

is whey handling. In many cases, whey supply exceeds that which can be
marketed for useful purposes. Whey is difficult to treat by usual biologi-
cal techniques. The most common methods for disposal include (1) livestock
feeding; (2) spray irrigation; (3) discharge to municipal systems where
feasible;and (4) concentratingand drying.

20. Depending upon the volume and strength of the wastes and capabil-
ity of the municipal treatment system, dairy wastes may be discharged to
public sewers. The dairy waste load may need to be equalized either
through individual holding facilities or through incidental storage in
municipal sewers, in order to avoid shock loads on the municipal treatment
plant. Effective in-plant control measures will reduce the strength and
volume of the effluents. Where the dairy waste constitutes a significant
portion of the total volume reaching the municipal plant, the whey should
be segregated to avoid possibly upsetting the municipal treatment system.
 - 45 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New

Source Performance Standards for the Dairy Product Processing Point
Source Category". U.S. Ehvironmental Protection Agency. Doc. EPA
440/1-74-021-a. Washington. (May 1974).

2. Nemerow, N.L. "Liquid Waste of Industry - Theories, Practices, and

Treatment". Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reading, Mass.
(1971).

3. Finch, J. "Guidelines for the Control of Industrial Wastes - Dairy

Wastes". World Health Organization. Doc. WHO/WD/71.7. Geneva (1971).

4. Jones, H.R. "Pollution Control in the Dairy Industry". Noyes Data

Corporation. Park Rdige, N.J. and London, England (1974).
 - 46 -

THE WORLD BANK JUNE 103

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

DUST EMISSIONS

GENERAL POLLUTION GUIDELINES

Introduction

1. TWo series of dust guidelines are presented:one for the work-

place and one for the environmentbeyond the plant fence.

2. Dust concentrationlevels inside industrial or agroindustrial

plants are thres'nold limit values (TLV) for workers exposed eight hours a
day, and forty hours per week. For this reason, a plant should be designed
and cperated to provide actual dust levels well below the TLV.

3. Concentration levels given for environment (beyond plant bound-

aries) could probably be exceeded a few times per year without experiencing
permanent adverse affects.

4. The Office of Environmental Affairs (OEA) will revise these

guidelines when additional knowledge fram inside or outside the Bank Group
warrants changes.

Definition and Properties of Dust

5. Dust or particulate matter consists of finely divided solids, so

small in size as to be capable of remaining suspended by the atmosphere for
long periods of time. The lower size limit for particulates is the transi-
tion size to larger gas mnlecules (about 0.1 pm or less), whereas the upper
particulate size limit is about 500 pum. When the upper size limit is ex-
ceeded, gravity will remove a particle fram the air so rapidly, that it
cannot constitute a breathing hazard. Industrial, agroindustrial, trans-
portation and domestic activities all can release particulates into the
air. This dust may or may not be mixed with other gaseous or liquid
contaminants.

6. The five main factors which influence the interactionbetween

dust and the human body are:

(a) Physical characteristics (size, shape, hardness)

(b) Chemical composition
(c) Concentrationin the atmosphere
(d) Duration of exposure
(e) Individual susceptibility
 - 47 -

7. Size of dust particle: Dust retentionby human lungs varies with

particle size as shown by the following table (fram the U.S. Bureau of
Mines):

Particle Diameter Approximate Retention in

(micrcmeters, pn) Human Lungs (percent)

Between 6 - 10 20%
5 25%
4 42%
3 50%
2 70%
1 70%
0.5 50%

Lung retention drcps rapidly below 0.2 um, because dust particles of this
size tend to act as gas molecules and will be exhaled as readily as they
are inhaled. This is a general rule thctt will vary with particle shape and
specific gravity.

8. Chemical corposition: Dust deposited in the lungs may cause

pneunnconiosis (pneumo = lung; koni = dust; osis = disease) which can be
disabling or non-disabling depending on whether or not the dust is physio-
logically active. Most forrm of disabling pneumoconiosis are caused by
crystalline silica or quartz (SiO 2 ). Amorphous silica and silicates (ex-
cept asbestos) do not cause disablingdiseases.

9. Concentrationand exposure time: Dosage is the product of dust

concentration and exposure time. The TLV table presented below for mineral
dusts in industrialplants, representsin fact dosages for an 8-hour work-
day. This means that if a particular dust has a 5 mg/m3 concentration for
an 8-hour workday (Dosage = 5 X 8 or 40) with a 10 mg/m3 concentration, a
worker could only stay in the facility for a 4-hour workday to receive the
same dosage (Dosage = 10 X 4 or 40).

10. The bottom portion of the Table lists a series of factors to de-
termine allowabie dust concentrationlevels for workdays differing from 8-
'nours. Thus in the example used above, if one established in the upper
table a 5 mg/m3 TLV for an 8-'nourworkday and was interestedin the allow-
able concentrationfor a 4-hour workday, he would use the lawer table to
determine the appropriate correction factor of 2. Then, multiplv the upper
table values by the correction factor in order to establish the allowable
4-h1our workday concentration. (5 mg/m3 X 2 = 10 mg/m3 for a 4-hour work-
day).

11. Individualsusceptibility: Genetic factors not yet fully under-

stood make some individuals more resistant than others. Environmental fac-
tors can change this resistance. Heavy smokers or workers exposed to chem-
ical irritants will likely develcp pneumoconiosis at an earlier stage.
 - 48 -

Sampling and Measuring Dust

12. Accurately determining dust concentrations in the air remains a

problem. One nust remember that total dust is much less important than re-
spirable dust. The sampling instrument should thus duplicate insofar as
possible, retention characteristics of the human lung. A number of such
instruments have been developed. The best known are the British MRE (Mines
Research Establishment) and the American personal sampler. Their retention
characteristics are compared with the human lung in Table 1. There is a
good correlation between these two instruments. The MRE sampler collects
1.88 times more than the personal sampler. As these instruments will col-
lect only a few milligrams of dust over an eight hour period an accurate
and sensitive balance is necessary to weigh the collected particles. The
preceding discussionshows why it is imperative to provide the sampling in-
strument name and its retention characteristics with any analytical
results.

OccupationalGuidelines

13. Occupational guidelines given in the followingtable are extrac-

ted from Occupational Safety and Health Administration (US Department of
Labor) and from the booklet "TLV" published by the American Conference on
Governmental IndustrialHygienists (1977). As discussed earlier, entries
in this table are TLV values for 8-hours exposure. Actually, any facility
snould be designed and operated to give levels well below these values (no
-mre than one-half the TLV is recommended).

14. When figures are presented in millions of particles per cubic

foot (mppcf) they were detenmined by measurements on impinger samples
counted by light field techniques.

Vegetable Dust

15. If these dusts contain less than 1% SiO2 the inert dust TLV value
applies. If they contain rmre than 1% SiO2 the quartz TLV applies. Many
of these dusts produce allergic reactions either fron their own antigen
content or from mold or fungi dusts that grow during storage. Vegetable
dusts can create three kinds of hazards: respiratoryeffects, skin and eye
effects and fires and explosions.
 - 49 -

Table 1.

100 I I -

I Pulmonnry Deposition

ISO %X-2 Peisonal Sampler (cyclone)

3 MRE Sanpler

~40

20

0 2 4 8 10 12
Particle Diameter (micrometers)

Source: U.S. Beareauof Mlir-e3; Sampling 2nd Evaluating Re pir2! 'e Coai Miine Dust:
A TrainIng M;anual. U.S. Ei=eau of -'%-es, Ir.ormr-.:iin Ci-cular Fo. S503,
Febivary 1971, p. 2. Adapted from Figure 1.
 - 50 -

TLV FOR DUSTS

Based on 8-Hour Workday

Substarnce r
mpcf mg/m

Silica (SiO )l

CrystalLine Quartz
Respirable *1,4 300 10
"SiO2 + 10 %SiO2 + 2

Total Dust 30
%SiO2 + 2

Cristobalite Use one half of the

Tnioymite vaLues calculated for
totaL dust

Tripoli (Respirable)*4 10
%SiO2 + 2
Fused Silica Use quartz formula

Amorphous RespirabLe *4 1 (< 5pm)

earth)
(including diaton..aceous

Total 3 (all sizes)

Silicates (< 1% quartz)

Asbestos (all forms) *3 2 fibers (> 5umi)/-c

Graphite (natural) 15
Mica 20 --
Mineral Wool Fiber 20 10
Perlite 30 --
Portland Cement 30
Soapstone 20 __
Talc (Non-Asbestiform) 20 __
Talc (Fibrous) Use asbestos value
Tremolite Use asbestos value

Coal Dusts

Bituminous
Respirable fraction <5% SiO2 * 2.4
Respirable fraction >5% SiO2 *Z 10
%SiO2 i+ 2

Inert or Nuisance Dusts (2)

Respirable *4 15 5
Total 50 15
 - 51 -

TLV CORRECTIONFACTORS
FOR
WORKDAYS DIFFERING FRCM 8 HOURS

Workday Hours TLV CorrectionFactor

1 8.0
2 4.0
4 2.0
8 (Base Case) 1.0
10 0.8
15 0.53
20 0.4

Notes: (1) Both ooncentrationand % SiO2 to be determinedfrom dust

fractionpassing a size selectorwith the followingcharac-
teristics.

Aerodynamic Diameter (um) % Dust Passing

(unit density sphere) Through the Selector

< 2 90
2.5 75
3.5 50
5.0 25
10.0 0

(2) Should contain less than 1.0% quartz; if quartz content is

greater use quartz formula.

(3) As determined by the membrane filter method, at 400-450 X mag-

nification (4 mm objective) with phase contrast illumination.

(4) Respirable dust as defined by the British Medical Research

Council criteria, and as sampled by a device producing
equivalent results (MRE sampler).
 - 52 -

EnvironmentalGuidelines

16. The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare estimates

adverse human health effects begin when ambient levels of dust exceed 80
/ug/m3 , whereas
adverse effects on materials and vegetation can begin with
dust levels as low as 60 pg/m 3 . These estimates formed the basis of the
following EPA dust guidelines (issued in July 1974).
(a) 75 pg/m 3 -- annual georLietric man
(b) 260)ug/m3 - maximum 24 hour concentration,
no more than once a year.

To make these guidelines easier to use, EPA (at the same time) also pro-
vided a guideline for stack discharges: 50 mg/m3 (dry). The preceding
figures are applicable to total inert dust (< 1% SiO2 ) containing no
carcinogeniccompounds. Large variations from one project to another exist
in terms of requirementsfor dust control.

These variations are due to the physical and chemical characteristicsof

dusts between projects, climate (dry or rainy, calm or windy), and other
Eactors of location. Therefore it is difficult to offer universal guide-
lines for dust control. As a rule, the following levels should not be ex-
ceeded:

Stack Emissions:

When background levels of dust are high, dust

emissions from the stack should not be greater
than 100 rug/mn3

Ambient Leveis:

Annual geometricmean 100 1 g/m3

Maximum 24-hour concentration 500 ug/m3

If the dust under consideration is affecting vegetation, the annual mean

and 24-hour concentration figures should be adjusted downwards.
Sampling and Analysis

17. Only analytical results which give both sampling method and met>-
od of analysis are meaningful. The most reliable sample is "respirable
dust". If it is not possible to collect a "respirable dust" sample, the
total dust sample should be evaluated. Whatever sample type is selected,
the name of the sampling instrument and its retention characteristic should
be given. Weighing a sample (if possible) is the most accurate method of
analysis. Precautions should be taken to weigh only dry dust from which
all moisture (humidity) has been removed. Particle counting is less accu-
rate than weighing, but nonetheless is acceptable for any silcate except
asbestos. If particle counting is the only available means for asbestos,
it should only be done for fibers longer than 5 pim.
 - 53 -

Control

18. The appraisal mission should receive assurancesthat the project

will neet the guidelines and that necessary equipment and trained personnel
will be available to sample, analyze, and take any necessary corrective
measures. Follow!-up missions should check analysis results in comparison
to the guidelines. If results are higher than guideline values, mission
members should ask for reasons and discuss possible corrective measures.

Legislation

19. If existing legislationin the project oountry incorporatesdust

standards or guidelines stricter than IBRD's guidelines, country standards
prevail.

20. If, on the other hand, existing legislationin the project coun-
try is less restrictivethan IBRD guidelines, the appraisalmission should
present reasons why it is expected that plant personnel and the neighboring
exposed population and its environment will be as well protected as if the
guidelines were followed.
 - 54 -

THE WORLD BANK JULY 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

EARTHQUAKE PROTECTION

1. The World Bank and IFC should require a letter of certification

from the structural engineers on their firm's letterhead endorsed by the
architect 0AA-ichidentifies fully the antiseismic regulations for building
construction used as the criteria for the structural design of the pro-
ject. The letter should then certify that:

(a) The zone of seismic severity was properly and

correctly interpreted according to the code or
regulations identified above, and that such code
or regulations are normally used for construction
work in Country X for buildings or structures in-
corporating earthquake protection design charac-
teristics.

(b) In the professionaljudgementof the structural

engineer the code or regulations used are suitable
for application in CouLntry X.

(c) The seismic coefficient applied corresponds

with the requiremnents of the code as identi-
fied for the type of structure, the intended
use of the structure,and the relevant zone
of seisiisticityapplicable.

(d) The seismic coefficient so derivedhas been

correctly applied to the structural design in
accordance with the code or regulations being
used.
 - 55 -

THE WORLDBANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

GENERALGUIDELINES

DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIALEFFLJENTS

1. These guidelines are intended for general application to disposal

of effluents and pollutants for mDst industrial sources. Although general
in nature, they should be applied to the total environment whether the ef-
fluents are in the gaseous, liquid or solid state. These guidelines may be
applied where particular data is not otnerwise available, or as a supple-
ment for those specific industries where guidelines have been developed by
the Bank.

2. Pollution may be defined as the addition, fram either natural or

man-made sources, of any foreign substances to the air, water or land in
such quantities as to render such medium unsuitable for specific or estab-
lished uses. An industry may frequently produce wastes that affect nvre
than one of these media. Thus, the Appraisal or Supervision Mission must
consider the total range of disposal operations in order to properly evalu-
ate effluent treatment and control measures. Toxic properties are of prime
concern in evaluating effects of industrial pollution. Table 1 presents a
summary of waste toxicity from a number of industries.

3. Pollution may also result from noise and heat, which are measur-
able in terms of intensity and effect but have no physical, chemical or bi-
ological composition.

4. This guide is concerned primarily with the effects of pollution

on the environment. However, consideration should also be given to the ef-
fects of specific contaminants on personnel at the industrial work place.

SOURCESANDCHARACTER
OF WASTES

5. Effluents are frequently coaplex, heterogeneous mixtures of sev-

eral substances or materials. Gaseous effluents may include particulates
(solids) or aerosols (liquids); liquid effluents may include dissolved
solids or gases, as well as suspended solids; and solid wastes often con-
tain one or several liquids.

Gaseous Effluents

6. Airborne pollutants originatingat stationarysources whether or

not diluted with air, are generally exhausted through a stack. From the
stack they will disperse into the atmosphere and eventually return to
ground level. Ground level concentrations may be estimated on the basis of
the stack height and diameter at stack mouth, gas velocity or flow, and
temperature. For new installations some of this information will need to
be derived from performanceat existing installations.
 - 56 -

TABLE 1 - Scne Hazardous Wastes Produced by Industry(a)

Tbxic Waste Produced

Industry _ _ _
Solvents Metals Gases Org. Inorg.

Mining X X X

Textiles X X

Paper Prod. Etc. X X

Alkalai & Chlorine X

Cyclic Intermediates X X X X X

Organic Chemicals X X X X X

Inorg. Chemicals X X X X

Plastics X X X

Drugs X X X

Soaps & Cleaners X

Paints, etc. X X X

Agri. Chemicals X X X

Explosives X X

Petr. & Coal Products X X X X X

Leather Tanning X X X

Asbestos Products X X

Blast Furn. & Steel X X X X

Non-Ferrous Metals X x

(a) Fran "A Study of Hazardous Waste Materials, Hazardous Effects and
Disposal Methods", Vol. 1, Report PB 221-465. Booz-Allen Applied
Research, Inc. Available from National Technical Information Service,
Inc., Springfield, Va. (1973).
 - 57 -

7. Gaseous effluents mnostfrequently result frao combustion proces-

ses. They may also be either by-products of chemical reactions or suspend-
ed particulates resulting fran mechanical operations such as grinding.
Principal impurities of canbustion gases generally include sulfur dioxide
(SO2) particulates (flying ash or carbon), nitrogen oxides (Nox), carbon
dioxide (CO), and mercury conpounds from ccmbustion of certain coals.

8. Chemical products released to the atmosphere are too numerous to

mention, and depend upon the particular industry considered. As examples,
hydrofluoric acid and fluoride compounds evolve from production of both
aluminum and phosphoric acid; arsine a particularly lethal arsenic ccn-
pound, (AsH3) can result from the burning of pyrites or blends in a reduc-
ing atmosphere.

9. Quarryingand mining operations can discharge dust or particulate

matter into the atmosphere, as can plants producing steel, cement, and fer-
tilizers. While dusts may create environmental problems, it is important
to note that they may also create serious occupational hazards if the work
place has been poorly designed or is not properly operated. The human
health problem is of primary importancein these situations.

Liquid Effluents

10. Apart fran normal human wastes discharges, other liquid effluents
fram industrialplants consist principally of cooling water and waste by-
products dissolved or suspended in water originating frcn the process or
other sources. In many cases the gaseous effluents are stripped of par-
ticulate matter by wet scrubbers which, in turn, discharge to plant sewers.
11. Cooling water, as the nomenclature imTplies, is used to cool pro-
cess materials. It is generally uncontaminated in flowing through the
plant, except for an increase in temperature and for containing chramates
used to protect surfaces fran corrosion. When cooling water is combined
with other waste streams, the total effluent will contain these other con-
taminants.

12. Liquid effluents will generally be at temperatureshigher than

those in receivingwaters. Therefore, care must be exercised to keep the
temperature differences as small as possible to avoid harmful effects on
aquatic plant and animal species living in the receivingwaters.

13. As a general guideline for Bank projects, effluent temperatures

should not be more than 3° C higher than that of the receiving waters.
Where the receiving water temperatures are at 280 C or less, the effluent
temperature may be a maximum of 50 C above that of the receiving waters.
In cases where maintaining these differentials causes excessive increases
in project costs or undue harm to fisheries or other aquatic life, the max-
imum allowable temperature may be determined from the following equation:

Tmax = OT + URLT-Or
 - 58 -

Where: Tmax = Maximum allowable stream temperature after mixing

OT = Optimnun temperature for species affected

URLT= Ultinate recipient lethal temperature for species affected.

14. An importantbut frequently overlooked source of liquid pollution

is the accidental or deliberate discharge of hazardous materials. Toxic
materialshave been known to reach adjacentwaterways during plant start-up
periods because of accidents or inadequatepreparation. Village wells and
surface supplies have been contaminated from careless disposal of
ion-exchange unit backwash discharges. Where toxic materials are used or
produced in the industrial operations, measures for prevention of
accidental spills should be established and fully described by appraisal
and supervisionmissions.

Solid Wastes

15. Land may become polluted or rendered otherwise unsuitable for

specific uses through addition of waste materials. Anong the more cammn
substances are (1) paper, cartons, plastics, and other packing materials;
(2) rubble from demolition and other discarded building materials; (3)
stripped soil, exposed erodable soil and tailings frcm mining operations;
(4) slag heaps fram smelting operations; (5) pulp, pits, culls, vines and
other organic r-siduals from canning operations; and (6) organic sludges
from pulp and paper mills, textile plants and other industrialoperations.

16. Land disposal may include spray irrigation, land farming,

sanitary landfull,deep well disposal and "secure"burial.

17. Prcper location and operation of disposal sites are principal

factors in handling solid wastes. A general unsightliness,noxious odor
caused by decamposing organic residues, and breeding of disease carriers,
can result fram improperlyoperated areas.

18. Dust may also create a problem at dump sites that are completely
dry. These sites should be kept to a minimum or eliminated,depending upon
their comiposition and the environment surrounding the disposal site.

MANAGEMENT
OF WASTES

19. Measurement of effluents, both as to quantity and quality is

basic to a waste management program. Acceptable and recognized techniques
are readily available for this purpose. The management program will in-
volve sampling and analysis of effluents, flow measurements, application of
established standards, and control of discharges through treatment or other
means. Standardized laboratory techniques should be utilized to assure
data acceptability.
 - 59 -

Sampling and Analytical Procedures

20. Monitoring of air contaminants may be accomplished through emis-

sion source testing or atmospheric monitoring. Industrialprocesses may
involve frequent cyclic changes. Therefore source nonitoringmust be care-
fully timed so that measurements are made when the process is cperating in
typical fashion. Fluctuations of peak loadings must be determined. All
waste source variables should be defined so that samples will represent
typical process conditions.

21. Atmospheric monitoring requires establishmentof an air monitor-

ing network. Location of the sampling stations should be based on the use
to be made of the data, such as (1) source-orientedmonitoring for enforce-
ment purposes; (2) zones of highest projected poliution concentrations; (3)
background data needs prior to industrial development; (4) high population
density areas; and (5) background data needs where industrial development
is not immninent.

22. Analytical methods for air contaminants are described in the lit-
erature. Methods are generally classified as chemical or physical, and
cover dustfall, suspended particulate matter, gaseous substances and organ-
ic pollutants.

23. Wastewater sampling points should be such that flow conditions in

the discharge stream will have achieved a honmgeneous mixture. The efflu-
ent discharge velocity at the sampling point should be high enough to
assure collectionof a well-mixed representativesample.

24. Flow measurements are an integral part of any wastewaternonitor-

ing program. Selection of a method will depend upon the facilitiesavail-
able, the degree of precision required, and the conditions under which the
wastes are discharged (batch cperations, cperating periods, etc.). The
weight of contaminantsdischarged to a receiving stream can be calculated
from both the flow rate and the measured concentration of contaminants de-
rived fran the analytical data.

25. Techniques for the qualitative analysis of wastewaters fall into

four categories; chemical, physical, biological and biochemical. Specific
analyses will depend upon the nature of the industrial operation and other
factors determinedon a case-by-casebasis.

26. All significant waste streams, including single or cmnbined

flows, which are present or planned, should be described in terms of flow
rate (volumetric)and their chemical, physical, and biologicalcharacteris-
tics. If partial or full treatment of the waste stream is being or will be
provided, a full description should be furnished by the missions.
 - 60 -

27. Solid wastes frcm industry often pose special problems such as
nor.-degradability (plastics) and toxicity (chemical residues). In estab-
lishing disposal methods, solid wastes should be classified and rated as to
their effects such as (1) human toxicity; (2) groundwater contamination;
(3) biodegradability; and (4) mobility. Chemical, physical, and biological
methods, as described above, are normally used to analyze air and -water
effluents from solid waste disposal areas.

28. Quantities of solid wastes are measured in terms of both volume

and weight. Leachates are measured by collecting all drainage from the
disposal area, and passing it through a device for flow measurement and
sample collection.

Units of Measurement

29. In order to permit ccffparison of data between projects it is es-

sential that, insofar as possible, the same units be used in reporting en-
vironmental data. With the rapid n-vement towards universal use of metric
units throughout the scientific and technical conunities, Bank missions
sh,ouldconfine themselves to that system.

30. More commonly-used metric units are as follows:

Gaseous Effluents: Microgramns per Normal cubic meter pyg/m3 (normal)*

Milligrams per Normal cubic meter mg/m3 (nornal)
Grams per Normal cubic meter g/m3 (nonnal)

Liquid Effluents:
Milligrams per liter mg/L
Micrograms per liter pg/L

Solid Effluents: Milligrams per kilogram of mg/kg

solid wsaste (dry basis)

Flows: Liters per second L/s

Cubic meters per hour m3 /h

Pressure: Kilograms per square centimeter kg/cm 2

Newtons per square centineter N/cn 2

Temperature: Degrees Centigrade °C

* Normal Conditions: 0° C, 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg)

kPa - kilo Pascals
 - 61 -

Applicationof Standards

31. "Standards" are be defined as levels at which specific materials

may be safely discharged to the environment. "Standards", "regulation",
and "norm" are terms frequently applied very loosely in appraising a
plant's performance. A strict definition may differ between oountries,or
even between regions in the same country. Therefore, appraisal and super-
vision missions should clearly define standards used in rating effluent
disposal performance. Data for both standards used and a plant's perform-
ance should be expressed in units of contaminant per unit of production of
raw material input.

Effluent Controls

32. Reduction of waste effluents to meet applicabledischarge stand-

ards can be accomnplished by in-plant measures (process changes, good house-
keeping, etc.), treatment systems,or some conbination.

33. Measures for reducing gaseous effluent contaminantsinclude (1)

operational improvements;(2) increasingstack height; (3) removal of gases
by adsorption,absorption, catalytic conversion,or other methods; and (4)
particulate removal systems such as filters, sedimentation,centrifugal
separators,electrostaticprecipitators,wet scrubbersor other equipment.

34. Techniques applicable for liquid effluent disposal include in-

plant measures and process changes, discharge to municipal treatment
systems, or on-site treatment facilities designed to reduce specific con-
taminants. When releasing liquid effluents, Precautions must be taken to
avoid contaminationof adjaceant aquifers, particularly in the case of
deep-well injection. Thorough tests, using tracer dyes or other methods,
should be conducted at each specific location where it is planned to use
this method.

35. Handling and disposal of solid wastes must give attention to the
land at the disposal site, as well as the effect of disposal methods on air
and water resources. Sites should be designed and operated to prevent, or
minimize or properly channel runoff. Rbnoff collection and settling have
been effective for this purpose. Latex films covering waste piles have al-
so been effective. Unprotected waste piles are subject to leaching which
may result in acidic or alkaline effluents percolating to streams or aqui-
fers used for water supply.

36. Appraisal missions should make certain that engineering designs

for the project have incorporated necessary treatment equipment and coil-
trols to achiLeve predetermined acceptable levels of effluent quality. The
mission should also make certain that equipment cost is included in pro-
ject funding, and is properly scheduled for procurement and delivery.
Plans should also be developed for the training or employment of personnel
to efficiently use the equipment. The sampling and analysis program should
be critically reviewed to assure ccmplete coverage of industrial opera-
tions, includingnight shifts and weekends.
 - 62 -

37. Supervision missions should ascertain that pollution control

equipnent has been installed, that it is being efficiently operated, and
that adequate rmnitorilng is being provided to assure continuing conformance
with control requirements.

38. In all cases, proposed or actual handling of waste materialsand

final effluents should be completely described. This is particularly im-
portant with large projects involvingseveral contractors. Where treatmnent
elements are being planned and designedby differentorganizationsor agen-
cies, it must be ascertained that these elements are conpatible with each
other and will result in an overall system that reduces plant dischargesto
acceptable levels.

ENERGYCONSIDERATIONS

39. Energy needs for the individual plant must be considered. The
fuel requirements for optimum operation of a plant have been determined for
a number of industries: Fuel consumption for new plants should readily
meet the established levels or ranges. Failure to meet these limitations
should be fully explainedby the Bank's missions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "EnvironmentalConsiderationsfor the IndustrialDevelopmentSector".

The World Bank, Washington. (August 1978).

2. "Treatmentof IndustrialEffluents". Ed. by A.G. Callely, C.F.

Forster,and D.A. Stafford. John Wiley & Sons, New York. (1976).

3. Powers, P.W. "How to Dispose of Toxic Substancesand Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J. and London.
(1976).

4. "Land Application of Residual Materials". Selected Papers-Engineering

FoundationConference, September 26 - October 1, 1976. Pub. by
American Society of Civil Eng-ineers, New York. (1978).

5. "Manual on Urban Air Quality Management". European Series No. 1.

World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
(1976)

6. Nemrow, N.L. "Liquid Wastes of Industry - Theories, Practices, and

Treatment". Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., Reading, Massachusetts.
(1971)

7. "Air Quality Control - Naional Issues, Standardsand Goals". National

Associationof Manufacturers,Washington. (1975)

8. "Analysisof Raw, Potable and Waste Water". U.K. Departmentof the

Environment,HMSO, London. (1972)
 - 63 -

9. "Standard Methods for the Exanination of Water and Wastewater" 14th

Edition. American Public Health Association, New York. (1975)

10. "Standard Methods for the Water Quality Examination for the Member
Countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance". Ministry of
Forestry and Water Management, in cooperation with the Hydraulic
Research Institute, Prague. (1976)

11. Martin, W. & Stern, A.C. "The Collection, Tabulation, Codification,

and Analysis of the WKorld'sAir Quality Management Standards". Vol.
I. ESE Publication No. 380. University North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Oc-cober1974)

12. "Water Quality Criteria - 1972". U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, Washington. (March 1973)

13. "Quality Criteria for Water". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

Washington. (July 1976)
 - 64 -

THE WORLDBANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

INDUSTRIALLIQUID EFFIJJErN

LANDDISPOSAL ANDLANDTREATMENT

1. When land is available and concentrations of toxicants arie low

enough, land disposal is the sinplest technical and the most economical way
to dispose of liquid effluents.

2. If the effluent is suitable, it can be used for land treatment

including irrigationand soil desalination.

Land Disposal

3. In this technique, the effluent is spread on a piece of land for

a few hours, then on a second piece for the same amount of time, and so or
until it is possible to come back to thle first when the water has been ab-
sorbed and the biologicaloxidation completed.

4. It is difficult to give figures in a general guideline. The area

requireddepends on the type of soil, its thickness and on the characteris-
tics of the industrialwastes. It is advisable to err on the oonservation
side when estimatingthe land necessary and this estimationshould be left
to specialists.

5. All agro-industriesliquid effluents (i.e. slaughterhouses,

dairies, sugar plants, etc.) can probably be disposed of on land as most of
the impuritiescan be subjected to biologial oxidation.

6. The US EPA estimates that land disposal is 20% more economical

than the usual techniques. When the effluent contains nitrogen and/or
phosphorus, land disposal is an easy way to prevent eutrophicationof a
lake or a river.

Land Treatment

7. Certain industrialeffluents can be beneficial if used on the

land. A few industriesproduce water as a by-product (i.e. urea). When
this water is pure, as in the case of urea, it can be used in irrigation.
(Becauseof the continuoussupply 1/, crops can increase from one per year
to two or three).

1/ The yearly plant turn around can be done during the mDnsoon season,
and/or crop harvesting.
 - 65 -

8. Cooling water used in process industries can also be used for ir-
rigation if chromates are replacedby phosphates as corrosion inhibitors,
and if free chlorine is kept to a low value.

9. This raises the question of consideringthe industrialeffluents

one by one instead of mixing them in a pond or lagoon and then deciding on
the treatment. Some effluents can be used without treatment,others with
some very slight treatment,and these two could then be disposed of on the
land or even used in irrigation. The balance must be treated and discharg-
ed in a waterway or in the sea.

10. The advantages of land treatment affects not only t1he economics
of the project but also of the agriculture in the region. For this reason,
land treatment should be considered as the first option in any industrial
project.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A History of Land Application as a Treatment Alternative

United States Environmental Protection Agency, April 1979
430/9-79-012, Washington, D. C. 20460

2. EPA Design Manual for Land Treatment (in preparation).

 - 66 -

THE WORLDBANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

ELECTROSTATICPRECIPITATORS(ESP'S)

GUIDELINES

1. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP's) are one of the best ways to

collect dust fron gaseous effluents. Several industries use them exten-
sively; among them, cement, mining, steel and non-ferrous metals. They act
by ionizing the dust particles in the gas stream. The particle is then
pulled towards an electrode by the electrostatic field then removed from
the electrode and collected.

ESP Design

2. The design takes into account the following factors:

gas flow and conposition

dust ooncentration in raw gas
dust concentration exit ESP

All other conditions being equal, the dust amount in the gas exit ESP will
determine the characteristics of the precipitators (electrode total sur-
face).

3. If, instead of a 100 mg/m3 concentration we want 50 mg/m3 exit

ESP, we will have to practically double the electrode total surface and, at
the same time, the equipment price.

4. From the preceding, it is easy to see that the most important

technical guarantee is the dust concentration exit ESP. Defining ESP per-
formance by the ratio of dust remnoved over total dust should be avoided as
this depends on the dust concentration inlet equipment.

5. The US and West German standard is rnow50 mg/Nm3 in the stack.

World Bank Guidelines

6. The World Bank guidelinc-will be _00 mg/m3. The concentration

3
150 mg/ can be accepted if the plant is in a rural area. and if dust con-
centratio-nat ground level is within World Bank guidelines-',_side the plant
3 maximum outside the plant fence.
fence and 260jig (microgram)/m

7. Up to 1980 the ESP for LDCs were designed usually for 300 mg/m3 .
This has creatod problems partic-ularlyin conjunction with low level
stacks. The dec.ease to 100 mg/m3 will also have the added benefit of de-
creasing the shut down time arni the maintenance cost on the extracting
fan. At 300 mg/m3 ir - ,wr: station using normal coal (10% ash), the fan
has to be shut dow:.eve y 3 to 4 months to rebalance or replace some
blades.
 - 67 -

THE WORLDBANK APRIL 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

ET'HANOL
PRODUCTION

ENVIRONMENTAL
GUIDELINES

1. Ethanol, an organic chemical, is oimnonly used as an industrial

solvent, in medicine, and in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. It
can be usee as a fuel, but is costlier than hydrocarbon fuels.

2. Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be produced by fermentation from any

of three main types of biomass raw stocks: (a) sugar bearing materials
(such as sugarcanle, molasses, and sweet sorghum); (b) starches (such as
cassava, corn, babassu mesocarp, and potatoes);and (c) celluloses (such as
wood and agricultural residues).

3. Production of ethanol fran these materials first requires con-

version of the carbohydrate into soluble sugars (except when sugar bearing
materials are used), then fermentation of the sugars into ethanol, and fin-
ally separation of ethanol from water and other fermentation by-products by
distillation.

RAW MATERIALS

4. Sugarcane is considered to be the most suitable raw material. It

not only requires the simplest conversion method but its processing also
genieratesa waste product called bagasse. Bagasse is generally dried and
used as a fuel for generating steam and paower needed for crushing, fermen-
tation, and distillation cperations. One ton of sugarcane having an average
sugar content of 12.5 percent produces about 70 liters of ethanol by direct
fermentation of the juice. Sugarcane gives one of the highest ethanol
yields per hectare of crcp land, and is currently the most camuonly used
raw material worldwide.

5. Cane molasses, a by-product resulting from the extraction of

sugar fram cane and known as blackstrap molasses,has been the most widely
usAd raw material. Productionof one ton of sugar yields 190 liters of mo-
lasses, containing 50 to 55 percent fermentable sugar. A ton of molasses
(consistingmainly of sucrose,glucose, and fructose)will yield about 280
liters of ethanol. Sugar production fran beets will also yield molasses
which could be used as a source for ethanol.

6. Main starch materials of interest as ethanol sources are cassava

(also called mandioca) and corn. Cassava is a root widely grown as a sub-
sistence crop in a nuiTberof developing countries. Under proper condit-
ions, cassava yields can reach 20 tons per hectare. One ton of cassava
yields about 180 liters of ethanol. Use of cassava produces no suitable
residual energy source.
 - 68 -

7. Historically, corn has been used principally for fermentation in

whiskey production, and as a minor source of industrial alcohol. Consider-
able work is currently underway to produce ethanol for use as a gasoline
blend. Corn yields average 6 tons per hectare, and a ton of corn yields
about 368 liters of ethanol. Corn-based ethanol plants do not produce any
residual fuel suitable as an energy source.

8. Wood and agricultural crop residues are the principal cellulosic

materials used. Ethanol production from this source is more complex and
larger in scale than that fron sugar and starches. No commercial scale
processes, suitable for use in developing countries, are currently avail-
able. Considerabledevelopmentwork is presently being c rried out in many
countries, and this may become an important biomass source at some future
time. Since this source is not conmnercially proven, it will not be dis-
cussed further in this document.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

9. In a plant using sugarcane as the raw material, cane is washed,

crushed, and then filtered to separate cellulose (or bagasse) fram the sug-
ar juice. The juice is concentrated and sterilized. This is followed by
yeast fermentation of the juice in a batch system. Yeast is removed by
centrifuging,treated (to grow additional yeast), and recycled to the fer-
metltdtion system. Bagasse is dried and burned to generate steam and power
to meet in-plant requirements.

10. Conventional ethanol technology uses batch fermentation with com-

non strains of yeast to produce a solution containing8 to 10 percent alco-
hol after 24 to 72 hours fermenting. A concentration of 8 to 10 percent
ethanol is the maximum achievable in batch systems.

11. Fermented mash (called "beer") is sent to a stripping column.

Here, two separate streams are made, tle ethanol product stream (with a
trace of water) and a waste stream, called stillage. The stillage con-
tains most of the water and the fermentation solids. It must be properly
discarded to avoid environmentalpollution.

12. The stream containing the ethanol is distilled in a multistage

colu'rn to a concentration of about 94 percent ethanol. Anhydrous ethanol,
having 99.8 percent purity, is produced in a third distillationoolumn by
adding benzene and further distilling. Benzene is separated fran the alco-
hol and recycled.

13. If the end product is to be hydrous or straight alcohol, contain-

ing 94 percent ethanol,the third distillationstep is not used, thus redu-
cing steam requirements and eliminating the need for benzene.

14. The basic process for other sugar materials is the same as des-
cribed above. The size of fermentation and distillation units might be
different, depending upon raw materials used and resulting materials bal-
ance. For these sugar materials, fermentation takes 4 to 5 times longer
than in the case of sugarcane.
 - 69 -

15. Cperations in a starch based ethanol plant are also similar, ex-
cept that mash preparation is required prior to fermentation. Cassava
roots, (containing 25 to 30 percent starch) are frequently used. First,
they are washed, peeled, and liquified in a cooker. Liquified starch is
broken down inco fermentable sugar by adding two enzymes: amylase and gluco
amylase. Once fermentable sugar is formed, processing is identical to that
for sugarcane, beginning at the fermentation step.

16. Cassava roots contain essentially no cellulose. No bagasse is

formed and energy requirementsmust be suplied fram externalsources.

17. Other starch bearing materials use practically the same process-
ing procedures as cassava, although preparation facilities must be designed
for the particular crop being used.

18. A process flow diagram for sugarcane and starch-basedplants is

presented in Figure 1.

19. Technology for production of ethanol from biomass has not chaniged
greatly in recent years. However, with the increasing interest in the use
of alcohol as a fuel, several efforts are underway.

20. continuous fermenta-Lon,though not yet oommerciallydeveloped,

can yield liquor with up to 12 percent alcohol content. Additionalmicro-
biological research is in progress to improve yeast strains to yield higher
alcohol concentrationsduring fermentation. This technologyis expected to
reduce energy requirementsfor distillationand simultaneouslyreduce stil-
lage volume as well.

21. Use of agriculturalwastes for feedstockor fuel purposes and the

development of new or improved crops as raw materials are also receivinc
some attention. A major constraint in utilizing cassava and corn is tile
need for external fuel sources. Certain agriculturalwaste products could
be made suitable for fuel purposes by modifying current boiler designs.

WASTESOURCESANDCHARACTERISTICS

22. Ethanol production produces a number of waste products having an

impact on the environment. No extremely toxic waste streams are associated
with the biomass conversion technologies. Occasionally som heavy metals
may be found, but this is rare.

23. Sources of air emissions for a particular ethanol facility will

depend upon the feedstock used. The utilization of grains rather than sug-
ar feedstocks will generate particulate emissions during unloading, load-
ing, conveying, rough grinding, screening, cleaning, and fine milling the
stock.

24. Generally,air enissions originate from fermentervents as well

as the condenser vents on distillationcolumns. Fugitive volatile organic
compound emissions also occur at valves, pumps, flanges,open-ended lines,
and storage tanks, throughoutthe plant.
* CASSAVA ncEPrIoT4 r* PASTfPREPARATION- r -AS--PREPAAt-ION
I AND STORAGE I F

§ IWATER T I ENZYMES t
VAPIF EQUEFAC1ION%I AND
j L ;ACIIAR;TATION I

L -------------- 7I I
IURE P APEELtNGS CUSHER
WATERE00

FRELkrUIFm
e

I ~~~~~STEAM

r ------------- FE-RMKENTATI1ON
AND-FI1LTR-ATI-ON- -a 0ITI-AT-

/YEAST

I
A64 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~TAiI SILC

~,OU,tCE
PEIROUIIAS BIRAZIL

Figure 1. Process Flow Diagram Sugarcaneand Starch Based Plants.

 - 71 -

25. Carbon dioxide is produced during fermentation. Due to high re-

covery costs, the gas i 3 usually vented to the atmosphere. Trace amounts
of ethanol may occasionally escape with the carbon dioxide. Trace amounts
of benzene may also escape fran the dehydration/benzene recovery process,
in both the gaseous and liquid wastes. Benzene discharges are not consid-
ered harmful so long as they are limited to trace amounts. Such dischar-
ges should be regularly monitored since benzene is a known carcinogen and
is highly explosive. Regular equipment maintenance and proper housekeeping
procedureswill generallyprovide adequate control.

26. Fuse].oils produced as one of the fractions in the distillation

column, consist mainly of amyl or isoamyl alcohols and glycerol. About 5
kilograms of fusel oils are produced per 1000 liters of ethanol. This val-
uable by-product is either sold to outside markets or blended with the eth-
anol as a fuel denaturant. (A denaturant is an additive which, once com-
bined, is very difficult to separate and makes the mixture unfit for human
consumption). Molasses fermentationyields about 1.1 liters of fusel oil
per 1000 kilograms of feedstock. With corn the yield amounts to about 3
percent of the alcohol produced.

27. Stillageconsists of non-fermentablematerial, and can be removed

at various points in the production process. The most commonly used meth-
od, resulting in minimum ethanol loss, is to withdraw it fram the bottom of
the still during or after distillation (thus the term stillage). This
waste can have a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) as high as 40,000 mg/
liter and contain about 10 percent of solid material. Stillage contains
some fertilizernutrientsmade up of about 1 percent nitrogen, 0.2 percent
phosphate, and 1.5 percent potash.

28. Yeast grows rapidly in the fermentation step, and the excess is
generally recovered, purified, and recirculated into the system. Yeast re-
covery will amount to about 72 grams per liter of ethanol produced.

29. If steam and power for conventional sugarcanebase operationsare

generated from burning bagasse, particulate emissions may result. Where
sugarcane is not the biomass source, fossil fuels are generally used and,
dependent upon the choice of fuel, emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen ox-
ides and particulatesmay result.

30. Cooling tower blowdowns are another waste source. This stream
(having high concentrationsof dissolved inorganic material) will be high
in solids but low in BOD5 . Feedstock plant and equipment washes constitute
another signifiant waste stream, and can acount for up to 20 percent of the
total BOD5 loading.

31. Fly ash, coal dust, and grain dust are the primary solid wastes
resulting fram fermentation process using coal as a source of fuel.
 - 72 -

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

32. Many of the waste materials resulting from ethanol production

yield valuable by-products, or are~ suitable for other uses. For other pol-
lutants,as discussed below, treatment methods are available for eliminating
or reducing their discharges to the environment.

33. Wboro disposal to thc environment is unavoidable, ambient levels

should not exceed the following:

Air Emissions

Sulfur Dioxide (as SO2 ): Ann. Arith. Mean 100 Pg/m3

Max. 24-hr. Peak 1000 pg/m3
Nitrogen Oxides (as NO2 ): Ann. Arith. Mean 100 ug/m3
Particulates: Ann. Geom. Mean 75 pg/m3
Max. 24-h^r. (once 260 pg/m3
per year)
Benzene 1 ppm
Liquid Wastes

5-Day BOD : 30 to 60 mg/L

Suspended Solids : 30 to 60 mg/L
EH : 6 to 9 Units

WASTE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

34. Emissions from .. e various steps in the process can be reduced to

acceptable levels by use of conventional mechanical collectors or wet
scrubbers. This will remove or drastically reduce both the particulates
and gases. A liquid waste, containing the particulates as suspended
solids, will be produced and will require disposal.

35. Carbon dioxide is recoverable,and it may be economicalto do so

if a market is readily available. It can be used in the manufacture of
carbonated beverages, fire extinguishers, dry-ice production, food process-
ing, and the chemical industry. Some 70 to 80 percent of the carbon diox-
ide is recoverable. The gas contains a few impurities (such as aldehydes
and alcolhols) and these do cause odors. They can be readily removed by ab-
sorption or adsorption.

36. Fusel oil is a combination of higher alcohols, its conposition

depending upon tlhe crop used to supply the sugar base. It can be used as a
feedstock in chemical production and as a solvent. It may also be burned
as a fuel. In large scale fermentation it is removable in an extra column,
fractionated, and marketed as a by-product. Renroval is not practical in a
small scale plant.
 - 73 -

37. Stillage constitutes by far the major liquid waste requiring dis-
posal. It is high in both BODand suspended solids (in the range of 30,000
to 40,0000 mg/liter), and volumes will be in the range of 10 to 15 times
the volume of the ethanol produced. The waste has found wide usage in many
countries as animal feed, fertilizer,and for crop irrigation.

38. Starch crop fermentation stillage contains non-fermentable solids

in suspension and in solution. The waste can be applied directly to the
land as a fertilizer, but the amounts must be carefully monitored, because
of their acidity and odor. The coa:ser solids can be separated,dried, and
blended with the dried soluble material. These are normally referredto as
distillers dark grains (DDG) or, when combined with the dried soluble ma-
terial, as distillers dried grains with solids (DDGS). The nutritional
value of these products for animals will vary according to the feedstock
and production process used.

39. Stillage products fram beverage distilleries are generally a11

used for animal feed. The bourbon whiskey industry is the main sou- e,
with corn being the principal feedstock. Wheat and rye stillages are also
used for this purpose. In addition to supplying protein and energy, such
feeds also act to stimulate digestive processes in ruminants. Distillers
feeds have 'seenfound to be of benefit to chickens, turkeys, beef and dairy
cattle, calves, sheep, swine, and warm-water fish.

40. Residue from mDlasses fermentation is also used as an animal

feed, but mainly for dairy cattle. It is also used as an antidusting agent
in feed mixing and handling. The residue contains potash salts, nitrogen
conpounds,and phosphatesand nence can be used as a fertilizer. As a fer-
tilizer, it can be applied directly to the soil as a liquid,but costs and
logistics tend to limit its use to areas close to the fermentationfacili-
ties. Excessiveuse can create a number of problems, such as proliferation
of insect pests.

41. Under normal operationsthe stillage, after removal, is separated

into solids and liquids (thin stillage). After initial screening and pro-
cessing through a dewatering press the solids will still contain about 65
percent water, and are known as wet stillage. This may be fed directly to
livestock. One head of cattle will consume the stillageproduced frcn pro-
duction of about 3.8 liters of ethanol. Further drying is necessary if
long-distance transportation or long-term storage is required. The dried
material must be protected from insects and rodents.

42. The thin stillage of fermented grains also containsvaluablepro-

teins and carbohydrates, but it is difficult to dry any further. It is
acidic and may be applied directly to the soil through irrigationsystems.
It may also be anaerobically fermented to produce methane.

43. Where stillage wastes are not used for by-product recovery or
other beneficial use, they should not be dicharged tc surface waters with-
out treatment. If volumes are small in relaticn to the capacity of an
available publicly cwned sewage treatment plant, the wastes may be dis-
charged to public sewers.
 - 74 -

44. If large volumes are to be handled, then treatment should be pro-

vided at the plant site. The nature of this waste is such that treatment
methods normally used for domestic sewage may be applied. Secondary treat-
ment, such as activated sludge or trickling filters, may be used after some
formnof pretreatment to remve the high concentrations of organic materials
and solids. The BOD5 and suspended solids should be reduced to the 300
mg/liter range before secondary treatment. Again depending on volumes,
settling ponds or lagoons may also be used, particularly if the operation
is seasonal and based on the availabilityof crops. Care must be taken to
avoid damaging ground waters.

45. The liquid waste from the wet scrubbers should receive treatment
before discharge to the environment. Since the principal contaminantis in
the form of suspended solids, the discharge can go to settlingor evapora-
tion ponds.

46. The principal solid wastes will be the sludges resulting from in-
plant waste treatment facilities and the settled solids from any ponds op-
erated at the site. Considerationshould be given to possible recoveryof
valuable by-products from the solids which are generated. Otherwise the
solids should be removed and dumped on controlled (such as diked) areas in
the plant. Means should be provided for preventing rain runoff into nearby
surface or ground waters.

47. Ocean disposal of wastes is to be avoided whenever possible.

However, when no other options are available and it becomes a method of
last resort, expert services should be engaged to design the system. This
is a highly specialized field, in which only a few designers have had ex-
tensive experience.

48. Initial planning for an ocean outfall should include a comprehen-

sive survey of the proposed ocean discharge area to determine the follow-
ing, as a minimum:

(a) Currents - direction,magnitude, frequency,variation

with depth, relationto tide, water displacements,etc.;

(b) Densities - variation with depth, as determined fram salinity

and temperaturedata and standard tables;

(c) Submarine topography, geology, and bottcm materials;

(d) Marine biology; and

(e) Turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and other plysical and chemi-

cal characteristics.

49. The data derived from this survey should be the basis for design
of the outfall and diffusion system. Wastes discharged into the ocean are
subject to three stages of diffusion or mixing:
 - 75 -

(a) Initial jet mixing, which is influencedby jet strength,

currents, and density differences;

(b) Developmentof a honogeneous diffusion field; and

(c) Turbulent diffusion of the entire waste field due to

natural oceanic turbulence.

50. The factors influencingthese stages will include:

(a) Outlet design. For optixnumdilution the jets should dis-

charge horizontallywith no initial upward velocity;

(b) Number of outlets. A multiple outlet diffuserwill dis-

charge over a large area and provide more effective
dilution and dispersion. All otler factors being equal,
the single outlet unit will generally require a longer
distance and greater depths to the point of dischiarge;

(c) Diffuser velocity. The velocity in all parts of the

diffuser slhouldbe sufficient to prevent deposition of
residual particles. For settled wastes a velocity in the
range of 0.61 to 1 meter per second is considered a minimum;

(d) Flow distribution. The outflow between the various

diffuser outlets should be fairly uniform. Where this
may be difficult,as in the case of a sloping sea hottcm,
the distributionshould be fairly uniform at least t-r
the low and medium flows anticipated; and

(e) Prevention of seawater intrusion. Seawater entering the

pipe becomes stagnant, and will tend to trap grit and otlher
settleable materials, causing reduction of hydraulic capacity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Paul, J.K. (Ed.) "Ethyl Alcohol Production and Use as a Motor

Fuel". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, New Jersey. (1979).

2. The World Bank. "Alcohol Production from Biomass in the Developing

Countries". Washington (November 1980).

3. "Alcohol Fuels from Biomass". In "Energy Technologies and the En-

vironment". U.S. Department of Energy. Doc. DOE/EP-0026. Washing-
ton (June 1981).

4. Seltzer, Richard E. "EconomicImpact of Effluent Regulationson the

Rum Industry (PuertoRico and U.S. Virgin Islands)". Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Development Planning and Re-
search Associates, Inc. Manhattan, Kansas 66502 (March 1979).
 - 76 -

5. Houghton-Alico, Doann "Alcohol Fuels-Policies, Production, and

Potential". Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado 80301. (1982).

6. "Study of RumDistillery Waste Treatment and By-Product Recovery

Technologies". SCS Engineers. Long Beach, Calfornia 90807. (1979).
 - 77 -

THE WORLD BANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

GUIDELINES

FERTILIZERMANUFACTURINGWASTES

1. Fertilizeruse has increased sharply in recent years. By 1973,

total world consumption of N-P-K (nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium) fertiliz-
ers had reached 77 million metric tons, having doubled over the prer'edlng
eight years. Largest tonnage inci:eases were in developed countties of
Europe and North Arnerica, but greatest percentage increases were in lesser
developed regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

2. While formulation of fertilizers, as well as other manufacturing

aspects will vary between plants and countries, there are many coimntn pro-
duction elements in which affect both dischar3e of waste effluents and sub.-
secient environmental effects.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

3. Fertilizer plants produce two types of prdluct - nonmixed (or

straight) and mixed. Nor-uaixed fertilizers coDntain only a single major nu-
trient, w'nile mixed fertilizers contain two or more privivary nutrients. For
purposes of these guidelines the industry will be further subdivided as
follows:

Nonmixed Fertilizers

Nitrogen Based

-- Ammonia
---Urea
-- hAmonium Nitrate

Phosphate Based

-- Phosphoric Acid
-- Nonral Superphosphate
-- Triple Superphosphate

Mixed Fertilizers

Ammonium Phosphate and N-P-K's

4. Nitrogen fertilizer manufacture includes four basic process

plants: ammonia, urea, nitrate, and nitric acid.
 - 78 -

5. A?monia is the basic nitrogen fertilizer constituent, and is pro-

duced by reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen. Urea, another major nitrogen
source, is produced by reaction of ammonia with carbon dioxide to form am-
monium carbamate, which in turn is dehydrated to form urea. Urea plants
usually share a common site with like-size anmonia plants, so that the lat-
ter not only supplies anmmnia but also high purity carbon dioxide needed to
produce urea.

6. Amnor:ium nitrate is produced by reaction of anmmnia with nitric

acid. Tne resulting product is a solution, which can be sold as a liquid
or further processed into a dry product. In some cases the final dry fonn
will be prills (or p.)ellets).In other cases thle final product will be
crystals.

7. Nitric acid is produced in many plants for use in manufacturing

nitrogen fertilizers such as anmmonium nitrate. Nitric acid is generally
made by partial oxidation of anmmnia with air, followed by further oxida-
tion and absorptionin -waterto produce a 55 to 65 percent solution.

8. Phospaatefertilizerfacilitiesare usually separatedgeographic-

ally from nitrogen facilities, and therefore are discussed separately in
these guidelines. The manufacturing process is comprised of eight separate
components: sulfuric acid production, phosphate rock grinding, wet process
phosphloric acid proluction, phosphoric acid concentration, phosphloric acid
clarificatlion, and preparation of: normal superphosphate, triple superphos-
phate, and aimwniurti phosphate, respectively.

9. The basic components are sulfuric acid production and wet process
phosphoric icid production. Sulfuric acid is the essential raw material
in producing phosphoric acid and normal superphosphate. It is now usually
manufactured by the Contact Process, using elemental sulfur, air, and
water.

10. Raw materials used in producing phosphloric acid are ground phos-
phate rock, sulfuric acid, and water. Other acids, such as nitric and hy-
droclhloric, may also be used. The resulting phosphoric acid solution is
concentrated by evaporation, clarified for removal of precipitated solids
(consisting mainly of iron and aluminum phosphates, soluble gypsum, and
fluorosilicates) and then distributed to markets.

11. lsbnnal superphosphate is produced by mixing 65 to 75 percent sul-

furic acid, ground phosphate rock, and water. Following mixing and initial
settling of 1 to 4 hours, the mixture is transferred to storage for 3 to 8
weeks to allow complete chemical reaction between the acid and the rock.
The 'oasic chbeical reaction is as follaws:

Ca3(PO4 ) 2 + 2H2S04 + 5H2 0

2 CaS04.2H20 + Ca(H2PO4)2.H20

(NonTal Superphoshate)
 - 79 -

12. Triple superphosphateITSP) is produced by combininng phosphate

rock, phosphoric acid, and water. TWo types of TSP are manufactured,using
the same raw materials: Run-of-Pile (ROP) and Granular Triple Superphos-
phate (GTSP).

13. The ROP process is similar to that used for normal superphos-
phate, except that phosphoric acid is used instead of sulfuric acid. Mix-
ing of the phosplhoric acid and phosphate rock is done in a cone mixer.
This produces a slurry, which rapidly becomes plastic and solidifies. So-
lidified material passes through a rotary mechanical cutter, which breaks
it up and discharges to storage piles for curing. Following 2 to 4 weeks
of curing, the product (triple superphosphate) is taken fram storage, sized
and shipped to markets. The solidification process may release obnoxious
gases which can create air pollution problems.

14. The GTSP process utilizes a lower concentration of phosphoric

acid, different prcportions of the same ingredients, and other changes from
the ROP process. The product is a hard, uniform, pelletized granule made
in equipment which pennits easy collection and treatment of dusts and nox-
ious fumes.

15. Ammnium phosphate fertilizersare produced in two major formula-

tions: nmnoammonium phosphate (MAP) and dianmonium phosphates (DAP).
These vary in the amount of nitrogen and phosphate present. The two pri-
mary raw materials, in either case, are amionia and wet process phosphoric
acid. Sulfuric acid is sometimes used in certain MAP formulations. The
final granular product is dried, cooled, and shipped. Small sized granules
are separated and used as recycle material.

16. During the past several years there has been a trend towards ccm-
pound fertilizers. While these have always been popular in the United
States, their use has grown considerably in Western Europe and Japan.
These counpo_nds (sometimes referred to as mixed fertilizers) are produced
by mixing inorganicacids, various solutions,double nutrient fertilizers,
and certain types of straight fertilizers mixed in accordance with require-
ed N-P-K ratios. Another form of compound fertilizers, called blend ferti-
lizers, are produced by simple combination of granular dry straight and
mixed fertilizers, again, in accordance with the N-P-K ratio required.

SOURCESAND CHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

17. Fertilizer industry wastes can affect air, water, and land re-
sources of an envi ;onment. Pollution problems arise from low process effi-
ciency, disposal of unwanted by-products, contaminants in flue dusts and
gases, contaminants in process condensates, ard accidental spills or
losses.

18. In production of nitrogen fertilizers, no air pollution results

from ammonia and urea manufacture. overhead vapors from neutralizers in
the reaction of ammonia with nitric acid to form crystal ammonium nitrate
-which may lead to an air pollution problem. Hbwever it can frequently be
handled by cyclones or baghouses. Concentrator and prill tower exhausts
can contain amronium nitrate particles and may also result in an air pollu-
tion problem.
 - n30 -

19. Liquid wc-stes frcm the nitrogen fertilizer industry can originate
from wastewatertreatrnntplant efrluents (filtration,clarification,soft-
ening, deionization), closed loop cooling tower blowdown, boiler blowdoDwn,
cornpressor blowdoawn, process condensates, ?ills or leaks, and nonpoint
source discharges. Nonpoint polluted water sources may originate frcxn air-
borne ammnia dissolvinginto falling rain or snow, or prill dusts or other
rmaterialslying on the plant grounds,dissolving into rainwater as it runs
off various surfaces in the vicinity of the fertilizerplant.

20. Since air pollution problems for a nitrogen fertilizer conplex

are considerad minor LA nature, no air pollution parameters are applied.
Major wastes are liquid in nature and are measurec. in termns of ammonia ni-
trogen, organic nitrogen, nimrate nitroger, and hydrogen-ion concentration
(pH).

21. Phosphate fertilizerplants generate considerableamounts of dust

in grinding phosphate rock. Fluorine (as SiF4) may evolve in the acidula-
tion process (changingphosphdtes in phosphate rock fran an insoluble to a
soluble state). Air pollution problems are caused by R)P production.
While dust and obnoxious fum3s result from GrSP production these are read-
ily collecced and treated.

22. Liquid effluents include water treatment plant wastes, cooling

tower and boiler blswdowns, make-up water, spills and leaks, surface run-
off, and gypsum pond water. Cooling is generally by indirect means, and
cooling waters are not contaminated. In the United States the majority of
phosphate fertilizer plants iTpound and recirculate all water which has
direct contact with process gas or liquid streams. Uses include barometric
condensers,gypsum sluicing,gas scrubbing,and heat exchangers. This con-
taminated water is normally not dischaargedfron the plant complex.
23. Fluoride emissions are the principal air pollution concern in
phosphate fertilizer plants. Hence this is the only air pollutant for
which effluent limitations are provided in this guideline. Primary param-
eters for liquid wastes are phosphorous, fluorides, suspended solids, and
pH.

24. For all fertilizerplants, solid materials may be found in stor-

age piles, settled dust, and similar forms. As rain water falls upon these
dust sources, dusts may be swept into the rainwater runoff. This will in-
crease both the dissolved and suspended solids levels in these runoff
waters.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

25. Effluent limitations are given below for nitrogen, phosphate, and
mixed fertilizer plants. The pennissibla levels are based on best current-
ly available demonstrated control technology.

26. For all plants, where applicable, the anrbient air quality levels
should not exceed those given in Table 1, to assure public health protec-
tion.
 - 81 -

NitrogenFertilizerPlants

27. Except for ammonia, as given in Table 1, air emissions from ni-
trogen fertilizer plants are usually of minor importance under proper op-
erating conditions. Therefore, no other limitations are included for gase-
ous effluents from this type of plant. Limitations for liquid effluents
from nitrogen plants, as presented in Table 2. Where applicable, gaseous
nitric acid effluent limitationsare the sane as those for phosphate ferti-
lizer plants, as shown in Table 3.

Table 1 -- Ambient Air Quality Limitations a

Pollutant Period Limitation

pg/m3 b/

Particulates Ann. Geom. Mean 75

Max. 24-Hours 260

Sulfur Oxides:
Inside plant fence Ann. Arith. Mean 100
Max. 24-Hour peak 1000
Outside plant fence Ann. Arith. Mean 100
Max. 24-Hour peak 500

Carbon Mbnoxide Max. 8-Hour 10,000

Max. 1-Hour 40,000

Photochem.Oxidants Max. 1-Hour 160

Hydrocarbons Max. 3-Hour 160

NitrogenC.ides Ann. Arith. Mean 100

Ammvnia Max. 8-Hour 72,000

a/ Fram "ExpertGroup Meeting on MinimizingPollution From Fertilizer

Plants". Helsinki,26-31 August 1974. UNIDO. Vienna (1974).

b/ pg/m 3 : Microgram/cubic neter.

 - 82 -

Table 2 -- Liquid Effluent Limitations for Nitrogen Fertilizer Plants

Limitation - Kg/Mg
Type of Plant Parameter of Product

Daily Max.

Anmnnia Ammonia as N 0.11

Urea

Non-prilled Ammonia as N 0.065

Prilled is 0.065
Non-prilled Organic N as N 0.24
Prilled ., 0.7

Aimonium Nitrate

Non-prilled Ammonia as N 0.05

PrilLed to 0.10
Non-prilled Nitrate as N 0.025
Prilled = 0.05

All Plants FH (no units) 6 to 9

 - 83 -

Phosphate Fertilizer Plants

28. Limits on gaseous emissions from phosphate fertilizer plants are

presented in Table 3.

Table 3 -- Gaseous Emission Limits for Phosphate Fertilizer Plants

Process Parameter Limitatiorn

Nitric Acid Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 1.5 kg/Mg Product

Visible Emissions 10% Opacity a/

Sulfuric Acid Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 2.0 kg/Mg Product

as 100% Acid

Acid Mist 0.075 kg/rMgProduct

as 100% Acid

Visible Emissions 10% Opacity a/

Wet Process Phos- Fluorides (as F) 10 gm/Mg Equiv. b/

phoric Acid P2 05 Feed

Superphosphate Fluorides (as F) 5 gm/Mg Equiv.

P2 0_ Feed

Triple Superphosphate- Fluorides (as F) 5 gm/Mg Equiv.

Granular
RDP atn(d P 2 05 Feed

Visible Emissions 20% Opacity a/

- __ - - - - - - - - __ - - - -_ - - - - -_ __ _ __ _ _ ._ -_ ____ -. - - _ -- ._ _ -__ _ .__ ___

Triple Super]phosphate- Fluorides (as F) 0.25 gm/hr/M ton

Gran. Equiv. P2 O5 Stored

Storage Facility

a/ "Opacity" is defined as the degree to iJch emissions reduce the

transmission of light and obscure the view of an object in the
backgraund.

b/ g = gran
1 megagra'n = 1 metric ton
1 Mg = 1 metric ton

0
 - 84 -

29. Process waste liquid effluents should not be discharged.

Impoundment design should be adequate to hold all waste streams and all
runoff expected fran the maximum 10-year, 24-hour rainstorm for the area.
In any calendar month wher precipitation exceeds evaporation, a volume of
waste flow equivalent to the difference between the two may be discharged,
but subject to the following limitations:

Max. Daily

Parameter
mg/L a/

Phosphorous- as P 70

Fluorides - as F 30

Tbtal Susp. Non-

filterableSolids 50

pH (no units) 6 - 9

a/ milligram/liter

Mixed FertilizerPlants

30. For a mixed fertilizer plant, fluorides in gaseous emissions

(measuredas F) are limited to 30 g/Mg of Equivalent P2 05 Feed. No liquid
effluents are to be discharged.

WASTE CONTROL AND TREATMENT

31. Process control and in-plant procedures can be effective in

minimizing pollution effects from fertilizer plants. Careful application
of such measures can result in significant economic benefits for plant
operators. Specific measures taken for protecting the environment nust be
based on the raw material, processes, climate conditions, and other factors
applicable to individual plants.
 - 85 -

32. For nitrogen fertilizer plants, amrnia stripping has been found
effective for removing ammonia in process condensates, and boiler and
cooling tower blowdowns at ammrnia, urea, and ammonium nitrate plants. The
stripping medium may be either air or steam, depending upon the use to be
made of the overhead vapors, local air pollution regulations, and other
factors. At urea plants hydrolysis has been used to convert urea in waste
streams back to anmmnia and carbon dioxide.

33. Recently a number of investigations have been made into removing

nitrate from wastewater by the use of biological action in aerated ponds or
basins. Ion exchange units have also been used successfully to remove
ammonia and nitrates from waste waters. At ammonium nitrate plants
condensates contain ammonia, ammonium nitrate, and some oxides of nitrogen,
and these all require treatment before discharge. These condensates have
been used as absorber feed in the nitric acid plant. Thus creating an
internal use of the waste stream which results in recovery of both ammonia
and nitrate. Oils and greast can also present problems in nitrogen
fertilizer complexes, but applicdtion of available technology can reduce
these pollutants to less than 2. mg/liter.

34. For phosphate fertilizer plants, technology exists for reducing

contaminants present in waste effluents. Air pollution of SO2 from sulfur-
ic acid plants can be reduced by use of the "double-contact" process or am-
monia scrubbing. Tail gas fron nitric acid plants, containing oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), can be handled by extended absorption or catalytic reduct-
ion. In general, gaseous emissions as a group can be reduced 'bythe use of
absorber towers. They are either collected as dusts or water scrubbed.

35. Although there should be no disclarge of liquid effluents from

phosphate fertilizerplants, rainfalL conditionsmay be such as to require
treatment of disch-arges on certain occasions. Frequently reductions in
pollutant concentrations can be effected on separate process streams.
Critical points where measures can be applied include: (1) cooling water
blowdown and accidentalleakage from sulfuric acid coils; (2) drainage from
waste by-product gypsum piles; and (3) seepage from gypsum ponds.

36. Because of differences in production of N-P-K fertilizers, re-

sulting pollution problems will vary widely. Usually cyclones and filter
bags will reduce dust emissions in dry-process plants. In other cases
scrubbers will be the preferred alternative and these, in turn, will re-
quire further pollution control procedures for the resulting liquid efflu-
ent.
 -86 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "MinimizingPollution from FertilizerPlants". Report of an Expert

Group Meeting, Helsinki, 26-31 August 1974. UN IndustrialDevelopment
Organization. Vienna (1914).

2. Hignett, T.P., "Recent Developmentsin FertilizerProductionTechnology

and Economics, with Special Reference to Ammonia and Copound Fertiliz-
ers". ASPAC Food and Fertilizer Technology Center. Taiwan (August
1974).

3. Finneran, J.A. "Guide to Buailding an AmmDnia Fertilizer Complex". UN

IndustrialDevelopmentOrganization. Vienna (1969).

4. "World Guide to PollutionControl in the FertilizerIndustry". British

Sulphur Corporation. London (1975).

5. "DevelopmentDocument for Effluent LimitationsGuidelinesand New

Source Performance Standards for the Basic Fertilizer ChemDicals Segment
of the FertilizerManufacturingPoint Source Category". U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Washington. Doc. EPA-440/1-74-011-a (March
1974).

6. "Developmient Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New

Source Perfonnance Standards for the Formulated Fertilizer Segment of
the Fertilizer Manufacturing Point Source Category". U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Washington, Doc. EPA/1-75-042-a (January
1975).

7. "Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources". U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. Washington (August 1, 1976).
 - 87 -

THE WORLD BANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

GUIDELINES

FISH AND SHELLFISH PROCESSING

1. There is a wide variety of finfish and shellfish which could be

processed at projects involving Bank financing. Tnerefore, it is not pos-
sible to prepare a guideline covering all fonrs that may be encountered.
This documentwill deal only with ocean fish and marine life, and will con-
fine itself to a representativegroup of species,therebyproviding informna-
tion consideredtypical of and applicable to processing, canning,and pre-
serving of fish and shellfish.

2. Specific species to which these guidelines may be applied in-

clude, but are not limited to, saLoDn, herring (somttimes as sardines in
the immature state), ocean perch, mackerel, halibuit, cod, sole, tuna,
clans, oysters, scallops,crab and shrimp.

PROCESSINGOPERATIONS

3. Harvestingutilizes a wide range of old and new technologiesfor

supplying the basic raw material. Techniques fall into one of four general
methods; netting, trapping, dredging, and line fishing. Airplane spotting
and ot7hersystens are someti-mesused for locatingthe fish. Once lharvested
and aboard the vessel, the catch is either taken directly to a processing
plant or is iced and frozen on board for later delivery.

4. At the receiving point, the catch is unloaded, weighed, and

transportedby conveyoror suitablecontainersto the work area. It may be
processed iimediatelyor transferred to cold storage. Pre-processingpre-
pares the catch for the later operations. It may cons;zs_Z of wasning of
dredged crabs, thawing of frozen fish, beheading shrimp at sea, and other
operations prior to butchering. Wastes from butchering and evisceration
are usually dry-captured or screened from the waste stream and processed as
a fishery by-product.

5. Except for those portions intended for the fresh fish and seafood
markets, some form of cooking or pre-cooking is usually practiced in order
to prepare the commodity for the picking and cleaning operation. Precook-
ing or blanching facilitates removal of skin, bone, shell, gills, and other
parts which must be separated before marketing. In some cases steam con-
densate from this cperation is collected and further processed as a by-pro-
duct. For example, the condensate or stick -water fron the tuna precook.
Stick water is water which has been in close contact with the fish, and
contains large amounts of entrairned organics.
 - 88 -

6. End product is prepared in its final form by picking or c leaning

to separate edible frcxn non-edible portions. Non-edible portions resulting
from this procedure are usually collected and saved for by-product process-
ing. The cleaning operation may be mranual, mechanical, or a comnbination of
the two. With fresh fish or fresh shell-fish, the meat product is packed
into suitable containers and held under refrigeration until shipment to
consumer outlets. If the final product is to be held for extended periods
before consumption, then freezing, canning, pasteurization, refrigeration,
or some co-mbination of these is used for preservation to prevent spoilage.

7. Fish and shellfish, and their waste products, are frequently used
for production of such industrial cocrodities as fish meal, concentrated
protein solubles, oils, liquid fertilizers, fish food pellets, kelp pro-
ducts, shell novelties and pearl essence. Some species are used primarily
for industrial purposes. For example, menhaden and anchovy are utilized
extensively for preparation of fish meal, and added as a protein supplement
in animal feeds; oils are used in shortening, margarine, lubricants, and
cosmetics; and fish solubles are used as liquid fertilizers.

SOURCESAND CHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

8. Edible product yield is highly variable. In general, yields for

shellfish are in the 15 to 20 percent range while that for fish such as
tuna or salmbn yield reach the range of 60 or more percent. Extensive
beneficial uses made of non-edible fish portions greatly reduces waste dis-
charge.

9. Wastewater parameters of major importance in the canned and

preserved seafood processing industry are the 5-day, 200 C, biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5 ), total suspended solids (TSS), cormbined oils and
greases, and pH. Nonnally, these wastewaters contain no hazardous or
toxic materials (heavy metals, pesticides, etc.). Occasionally highly
concentrated sodiun chloride (NaCl) solutions may be discharged. These can
interfere with biological treatment systems unless pretreatment, such as
dilu-tion or flow equalization- is provided prior to disposal.

Salmon

10. 'Wastewater flcw rates in a salmon processing plant will depend on

whether the butchering operation is carried out by rmachine or by hand.
Machine operations will result in higher flcw rates, (BOD5 , and TSS). Many
plants will erploy both manchine and hand butchering, depending on the
species, -ianity of catch to 'beprocessed and other factors.

11. In both fresh and frozen salmon processi-ng, the principal source
of wastewater is the wash tank operation. Here eviscerated fish are
cleaned to remove adhering blood, tisFues lining the body cavity
(mesantaries), sea lice, and visceral particles. A prelimit ry rinse of
the fish, as caught, is sometimes used to reduce the amount of slime
adhering to the carcass and to facilitate handling. Wash tank and
pre-rinse contribute ebout 90% of all wastewater flow. Tne remainder comes
fr-n wash down of 'butchering tables and other work areas.
 - 89 -

12. Wastewater flows fron salmon canning operations are much higher
than preparing fresh or frozen salnon products, particularly where butcher-
ing is done mechanically. Hand butchering and canning operation is essent-
ially the same as the fresh/frozen operation except for wastes fran fish
cutting and can filling, Which will also increase the amount of wastes into
the water.

13. Typical loadings to be anticipated from these two types of opera-

tions are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 -- Typical Effluent Loadings from Salmon Processing

Canned
Parameter Fresh/ _ _
Frozen a/ Mech. Hand
Butchered a/ Butchered a/

Flcw 3,750 L/Mg 19,800 L/Mg 5400 L/Mg

BOD5 2.0 kg/Mg 45.5 kg/Mg 3.4 kg/Mg

TSS 0.8 kg/Mg 24.5 kg/Mg 2.0 kg/Mg

Oils/Greases 0.18 kg/Mg 5.2 kg/Mg 7.8 kg/Mg

pH 6.6 6.5 7.0

a/ All loadingsexcept pEI,expressed as per megagram of product.

1 Mg = 1 megagram = 1 metric ton; L = liter.

Tuna

14. Processing tuna requires several unit operations including re-

ceiving, thawing, butchering, precooling, cleaning, canning, retorting,
labeling and casing. Process and waste sources are shown schematicallyin
Figure 1. This operation requires large volumes of both fresh water, (us-
ually from municipal sources) and salt water punmed directly fran the ocean
or saline wells. Both municipal and saline waters normally cae ito con-
tact with the tuna only in those stages preceding the precooking operation.

15. Typical waste flcuus and loadings discharged fran a tuna process-
ing plant are given in Table 2.
 I
- 90 -

RAW FROZEN TUNA

FROM BOATS

PRODUCTFLOW
RECEIVING -WASTEWATER FLOW

ROI EN |_ WASTE SOLIDSFLOW

STORAGE

THAWINGS(OLOOD, JUICE S)

(VISCERA) SUTCHERING (BLOOD. JUICES, SMALL PARTICLES)

…-- _ WASHING___________

I
STICKWATER (OILS SOLUBLEORGANICS) (OILS,MEAT, BONE, ETC.)
r- ,… - __ RECOOI( -

I COO
,-

I 1 I 1

(VEGETABLE OIL, MEATPARTICLES)

CAN WASHER I CAN WASHER

I (OILS, MEAT PARTICLES,SOAP) __ L

I j|
RETORI
S COOL
, RETORT
& COOL I
( L IORGACS.
DETERGENT)

BCASE ~~~~~~~~a
CASE

1 REDUCTION PL*T
(SCRUBBER
_ _ } >_WATER WITH ENTRAINEDORGANICS)
_ _ _ _ _

I PRESS
-___- <LIOUOR WASTEWATER

SOLUBLESPAN iCOIZENSATEWITH ENTRAINEDORGANICS)

-tS

FISN CONCENTRATED PET FOOD HUMAN

WEAL SOLUBLES CONSUMPTiON DISCHARGE

4
*"~i-jirc '. ThNicaI -'ina -rocess -"- ,:m"?, c - V t( ''1('t C1
 - 91 -

Table 2 -- Typical Effluent loadings from Tuna Processing

Parameter Loadings a/

Flow - L/Mg 22,300

BODs - kg/Mg 15

TSS - kg/Mg 11

Oils/Greases - kg/Mg 5.6

pH 6.8

a/ All loadings, except pH, expressed as per megagram

of whole tuna processed.

On the average, 45 percert of the raw tuna intake results in food product,
54 percent (viscera, head skin, fins, bone, red meat) in by-products, and
the remaining 1 percent goes to waste.

Shrimp

16. Ccmmercial shrimp collection is done by netting at distances of

some 100 km from shore. The harvest is taken directly to a processingplant
or a "mother" ship. If taken to a ship, the catch must be immediatelyiced
and reiced every 12 hours. Following peeling and preparation,shrimp are
processed and marketed as frozen, or as canned or breaded products.

17. Up to the late 1950's shrimp were hand peeled for retail market-
ing or further processing. Currently, peeling machines are used, thus in-
creasing plant capacities some 30 to 40 fold. Peeling machines are the
largest water users and also contribute to the largest waste load. Some 45
to 55 percent of the water entering a plant is used for this purpose.

18. Typical waste flows and pollutant loadings from shrimp processing
operations are given in Table 3.
 - 92 -

Table 3 -- Typical Effluent Loadings fran Shrimp Processing

Parameter a/ Frozen Canned Breaded

Flcw m3 /Mg 73.4 60.0 116

BOD5 kg/Mg 130. 120. 84

TSS kg/Mg 210. 54. 93

oils/
Greases kg/Mg 17. 42. _
pH 7.7 7.4 7.8

a/ All loadings,except pH, expressedas per megagramof

raw shrimp input to plant.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

19. Limnitationsfor liquid effluents from fish processingplants are

given in Table 4. Under normal cperations no gaseous effluentsof any con-
sequence are discharged. Solid wastes, generally removedby screening,are
either processed into saleable by-products or transferred to landfills or
other facilities for final disposal.

20. Application of these limitations should be based on conditions at

each individual plant. These are average values only, based on currently
available technology considered to be achievable under present day opera-
ting conditionsat existingplants.

21. Factors which will influence limitationsapplicableto any indi-

vidual plant, are (a) nature of the end product; (b) mechanicalversus hand
butchering or peeling; (c) extent of processing performed on board ship,
prior to transfer to the plant; (d) water quality requirementsfor receiv-
ing waters; and (e) remteness of plant location.
 - 93 -

Table 4 -- Liquid Effluent Limitationsfor Fish ProcessingPlants a/

Max. Daily kg/Mg Live Weight Processed

Category - -------

BOD_
5 TSS O+G b/

Tuna 2.2 2.2 0.27

Salmon 11. 2.8 2.8

Other Finfish 4.7 4.0 0.85

Crab 3.6 3.3 1.1

Shrimp 52. 22. 4.6

Other Shellfish 41. 41. 0.62

a/ In all cases pH shlouL'i be 6 to 9.

b/ 0 + G = Oils and Greases.

CONTROLAND TREATMENT

22. 'Waste components of greatest concern are solids, oils and

greases. The current treatment trends are toward the use of screening and
air flotation, combined with effective in-plant measures, as the principal
means of reducingoverall waste loadings.

23. In addition to in-plant control measures, wastes frcni all fish-

eries production operations under proper conditions are amenable to biolog-
ical treatment or discharge to municipal systems. With adequate .peration-
al controls, no materials harmful to municipal waste treatment orocesses
need to be discharged.

24. Application of in-plant control techniques should be the first

step in handling of %.stes. Basic techniques available are minimizing
water use, recovery of dissolved proteins in effluent solutions and recov-
ery of solid portions for use as edible products.
 - 94 -

25. Water-saving can be accomplished throughi reducing the use of

flumes for in-p'ant transport of products. Ery handling of product or use
of pneuratic ducts requires a snall fraction of the water used by flumes.
Spring-loaded nozzles, which automatically shut off when released by the
user, should be utilized on butchering lines. Steam and water valves nust
be properly maintained to avoid leaks and prevent losses.

26. Fish, along with meat and fowl, are frequently cateogrized as
"animal proteins" because they contain the high levels of amino acid re-
quired for good nutrition. Protein contenit will vary from 8 to 10 percent
for oysters to over 25 percent for tuna. Several techniques are available
for reclaimLing protein from those portions not classified as "food pro-
ducts". Proteins can be recovered in wet form and made into high quality
frozen products. Whole fish or waste fish parts can be converted to fish
meal or flour for animal feed. Protein wastes can also be converted into a
high grade flour for human consumption. Concentration and utilization of
fish proteins as food additives is finding increasing use in developing
countries. Salmon eggs, representingup to 5 percent of by weight of the
fish and formerlydiscarded are now being recovered for caviar in a number
of locations.

27. Seafood plants have previously been located near or over receiv-
ing waters considered to have had adequate waste assimilationcapacity.
Therefore,there was little or no applicationof waste treatmenttechnology
to thIs industry. Despite the fact that these wastes are generally
biodegradable, they do not contain unacceptable levels of toxic substances,
and are amenable to biological treatment in municipal systems under
controlled conditions.

28. Screening is extensively employed, in various forms and degrees,

for solids recovery. Solids so recovered have market value and, in addit-
ion, recovery eliminates their discharge into receiving waters and munici-
pal sewers. Solids ray also be removed by sedimentationbasins.

29. If by-product recovery is not practical, proper disposal of

solids must be considered. Where permitted and where land is available,
private landfillTay e a practical solution. Land applicationof unstabi-
lized, putrescible solids as a nutrient source may be impracticalbecause
of nuisance conditionswhich could be created.

30. Another alternativeis deep sea disposal. Suchla method does not
subject the marine environment to the potential hazards of toxic substances
and pathogens normally associated with the dumping of human sewage sludges,
municipal refuse, and industrial wastes. 'Ibminimize any detrimental ef-
fect on the marine environment,waste solids should be ground before dispo-
sal, should be dischargedonly to waters subject to strong tidal flushing
action, and at depths of not less than 13 to 15 meters.

31. Wastewaters from which the solids have been separatedmay be sub-
jected to eithei physical-chemicalor biological treatment to further re-
duce organic levels in the water prior to final disposal.
 - 95 -

32. The nost promising physical-chenical techniques currently being

investigated are chemical coagulation and air flotation. Economic consid-
erations seriously limit current application of chemical oxidation, since
the high cost of supplying chlorine and ozone, the two most Dromising oxi-
dants, is a deterrent.

33. Air flotation, with addition of appropriate chemicals, is capable

of remnving high concentrations of solids, grease, oil and dissolved organ-
ics. Vacuum flota-ion, dispersed air flotation, and dissolved air flota-
tion are systems most conmonly applied at present. In using these methods
it is important to add sufficient quantities of chemical coagulants to com-
pletely absorb the oils and greases present.

34. Most wastewaters have sufficient nutrients present to make them

amenable to biological treatment. Activated sludge, high-rate trickling
filters, ponds, lagoons, and land disposal may all be applied. under proper
conditions.

35. Selection of a treatment system requires analysis of total plant

operation and application of techniques specific for wastes to be treated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Development DBcument for Effluent

Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
Catfish, Crab, Shrimp, and Tuna Segment of the Canned and Preserved
Seafood Processing Point Source Category". Doc. EPA-440/1-74-020-a.
Washington (June 1974).

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Develoment Document for Effluent

Limitations Guidelines and New Source Perfonrance Standards for the
Fish Meal, Salmon, Bottom Fish, Clam, Oyster, Sardine, Scallop, Herr-
ing, and Abalone Segment of the Canned and Preserved Fish and Seafood
Processing Industry Point Source Category".
Doc. EPA-440/1-75/041-a, Group I, Phase II. Washington (September
1975).

3. "Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology-Reasonableness of Ex-

isting Effluent Limitations Guidelines". Pederal Register, Vol. 43,
No. 164, pp. 37570-37607,and Vol. 43, No. 170, pp. 39062-39067. Wash-
ington (August 23 and August 31, 1978).
 - 96 -

THE WORLDBANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

FRUIT ANDVEGETABLEPROCESSING

INDUSTRIALWASTEDISPOSAL

1. Because of the wide variety of fruits and vegetables that are

harvested and processed, in varying degrees, discussions of industrial op-
erations cDvering each of the varieties for which effluent limitations are
given below is beyond the scope of this document. Therefore, discussions
are limited to the processing of apples, citrus, potatoes and their various
by-products. However, effluent limitations are included for many other
fruits and vegetables normally processed in these plants.

INDUSTRIALPROCESSES

2. Industrialoperations covering apples, citrus fruits, and pota-

toes involve many of the procedures used in fruit and vegetableprocessing
getneral. The series of steps outlined below for each of these groups may
not all occur at each plant. Therefore, it is nece..sary to have oomplete
information on the final product to be prepared in order to assure proper
application of the effluent limitations.

3. In addition to apples marketed directly for consumption, the fruit

is used mainly for preparation of sauce, juice and frozen or canned
slices. Other products, but in a lesser volume, include dehydratedapple
pieces, special apple rings, spiced whole apples, and baked apples. Apple
processing usually involves storage,washing and sorting,peeling and cor-
ing, slicing, chopping, extracting juice, dehydration, deaerating, and
cooking.

4. Control of the temperatures and relative humidity of storage

areas is critical for maintaining quality. Apples received fram the field
or storage rust be washed to remnve dirt and other residues, and then
sorted to remove undersized, spoiled, or otherwise inferior fruit.
Mechanical peeling is most commxnly used, particularly where a sliced
product is to be produced. The peel and core particles (along with
inferior fruit) are used to nake juice or vinegar stock. Steam and caustic
peeling are also utilized. After slicing, the slices are deaerated in a
brine solution, under vacuum. The final step is freezing and packaging or
cooking and canning.

5. Oranges,grapefruit, lemons, tangerines (madarines)and limes are

the citrus fruits most frequently grown and harvested. The steps in the
processing include: receiving, storage and washing (to remove foreign
materials, pesticides,etc.); extractionof raw juice; finishing (to sepa-
rate pips and membrane segments); and juice concentration. When segments
 - 97 -

are to be produced the fruit is mechanically peeled, subjected to caustic

treatment to remove adhering menbrane particles, and manually or mechani-
cal.y segmented to produce sections. In many cases the peelings are fur-
ther processed for rcovery of citrus oil.

6. The principal forms manufacturedby the potato processing indus-

try are frozen products; chips; dehydrated potatoes; and canned, hash, stew
and soup products. The quality of the raw potatoes; and the types of manu-
facturing process are the two principal factors in determiningthe quantity
and characteristics of the waste generated. Ideally, the most suitable
potatoes should have a high solid content, low content of reducing sugars,
thin peels, and uniform size and shape.

7. The bulk of the potato intake is placed in storageby the proces-

sor in order to provide adequate quantities of raw material for year-round
operation. Storage facilities require high humidity levels to prevent
shrinkage. Fram storage, the potatoes go to rotary drums or cylindrical
washers to remove soil particles and other foreign raaterials. Next, these
vegetables are peeled (using abrasion or rubber studded rolls, or other
means). As part of the peeling process the potatoes are elecronicallyin-
spected for eyes, blemishes, and remaining peel. These undesirable ele-
ments are then remnved an-d the potatoes sliced or diced. Considerable
starchi may be released in the slicing and subsequent washing operation.
The crude starch is recovered and shipped elsewhere for further refining.

8. After slicing or di-ing, the pieces are blanched (using steam or

hot water) prior to preparation of the final product.

SOURCESAND CHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

9. Effluents fron the fruit and vegetable processing industry can be

both solid and liquid in nature, and the process waste streams are general-
ly a mixture of the two. 'Gaseous effluents are minor or non-existent, and
hence, will not be covered in this discussion. Odors related to anaerobic
ponds, which are sometimes used for waste treatment, may be significant in
individual situations.

10. The waste water parameters of major significance are thze five-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ), total suspended solids (TSS), and hydro-
gen-ion concentration (pH). Fecal coliforms may be of concern, although
not generally fotud in wastewaters f ran this industry. Tb avoid problems
in this regard, all sanitary wastes should be handled separately and should
in no way contact with process wastewaters. This separation can be
particularly critical in situations where in-plant reuse of process waters
is practiced.

11. Water is extensively used in all plLases of industry, principally

as va) a cleaning agent to remove dirt and other foreign material; (b) a
heat transfermedium for heating and cooling; (c) a solvent for removal of
undesirable ingredientsfrom the product; (d) a carrier for the incorpora-
tion of additives into the product; and (e) a method of transportingand
handling the product.
 - 98 -

12. Wastewaters fram the processing of individual products are ccmmon

to the industry as a whole, and are made up mainly of biodegradable organic
matter. Although the procedures used in processing the various ccnmcdities
have many aspects in oommon, there are variations which affect the quantity
and strength of the effluents produced.

13. Wastewater characteristicswill be affected by: (a) condition of

the raw fruit or vegetable (such as freshly picked versus stored); (b) the
peeling method (caustic peeling produces higher BOD5 and TSS than does
mechanical peeling, for exanple; (c) water usuage, including the extent of
water transport; (d) age and efficiency of equipment; (e) the processing
operations for the comTDdity being produced; and (f) in-plantmeasures and
housekeepingpractices.

14. Average flows and characterisiticsof waste effluentsare presen-

ted in Table ;. The data covers both screened and unscreened effluents,
which accounts for the wide variationsbetween minimum anm maximum values.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

15. Effluent limitationsfor wastes originia-tingfron the fruit and

vegetable processingindustry are presented in Tables 2, 3, and 4, below.

16. In addition to the limitationsgiven above, all effluents should

maintain the MPN fecal coliform count below 400 per 100 ml and the pH at
6.0 to 9.5.
CONTROL AND TREATMENT

17. The wastes resulting fran this industry are principally organic
in nature. They are therefore amenable to biological treatment, either at
the point of discharge or, with pretreatment, in a municiDal sewage treat-
ment system. In-plant procedures and housekeeping practices can be effec-
tive in reducing the waste load to be treated or discharged to municipal
plants.

18. A fruit or vegetable processing plant is completely dependent

upon a supply of good quality water. The increasinguse of pesticidesand
other contaminantsrequires wrre effectivewashing followingthe harvesting
process. The use of mechanical harvesting techniques results in increased
quantities of soil and dirt pickup and cons-aquently requires mnre extensive
washing. It has been demonstrated that when washing is done at a site re-
moved from tlheprocessing facility (such a. adjacent to the harvesting
area) total plant water usage can be reduced by as much as 8 to 10 percent.

19. Where peeling is necessary, mechanical means are usually employ-

ed, using either caustic or steam. Water sprays or rubber abr-adingare the
two principal methods of removing the peel. The use of the rubber abrading
techinque can reduce the total waste flow, BOD5, and TSS by as muchl as 50
percent.
 -99 -

Table 1. Ch~aracteristics of Typical Waste Effluents -

Fruit and Vegetable Processing a/

Flow SOD TSS

Crop 1,000 gal/tonl lb/ton lb/ton
raw i3roduct b/ raw product c/ raw oroduct c/
Mmi. Mean Tax. Min. NMean WsY. Min. Mean MPax.

Apples ____ 0.2 2.4 13 3.9 18 44 0j.4 4.6 21

Ap:rIcots 5. 4 8 40 '39.9 I 9
Arp reaus i.9 8.5 92 4.97 I1
E)ry bexis 2~~.5 88 115 6i 182 2.5 4, ei
Limaci,asns j2.4 7.7 22 9 75 4.6 3) 231
Snapbeans 1.3 4.2 11.2 [1.6 15 ~ f0 . 6
BEet 1 0C.3 2.7 -6.7 I23 2 17I 7.3 22 04
Broccoli ______ 4.1 9.2 21 5.8 20 61 ] 4.6 17? 61J
Brussels sorouts j5.7 .2 1 42 75 14I 2.9 15 79i
E-rries Ii.8 3.5 91I 11 19 40 1 7.1 2
Carrots I ;.2 33 7.1 17 0 52145 17 53"
C3a1l1lo.VJer 12 17 24 5., 12 36 J 2.8 7.8 22 j
Chef,i-'s I1.2 3.9 14 21 38 731 fLL0- 2.0 3.c
Ci Lr us0.3 2.0 29.- 0.9- 9. 17 37 14 1
Kzav rapes
~Mush-
__ _
oorr.
_ _ _0.6
0.4

18
1.8
1.5
78
7.,
5.
8 IL 34 IS
.0
132
2
3 IL31.3 ______I.?
.
1
7.3
_
OT7:
2_0
2
tOIiv~~~~~~~~ I[_:-8 8.1 - ' 2 3- ;- 27
~Onion, j2.5 55 10 677 5 5 5.3 I?
Peaches 1.4 3.0 65.. 17 70 2.4 E!6 1I
Pears J1.6 3.0 7.7 11, 0 ;6436 1 3
Peas 1.9 5.4 14 116 38 S67 13.8 11 3
Peppers 10.9 4.6 16 jI 32 50 Ij 5 170
Pickles 11.4 3.5 11 126 42 75 30 82 23
Pimentos j5.8 6.9 8.2 39 55 76 .1 I 5.8 8.1
Pineapples 2.6 2.7 3.8 13 2F5.5.2 9.1 17
Plums j ~~~~ ~~~~
2.3- ~~0.6
8.7 I 6.5 10 14 I (.0 2.1 i.3
Potdto chic's I1? 1.6 2. 2 17 2S
2 22 32 48
Potamres..;et___ 0.4 2.2 9.-7 39 9 217 I0t~ 57 117

Potatoes,vwhte 1.9 3.6 6 L42 84 L161 I 3-3 123 423

Pumokirn 0.4 2.9 11i 9; 322 2
67 6 12
SaLuCrkra- 10.5 30 1.3
4.6 5. 5 - 1.0 2.6
Spmnaon 3.2 8.8 22 I 57 1.I 3 61 2
Squasi- ',.I 6.0 22 I. 20 - 14 -
Tomatoes, p.!e!ed 1.3 2.2 3. 3 93 14 I5.P 12 2
Tomatoes, p'cduct 1.1 1.6 2.4 2.2 4.7 9.7 5.6 10 19
Turnips j2.4 7.3 18 - - - - -,

a/ From Reference No. 5

b7 Multiplyby 4.17 to convert to liters/megagrami
cT Multiply by 0.500 to convert to kg/mnegagramn
1 Mg = 1 megagramn= 1 metric ton.
 - 100 -

Table 2. Liquid Effluent Limitations - Specialities a/.

BODr) TSS|
Commodity S A
K°/'I!g Ra.?Product - Ann. Av.

Baby Foods 0.84 1.15

Chips - Corn 1.14 2.12
Chips - Potato 1.68 3.03
s021
Chips - Tortilla 1.66 2
ECthnic Foods 1.59 | 2.83
Jams/Jellies 0.19 0.34
Mayonnaise/Dress. 0.21 0.39
Soups 2.77 b/ 4,93 hi
Tomato/Starchi/Chteese 1).98 1.74l
Vegetables - Dehy. 1.78 3.18

a/ For plants processing approximately 1000 to 5000 megagrams

per year.

b/ Represents Kg per megagrams raw ingredients.

 - 101 -

Table 3. Liquid EffluentLimimtations- Vegetable Processing a/.

BOD5 TSS
Commodity -

Kg/big Raw Product - Ann. Av.

Asparagus 0.28 0.50

Beans - Dr- 1.40 2.51
Beans - Lima 1.75 3.12
Beans - Snap 1.05 1.86
Beets 0.68 1.24
Broccoli 1.89 3.34
Carrots 0.97 1.76
Cauliflower 2.36 4.17
Corn - Canned 0.45 0.84
Corn - Frozen 0.99 1.83
Mushrooi;'.s 1.19 2.12
Onions - Canned 1.72 3.14
Oa'ons!Garlic - Dehyd 1.16 2.07
Peas 1.00 1.97
Pi.ckles--Fresh Pack-. 0.64 1.14
Pick.ler - Process :'ack 0.65 1.21
Pickles - Salt Stations 1 0.08 0.16
Piznen tos I 2.00 3.84
Potatoes - Sweet/White 0.52 1.09
Saurkraut Canied 0.26 0.47
Saurkraut- Cutting .05 0.09
Spinach 1.18 2.08
Squash 0.30 0.53
Tomatoes 0.98 1.74

a/ For Plants processing approximately 1000 to 5000 megagrams per

year.
 - 102 -

Table 4. Liquid Effluent Limitations - Fruit Products a/.

BOD5 TSS
Commodity . _ _

lCg/.gRaw Product- Ann. Av.

pple Juice 0.20 0.20

pple Products 0.20 0.20
pricots 1.26 2.28
neberries 0.18 0.33
herr es- S,eet J 0.45 0.81
;herries - Sour 1.10 2.01
,herries - Brined 0.76 1.44
3itrus Products 0.14 0.20
,ranberrie3 0.62 1.12
)ried Fruit 0.72 1.34
r2p Juice- CannCd i 0.76 1.39
,rape Juice Pressed 0.11 0.20
olives 2.28 3.93
'eaches 0.75 1.40
iears 0.86 1.58
Bineapp es 1.48 2.60
Plurns 0.28 0.50
ikalsins 0.20 0.38
{Strawberries 0.62 1.10

a/ For plants processing approximately 1000 to 5000 megragrams per

year.
 - 103 -

20. Water used in the sorting, trimming, and grading operations can
be recirculated for a given period of time. Since it comes into contact
with the interior of the fruit or vegetable there is a tendency to build up
the concentration of soluble and suspended solids. When these solids reach
the point ..Ai.ere the water must be replaced, the contaminated water can be
furtlher concentrated by evaporation aid used as vinegar stock.

21. Wastewater volumes can be reduced by substituting otlher methods

(screw conveyors,air propulsion,pump transport, etc.) in place of fluming
to convey the products through the operation. The system substituted for
fluming must be adapted to the product and tnb processing on an individual
basis. O-her operations%tich should be carefully examined for economies
in water use include the blanchning, container cooling, and clean-up. Water
recirculation,using cooling towers where necessary,can also be effective
in reducing effluent volumes. Flow equalizationthrough the use of storage
tanks to reduce fluctuations in volumes will reduce overall treatment
needs.

22. It is currently the general practice in this industry to separate

the solid waste from -the liquid waste streams. This is usually done by
physical means such as screening (stationary, rotary, or vibrating), plain
sedimentation, hydroclones, or flotation. For operations producing
significant volunes of french fried products, traps may be necessary to
reduce oil and grease discharges.

23. lAaste effluents are readily treatable by biological methods,

after the major volume of the suspended solids have been removed by screen-
ing, sedimentation, or other primary treatment. Once this separation has
been accomplished most of the biodegradable material is in the soluble
forn, and may be treated by suchi systems as activated sludge, trickling
filters, lagoons (anaerobic or aerated), rotating biological contactors,
and others.

24. Land applicationof these effluentshas been successfullyutiliz-

ed. Its operation depends upon a number of factors, including: (a) infil-
trative and percolative capacity of the soil; (b) clogging; (c) quality
changes in the soil; (d) travel of the sprayed effluent to springs and
streams or, through faults, to ground water supplies; (e) evaporation;and
(f) transpirationthrough cover plant growth.

25. In evaluatingthe application of this method it is necessary to

consid&r: (a) available land area; (b) soil characteristics;(c) available
slope, to minimize ponding of water; (d) intervals required to rest the
soil between applications; (e) nature and density of the cover crop; (f)
and the chzaracteristics of wastes in terms of components Which may affect
the soil mantle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Jones, H. R. "Waste Disposal Control in the Fruit and Vegetable

Industry". Noyes Data Corporation,Park Ridge, N.J. and LoTnon (1973).
 - 104 -

2. Powers, P. W. "How Tb Dispose of Toxic Sustances and Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation,Park Ridge, N.J. and London (1976).

3. "Treatmentof IndustrialEffluents". Ed. by A. G. Gallely, C. F.

Forster, and D. A. Stafford. Halstead Press (John Wiley & Sons), New
York (1976). pp. 245-257.

4. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document

for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance
Standards for the Apple, Citrus, and Potato Processing Segment
of the Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables Point Source
Category". Doc. EPA--440/1-74-027-a. Washington (March 1974).

5. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Pollution Abatement in

the Fruit and Vegetable Industry" Doc. EPA-625/3-77-0007 (3 volumes).
Washington (July 1977).
 - 105 -

THE WORLD BANK JUNE 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

GEOTHERMAL
DEVELOPMESIfT

GUIDELINES

1. Ihe environmental impact of geothermal development can be impor-

tant and should be part of any World Bank study in tlhis field.

2. The maiin points to consider are as follows:

-- Direct physical effects on habitat

-- Erosion
Surface water effects
-- Ground water effects
-- Air pollution
- Noise
Human presence

3. The project slhoul.d take into consideration tlhe survival and well
being of the wildlife species including fish. This slhould be done fran the
exploration phase throug1h the well-field developmnt, ie plant construc-
tion, the plant operation and finally, the field abandonment.

4. Erosion of the land can be caused by water, by wind or by stream

channels. Pronounced erosion can result from minor disturbances of the
land 'iurface and/or the vegetation. Good planning, reasonable grading, and
good construction regulations will prevent significant erosion.

5. Geothermal development will reduce some stream flows (construc-

tion period) or increase others. The quality of the surface wtaterwill
probably be changed. Significant alterationsof the hydrology or drainage
routes should be avoided.

6. Changes in ground water level, quality and temperature will oc-

cur. These should be forecast to avoid any drastic impact. Reinjection
should be considered,especially if the effluent is highly polluted.

7. Although the air pollution should not be a major prob,lemit

should be considered in each phase especially if emission of radioactive
vapors or vapor borne salts is possible.

8. Noise should be generated by several activities or pieces of

equipment and could interfere with normal behavior of animals; breeding,
rest, hiber ition and migration patterns could be disrupted.
 - 106 -

9. Hluran presence should not interfere to a great extent with wild-

life. Precautions shoulk be taken to keep vegetation growing and not to
restrict wildlife novements.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Impact Prediction Manual for Geotlernal Development (FWS/OBS- 78/77)

prepared for EPA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service by Wodward-
Clyde Consultants, Three knbarcadero Center, Suite 700, Sanl Francisco,
California 94111.

2. Geothermal Handbook, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1976) (FWS/OBS -

76/36).

3. Site SpecificAnalysis of GeothermalDevelopment. U.S. Departmentof

Energy 1978 (HCP/T 4014-01/3).
 - 107 -

THE WORLD BANK August 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

GLASS MANUFACTURING

EFFPLIENT
GUIDELINES

1. rTe glass manufacturing industry may be divided into a nunber of

segments descriptive of the products from specific processes. However,
based on the types of plants most frequently encountered in World Bank pro-
jects, this document will oonfine itself to those plants producing flat
glass, pressed and blown glass (bottles).

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

Flat Glass

2. Flat glass is produced by melting sand together with oth-er inor-

ganic ingredients and then forming the nolten material into a flat sheet.
The techniques most frequently used are the float, plate, sheet, and rolled
processes. Although the raw materials and melting operations are basically
the same, eadc process uses a different -tetlhod for fonning flat sheets fron
the rolten glass.

3. In the float process the glass is drawn across a molten tin

bath. In the plate process tlie rollers used to form the sheets will :elso
control the initial thickness, with the final thickness 'being achieved 'oy
grinding and polishing. The glass is fonned by a vertical drawing proced-
ure in the sheet -:-ocess. Texturizing rolls serve to impart surface tex-
tures in the rolled process. The primary glass sheets may be further fab-
ricated into related products such as mirrors, coated products, autcnotive
and architectural glass, windshields, and others.

4. The most common type of flat glass produced utilizes the soda-
lime methiod. Generally, about one-half of each batch consists of sand
(silica). Other major ingredients include soda ash (Na 2 Co3 ), limestone
(CaCO 3 ), dolomite (MgCO 3), and cullet. The cullet consists of the broken
glass generated in the manufacturing or fabricating processes. This is re-
cycled with the raw materials to improve the melting qualities of the
batch.

5. The manufacturing steps include (a) batching - mixing of raw

materials; (b) melting; (c) fonming -- to effect dimensional control and
surface texture,based on applying sheet, plate, rolled or cloatprocesses;
(d) annealing -- to remove internal stresses; (e) grinding and polishing--
to achieve flat and parallel surface; (f) washing; and (g) cooling.
 - 108 -

Pressed and Blown Glass

6. The pressed and blown glassware category covers the manufacture

of glass containers, machine pressed and blown glass, glass tubing, televi-
sion picture tubes, envelopes, incandescent lamp envelopes, and hand press-
ed and blown glass products.

7. The soda-lime process is mnst cxmmonly used for pressed and blown
glass production,but the composition differs from that used in the flat
glass category. Sand comprises about 70 percent of the batch. Soda or
soda ash comprise 13 to 16 percent, with the remainder made up of cullet.
Soda and, sometimes,small quantitiesof potassium oxide are added as flux-
ing agents. Calcium oxide (lime) and small amounts of aluminum and magnes-
ium oxides are added to inprove chemical durability. Iron and other mate-
rials may be added as coloring agents.

8. The manufacturingconsistsof (a) raw material storage andrmix-

ing; (b) mlting; (c) forming -- includingblowing, pressing, drawing, and
casting; (d) cullet quenching; (e) annealing;and (f) finishing. The steps
will vary from plant to plant, dependingupon the final product.

SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF W.STES

9. Process wastewaters are considered to be those which have come

into direct contact with the glass, mainly including such sources as wash-
ing, quenching,grinding, and polishing. No process wastes are produced in
the manufacture of sheet and rolled glass. Water is added to the raw mate-
rials for dust suppression,but the water is evaporatedand dischargedas a
vapor.

Air Emissions

10. Although there are numerous unit operations used in glass manu-
facturing,niostof the key processingsteps responsible for generating the
bulk of atmospheric emissions are cormmv throughoutthe industry.

11. Emissions from raw material handling and storage are generally
due to solid particles becoming airborne when materials are moved to stor-
age, upon receipt at the plant or when they are rmved from storage to thze
process. In the glass melting operation pollutants arise fran tWio sources:
corrbustion of fuel and vaporization of raw materials. Pollutants frequent-
ly encountered include NOx, SOx" CD, and hydrocarbDons, depending upon the
fuel utilized. It has been estimated, for example, that a fuel oil con-
talning 1 percent sulfur by weight will yield approximately 600 mg/L of S02
in the flue gas.
 - 109 -

12. The second source of air pollutants from the melting process re-
sults from the vaporization of raw materials in the glass melt. This oon-
sists mainly of particlates which are vaporized fran the nolten glass sur-
face and condense at lower tenperatures in the furnace checkerworks or in
the stack. The chemical compositicn of the particulates will depend upon
the particular formulation used. Emission levels for uncontrolled glass
melting furnaces are given in Table 1.

13. Based on current information,gaseous emissions frcm the final

steps of glassmaking,normally referredto as "formingand finishing"cper-
ations, are generally not significantenough to be of concern.

Liqu.1 Effluents

14. Pretreatmentof water suppliesis required in some cases, depend-

ing upon raw water quality and intendedwater use. Hcwever, informationon
effluent characteristicsof these auxiliary wastes is not readily avail-
able. Because practices vary considerablyeach case should receive separ-
ate study and considerationto determine the impact on overal waste dis-
charges.

Table 1 - TypicalGaseous Emission Levels fron Uncontrolled

Glass Melting Furnaces a/

Plant Type Flat Con- Pressed & Blown

Glass tainer Soda - Non-
Glass Lime Soda-
Lime
Emission L

Gms/Kg Glass pulled from furnace

NitrogenOxides 4.0 2.3 4.2

Particulates 1.5 1.2 1.2 5
Sulfur Oxides 1.5 1.4 2.7 3.0
Carbon .Monoxide 0.02 0.08 0.10 --
Hydrocarbons 0.04 0.07 0.15
Fluorides 10
Selenium _ 0.002 - __

a/ From Reference (6).

 - 110 -

15. For the plate glass category significantpollution v-- lts from
the production of plate glass, solid teirpered automotive , daSS, and
windshield fabrication. The major parameters of pollutional signifiance
include suspended solids, oil, hydrogen-ion ooncentration, pH, 5-day
biochenical oxygen demand (BOD5), total phosphorous, and temrperature.
Typical increases in ooncentrations of these parameters over process
influent water labeis are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 - Increase in ConcentrationsOver Levels in Process

InfluentWaters for Flat Gl ss Plants (a).

Plate Float Solid Wind-

Parameter Glass Glass Temp Shield
Auto
Auto
~~~~(b)
~Fabric
_ ow(c) 4 5 , 9 0 0 (d) 138 (d) 4 9 (e) 1 7 5 (e)

Susp. Solids -mg/L 15,000 15 100 25

Oil -mg/L Trace 5 13 1,700

COD -mg/L 100 15 25 1,700

BOD 5 -mg/L - 2 15 33

Total Phosph -mg/L 0 0 0 5

Dis: Solids -mg/L 175 100 100 Low

pH(f) 9 8 7 7 - 8

Temperature -°C 2.8 (g) 8 19

(a) No significant process wastewaterdischarges from rolled and sheet

glass operations.
(b) Typical process waters from fabricationof windshields using oil autoclaves.
(c) Process water only, exclusive of cooling water.
(d) Liters per Metric Ton of production.
(e) Liters per square meter of area on one side.
(f) Represent absolute values.
(g) Moderate increase.
 - 111 -

16. In glass container manufacturing the process water is used for

cullet quenching and non-contact oooling of batch feeders, melting
furnances, forming machines and other auxiliary equipment. Wastewater
characteristics which should receive attention include flow, biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), total chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended
solids (TSS), and oil. Typical increases in these parameters over and
above the levels found in the incoming process water, are given in Table 3.

17. In machine pressed and blown glass manufacturing the raw

materials are first melted and then formed (by use of presses, or other
techniques) into tableware, lenses, reflectors, headlamp parts, and other
similar items. Water is used principally for non-contact cooling and
cullet quenching. Wastewater characteristics which may be of significance
include flow, tenperature, hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), 5-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BODs), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total
suspended solids (TSS), and oil. The loadings of these pollutants added to
the incoming process waters during the production process are also
presented in Table 3.

Table 3 - Increasein ConcentrationsOver Levels in Process

InfluentWaters for Glass Containerand Machine Pressed
Glass Plants.

Glass Machine
Parameter Containers Pressed &
Blown

Tonf(a)
Flow-Liters/Met. 1540 2920
Temperature - °C. 6 8

p(b) 7.5 7.8

BOD - mg/L (5-day,20C) 5 5

COD - mg/L 50 50

Susp. Solids - mg/L 24 25

Oil - mg/L 10 10

(a) Processwater only, exclusiveof coolingwater.

(b) Representabsolutevalues.
 - 112 -

18. Wastewaters in the hand pressed and blown glass industry

originate aln-tst entirely in the finishing steps. The finishing steps
which require water and hence will produce wastewater discharges include
(a) crackoff and polishing; (b) grinding and polishing; (c) machine
cutting; (d) alkali washing; (e) acid polishing; and (f) acid etching.
Some plants may utilize only one or two of these steps whiileother plants
may enplcy several or all of the processes. Some handmade glass plants
also use machine forming presses.

19. Wastewater parameters which should be considered include flows,

total suspended solids (TSS), fluorides (F), lead (Pb), hydrogen-ion
concentration (pH), and temperature. The increases in these parameters in
the incoming process waters are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 - Tncrease in Concentrations Over Levels in Process In-

fluent Waters for Hand Blown and Pressed Glass Plants.

Paraeter Flow Temp pH TSS F Pb

|
L/MT oC. (b) |g/Liter
Process l (a)

Crackoff/Polish. 9,920 2.8 3.2 36 194 0.96

Grinding/Polish. 3,460 2.8 - 4350 - 0.43

Machine Cutting 10,880 1.6 10.0 2580 - 100.

Alkali Washing 4,795 57 11.2 17 _
Acid Polishing 5,380 46 2.2 220 1980 31
Acid Etching 36,530 33 4.0 8 462 7.9

(a) Processwater o_.y, exclusiveof coolingwaters.

(b) Representabsolutevalues.
 - 113 -

Solid Wastes

20. There are no significant solid waste disposal problerms associated

with the basic glass production process. The waste or broken glass, called
cullet, is normally segregated and added to the raw material batches, as
already discussed above. Scme sludges and other solids will result from
systemis treating glass industry wastes.

EFFIUENT LIMITATIONS

21. Arrbientair quality at ground levels in the vicinity of glass

manufacturingplants should be maintained at or below the concentrations
given in Table 5. These concentrationsshould be consideredas World Bank
guidelines.

TABLE 5 - Allowable Aribient Air Quality Conc -itrations at Ground

Level.

Pollutant Averaging Allowable

Time Concentra-
tions

Nitrogen Dioxide Ann. Arith. l

100 ug/m3

Particulates Ann. Geom. 75 pg/m3

Sulfur Oxides (a) (a)

Carbon Monoxide 8-Hour 10 mg/ 3

Carbon Monoxide 1-Hour 40 mg/m3

Hydrocarbons 3-Hour 160 pg/m3

Arsenic (as As) Maximum 2 pg/m3

(a) Inside plant fence

Ann. Arith Mean: 100 pg/m 3
Max. 24-Hour Peak 1000 pg/m 3

Outside plant fence

Ann. Arith Mean: 100 pg/m3
Max. 24-Hour Peak 500 pg/m3

a
 - 114 -

22. Effluent limitations for glass plants, based cn the application

of currently available technology are shown in Tables 6 and 7. These
Tables should be considered as World Bank guidelines.

Table 6 - Effluent Limitations for Wastewater Discharges from

Flat Glass Plants (a)

Plate Float Solid Wind-

Parameter Glass Glass Temp. Shield
(b) | (c) Autom. Fabric.
(b) (I)(d) (d)

pH 6 -9 6- 9 6 -9 6- 9

Total Susp. Solids 2.76 2.0 1.95 4.4

Oil -- 0.7 0.64 1.76

COD 0.90 2.0 _ 4.9

BOD (5-day, 20°C) _ .0.73

Total Phosph. _ 0.05 0.98

(a) No wastewaterdischargesfrom sheet and rolled glass

plants.
(b) Kg/MetricTon.
(c) gm/Metric Ton.
(d) gm/Squaremeter of area on one side.
 - 115 -

Table 7 - Effluent Limitations for Wastewater Discharges from Container

and Blown/Glass Plants.

Parameter Oil Susp, pH 1Fluo- Lead

Process (a) SiaSolids ride

Glass Containers 30 70 6 - 9 _ _

Mach. Blown/Press _--- _ - -

Hand Blown/Press(c)

-Leaded & HF Ac Fin. 10 6 - 9 13 0.1

-Non Lead. HF Ac Fin _ 10 6 - 9 13 _

-Non HF Ac. Fin _ 10 6 - 9 --

(a) Average of daily values for 30 consecutive days as g/Metric Ton

Furnace pull.
(b) Average of daily values for 30 consecutive days as mg/Liter.
(c) For plants which melt raw materials, discharge over 190 liters per
day and produce type of glassware shown.

B
 - 116 -

WASTECONTRDLAND TREATMENT

Gaseous Emissions

23. For control of particulatesfrom raw materials handling opera-

tions, it is the general practice to enclose the unloading arnd conveying
areas and to vent through fabric filters. The chemical oxnposition of the
fugitive dusts will be the same as the raw materials, since no chemicaL re-
actions occur during storage and handling.

24. Control of gaseous enissions arising fran fuel sources can be

controlledby changing to fuels having a lower content of certain pollut-
ants, such as sulfur. Electric 'boosting"also has been effective for this
purpose. In this technique electric current is dissipated through the mol-
ten glass, supplying part of the required heat and reducing the anount of
fossil fuels needed to maintain proper melting temperatures. Boosting is
most commnonlyused in container glass plants. All-electric melters, which
have been developed primarily to improve melting efficiency and product
control, have resulted in lowering gaseous emissions fro(nthe rmelting oper-
ation. Construction is less expensive for all-electric melters as compared
to that for fossil fuel furnaces.

25. Several process nodifications can be used to lower emissions.

These include (a) reducing the amounts of materials in the fuel, which vap-
orize at furnace temperatures; (b) increasing the fraction of recycled
glass in the furnace fuels; (c) installing sensing and control equipment of
the furnace; (d) nodifying the burner design and firing patterns; and (e)
utilizing electric boosting, as discussedabove.

26. Particulates in the glass melting furnace exhaust can be collect-

ed by discharging through fabric filters. Fabric ftlter systems have the
advantage of high collection efficiency, lcw pressure drcp across the sys-
tem and low energy requirements. Venturi (wet) scrubbers and electrostatic
precipitators are also used for remrval of particulates.

27. Sulfur oxides are the gases of principal concern in melting fur-
nace exhausts. It has been dennstrated that wet scrubbers provide good
control for both sulfur oxides and particulates. Electrostatic precipita-
tors will remove varying amounts of these pollutants. It has been reported
that treating the exhaust streams with an alkaline spray converts gaseous
sulfur oxides to solids which can then be collected as particulates. Fluo-
rides, where present, are reduced by electric boosting. Electrostatic pre-
cipitators have proven effective in capturing arsenic in the particulate
form.

Liquid Wastes

28. The major constituents requiring treatment in wastewaters from

primary flat glass and automotive glass fabrication are suspended solids
and oil. In all cases, in-plant modifications should receive first consid-
eration. No process wastewaters are produced by the sheet and rolled glass
 - 117 -

subcategories, since these are essentially dry operations ard water is used
only for dust control in each batch.

29. For plate glass ranufacturing plants, lagoon treatnent, with the
addition of polyelectrolyte to the incoming wastewater, has resulted in
very high suspended solids removals. System efficiency can be improved in
various ways such as by using a two-stage lagoon arrancement, applying sand
filtration to the lagoon effluent, recycling of effluents for other plant
uses, and othLer similar techniques.

30. Phosphlorous is the pollutant of principal concern in float glass

manufacturing, when detergents are used. Wastewater phosphorous loadings
can be eliminatedby discontinuingthe detergent wash. All effluent dis-
chlargescan be eliminatedby recycling the washwater to the batch and cool-
ing tower. Dissolved solids r.moval may be required if the water is recy-
cled for washing.

31. Suspended solids and oils are rrostcxmmonly rexmDvedby coagula-

tion-sedimentation and filtration at plants producing solid tempered auto-
mobile window glass. A solids contact coagulation-sedimentation system,
with sludge dewatering by centrifuge, is employed. A further decrease in
suspended solids and oil can be aconplished filtering the settled effluent
through a diatomaceous earth filter containing a medium especially treated
for oil rerroval. These measures will also effect a reduction in BOD and
COD levels.

32. Oil is the major contaminant whidh must be removed from wind-
shield lamination wastewaters. Most of the oil an be renrmved by centrifug-
ing, plain flotation using an Anerican Petroleun Institute (API) separator,
or by dissolvedair flotation. Suspended -solidsand residualoil an be re-
noved by filtration through oil absorptive media.

33. The pollutants of principal concern in the pressed ard blown

glass industry are oil, fluoride, amnonia, lead and suspended solids. In
current practice oil is reduced by using gravity separators such as belt
skimmers and API separators. Treatment for removal of fluoride and lead is
acconplished by the addition of lire, rapid mixing, flocculation, anrd sedi-
mentation of the remrelting reaction products. Treatment for anonia remov-
al is presently not practiced in this industry. Ammonia removal by steam
stripping can be used for control of high amnonia discharges. It has been
reported that several plants are able to recycle non-contact and cullet
quench waters.

Solid Wastes

34. Control systems for air pollution controlwill generate solids.

These presently have little or no economic value and are not considered to
be an attractive source of chemicals. Generally, these solids are best
disposed of by recycling back into the glass melting process or through
landfilling.
 - 118 -

35. Treatment of liquid wastes results in the production of various

solids, such as sludges and spent diatowaceous earth. Tfhese should be
dewatered to the degree feasible and then disposed of to landfills. The
lagoons used for suspended solids removal can also serve as solids disposal
sites in some cases.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Information Sources on the Glass Industry". UNIDO Guides to Informa-

tion Sources - No. 16. United Nations, New York (1975).

2. United Nations IndustrialDevelopmentOrganization. "Glass and Glass

Making". United Nations. New York (1977).

3. The World Bank "EnvironmentalConsiderationsfor the IndustrialDe-

velopnent Sector". Waslington (August 1978).

It. IJ.S.Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Docxumentfor Pro-

posed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Stand-
ards for the Flat Glass Segment of the Glass ManufacturingPoint Source
Category". Doc. EPA 440/1-73/001-a. Washington (October 1973).

5. IJ.S. EnvirounmentalProtection Agency. "Development Document for Pro-

posed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Stand-
ards for tde Pressed and Blown Glass Segment of the Glass Manufacturing
Point Source Category". Dce. EPA 440/1-75/034-a, Group I , Phase II.
Washington (January 1975).

6. U.S. Enviromnental Protection Agency. "Glass Manufacturing Plants.

BackgroundInformation: Proposed Standards of Peformance: Doc. EPA
450/3-79-005-a. Washington (June 1979).
 - 119 -

THE WORLDBANK JULY 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

EFFLUENT GUIDELINES

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

GE2NERALCONSIDERATIONS

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a highly corrplexsystem, in

which raw materials consisting of iron ore, coke, and limestone are con-
verted through a series of processes into steel of various composition,
sizes, and shapes as requiredby market demands.

2. Basically the conversionprocess may be broken down into five

major segments: (a) ore preparation,sintering,and pelletizing; (b) coke
production; (c) blast furnace operations (pig iron production); (d) steel
production; and (e) rolling and fininshingoperations.

3. For each of these segments a document has been prepared to cover

the manufacturingprocess, waste sources and characteristics, effluent liin-
itations based on the best practicable treatment technology currently
available, and control and treatment of wastes.

4. This document presents a broad simplified sunmnary of the process-

es carried out in an integrated iron and steel plant, as well as a discus-
sion of noise considerations, sampling, and analytical aspects. These are
applicable to all segments of the industry, and hence are included in this
genieral section. Figure 1 presents a process flow diagram for the iron and
steel industry.

THE INDUSTRY

5. Iron bearing materials consisting primarily of iron oxides, to

which coke and limestone have been added, are reduced to molten iron (pig
iron) in a blast furnace. The iron absorbs carbon from tle coke in this
step and results in cast iron, containing 3 to 4 percent carbon. Since
nodern steel contains less than 1 percent of carbon, the excess carbon
must be removed to convert the cast iron into steel.

6. This removal is accomplished through controlled oxidation of mix-

tures of molten pig iron, melted iron, and steel scrap in steelmaking fur-
naces to produce carbon steels. Various elements (such as chrcmium, manga-
nese, and molybdenum, alone or in combination) may be added to the molten
steel to produce alloy steels.
 OMYCEt
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CASr S IU L

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Cll MICAL
RfC vARY SCRfPA* CLECIlIC tLSIUID
___W- FURNIACE STEEL

D1O1It LATION A
PRj0uUCTS,5A

Pig. 1 -- Proce3s Flow Diagram - Iron and Steel Tndimtry (From IJ.S. EPA Doc. 440/1-79/024a,
Vol. I, Oct. 1979)
 - 121 -

7. The nolten steel, after reaching the desired ccmposition, is

poured into the molds where it solidifies to form ingots. After removal
frcxm the molds the ingots are reheated to a uniform temperatureand rolled
into shapes known as blooms, billets, and slabs. These shapes are referred
to as semifinished steel.

8. The semifinished steel is then further processed in one or Trre

of several ways such as hot rolling, cold rolling, forging, extruding.
drawing, or other means to produce the finished products needed to fill
market demands. Bars, plates, structural shapes, rails, wire, tubular
shapes, and coated products are among the most frequently produced.

NOISE

9. In a typical integrated iron and steel works, noise results frcm

(a) production and processing cperetions; (b) handling and transport of raw
materials, semi-finished products: and (c) aerodynamic and hydrodynamic
sources. Efforts to limit noise in steelworks should be aimed at lowering
exposure to noise in the working environment to an acceptable level and re-
mroving noise problems in nearby residentialareas. These two are frequent-
ly coplementary with the solution to the in-works problem often providing
a suitable answer to the community situation. As a general rule, the prob-
lem should be resolved as close to the source as possible in order to as-
sure best results.

10. Typical peak noise levels are az follows:

Production and Processing Operations

Ore crushing, 5 meter distance 98 dBA (continuous)

Loading scrap pans, 25 meter distance 105 dBA (intermittent)
Electric arc furnace (melt down period)
6 meter distance 109 dBA (semi-
continuous)

Handling and Transport of Raw Materials, Semi-Finished and

Finished Products

Conveyor discharge point, 5 meter distance 85 dBA (continuous)

Slab mill roller tables, 5 meter distance 95 dBA (intermittant)

Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Sources:

Valves and dampers, blast furnace cold

blast, 1 meter distance 96 dBA (continuous)

Blast furnace hot stove operation,

10 meter distance 91 dBA (continuous)

I
 - 122 -

11. A number of measures may be taken to reduce noise levels, in ad-

dition to maximum possible reduction at the source. Quieter machines can
isolated and acoustically sealed. ¶Ib protect 'ighborhoods it may be
necessary to acoustically treat entire buildings. Noise controls should be
incorporatedin the design of new plants or units.

12. Conveyor belts and systems, in place of road or railwayhaulings,

will greatly reduce noise emissions. Enissions in the handling and trans-
fer of semi-finishedor finishedproducts can be offensive. Rolling mill
finishing departments, for example, represent a major source. For light
products the handling equipment can be modified for control purposes, but
this is not always possible for the larger and heavier products. The
shape, weight, speed of transport, and similar aspects should receive con-
sideration.

13. As production units increase in size, the quantities of process

and by-product gases and liquid which must be transported will also in-
crease. Aerodynanic and hydrodynamic noises originate in the initegrated
collection and distribution systems used to handle these materials. Noises
are caused by turbulence (due to high velocities) and pressure fluctua-
tions. Levels can be decreased by careful piping design, covering pipes
with layers of insulation, isolating and correcting vibration sources,
using low noise valves and ventilators, -. nd other similar measures. Noise
barriers, screens,and eartl mounds are also effective in reducingnoise in
many cases.

14. Tb avoid possible hearinq uma_4eweighted sound levels per 24-

hour period should be kept belcw 79 dEA; with a maxirrum of 90 dBA. (See
"Noise" Guideline, Office of Environrmen.al Affairs, The WDrld Bank, January
1979).

SAMPLINGANDANATYT;'_.L PROCEDURES

15. A major el ement of any program -)rmanagement of the environment

is the basic information of the source, nt -ce , levels, and the concentra-
tions resulting in the medium to which dis -targed, folLowing mixing and ab-
sorption.

Air Pollution

16. There are two general applications inL monitoring air contaminants
emission source testing and atmospheric monitoring. In both cases the lo-
cation of monitoring devices, the type of equipment, the duration of samp-
ling, and pollutant discrirmination are of paramount importance in quantita-
tively appraising air qual2%ty. Furthermore, these corsiderations require
an intimate knowledge of emission sources(s), background pollution, meteo-
rology and topography of the areas under study, and other pertinent fac-
tors.
 - 123 -

17. Source testing requires a relati vely elaborate set of measure-

ments to establish a starting or final contaminant condition. Because in-
dustrial processes involve frequent cyclic changes, the timing of source
testing or iTonitoring must be planned accordingly. Process cperations
should be carefully reviewed so that individual polluting substances and
classes of pollutants can be identified. Fluctuations of peak loadings
must be determined and thus predictions of process peculiarities, such as
equipment-caused effluent and temperature variations, are possible. All
the variables of source testing must be accountedl for so that the final
pollutant analysis will be representative of the entire source process. A
review of the various combinations of devices and techniques and their
inherent limitations in current literature is required. This will assure
the application of the optimrun sampling rmethod for a general range of
factors, such as greatest reliablity, minimization of required personnel
skills, ease of access and duration of sampling for each specific samrqling
situation.

18. Monitoring of the atmosphere requires the establishment of an air

monitoring network to supply the aerometric data necessary to support air
pollution prevention, control and abatement activities. At the same time,
it should consume the mininmu amount of financial and manpower resources.
The first step in establishing an air monitoring network is to determine
the use of aerometric data, collection devices available, the limitations
of the sarmpling procedures and equipment, what pollutants must be monitor-
ed, location of pollutant monitors, and the duration of monitoring. The
very nature of the air pollution problem varies widely fram area to area,
depending upon the peculiarities of meteorology, topography, source chlarac-
teristics, and legal and administrative situations.

19. The decision as to wiich pollutants -must be nnnitored depends on

the data needs as defined by the source inventory. In most cases, it is
necessary to set priorities because of resource limitations. Pollutants to
be monitored should be selected on the basis of their (a) representing a
definite hazard; (b) possibility of becoming hazardous to the public health
a d welfare at some time in the near future; and (c) being controlled by
existing or proposed standards.

20. Generally, the methods of analysis for sootfall, dustfall, sus-

pended particulate matter, gaseous pollutants and organic pollutants fall
within the chenical, physical or biological category. Among the physical
-methods available are spectrophotometer, thermal conductivity, chrcnatogra-
phic analysis, mass spectrometry, and gravimetric methods. Biological met-
hods are applied in the preparation of bacterial cultures of organic con-
taminants and monitoring of respiration rate to correlate with quantities
of organic pollatants. There are many vari ations to these methods. The
most recent literature should be carefully reviewed and evaluated for ap-
plication to the problem at hand.

I
 - 124 -

Water Pollution

21. The composition cf industrial wastewaters varies widely, and no

truly satisfactory classification systen has yet been devised. Hence, the
importance of industrial wastewater monitoring cannot be overstressed.
Flcws are measured to determine the quantity of wastewater being discharg-
ed. The combination of flow rate data with analytical data obtained fror
laboratory analysis permits the calculation of weight of contaminants being
discharged into the receiving stream. The next logical step after the
amount of contaminants is known is to determine what effect these contami-
nants have on the receiving body of water and then finally establish same
acceptable level of contaminant discharge. Monitoring of wastewater also
facilitates locating major sources of wastes.

22. The location of a sampling station slhould be selected such that

the flow conditions will have achieved, as closely as possible, a hanogene-
ous mixture. The velocity of flow at the sampling point should, at all
times, be sufficientto prevent the deposition of solids, thus assuring the
collection of a well mixed representativesample. Homogeneous flow condi-
tions normally exist after channelingall flow at a weir, Parshall flume or
hydraulic pump. A free-fallingdischarge fran a pipe is also an excellent
sampling location. A sampling point of approximately one-third the waste-
water depth fram the bottom and as near to the center of flow as possible
is recoannnded for monitoring flows in sewers and channels. Types of
equipment for the monitoring of industrial wastewater contaminants vary
from manual to automatic type devices. The selection of the appropriate
sampling equipment is dependent mainly upon the type of sample desired,
either "grab" or "composite".

23. The quantity of a sample to be oollected varies with the extent

of laboratory analysis to be performed. A sample volume between two and
three liters is normally sufficient for a fairly ocuplete analysis. The
total number of samples will depend upon the objectives of the monitoring
program. The use of a few strategic locations and enough samples to define
the results in terms of statistical significance is usually much more reli-
able than using many stations with only a few samples fron each.

24. Tedcniques and metlhods for the qualitative analysis of wastewater

contaminants may be divided into four basic categories: chemical, physi-
cal, biological and biochemical. Detailed procedures are found in the lit-
erature, and should be carefully reviewed for application to the problen at
hand.

Solid Wastes

25. The production and composition of solid waste has changed sub-
stantially in recent years because of changing patterns of living, popula-
tion shifts, and other reasons. Where once solid wastes were mostly dones-
tic, they are now produced in substantial quantities by industry as well.
 - 125 -

Solid wastes from industry may pose special problems such as nondegrad-
ability (plastics)and toxicity (clhemicalresidues). Because of the in-
creased importanceof solid wastes from the industrialsector, monitoring
and analyticalmethodshave been developed for control purposes.

26. The environmentaland other impacts on the land disposal site and
its enviro-s should be monitored and complete records maintained at all
times. Data to be kept for each disposal site should include:

-- Quantitative measurements of the solid wastes handled;

-- Descriptionof solid waste materials received, identified
by source of material;
-- Major operational problems, complaints or difficulties;

-- Vector (a carrier that is capable of transmitting a pathogen

fram one organism to another) control efforts;
-- Dust and litter control efforts; and
- Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the environmental
i,pact of the land disposal site with regard to the
effectiveness of gas and leachate control, including data
frran leachate sampling and analyses, gas sampling and
analyses, ground and surface water quality sampling and
analyses upstream and downstream of the site.

27. Upon complete filling of the site, a detailed description (in-

cluding a plan) should be recorded with the area's land recording author-
ity. The description should include general types and locationof wastes,
depth of fill, and other informationof interest to potential future users
or cwners of the land.

28. Special attention should be given to the disposal of hazardous

materials to landfillareas. Because it is sometimesdifficult to classify
wastes as hazardous or non-hazardousa rough classificationmay Lv. made by
evaluatingeach one in terms of (a) human toxicity, (b) groundwater conta-
mination potential, (c) disease transmissionpotential,and (d) biodegrade-
ability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "EnvironmentalControl in the Iron and Steel Industry,"International

Tron and Steel Institute,Brussels (1978).

2. "The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel." Ed. by H.E. McGannon.

N;nth Edition. United States Steel.Corporation. Pittsburgh (1971).

3. Russel , C.S. and Vaughn, W.J. "Steel Production: Pr-ocesses,

Products
and Residuals." Resources for the Future. The Johns Hopkins Tinivers-
ity Press, Baltimore and London (1976).

4. United Nations Development Organization,Development and Transfer of

Technology Series No. 11 "Technological Profiles of the Iron and Steel
Industry." United Nations, NqewYork (1978).
 - 126 -

5. U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency "Draft DevelopmentsDbcuments for

Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Iron and
Steel Industry."Doc. EPA 440/1-79/.024a. Washington. (October1979),
as follows:

Vol. I - General
Vol. II - By-productCoke Making and B3eehive
Coke Making
- Subcategories
Vol. III - Sinteringand Blast Furnace SubcategorisJ
Vol. IV - Basic Oxygen Furnace and Open Hearth Furnace
- Subcategories
Vol. V - ElectricArc Furnace, Degassing,and ContinuousCasting
- Subcatego:ies.
Vol. VII - Pipe and Tube and Cold Rolling Subcategories.
Vol. VIII - SulfuricAcid Pickling, HydrochloricAcid Pickling, and
- Canbination Acid Pickling Subcategory

6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Water Quality Criteria." Doc.

EPA-R3-73-033, Washington (March 1973).

7. Jarrault, P. "Limitationdes Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de

L'Air-ValeursReglementairesdans les PrincipauxPays Industrialises."
Institut Francaisde l'Energie. Paris (1978)

8. U.S. Federal Register. "InterimEffluent Limitationsand Guidelines,

and Proposed Performanceand PretreatmentStandards - Electroplating
Point Source Category ." V. 40 No. 80. 'Washington(April 24, 1975).

9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Guidelinesfor Lowest Achievable

Emission Rates from 18 Major Statiornary Sources of Particulates,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Compounds."
Dec. EPA-450/3-79-024, Washington (April 1979).

10. J.M. Campbell, R.R. Willis, "ProtectionAgainst Noise," J. Iron and

Steel Institute,Vol. 211, Pt. 5, p. 346 (May 1973).

11. J.M. Campbell, R.R. Willis "A Practical Approach to EngineeringNoise,"

Proc. Metals Soc. Conf. on EngineeringAspects of PollutionControl in
the Metals Industries,17-29 Nov. 1974, P. 184.

12. APHA, AWWA, WPCF. "StandardMethods for the Examinationof Water and
Wastewater." 14th Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1975).

13. United Kingdom Departmentof the Environment,"Analysisof Raw, Potable

and Waste Waters." H.M. StationeryOffice, London (1972).

14. U.S. EnvirornentalProtectionAgency. "IndustrialGuide for Air

Pollution Control."Doc. EPA-625/6-78/004. Washington (June 1978).
 - 127 -

15. U.S. EhvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Handbookfor MonitoringIn-

dustrialWastewaters." Washington (August1973).

16. "EnvironmentalConsiderationsfor the IndustrialDevelopmentSector".

The World Bank. Washingt,n (August 1978).
 - 128 -

THE WORLD BANK July 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

EFFLUENT GUIDELINES

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

BLAST FURNACEAND DIRECT REDUCTIONPROCESS

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a highly complex system, in

which iron ore and ot'nerraw materials are subjected to a series of proces-
ses to convert them into steel products.

2. The series of conversionprocesses may be divided into five major

segments: (a) ore preparation, sintering and pelletizing: (b) by-product
coke production; (c) pig iron production; (d) steel production; and (e)
rolling and finishing operations.

3. This document is one of a series which has been prepared on the

individualsegments. Each one presents informationas needledfor assessing
the environmentaleffects of the gaseous, liquid and solid wastes produced
by the operation. In each case th-edocument discusses the manufacturing
processes, waste sources and chiaracter, effluent limitationsbased on best
practicable treatment technologycurrently available, and applicable waste
treat.mentmnet.hods.A bibliography is also included.

BLAST FURNACES

ManufacturingProcess

4. Pig iron (containingover 90 percent iron), is the product re-

sulting from reactions of a mixture of iron-bearing materials, coke and
limestone in a blast f:wrnace. These farnaces are large cylindrical struc-
tures, some 30 meters in height. Heated air is blown into the lower part
oF the unit to pronote coke combustion. The iron oxile reacts with the hot
caroon monoxide fron the burning coke, while the limestone reacts with the
impurities in the iron-bearing material and coke to fonm mlDten iron and
slag. Materials are charged into the top of the funiace, where the reac-
tions begin. As these melt and decrease in volume the chlarge passes to the
bottom of the furnace, where -molten iron and slag exist. The nolten slag
floats on top of the iron an- is drawn off through an opening in the upper
part of the furnace. The molten iron is drawn off through an opening at
tlhebottan of the furnace (below the slag disdcarge opening), formed into
ingots and cooled for subsequent processing.
 - 129 -

5. The combustion process produces gases, which are a valuable heat

source. They are discharged through tlhe top of the furnace, cleaned to re-
move large quantities of solids and other pollutants, and then recycled.

Waste Sources and Characteristics

6. Blast furnace operations produce wastes in the gaseous, liquid,

and solid states. Air pollutants are produced by three different segments
of the operation: blast furnace gas, cast house emissions, and slag hand-
ling and processing.

7. Blast furnace gas is a relativelypollution-freefuel when strip-

ped of its dust burden. Large productionunits are frequentlyconnected to
combined power and furnace blowing units. For certain other uses, the cal-
orific value of this gas is increased by mixing it with coke oven gas. The
gas mTustbe cleaned of dust to a high degree before being used a a fuel.
Cleaning or scrubbing is done by a wet process, producing a liquid waste
which way contain toxic substances. Under normal operations,air pollution
fran blast furnace gas production is not consideredsignificant.

B. Molten metal and slag are discharged fran the furnace and cause
fume emissions as the result of exposure to air and oxidation. Further
emissionsarise from vaporizationof alkaline oxides fran slag, and some-
timnesfran combustion of tars and resins in impregnated refractory clays.
Emission of sulfur dioxide fron molten slag may also be a problem. Manga-
nese fumes in ferromanganeseoperations constitute a potentialhealth haz-
ard.

9. Cakrse aggregate is prepared by pouring the molten slag into a

slag pit in layers, either adjacent to or at a distance frcn the furnace.
Water spraying is frequently used to accelerate the cooling process, and
this can result in a nydrogen sulfide odor. A condensation chimney is
often used to scrub noxious vapors. Materials fron slag pits are further
processed to produce aggregate of specific size ranges. Effective dust
control measares can reduce this source to insignificantlevels.

10. Blast fturnace

wastewatersoriginate primarily from top gas clean-
ing. Water is also used for cooling the furnace,but this is a non-contact
operation and therefore of little or no significance fran the pollution
standpoint. The wastewaters contain large quantities of particulatematter
and quantities of cyanide, phenol, and ammonia. Other pollutants include
heavy metals and certain organics originating in the raw materials or form-
ed during the combustionprocess.

11. Wastewater flows and characteristics will vary, according to the

raw materials, the iron making process used, and the gas scrubbingprocess
applied. Ranges of flows and concentrationsthat are typically found are
presented in Table 1.
 - 130 -

12. Solid wastes include blast furnace slag, dry dust and mroist fil-
ter cake, cast house fumes, refractory wastes, and ladle skull (the mewtal
shell which solidifies on the sides and bottoms of the ladle). The slag is
processed and used as a building material, raw material for blast furnlace
ement, and other similar purposes. Cast house dusts are collected on fil-
ter extraction systems and fed to tlhe sinter plant. Used refractory
material and ladle skulls are generally dumped on site.

Table 1 - Wastewater Flows and Characteristics for a Typical Blast

Furnace Operations

Parameter*i Concentrations

Flow - L/Mg (a) 4600 - 12,900

Azmonia N - mg/L (b) 10 - 17

Cyanide mg/t (b) 1 - 54

Phenols mg/L (b) 0.05 - 2.9

Fluoride mg/L (b) 1.4 - 6.5

Sulfide mg/L (b, 2.0 - 54

Suspended Solids mgfL 354 - 7040

PH - Units 6.4 - 10.2

(a) L/Mg = Liters per megagram of iron produced.

1(b)mg/L = milligramsper liter of effluent

* 1 Mg - 1 megagram =1 metric ton

L = Liter

Effluent Limitations

13. Gas cleaning and recovery will norially reduce atmospheric dis-
charges to concentrationswell below acceptable levels. In all cases, am-
bient air quality shoul(dbe maintained below tha following levels ckitside
the plant fence:
 - 131 -

Sulfur Dioxide (a)

3
Inside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 jug/in
Max. 24-hr peak 1000 pg/m3
3
Outside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 D1g/Mn
Max. 24-hr. peak 500 pg/m3

Hydrogen Sulfide

Average 24-hour 8 pg/_m3

Particulate Matter

Annual Geo. Mean 75 pg/n 3

Max. 24-hour, not over once a year 260 ug/m3

(a) pg/mr = Micrograms per cubic meter of air sampled

14. Limitations for blast furnace wastewater effluents, based on best

practicable treatment technology currently available, are presented in
Table 2.

Table 2. - Effluent Limitations for Blast Furnace (Pig Iron)

Wastewater Discharges.

L i.tation
Parameter mi~~~~~~~
(per Mg Product) (a)|

Flow (b) 520 Liters

Susp. Solids 26 Grams

Sulfide 3.1 Grams

Fluoride 21 Grams

Phenols 2.1 Grams

Cyanide 7.8 Grams

Ammonia - N 65 Grams

pH 6.0 - 9.0 UTnitsi

(a) Per megagram of iron produced.

(b) Excluding all non-contact cooling water I

 - 132 -

Control and Treatment of Wastes

15. Recause blast furnace gas is recycled and reused, it undergoes a

very high degree of cleaning. The cleaning process frequentlyinvolves up
to three stages -- dry collection in a "dust catclher", high energy scrub-
bing and wet electrostaticprecipitation. Excessive emissions fran the
cast house operations can be avoided by naintaining sufficient ventila-
tion. In the slag handling procedure,the mixing of inoltenslag with water
is in itself effective in controlling muchi of the air pollution dis-
cnarged. A corndernsation
c'himneyis effective for -renovingany residual
gases and materials.

16. Treatment of blast furnace wastewaters is concerned rnainly with

the rernoval of suspended1 solids. Other constituents, such1 as cyarides,
phenols, oils and greases, metals, and others are also of concern. These
wastes originate rnstly fron the cleaning of (gases resulting fron combus-
tion of the raw materials in the firrnace. They are rercovedi thlrough the tcp
of the furnace (and frequeently referred to as "top" gas(-s) for subsequent
cleaning and use elsewhere in the plant.

17. Treatment in nost cases consists of trickener/clarifiers for re-

tnrving thle suspended solids. Sludge is rernoved continuotusly fron tle bot-
ton of the thickener ard pumped to vacuum filters, for dewatering. The
filtrate is returned to tlhe thickner influent. Various flocculating agents
such as poDlymners, are often used to ehiance solids rernoval. Tne clarified
effluentl can be used for acoling purposes. Solids refarval, by itself, has
only a minor effect on the chieTnical comrposition of the wastewater. Chlori-
nation can be useful as a means of (lestroying cyanides and phlenols.
.3io-oxidatio-n systeims h-ave a'so been successful in destroyirf cyanides.

18. Both organic and inorganic toxic pDllutants 1have been found in
blast furnace effluents, and hence should1 receive attention. 'Depending
upon the individual or coThination of pollutants involved, varying degrees
of removal can be achievedby the application of filtration (as part of the
suspen(led solids removal procedure), activatedl carbon, and carlbon adsorp-
tionl.

19. Disposal of solids, filter (cake,sludges, and other similar

materials which cannot be recycled is to controlled landfill. Slurries
fran the gas scrubbers frequently contain significant anounts of lead,
zinc, and alkalis and 'hence cannot be recycled withlout receiving ad(ditional
treatmient.

DIRECT REDUCTIONPROCESS

20. In recenit years, particularly in cotuntries having adequate sup-

plies of both naigh grade iron ore and energy resources, a nuimiber of methods
for the direc. reduction of ore hLave been developed. This has been parti-
cularly true in countries seeking to establish a local iron and steel
 - 133 -

industry. The process permits development of smaller production units,

with capabilities in order of 1,000 tons of sponge iron per day.

21. Basically the process utilizes the reaction between either a gas-
eous reducing agent or a solid fuel and the ore. The lump ore and/or pe3.-
lets are charged to a vertical shlaft or fluidized bed to produce metallized
products containing a minimum of 90 percent iron. This sponge iron can be
rea(lily melted in an electric arc furnace. The main advantages of the pro-
cess relate solely to the size anafl fexibility of thle operation. The di-
rect reduction/electric furnace steelmaking procedure is mtlid rmore energy-
intensive th-an the more conventional blast funiace/basic oxygen furnace
procedure.

22. Ousts contained in the off-gases from these plants are usually
remroved by wet scrubbing. Cleaned gases are either used to provide heat
for gas reforning or, in some instances, to preheat the feed mat:erial. The
cesulting slurry is filtered, pressed, and recycled. The clarified efflu-
ent can be usel for cooling. 'Where pelletizing is used, the fines result-
irig frYn -the screening of the pellets are fed back to the process.

23. Effluent limitations for gaseous and1 liquid eEfluents are the
same as those given in paragraph 13 and 14, above.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Envirormental Control in t1he Iron and Steel Industry", International

Iron and Steel Institute, B1russels (1978).

2. IJnited Nations DevelopmentOrganization, Developrment and Transfer of

rTecnology Series No. 11 "Technological Profiles of the Iron and Steel
Industry". United Nations, New York (1978).

3. lJ.S. Env7irormental Proteotion Agency "Draft Development Docutrents for

Proposed EffLuent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Iron and
Steel Industry". Doc. EPA 440/1-79/024a. Wvashington. (October 1979):
Vol. III-Sintering and Blast Furnace Sub-categories.

4. Jarrault, P. "Limitations des E.missions de Polluants et Qualite de

L'Air-Valeurs Reglementaires d:arLs les Principaux Pays Industrialises."
Institut Fra icais de l'Energie. Paris (1978).

5. U.S. Fhvirorunental Protection Agency "Guidelines for Laowest Achievable

Enission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
NJitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic COmpounds." Dec.
EPA-450/3-79-024. Washington (April 1979).

6. U.S. Eanvironmental Protection Agency. "Industrial Guide for Air

Pollution Control." Doc. EPA-625/6-78/004. Washington (June 1978).
 - 134 -

7. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Water Quality Criteria." Doc.

EPA-R3-73-033. Washington (August 1973).

8. APHA, AWWA,WPCF. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

Wastewater." 14th Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1.975).

9. U.S. EnviromnentalProtectionAgency. "Handbook for Monitoring

IndustrialWastewaters." Washington (August 1973).
 - 135 -

THE WORLDBANK July 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

IRON ANDSTEEL INDUSTRY

BYPRODUCT
COKEOVENS

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a highly conplex system, in

whiclhiron ore and other raw materials are subjected to a series of proces-
ses to convert thlem into finishled
steel products.

2. The series of conversion processes rnaybe divided into five major

segents: (a) ore preparation, sintering and pelletizing; (b) byproduct
coke production; (c) pig iron production; (d) steel production; and (e)
rolling and finishingoperations.

3. This document is one of a series which has been prepared on the

individual segnents. Each one p3resentsinformation needed for assessing
the envirornmental effects of the gaseous, liquid, and solid w stes produced
by t'neoperation. In each case tlhedocument discusses the manufacturing
processes, waste sources and chlaracter, effluent limitations based on best
practicable treatment tecldnology currently available, and applicable waste
treatment methods. A bibliography is also included.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

4. TIWotypes of ovens have been traditionally used to produce metal-

lurgical coke: beehive and byproduct recovery. Tne byproduct recovery
types, discussed in this document, are tihe Tost extensively used at this
time. In the United States, for example, less than 1% of the metallurgical
coke nroduced in 1977 came fron'oeehiveovens.

5. The byproduct recovery process not only results in a suitable

high-quality coke, but also makes 1 -ossibletlherecovery of valuable bypro-
ducts from the distillation reacti-n. Crude coal tars, crude light oils,
armonium sulfate, and naphthalinesare the principal byproducts recovered.
Other products, such as creosote oils, phosphates, cresols and elemental
sulfur, are also recovered in some cases.

6. A byproduct recovery coke plant consists of batteries of ovens in

which blends of high, medium, and low volatile bituminous grades of select-
ed coals are heated. The heating occUCs out of contact with air in order
to drive off volatile componentswithout burning them. The volatiles are
drawn off and recovered, while the residue remaining after 12 to 24 hours
of neating constitutesthe coke product.
 - 136 --

7. Snen ready, the coke is pushed from the oven and quenched (or
cooled) before going to storage or use. TWo metiods are in use -- dry
quenclhing and wet quenching. Dry quenching is used in some plants in
Russia, England, France, and Switzerland. Wet quenching, the most widely
used method, is accomplishedby discharging the hot coke fran the ovens to
the quenching car. The car is then moved to the quenching station by loco-
motive, and water sprayed on the mass wnile still in the car, to cool it.
The coke is then transferred for storage or use.

WASTE SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS

8. As previously stated, the byproduct process yields a variety of

useful materials, wlhichare either reused in the mill operation or profit-
ably marketed elsewhere. ITtilization of these byproductskeeps them cut of
the waste streanmsand 'hence significantly reduces the waste load which
might otherwise be discharged from a coke plant. There are, however, sev-
eral other potential sources of gaseous, particulate, and aquaeous emis-
sions x 9hich are not removed as part of the recovery process and can have an
adverse effect on the environment.

9. Waste gas can originate in the coal preheater units utilized at

many plants. Gravity charging of ovens can result in emissions of toxic
and flammable gases, as well as fumes and dusts.

10. Major liquid wastes usually include excess ammonia liquor, final
cooler wastewater, light oil recovery wastes from the benzol plant, baro-
metric condenser wastes from the anmonia sulfate crystalizer, desulfurizer
wastes, and contaminated waters from air emission scrubbers at charging,
crushing, quenching,preheating,or screening stations. The larges volumes
of water are from indirect (noncontact) cooling operations. These are nor-
mally not contaminated, except from leaks in coils, tubes, or other equip-
ment.

11. Typical wastewater flows from byproduct coke oven operations are
presented in Table 1.

12. Parameters considered of major significance in coke plant

wastewaters include: total suspended solids, oils and greases, ammonnia-N,
total cyanides, phenolic compounds, sulfides, thiocyanates, and pH. In
addition, coking will also produce a large number of both organic and
inorganic pollutants, which may need to be eliinated from waste streams if
concentrations are too high. Over 50 such pollutants have been identified
at the existing plants.
 - 137 -

TABLE 1 - Typical Wastewater Flows

Byproduct Coke Oven Cperations

Flow
Source L/Mg Coke a!

Waste Ammonia Liquor 162

Final Cooler Blowdown 133

Benzol Plant Wastes 226

Misc. Wastes b/ 259

Steam Condensates 40

(Subtotal - Basic Flow) (820)

Baro. Condenser Blowdown 122

Desulfurizer,wet 100

Air Pollution Control Blowdonms

Preheatersand Dryers 37

Charging 111

Quenching c/ 2100

a/ L/Mg = Liters per magagram = liters per metric ton.

b/ May includevarying amounts of non-process cooling water.
c/ Amount applied. Generally one-third evaporatesand
remaining two-thirdsis recirculated.

13. Available dlata on raw waste quality in coke plants show wide
variations, and hence are not presented here. Each plant will need to be
according to its own individualcircumstancesand merits.
evaluate;1

14. BTyroduct co making also produces a numbers of toxic

fe
pollutants, both organiicawd inorganic. Some 30 organic substances are
considered of major significance, including acrylonitrile, ethylben7zene,
naphthalene, phenol, flourine, toluene, and xylene. Of the organics,
antimony, arsenic, cyanides, selenium, silver, and zinc are considered to
be the most significant.
 - 138 -

15. The use of lime to raise the pH levels prior to ammonia stripping
produces a sludge in the form of unreacted calcium hydroxide, along with
precipitated calciu,ui carbonates and sulfates. Other sludges include coal
or coke fines. Another source of solid wastes may occur where recovered
byproducts are not sufficiently pure for further use or for resale or re-
use.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

16. Coke making my result in discharge of gaseous anmmnia, hydrogen

sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide to the atmosphere if collectors, ductwork,
and piping are not carefully monitored and controlled. Particulates may
also escape to the atmosphlere. With effective controls, little or none of
these substances should be discharged. Odors can be a problem if not care-
fully controlled.

17. On the basis of best practicable control technology riow

available, wastewaters fromibyproduct coke plants should be maintained at
or below the levels given in Table 2.

Table 2. Effluent Limitations for Byproduct Coke Plant Cperations

Limitation
Parameter (Per Mg Coke)

Total Cyanide 22 grams

Phenolic Compounds 1.5

Ammonia - NH3 91

Oil and Grease 11

Suspended Solids 37-94L

pH 6.0-9.0 (units)

Flow a/ 730-940 liters

a/ Excludes non-contact cooling water.

 - 139 -

18. The use of lim,eto raise pH levels to amnnoniastripping produces

signiEicant quantities of sludge. Disposal of these sludges to landfill
sites should be such as to prevent escape to the environment.

CONTROL AND TREATEE1i OF WASTES

19. Because the byproducts from coke making can be profitably recov--
ered and rmarketed or reused, pollution control is largely achieved tlhrough
the recovery processes. Gases and dusts which are not otherwise recovered
as useful byproducts are effectively removed by dust collecting devices,
sprays, or a coDbination of the two. Disposal is either to recyclingor to
landfills.

20. Odors can be minimized or eliminated by restricting vapor losses

to tlhe atmosphere through leaking vent pipes, storage vessels, and liquor
seals. Burning of coke oven gas can produce significant emissions of sul-
ftur gas, unless the sulfur component is reroved before burning. Desulfuri-
zation is most often accomplished either through absorption/desorption or
absorption/oxidation. Removal efficiencies will range from 80 to 99 per-
cent.

21. Following application of various byproduct recovery measares,

there still reraains a residual dischnargeof contaminated wastewater which
must be treated before release. The three most frequently applied methods
are plhysical/chemical,biological, and incineration/evaporationtec'no-
logies. Flow minimizationshDuld be a first step in all cases.

22. A physical/chemicalsystem would include a fixed leg on the ammo-

nia still to strip additionalammnnia from the wastewater, through addition
of lime slurry and additional steam. This step is followed by carbon
a(dsorption to remove the organic components. Prior to carbon adsorption
the wastes can be oxidized with such chemicals as clhlorine, chlorine
dioxide, sodium h-ypochlorite, ozone, or peroxides to destroy the organics.
Where these chemicals are used, the carbon coluiru acts mainly as a final
polish.

23. In a biological or bio- xidation system, the wastewaters froa the

fixed leg to the aamnonia still, -v.ich have a high pH, are first neutralized
with acidi and tlhen flow into a single-stage activated sludge bio-oxidation
systea or pond. Aeration is provided by mecnanical agitation or by use of
large blowers. Depending upon the pollutants to be removed one or two ad-
ditional stages may be required to remove phenols, cyanide and amnonia (ox-
idized to nitrates) and provide denitrification in a final stage.
Effluents frAn these stages are subjected to sedimentation,step aeration,
and pHladjustment before discharge.

24. Incineration/evaporation is not widely used, and is best applied

in situation where the impaHcton air pollution would not be significant.
In this -neti'od, the total raw waste load is distilled and evaporated in a
controlled combustion system. Coke oven gas and crude coal tar are the
only byproducts recovered.
 - 140 -

25. The use of lime to raise pH levels prior to amnonia stripping

Eproduceslarge quantities of sludge in the form of unreacted hydroxide,
along with precipitated calcium carbonates and sulfates. Disposal can be
to landfill but care must be taken to prevent the sludges fran redisolving
and reachinig streams as runoff. Lesser anounts of sludge form when caustic
soda is used as the alkali, but this will cause an increase in the
dissolved solids levels. Other sludges will contain coal or coke fines,
and these can be readily recycledbeck to the process.

26. All sludges should be recycled to the process insofar as

possible. Controlled landfill is the disposal method of choice for all
solid wastes that cannot be recycled to the system, including those bypro-
ducts whichl are not of suitable quality for inarketin(g purposes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Russel, C.S. and Vaughn, W.J. "Steel Production: Processes,Products

and Residuals." Resources for the Future. The Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltinore and ibondon(1976).

2. United Nations DevelopmentOrganization. Developmentand Transfer of

Technology Series No. 11 "Technological Profiles of the Iron and Steel
Industry."United Nations, New York (1978).

3. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Draft DevelopmenttD)xlcnents for

Proposed Effluent Li-mitationsGuidelines and Standards for the Ironrand
Steel Industry." Doc. EPA 440/1-79/024a. WVaslhington. (October 1979:
Vol. II - Byproduct Coke Making and Beehive Coke Making Subcategories.

4. Jarrault, P. "Limitationdes Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de

L'Air-ValeursReglementairesdans les Principaux Pays Industrialises."
Institut Francais de l'Energie. Paris (1978).

5. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Guidelines for Lowest

Achnievable Emission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of
Particulate, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic
Compounds." Dec. EPA-450/3-79-024 Washington (April 1979).

6. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "IndustrialGuide for Air

Pollution Control." Doc. EPA-625/6-78/004. Washington (June 1978).

7. U.S. EhvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Water Quality Criteria." Doc.

EPA-R3-73-033,Washington (March 1973).

8. APHA, AWWA,WPCF. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

Wastewater." 14th Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1975).

9. U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. "Handbodokfor monitoring

IndustrialWastewaters." Washington (August 1973).
 - 141 -

THE WORLDBANK SEPTEMBER1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

ORE PREPARATION,SINTERING, AND PELLETIZING

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a highly complex system, in

which iron ore and otner raw materials are subjected to a series of proces-
ses to convert then into finished steel products.

2. The series of conversion processes may be divided into five major

segments: (a) ore preparation, sintering and pelletizing; (b) by-product
coke production; (c) pig iron production; (d) steel production; and (e)
rolling and finishingoperations.

3. This document is one of a series of which has been prepared on

the individual segments. Each one presents ir.formation as needed for as-
sessing the enviromnentaleffects of the gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes
produced by the operation. In each case the dlocumentdiscusses the manu-
facturing processes, waste sources and c'haracter, effluent limitations
based on best practicable treatment technology currently available, and ap-
plicable waste treatment methods. A bibliography is also included.

ORE PREPARATION

Manufacturing Process

4. Higher grades of ore are beconing rapidly depleted throughout the

world, due to selective mining of one type or another. During the mining
of high-grade ores the lcw grade ores which may be present as overburden
and capping will mix with the material of good grade, particularly when
large-scale mechanical mining methods are used. To assure an acceptable
and consistent ore having the desired composition for iron smelting, the
run-of-the-mine ore is given special preparation, often referred to as
"beneficiation".

5. Various beneficiationtechniquesare applied to suit the specific

ore, depending upon the mineralogical and petralogical characteristics of
the material. Techniques used include wet screening, gravity treatment,
magnetic separation, froth flotation, reduction roasting, thickening, and
drying. The combination of techniques used depends upon the cost econom-
ics, the required quality of the end product, and the possibilities of re-
cycling waste products.
 - 142 -

Waste Sources and Characteristics

6. Raw materials are delivered by water, rail, or highway, and norm-

ally require handling within the mill, as well as stockpiling and blend-
ing. Within tlhe works area, raw materials such as ores are usually trans-
ported by conveyor belts. Spray installations are used for reducing dust
losses, since a high surface woisture content is necessary to avoid wind-
borne losses of fine materials. Where no spray facilities are used, stud-
ies have shown losses from wind-borne drift to be in the order of 0.35
grams per ton of material stored. With adequate controls,wAasteproduction
from this segmnent of the operation should be relativelyminor.

SINTERING AND PELLETIZING

Manufacturing Process
7. The heneficiation process produces large proportions of fines,
sometimes up to 50 percent by weight of the ore mined. In the case of mnag-
netite ores, the entire quantity of concentrate is in thne form of fines.
Whatever the source, the fines require sirnteringor pelletizing before
utilization for making iron.

8. Sintering produces a usefuilagglomerate Lrom the miried ore arlda

wide variety of wastes, such as coke breeze, mill scale, fluledust, blue
dust, limestone,and dolomite fines. The process hdS jreat flexibilityin
tlheagglomerationof raw traterialshaving (liferent physi:al propertiesand
mineralogical composition.

9. Pelletizing, another of the aggjlomeration- processes, is rrK)st fre-

quently utilizl where t,he ore particles are in :.very fine forn either as
a beneficiated product or es a naturally-occurritng mineral like bAlue dust.
The process is carried out in two steps -- balling and induration.
10. The purpose of "balling" is to increase the particle size of the
dust. AFter wet or dry grin(ding of the ore, dewatering, and pxartial dry-
ing, "green" pellets are formed by the addition of a suitable binder. Ben-
tonite, limnestone, or hydrated lime are commonly used for tlhis purpoose. In
order to produce pellets of suitable quality it is necessary to carefully
control the type of grind, the size to -hich the ore is ground, the sched-
ule of drying, preheating, and cooling cycles.

11. The induration process involves t1he drying of thne green pellets,
preheating to proper temperatures, firing at the recluired temperatures, and
soaking for a definite period to create iron oxid3e or a slag bond fornation
b,zetween grains. Tnis is followBed by regulated cooling of the final pro-
dluct.

12. A recent developmetnt has been the use of cold induration

p-rocesses, in which special types of cemnents (contaiaing no sulfur) are
used with the pelletizing feed before balling. The green balls, sometimes
coated with iron cooncentrate fines to prevent cluster formation, are
allowe(d to cure and harden for periods of up to 5 weeks.
 - 143 -

Waste Sources and Characteristics

13. Although sintering plants are generally fitted with high chix-neys
to assure adeq'.dte dispersion of waste gases, use of high-sulfur raw
materials can cause problems from sulfur dioxide combining with other
contributions from nearby sources. Dusts or particulate matter can also be
major problems. Other gaseous pollutants, such as hydrogen fluoride and
ni-trogen oxide do not cause problems in mnst countries, although Japan is
experiencing some problems as a direct result of the potential for
p'notochemical pollution. A typical sinter plant waste gas will contain 0.
to 1.0 g/Nm3 * of S0 2 , less than 0.4 g/Nm3 of NOx, and less than 0.01 g/Nm
of F.

14. qhe firing process employed in pellet plants -mayproduce gaseous

emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When using ores with high
fluorine content, gaseous fluorine coqpounds ray be eanitted. Both sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen emissions depend upon the types of burner and fuel
used, and will normally not constitute a serious problem.

15. Wastewater generated during the sintering anid pelletizing

opleration result mainly fran tae scrubbing of gases arxn dusts prodxuced
duri-ig the process. Wastewaters are also generated fron the cooling,
crushing, and screening of the final product. Niewer plants generally use
"dry" dust collection equipxnent and hence have no flowrs fromr ULis source.
The prxollutants in the effluent reflect the variety of process fuel
maLerials, suclh as iron and steeLbiaking flue dusts, ores, mill scale, coke,
limestone, slag fines, and othiers. Oils and greases are also present,
principally carried by the scrap and mill used in the Oeration.

16. The averaqe concentrations found in typical unltreated effluents

from sintering plants are shown in Table 1.

Effluent Limitations

17. Where effective gas scrubbing is used to rernDve gases ard dusts
only minor amounts of air pollutants are dlischarged. In all situations
ambient lev'els of gaseous effluents, outside the plant -fence, should be
maintained within the following limits:

Sulfur Dioxide

Inside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 ug/m3

Max. 24-hr. peak 1000 ug/tn 3
Outside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 ug/:n 3
Max 24-hr. peak 500 ug,/m 3

Nitrogen Dioxide

Annual Arithmetic Mean 100 pg/m 3

 - 144 -

Particulate Matter

Annual Geometric Mean 75 ug/m3

Max. 24-hour, not rmre than
once a year 260 ,,g/m 3

*Normal Conditions:0°C., 101.3 kPa (750 mm Hg)

Table 1. Sintering Plant WastewaterFlows and Characteristics

Parameter Average

Flow - L/Ilg(a) 6100

Oil and Grease - mg/L (b) 245

Suspended Solids - mg/L 6100

pH 6-12

Fluoride - mg/L 17

Sulfide - mg/L 56

(a) L/Ig = Liters per megagram sinter produced

(b) mg/L = Millgramnsper liter of effluent.

18. Effluent limitations, based on best practicable technology

currently available, should be maintained as shown in Table 2.

19. Various toxic pollutants, depending upon the raw materials used,
are also generally present. These include cyanides, zinc, copper, nickel,
lead, silver, and others. Limitations for these substances should be as
follows:

Cyanides: 0.01 mg/L(a) Nickel: 1 mg/L

Zinc: 1 mg/L Lead: 0.1 mg/L
Copper: 1 mg/L Silver: 0.1 mg/L

(a) mg/L = Miltigramsper liter of effluent

 - 145 -

Table 2. EffluentLimitationsfor Wastewaters fran Sintering Plants

Parameter
Paramneter (Per~~~Limitation(a
Mg P-oduct) (a)

Oils and Greaqes 4.2 grams

Suspend2d Sclid 21 grams

pH 6.0 - 9.0 (units)

Flow (b) 416 liters

(a) Per Metric Ton of sinter produced

(b) Excluding non-contact cool4ng water
(*) 1 Mg = 1 megagram = I metric ton

20. Solid wastes are produced fran the gas arnidust scrubbers and
other sources. These solids are primarily metallic oxides, rostly iron,
and are recycled to the sinteringprocess.

Control and Treatmentof Wastes

21. Gas and dusts are effectively removed fraDm exhaust streans by
means of wet scrubbers or by dry methods, such as electros-tatic precipita-
tion. The rerrovedsolids are either recycled to the sinteringor pelletiz-
ing processes or transferred to a waste recovery cperation elsewhere.

22. Wastewaters result mainly from the wet scrubbing and cooling of
gases, dusts, and other materials involvel in the sintering processes.
While treatment facilitiesare concernedmainly with solids renoval, a side
effect is to remove other pollutantsas well. Thickenersand clarifiersor
settling lagoons are used for suspended solids reinvval. Skinrers are ef-
fective for oil and grease removal.

23. While suspendedsolids removal will also remove some of the toxic
pollutants, higher degrees of treatment are usually required for th s pur-
pose. Advanced treatment technologies known to be effective for both or-
ganic and inorganictoxic pollutants include alkaline chlorination,sulfide
precipitation,filtration,and activated carbon treatment.

24. Solid wastes generated frranthe treatment of gaseous and liquid

effluents are generally recycled into the systems.
 - 146 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations DevelopwentOrganization,Developmentand Transfer of

Technology Series No.11 "TechnologicalProfiles of the Iron and Steel
Industry," United Nations, New York (1978).

2. UJ.S. EnviroimentalProtectionAgency "Draft DevelopmentD1cumentsfor

Proposed EffluentLimitationsGuidelines and Standards for the Iron and
Steel Industry." ODc. EPA 440/1-79/024a. Washington. (October 1979):
Vol. III - Sintering and Blast Furnace Subcategories.

3. Jarrault, P. "Limitationdes Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de L'Air

Valeurs Reglementairesdans les Principaux Pays Industrialises."
Insitut Francais de l'Energie. Paris (1978).

4. IJ.S.Environmental Protection Agency "Guidelines for Lowest Achievable

Emission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Compounds." Doc.
EPA-450/3-79-024. Washington (April 1979).

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Industrial Guide for Air

Pollution Control." Doc. EPA-625/6-78/004. Washington (June 1978).

6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Water Quality Criteria." Doc.

EPA-R3-73-033, Washington (March 1973).

7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Handbook for Monitoring

Industrial Wastewaters." Washington (August 1973).

8. APHA, AWWA, WPCF. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater." 14th Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1975).
 - 147 -

THE WORLD BANK July 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

ROLLING AND FINISHING OPERATIONS

EFFLUENT GUIDELINES

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a higlhlyconmplexsystem, in

which iroriore and other raw materials are subjected to a series of proces-
ses to convert then into finishedsteel.

2. The series of conversion processes may be divided into five major

sgmkents: (a) ore preparation, sintering at-d pelletizing, (b) by-product
coke production, (c) pig iron procuction; (d) steel production; and (e)
rolling arnd finishing operations.

3. Trhis document is one of a series whichl has been prepar.ed on the

individutal segments. T?achone presents information as needed for asssess-
ing t1he e-nvironmental effects of the gaseous, liqui(d ad solid wastes pro-
luced by tIhe operation. In each case tlhe :oc;uent discusses the
manufact1-ing processes, maste sourLes and character, effluent limitations
bI,sed on best practicable treatment technology currently available, and
applicable waste treatmerit meChods. A bibliography is also included.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

3. Steel finishing consists of the processing of the steel fron tle

fuirniaces into thle range of shapes and sizes required to supply specific
market needs. Secause of the wide variety of possible products, the array
of technology and e-uipment required for any particular product, the
lifferent operating practices utilized biyindividualplants, and other sim-
ilar factors, this is probably tllerrost complex operation in steel maf<ing.
Sone of the typical operations are discussed below.

4. Conventional casting involves the pouring of ingots, subsequent

reheating in soaking pits, followed by rolling of semifinished shapes fran
the ingots. A considerable aiTtint of the original melt, averaging some 14
percent, is lost during all this time handling. Losses result from
pouring, uniTolding, rolling, trirmTming, and surface preparation (scarfing).
This scrap is generally recycled to the steel furn-aces.

5. In continuous casting the mrlten metal is poured into a trough,

ancd tlhen flows to water-cooled rolds to form the desired shape. From tihe
nrtld, the continuous pieces having tne required cross-sections are drawn by
rollers, cooled by direct water sprays, and cut into pieces of the desired
lengtths. Scrap production is far less (under 4 percent) in this process
thanl in converntional casting.
 - 148 -

6. Hot-rolling strip mills convert 1heated slabs into thin steel

strips, whichi are either cut into lengths (sheets) or rolled onto cores
(coil). A plate mill converts heated slabs into thicker plates (over 6
mn), and functions essentially the samw as a strip mill.

7. While some products are sold as they come from the hot-rolling
mill, a large portion of tlhe hot-mill production is subject to further pro-
cessing in the cold mill. In this process, sheet ard strip steel products
are reduced in thickness by being passed througlh various cold rolling con-
figurations. As preparation for cold rolling, tlle surface of the strip is
cleaned of scale forned in thle hot mnill and during storage. This is usual-
ly d,one by passing tlhe strips through baths of dilute hydrochloric or sul-
furic acid to-) dissolve the scale, a process designated as "pickling".
Since cold steel has loer plasticity, as compared with hot steel, rolling
speedls are sl(oer to achieve the same thickness. Cold rolling can produce
tlhinnuer strips and a finer surface quality.

8. During cold rolling the steel becones quite nard and unsuitrable
for nmost uses. r-erefore, the strip is subjected to an annealing process
to restore its ductility and to effect other changes in the mechanical pro-
perties to render thie material suitable for specific uses.

9. Fbr certain uses it is necessary to apply coatings to th-e steel

in order to provide corrosion protection, wear resistance, antifriction
properties, lubricity, heat and light reflectivity, and otner effects. The
process involves the application of a thin layer of a metallic or non-
ftet-l-llic element to the surf.-ce. Metallic elements rrnstfrequently used
include tin, zinc, clhrominum, and aluminum. Non-metallic coatings include
oxiles, sulfides, phosplhates, silicates, organic compounds (alkyd resins
anid varnlislhes), and miscellaneous inorganic coatings (vitreous enamel,
e:c.) . The iDst iTportant ste9 in the process is tle careful preparation
of the surface of thie steel prior to application of tlLecoating.

L0. A number of methods are in common use for applying coatings.

These include the hot-dip process, metal spraying, metal cementation,
fusion welding, and metal cladding. Most metal coatings are applied by the
hot-dip method, except for tin which is now generally applied by an elec-
trolytic process.

II. The electroplatingprocess is one in lich a basic ferrous or

non-ferrous material is coated by electrodepositionof a metal, such as
tin. Three steps are involved: (a) cleanirng,to renmoveoil, grease, and
1iirt from the surface to be coated; (b) electroplating, in which metal
ions in acid, alkaline, or neutral solution are reduced on catlhodlic sur-
faces (in this case the surface being plated); and (c) post-treatment,in
,dich additional coatings of another material may be applied for special
uses. Continuous electroplating of coil steel represents the largest ap-
plication of electroplatingworldwide, in terns of tonnage produced.
 - 149 -

WASTESOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS

12. The most likely sources of air pollutants in the rolling and fin-
ishing operations are the reheating furnaces, soaking pits, scarfing
machines, acid recovery plants, galvanizing lines, and organic coating
lines. Current control practices provide sufficient reduction, so that
these sources are not consideredsignificant.

13. Oil firing of reheating furnaces and oil pits can produced unac-
ceptable sulfur gases in the immediate environment. Coke oven gas, natural
gas, and other alternate fuels are coming into widespread use, thus elimi-
nating this problem. Auto-matic scarfing produces some iron oxide fumes,
but tl-his is contolled by means of irrigated precipitators. Spent pickling
acids are generally recovered by heating, but effective gas scrubbing pre-
vents fume acid emissions. Funes from the salt fluxes used in hot-dip gal-
vanizing lines are controlled by extraction and ventilation. Solvent fumes
from organic coating lines an be controlled with properly designed ventila-
ting systems.

14. The primary waste constituents from -thehot-rollingprocesses in

a pipe and tube mill are scale, oils and greases. Scale is formal as the
hot steel surface oxidizes, and is continuously scaled and chioped away.
Scale particles are mainly metallic iron, ferrous oxide, and ferric oxide.
Oils and greases originate from oil spills, equipment -washdowns. Copper,
clhromium, lead, zinc, and other heavy metals may be found in wastewaters
when tl-hese are used in the rolling process, but levels are usually not sig-
nificant. Typical wastewatercharacteristicsare slhownin Table 1.

TABLE 1. Wastewater Characteristicsfor Hot and Cold Pipe and Tube Mills

Parameter Hot Tube

afrill
I Cold Tube
Mill

solids - mg/L
Stuspended 500-700 1000

Oils/Greases- rng/L 50-100 1.00-200

pH 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0

15. Wastewaters from a cold-rolling pipe and tube mill generate a

fine scale (primarily ferric oxide), as well a both soluble and insoluble
oils and greases. Wastewater sources include flushing of the product, wel-
ders and rolls, and the cold drawing and pickling waste waters. Levels of
toxic pollutants are below those for hot-rolling mills, and hence are con-
sidered to be of little or no significane. Typical wastewatercharacteris-
tics are s'nownin Table 1.
 - 150 -

16. The rolling process generates lheat. Oil solutions are added di-
rectly to the product to reduce the heat buildup and to provide llbrica-
tions for the product being rolled. Three types of oil application systein
are in use today--designated as recirculated, direct application and con-
bDination. The recirclulated systen is most widely used at the present
tine. 1uemainly to thne use of the oil solutions, highr concentrations of
various pollutants are dlisclharged. The 'rost comnon of these are suspended
solids, oils and greases. TIbxicmetals and organic pollutants are also
present and must be remwoved before 6iscnarge of the effluent.

17. TMe major water use in a cold rollirg mill operation is for cool-
ing thnerolls and materials being rolled. A water-oil emulsion is sprayed
lirectlyon the materials and rolls as tlhematerial enters tlherolls. A
flooded lubricationsystem suppliesbotlhthe lubricationand cooling opera-
tions. Recycle and recoverysystens are coTrnonlyused, in order to co,itrol
poxllution and reduce the quantities of fresh oils whichr r.st be supplied.
Characteristics oL- typical cold-rolling mill discharges are present in
Table 2.

TABLE 2. Characteristicsof Typical Effluents from Cold-RollingMills

-1~~~~e I
l'Direct
ParaL ter RBecirculated -5ictl- t-. |;ormbinat4on

--- ; -r-----_
rIoT.! - -/v | 165 1772 1359

suspen:Jd sol2's rg'L 1235 160 624

Oi/Grease - AgiL 22640 1861 1009

DIss. Iron - mg/L 1.40 22 7.8

p11f| 6.9 7.2 6.4

. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
__ ____

* 1 L/Mg = 1 liter per rnegararn= ILliter LoLr metric ton

18. Acid pickling is the process of chemically rermovingoxides and

scale from the surface of a metal by neans of inorganic acid solutions.
Tne process may be carried out using one acid alone or in combination.
Sulfaric acid or hydrochloricacid are now most frequently used, depending
on the type of material to be pickled. The process encompasses thlreeoper-
ations; pickling, rinsing, and fume scrubbing. Wastewater can originate
from the rinsing and fume scrubbing steps. Spent pickle liquor is a third
source, but while this is lowest in volume, it is highest in orntaminent
levels. Typical characterisitcsof wastewater from combination acid pick-
ling operations are shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3. Characteristics of Tpical Effluents fromD Acid P ckl4n O.j rations

Sulfuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid

Parameter
Pickle Rinse Spenit Fume Pickle Rinse Spent Fume
Parameter
L
_iqujor Scrubber L
Liquui Scrubber

Batch Cont. Batch Cont.

960 1020 83 0 a 390 465 300 6

Flow - Liters/Mg
mgfL 375 520 41,1100 1190 190 1690 52,300 402
Diss. Iron -
130 44 1,890 93 0 60 740 490
Tot. Susp. Sol. mglL
mg/L 24 12 14 34 3 30 52 780
Oil/Crease
2 -6 2 -5 < 1 2 - 3 < 2 1 - 4 < 1 < 1
pli(Units)

mg/h, 0.39 0.01 0.18 0.10 --- 0.11 0.01 0.07

Arsenic
wgIL 1.1 0.02 0.40 0.20 --- 0.003 0.12 (0.07
Cadiniuzi
.g/l 5.1 < 0.001 30 3.2 --- 0.57 13 0.19
Total Chromium
mg/L 0.45 0.14 3.0 2.3 _ 0.72 11 0.21
Copper
Cyan1ides tng/L 0.01 0.01 0.006 0.002 --- --- < 0.0. < 0.01

mg/L 0.14 0.04 1.6 1.5 --- 0.28 310 < 0.''6
Lead
wglf, 0.64 0.24 21 1.9 ___ 0.78 lO 0.23
Ilickei
mg/L 0.01 < 0.0]. 0.29 --- --- ___ 0.20 4 0.M0
Silver
mg/L 16 0.10 2.8 1.2 --- 0.49 1.5 0.15
Zinc
mg/L ___--- --- --- 0.19 0.86 0.18
Antimuony

mgI, --- --- --- ___

--- 0.04 < O.01
Selenium
mg/L --- ---- -- __ _ _ 0.18 < 0.05
ThallitLi

a/ All flows returned to rinse tank

 - 152 -

19. Wastewaters generated by hot coating processes, now motst widely

used except for tin coating, fall into three catagories: (a) continuously
run rinse waters (rinses following cleaning operations, flows fron fume
scrubbing systems, final rinse flows, etc.); (b) intermzittant discharges
(spent) and flux baths, chemical treatment solutions, etc.); and (c)
noncontact cooling waters.

20. Wastewaters Croamplating processes originates in the cleaning,

surface preparation, plating and related operations. Constituents include
the basic material being finished and app'lied, as well as the components in
the processitng solutions. The predominar.t wastewater constituents are the
ietal cations (such as copper, nickel, chromLium, zinc, lead, tin, etc.) and
the aniorLs occurring in the cleaning, pickling, or processing baths (such
as phospthates, chlorides , and various metal corrplexing agents).

21. Steel sc-rap, millscale, scarfing residues, refractory materi-

als,and used oils and greases are the principal solid or semi-solid waste
substances from the rolling and milling operations. Most of these are re-
covered or recycled back into the steel-making process. Scrap -metal is
used as feedstock, Wnile mill scale (about 90% Fe2 0 3 ) can be recycled to
the sinter )lant. Refractory wastes are separated, with re-usable material
going btclck into the plant and the non-usable portions going to a diump.
Used oils atid greases are either incinerated or mixed wit7h inert materials
prior to disposal to special dumps. Spent pickling acids frorn bothl stil-
Vuric an(d hydrochiloric processes may be regenerated.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

22. EfElient limitations for specific elements of rolling and finish-

ing operal'ions, except for electroplating, are presented in Table 4. Ma-
terials conis-r-,ied or processed do not provide a basis for applying effluent
guidelines, in the case of electroplating processes. For thlis purpose,
limitations are based on thle surface area (square raters) of materials
plated, for each operation (cleaning, plating, etc.) carried out as part of
the plating )rocess. Limiting values are presented in Table 5, for a num-
ber of suLbstances found in these wastes, depending upon the process being
used.

CONTROLANDTREATMENT
OF WASTES

23. Discharges of gases, particulates, and fuLmes can be reduced or

eliminated by use of a scrubber or othLer collecting devices, and these
norrally do not constitu-te a problemr. When dry collecting devices are used
to isolate these materials they may be either recycled into the process, if
appropriate, or taken to landfill disposal. When wet metlods are used tlhe
materials are subject to whatever treatment is provided for the waste-
waters.
 - 153 -

TABLE 4. Effluent Limitations for Steel Rolling and Finishing

Mi_l '.fastewaters

PeerMg Steel ½Drcessed

W'asLe SoureC-

- _ _~~ e r
L
I
Flow
sI
Susp
Solids
| Oil/
Creas
Gr. -ier
Diss.
Fe H

Piue & ralm "-I!

EHt Rolla-.g 6700 67 100 |_ 6-S

Cold Rolling(ter) (Nowastewariscarges)
Cold_ Rclling
Col _in (0C-ls)
Oi I (No INo
wastewater
- I discharges)

Cold Roll inS-l I

Recircu:ated 104 | 3 0.14 0.10 6-9

DIr. Applicatlcn 1668 1C4 42 4 6-9

Combinatior. 1043 26 10 1 6-9

Picklir. a . l0

S'J4- Batca (No Aastevater discharges)

S04 - Batc.-:- 2500 125 25 3 6-9

S04 - corinucu,a/ (No vpste;Jater discharges)

S04 - Ccr.ti-. eus-b 1042 52 10 1 6-9

HC1 - Batch & Cont.'/ | (d) 200 40 4 6-9
ICI - Batch & Cont. (f) 18 35 | 4 I 6-9
-__ __ __ ___ 1 r) -___ __ _____ __.-__

Hot Coatings/ | 5000 250 75 6-9

a/ Concer.nrates + rinses, acid recovery

of + of , acid neutralization.

c/ Liquor regen. + rinse neut. + fume scrubbing.

d/ Flow = 4047 L for batch, 2774 L for continuous.

e/ Neut. liquor & rinses + fume scrubbing.

f/ Flow = 3S2 L for batch, 2252 L for continuous

i/ With fume scrubbing.

 - 154 -

TABLE 5. Effluent Limitations for ElectroplatingPlants

mg/m2 /Operation a/

Parameter
Non-Water Water Supply
Supply Sources and
Sources Fish Life

Copper 80 75
Nickel 80 4
Total Cr 80 15
Hexavalent Cr 8 1.5
Zinc 80 __
Total CN 80 1.5
Fluoride 3200 30
Cadmium 48 2.9
Lead 80 4.4
Iron 160 45
Tin 160 --
Phosphorous 160 __
Total Suspended Solids 3200 __
pH (units) 6.0 - 9.5 __
Flow (liters) 145

a/ Maximum of average daily values in any 30-day period.

Maximum daily value not to exceed 2 times 30-day average.
 - 155 -

24. Treatment technologies are currently available for meeting the

wastewater guidelines given in this docume-nt. In many cases the treatment
is similar, and therefore considerationshould be given to combining the
wastewater flows for treatment at a commDn site, when two or more of the
operations are carried out at the same time. Treatment processes which
either alone or in conbination,depending upon the waste chnaracteristics
and ultimate disposal,will achieve the limitationsgiven in Tables 4 and 5
are as follows:

Pipe and Tube Mill a) Primary sedimentationin a scale

Hot Rolling pit, equipped with oil skimming
devices, followed by Elocculation
polymer and additionalsedimention
in a high rate thickener.

b) Solids dewateringwith vacuum

filtration.

c) Filtration of entire flow prior to

disdharge or recycle.

d) Recycle tllrouglh
a cooling tower.

Pipe and Tube Mill a) Pri-aarysedi-mentationin a scale pit

Cold Rolllng (Water) equipped with oil skinningdevices.

b) Flocculationwith polymer and addi

tional seditmentation in a high rate
tnickener.

c) Solids dewateringby vacuum filtra

tion. Complete recycling following
filtration.

Pipe and Tube Mill a) Primary sedimentationin a scale pit

Cold Rolling (Oil) equipped with oil skimmingdevices.

b) Flat bed filtration,followedby

complete recycle of all solutions.

c) Spent soluble oil solutions and oil

skhimnings removed to outside recla
mation or disposal.
 - 156 -

Cold Rolling Mill a) Reuse of rolling solutions.

Recirculated
b) Treatment of minimum blowdown via
oil separation, equalization,chemi
cal treatment flocculation,air flo
tation, surface skimmingand extend-
ed settling.

Cold Rolling Mill a) Treatment of solutions via oil sepa

Direct Application ration, equalization,chemical
treatment, flocculation,air
flotation, surface skimning,and
long-term settling.

Cold Rolling Mill a) Maximum degree of reuse practical.

tOin'ati-on

Pickling - SO4 a) On-site recovery.

Batch - Acid Recovery
b) Reclaim usable sulfuric acid, and
solid ferrous sulfateheptahydrate
for outside resale.

Pickling - S04 a) Equalize acid and alkaline wastes;

Batch - Acid Neut. blend, mix, and aerate.

b) Lime neutralization, with polyrr

addition.

c) Extended settling (one day re-

tention).

Pickling - S04 a) On-site acid recovery.

Cont. - Acid Recovery
b) Reclaim usable sulfuric acid, and
also solid ferrous sulfate
heptahydrate for outside resale.

Pickling -SO4 a) Equalize acid and alkaline wastes;

Cont. - Acid Neut. blend, mix and aerate.

b) Lime neutralization,with polymer

addition.

c) Extended settling (one day

retention).
 - 157 -

Pickling - HC1 a) Spent pickle liquor regeneration.

Liquor Regen.
b) Recycle of fuim scrubber water with
minimum blowdcown to treatment.

c) Absorber vent scrubber once-through

to treatment with rinsewaLer via
neutralization, polymer addition and
settling or clarification.

d) pH neutralization.

Pickling HC1 a) Equalize acid and alkaline wastes;

Liquor Neut. blend, mix and aerate.

b) Treat with line or caustic soda, add

polyner.

c) Sedimentation via thickener; vactaLm

filtration of underfLow.

d) pH neutralization.

IibtCoatings a) Separate collection, equalization,

blDending an1dsettling.

b) Lime and piLyTer addition.

c) One day settling arid continious oil

siimning.

Electroplating a) Cheinical treatment providing for

cyanide dlestructiion.

b) Reduction of hexavelent chromium to

trivalent form.

c) Nieutralization and coprecipitation

of heavy metals as hydroxides or hy
drated oxides.

d) Settling and clarification to remrove

suspended solids.
 - 158 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Environmnental Control in the Iron and Steel Industry," International

Iron and Steel Institute, Brussels (1978).

2. "hLe Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel." EdS. by H.E. McGannon.

Ninth Edition. Tinited Steel Corporation.

3. Jarrault, P. "Lirmitation des Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de L'Air

-Valeurs Reglementaires dans les Principaux Pays Industrialises."
Institut Francais de l'Energie. Paris (1978).

4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Guidelines for Lawest Achievable

P-mission Rates from 18 Major Stationtary Sources of Particulate, Nitro-
gen Oxidies, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Corrpounds." Dec.
EPA-450/3-79-024 Was'hington(April 1979).

5. TJ.S. Pnvironmental Protection Agency "Draft Development Documenit for

Proposed EfEltuent l.imitations Guidelines and Standards for the Iron and
Steel Industry." Doc. EPA-440/1-79/024a. Washing3ton, (October 1979).

Vol. VIIE - SulEuric Acid Pickling, Hydrochloric Acid Pickling,

and CombinationAcid Pickling Subcatecjory.

63. 13.S. Federal Register. "Interim EfEluent Limitations and Guidelines,

and Proposed Performance and Pretreatment Standards - Electroplating
Point Source Category." V. 40 No. 80. Washington (ApriL 24, 1975).

7. U.S. Enviromrental Protection ANgency. "Development for Interim Final

EffLuent Linitations Gui(lelines and Standards for the Metal Finishing
Segmenlt oE the Electroplating Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-
75/040-a. Washington (April 1975).

B. TJ.S. EnvironmentalAgency. "Water Quality Criteria." Doc. EPA-R3-73-

003, Was!hington(Marcrl1973).

9. APHA, AAWA, WPCF. "StandardMethols for the Examinationof Water and

Wastewater." 14th-i Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1975).

10. lJnited 'Kingdom Department of the Enivironment, "Analysis of Raw,

Potable, and 'WasteWaters." H.M. Stationary Office, London (1972).

11. IJ.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Handbook for Monitoring Indus-

trial Wastewaters." 'Washington(August 1973).
 - 159 -

THE WORLDBANK OCrOBER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

IRON ANDSTEEL INDUSTRY

STEELMAKING
PROCESSES

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Iron and steel production utilizes a highly complex system, in

which iron ore and other raw materials are subjected to a series of proces-
ses to convert them into finished steel products.

2. the series of conversion processes may be divided into five major

segments: (a) ore preparation, sintering and pelletizing; (b) by-product
coke production; (c) pig iron production; (d) steel production; and (e)
rolling and finishingoperations.

3. This document is one of a series which has been prepared on the

individual segments. Each one presents infornation needed for assessing
the environmental effects of tlhe gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes produced
by the operation. In each case the document discusses the nanifacturing
processes waste sources and dcaracter effluent limitations based on best
practicable treatment technology currently available and applicable waste
treatment metY-ods. A bibliography is also included.

4. The basic differencebetween iron and steel is in the relative

amounts of irmpurities in the two rretals. The rnolteniron is saturatedwith
carbon, and also contains undesirable amounts of silicon, rmanganese, phos-
phorous, and sulfur. These are remroved in the steel-making p:rocess. How-
ever, in order to impart certain desirable prcperties to the steel, other
elements are added in controlled proportions as part of the steel-making
cycle. These are categorized as "residual allcy elements," and are con-
fined mainly to tin, ccpper, nickel, chromium, and nolybdenum.

5. At the present time steel is produced mainly in three principal

furnace types or processes - the open heartlh furnace, basic oxygen furnace,
and electric arc furnace.

OPEN HEARTH FURNACE

Manufacturing Process

6. The open hearth furnace consists of a shallow rectangular basin

or hearth, enclosed by refractory lined walls and roof, into which tlLe
chzarge is placed. The charge may consist of all liquid iron, liquid iron
and liquid steel, solid steel (scrap) ard liquid iron, or same otlher simi-
lar combination of iron and scrap steel. The charge is heated by a gas
 - 160 -

flame located at the ends of each furnace. Fuels cammnnly used include
natural gas, ccke oven gas, fuel oil, coal tar, or sone ccnbination of
these. The choice of fuel will influence the sulfur dioxide generationper
ton of steel.

7. There are two principal types of cpen hearth furnaces -- the acid
and the basic. The furnace is termed an "acid" furnace Where the basin re-
fractory material consists of silicon sand. Where the basin is lined with
dolomite or magnesite the furnace is a "basic" mit. The basic furnace has
the ability to remove pbosporcus and sulfur frcn iron and its ores. The
acid furnace, on the other hand, requires a minimum amount of these sub-
stances to cperate and can use only selected raw materials. At the end of
the heating period the furnace is tapped at a temperature of approximrately
1650°C, and the mrolten steel poured into noldings to fonm ingots, castings,
or other shapes for subsequent processing.

Waste Sources and Characteristics

8. Waste products from the open hearth Frocess include slag; oxides
of irorn emitted as micron dust; waste gases ccmposed of air, carbon dioxide
and water vapor; oxide of sulfur and nitrogen, and oxides of zinc (if gal-
vanized steel scrap is used). Fluorides may be emitted, both in the gas-
eous and particulate states. Mcst of the particulate emissions consist of
iron oxides (predominantlyFe2 O3 ) generated at an average rate of 12.5 kg
per MT of steel produced.

9. In addition to these primary sources, the secondary sources

should also receive attention. These include the hot metal transfer
station, the hot metal mixer, the fumes caused by charging of scrap and
hot metal, and the fumes emitted during tapping of the vessel. The dusts
emitted at these points are largely fine grain iron oxides, and can be re-
cycled to the sinter plant either directly or after some form of treatment.

10. The quantity of particulates will vary according to the gas

cleaning systerm used. A senmi-et system cools the hot gases before entry
into the dry precipitators,which remrve the particulates from the gas
stream. However, a small portion of the particulate matter does escape into
the wastewater systems. On the other hand, the wet scrubber system is spe-
cifically designed to remove the particulates fran the gas stream, and thus
results in larger concentrations of suspended matter. The gas scrubber
systems essentially prevent the discharge of gasecus and particulate mater-
ials to the atmosphere.

11. Characteristics of a typical raw wastewater fran an cpen hearth

furnace are presented in Table 1. This table also includes certain compo-
nents considered to be toxic and therefore of significance.

12. Solid wastes originating frcm the cpen hearth operation include
slag, scrap, slurries, dusts, and refractory materials. The largest quan-
tity of these wastes is slag, the amount of which will depend upon the
quality of steel being produced and the ratio of scrap to pig iron in the
 - 161 -

charged materials. Typically, slag quantities can vary fran 70 to 170 kg

per Mg of liquid steel.* Slags can be used in blast furnace sinter, in
construction, and for fertilizers, and hence do not not normally constitute
a waste problem.

Effluent Limitations

13. Open hearth furnaces are generally equipped with a cleaning sys-
tem, which can efficiently cool and scrub the hot gases that are produced.
The entrained gases will conitain one or rTore of the follcwing: sulfur di-
oxide, nitrogen oxides, zinc oxide, ferric oxide, flinrides, and particu-
lates. Where the cleaning system is effective, discharges to the atmos-
phere would be very minor. Where gaseous effluents are disdharged to the
environment, ambient air quality at ground level sliould be maintained at or
below the following concentrations:

SO2 :
Inside plant fence Annual Arith. mean 100 pUg/m3
Max. 24 hr. peak 1000 ug/m3
Outside plant fence Annual Arith. mean 100 )ig/bn3
Max. 24 hr. peak 500,ug/rm 3

NOx (as N02 ) Ann. Arith. Mean 100 pg/m 3

Fluorides (as HF) Ann. Arith. Mean 10

lg/m 3
8-hr. peak 100 pg/m3

Particulates Ann. Geam. Mean 75 pg/m3

Max. 24-hr. 260,pg/rn 3

14. Effluent Limitations for cpen-hearth furnace wastewaters, based

on application of best practicable control technology presently available,
are given in Table 2. These include only suspended solids and pH. Al-
though other pollutants are of concern, effluent limitations are still un-
der develcpment. Treatment methods discussed below will normally reduce
these other substances to acceptable levels.

Control and Treatment of Wastes

15. Three types of gas cleaning systems are in cpneral use for clean-
ing and scrubbing the hot gases from open hearth furnaces - the dry system,
the semi-wet system, and the wet system.

16. By maintaining an exact balance between the water supplied for

cooling the gases and the water evaporated no wastewater is produced. This
is called the dry system. Cooling of the hot gases takes place in an evap-
oration chamber, located at the top of tlhe open hearth building.

* 1 kg/Mg = 1 Kilogram per megagram = 1 Kg/metric ton.

 - 162 -

17. In the semi-wet system, an excess of water is suppLied to the

cooling clamber (spark box), thus prcducirnj an effluent discharge. The
particulate matter collected in both the dry and semi-dry systems is col-
lected as dry dust, but some plants slurry this dust and convey it to
thickeners.

TABIFL1. ,/pical Raw Wastewater Characteristics - Open Hearth Furnace

Semi-wet Wet
Parameter System System

Flow - LIYg(a)
Aopl'ed 467 0 8100
Discharge 288 807
Susp. Solids - mg/L(b) 500 1100
Fluoride - " 260 110
Nitrate - " 10 320

Zinc - 0.60 200

Chromium - " 3.08 _

Copper - U 0. c | 2.0
Cyanides - " 0.04 _

Nickel - 0.05 _

Lead - " 0.60

pR - Units 2.0 - 3.0 3.0 - 7.0

(a) L/Mg = Liters per megagram of steel produced

(b) mt,/L= Milliz2ra-s er liter of discharge

TABLE 2. Effluent Limitations for Open Hearth Furnace Wastewaters

Per Mg Steel roda.

Semi-wet Wet
Parameter System System
Suspended Solids - g. 15 23
Flow - litersa/ 293 460
pH - units 6.0 - 9.0 6.0 - 9.0

a/ Excluding all non-contact cooling water

 - 163 -

18. In the wet scrubber system, the hot gases containing the particu-
lates are conveyed to Venturi scrubbers for cooling and cleaning. Particu-
late matter is removed as a result of the pressure drcp across the throat
of the scrubber. Water is supplied to the scrubber to entrap particulates
and cool the gases. The wastewater resulting from this system is senerally
discharged to a treatment facility.

19. The basic type of equipment applied to wastewaters fran the gas
cleaning and fume collectioc systemsare clarifiers or thickeners for prim-
ary sedimentation. These systems are the major source of wastewaters. Clar-
ifiers may be used ahead of the thicleners to remove the heavier solids.
Because open-hearth effluents are acidic, provisions should be made to neu-
tralize them. Either lime or caustic acid are effective for the purpose.
Lime, polymer, or ot'her chemicals are added to the clarifiers to aid in
settlement of solids and removal of toxic metals. Clarifier sludges are
dewatered in vacuum filters; the overflow is nonmally recycled. Where the
overflow is discharged to a stream, it should receive further treatment,
such as lagoon settling, prior to release.

20. The presence of fluorides, heavy metals, and nitrates will re-
quire alvance levels of treatment. Lime precipitation has been effective
in removing heavy metals and fluorides. Both carbonate and hydroxide are
suitable. However, the carbonate is preferable since it results in a riore
dense precipitate, imTproves solids separation, and yields lcwer sludge vol-
umes. Nitrates may be reroved by anaerobic biological processes, as em-
ployed in convenitional sewage treatment plants. Nitrate concentrations can
be reduced to 10 mg/L.

21. Slags, hicdhconstitute the largest byproduct frcm steelmaking,

have several possible uses. They can be recycled into the sinter mix and
fed into the blast furnaces. Large lump size slagshave found use in rein-
forcement of river and canal banks, road building, or as railway track bal-
last. Slags containing high levels of P2 0 5 (usually over 15 percent) can
be grcund and used as fertilizer. Process scrap resulting from steel pour-
ing can be readily recycled.

22. Fume cleaning dusts and slurries, depending upon their campo-
sition, are dewatered and fed back into the sinter plant. Metallic canpo-
nents from refractory wastes are separated and reused. The residue is in--
nocuous and conveyed to landfill. Mill scale, if virtually oil-free, can
be recycled to the sinter plant. Where the oil content is high, the scale
should be dumped and precautions taken to prevent oil pollution due to run-
off.
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE

ManufacturingProcess

23. The basic oxygen furnace for steelmaking is a relatively recent

development, having been first introduced in the 1950's. The process is
now most universally used, both for new installations and for replacements
of older facilities.
 - 164 -

24. The Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process produces steel in a pear-
shaped, refractory-lined open-mouth furnace using a mixture of hot iron (at
13700C), cold steel scrap, and fluxes. Fluxes such as burnt lime (CaO) are
used to produce a slag which floats on the molten steel surface and col-
lects impurities during steel production. Pure o-xygen is injected to the
surface at supersonic velocities (Mach 2), through a water-cooled ccpper-
tipped lance for approximately 25 minutes. The lance is lovered through
tlheopen furnace mouth and positionedabout 1.5 meters abcve the surface of
the bath. The high velocity of the oxygen results in violent agitation and
intimatemixing with the mnlten iron.

25. Rapid oxidation of the dissolved carbon, silicon, manganese,

phcep1 xrous, and iron occurs. The carbon in the steel bath combines with
tlle oxygen to prcduce OD2 and CO gases which are released fran the fur-
nace. The silicon, manganese, phosphorous, etc. oxidize into the slag.
Fluoropar (CaF2 ) is added to the bath mixture to maintain a fluid slag.
Burnt lime is added to aid in the production of a floating slag.

26. A BOF installation is generally equipped with two units, although

three or iroreiay be found in a few instances. In a dual furnace facility
one furnace is operating -while the other is in either the furnace reheat or
brick relining nmde. Some plants practice "swing" blowing, where one fur-
nace is being blown with oxygen while the other furnace is being charged
wiJh raw materials.

W4asteSources and Characteristics

27. The waste products from the basic oxygen steelmaking process in-
clu(deheat, airEorne fluxes, slag, carbon nonoxide and dioxiue gases, and
oxides of iron emitted as micron dusts. Also, when t'Uehot iron is poured
inltoladles or the furnace, submnicroniron oxide fumes are released and
sam of the carbon is precipitatedout as graphite. Fumes and snmke are
also released when steel is poured into holding ladles from the furnace.
Basic oxygen furnaces are equipped with some type of air pollution gas
cleaning systems for containing,cooLing and cleaningthe large uwlumes of
hot gases and submicron fuaes that are released.

28. During the oxygen blowing cycle, the primary gas constituent
emitted is carbon mnnoxide (C)). The CX will bLrn outside the furnace if
allowed to come in contact with air, but conbustioncan be retardedby pre-
venting coL,tact of the CO with the outside air. This is i -'erred to as
"suppressed combustion".

29. Because the CO gas will burn when in contact with air, electro-
static precipitators cannot be used dlue to arcing in the electric plates
and the potential of an explosior. Suppressed combustion systems always
utilize wet-type scriober systems, sinr'ethere is always some air leakage
into tlhecleaning sys- . n open hood nounted abcoe the furnace mnuth
conveys gases and furn-', -Jo he air pollution cleaning systems.
 - 165 -

30. Four principal types of gas cleaning systes are currently in

use: dry, semi-wet, wet qpen canbustion, and wet suppressed conbustion.
the wet suppressed cornustion systens are the most widely used today.

31. In a dry precipitator system, an exact balance is nmintained be-

tween water applied to cool the gases an1 that evaporated in the cooling
process. No effluent is discharged in this case. ParticuLlte matter is
collected as dry 'lust. In the semi-wet iretlDod an excess of water is
suppLied to a chanmber (spark box) to cool the furnace gases, thus pnroducing
a liquid discharge. The particulate matter is also collected as a cry
dust.

32. The wet gas cleaning systerm in%olve the use of quenchers and
high-energy Venturi sctmbbers. The hot gases, containing large amounts of
particulates generated in the steel produztion process pass throuvgh a pri-
mary quencher. The function of thle quencher is to cool the gases with
water and renrve the heavier particles contained in the gis stream. After
the quenchers, the gases pass to thze Venturi scrubbers for final cleaning.
Particulate matter is remDved as the result of a pressure drop across the
throat of the scri-ibber. Water is applied to tlhe scribber to entrap the
particulates, and the resulting effluient is pumnped to tne pritmiry queanch-
er. The quencher effluent is discharged to a treatneit facility.

33. Wget scrubber systems are used in botih the open anr suppressed
combustion type furnaces. Open cati-stiotn units reltiire a greater pressure
dlrop across t1he scrubber throat th-an is tne case in suppressel corbustion
units. Tne particulate matter is generated by a suppressed system is lar-
ger and easier to rem-ve fram the gas stream. On tlhe other hand, open sys-
tems allow for irore ccoplete carm'ustion due to tne presence of excess air
andl tlhus result in smaller particles in the gas streams.

34. The fum collection scrubber and gas cleaning systems are t1he
only contact cooling discharge from steelmaking. Other water uses are for
non-contact cooling, and these are not contaminated as tlhey flow thrcuglh
the process. Suspended solids, fluorides, and pH are the quality param-
ters of greatest significance. Raw effluent characteristics of typical
wastewater scrubber and gas cleaning systems are given in Table 3.

TABLE 3. Characteristics of Typical Raw Waste Waters from

Basic Oxygen Furnaces

Flcw Fluorides Susp. Sol.

Source L/Mg mg/L mgl pH
1

Seraii-lfet 1790 2.4 300 11.6

Wet-Open Comb 3000 8.6 4000 9.9
Wet-Suppr Corrb 3380 --- 810 9.8
 - 166 -

EffluentLimitations

35. Gas and fume emissiotns can be adequately renoved frcm the system,
and hen e there should be no discharge of air pollutants fram a basic ox-
ygen furnace operation. Stack discharges of particulates should be main-
tained at 50 mg/m3 Or less.

36. Effluent limitations for wastewaters are presented in Table 4.

These limitations are based on application of best practicable treatment
currently available.

TABLE 4. Effluent Limitations - Basic Oxygen Furnace Wastewaters

Source Flow 1. Fluoride Susp. pH

(liters) (grams) Sol. grams (no units)

Per Mklegagram
Produced

Semi-Wet 'No wastewater Discharges)

=___=__.
Wet-Open Comb. 630 ___ 31 6 - 9
Wet-Suppr. Comb. 210 _ 5 6 - 9

~I.
_L. __ _ _

Control and Treatrnent of Wastes

37. Fume and gas cleaning systems discussed above, nonmally used with
basic oxygen furnaces, are effective in controlling and essentially elirin-
ating air emissions from tlLecperation.

38. liquid wastes fran a semi-wet system undergo primary sedimenta-

tion in a thickener, to which coagulant aids are usually added. The thick-
ener sludge is dewatered by a vacuum filter, ard the filter cake disposed
of to landfill or other appropriate neans. The filtrate fram the vacum
units is returned to the thickener. The thickener overflow is canpletely
recycled to the process, thus resulting in zero disdiarge of effluent.

39. Liquid wastes fran a wet-open canbustion system undergo solids

separation in a clarified, as a first step. Wastewater is then pumped to a
thickener for sedimentation, where coagulant acids may be added. The un-
derflow (or sludge) fram the thickener is dewatered in vacuum filters, and
the filter cake conveyed to landfill disposal. The filtrate is returned to
the thickener. About 85 percent of the thickener overflcw is recycled to
the process. The remainder is acid neutralized and discharged. Makeup
water is added to tle recycle systens to ccnpensate tor olowdown and evap-
oration lcsses.
 - 167 -

40. Wastewaters frcn a wet-suppressed cambustion systEn are first

subjected to primary treatment in a clarifier to separate the solids. It
then flows to a thickener, to which a coagulant has been added. Thickener
sludge goes to tlLevacuum filters, fram which the cake goes to landfill
disposal and the filtrate is returned to the thickener. Same 95 jercent of
the thiickener overElow is recycled to tlhe process. The reaining 5 percent
undergoes furtner clarification. The slulge fram this unit gpes to the
vacuum filters, while the effLuent is acid neutraLized and discharged.

41. Fluoride levels are nlOt significantly discussed abore. The levels
generally found are higher than would be acceptable for a receiving water
used for public w-ater supplies. Therefore, existing fluoride levels sinuld
be corisidered in teris of the use to be made of the receiving waters.
Fluoride raduction can be achieved through application of lime reduction
methods.

42. Dispoisal of sludges, filter cakes, at-d other solids may be to

larnifiLlor to process recycling via the sintering plan-ts. For landfill
dis,rsal the slndlge is often Iried to a hiiher soLids content to reduce the
volur'e. In some oases thie presence of zinc in the slu>dges -r.y make tUhae
unsuitable for thle sinters, since they coald c.use damage in the blast fur-
nace cperations.

MELCTRIC
ARC FURNACES

Manufacturing Process

4:3. The electric arc furnace receives iron fran the blast furnaYne,
along wLtCl s:rap rTetals dnd elu idig materials to produce steel. Until re-
-7&itly, this process was used primarily for production of allW steels, bit
it is tiowused to proluce a wide range of carlbon and specialty steel con-
positions.

44. 9iigh (quality a.-d al Loy steels are produced in refractory-lined

cylindQrical furnaces, utilizifg a cold steel szrap diarge and fluxes.
Sometimes a lo.er grade of steel will be produced in the open hearth or ba-
stc oxygen furnace ancl dcarged to the electric unit. This is nmownas du-
olexi g.

45. The heat for the fuirnavce is provwided acy passing an electric cur-
rent through the scrap or steel bath, by mears of tmree triangularly spaced
-yridrical -arbox)n electrodes inserted throughL tLLe furndce roof. The elec-
trodes are consumable and oxilize during the process. Furnaces range in
charge capacity frr3n about 20 to nearly 400 metric tors. Diameters range
from 2 to 9 neters; heat cycle time is 4 to 5 hours.

46. Prodluction of sae high-quality steels requires the use of two

different slags for thle same heat, referred to as oxidiizing arrl reducig
slags. The first slag is rern-ved fran the furnace and new fluxes added for
the second slag. The heat cycle generally consists of charging, meltdowin,
 - 168 -

molten metal period, oxidizing, refiring, and tcpping (or pouring). Pure
oxygen is sometimes lanced acrcss the batch to speed up the oxidation cycle
which, in turn, will reduce the consumption of electrical power.
47. Within the past decade a new process, called the Argon Oxygen De-
carbonization (AOD) process has been used in conjunction with electric arc
furnaces. When the electric furnace is used in conjunction with the ADD,
the electric arc unit functions as a carbon steel scrap smelter. The hot
metal charge is then transferred to the ADD unit for final refining. This
eliminates the double slag process required when electric arc furnaces are
producing stainless and alloy steels. The ADD process allows for better
control of the allcy steel ccaposition.

Waste Sources and Characteristics

48. Waste products discharged frcn the electric arc furnace process
include smoke, slag, carbon dioxide and carbon nonoxide gases, and oxides
of iron emitted as submicron fumes. Otlher contaminants, such as zinc
oxides fron galvanized scrap, will also be discharged depending upDn the
type and quality of scrap used. Scrap containing large quantities of oil
will yield heavy reddish-black smoke as the oils are burned off at the
start of the meltdown cycle. Nitrogen oxide and ozone are discharged fran
the arcing of the electrodes.

49. Gases and particulate matter can be effectively removed by vari-

ous types of gas cleaning systems, which will limit or eliminate the dis-
charge of these contaminants. Three types of gas cleaning systems are mc6t
widely used: dry, semi-wet, and wet. Some of the gas cleaning and result-
ing operations, however, will result in a contaminated wastewater dis-
charge.

50. Dry gas cleaning systems are generally of two types: baghouses
and electrostatic precipitators. A baghouse consists of a series of cloth
or fiberglass bags which filter the water-cooled furnace gases. The fur-
nace gases are first quenched by water sprays in a spray chanber and are
tlhenintroduced to the baghouse. The bags are periodically shaken free of
the dust which is then collected in hcppers located at the bcttcam of the
baghouse structure. The dry dust thus collected is removed and landfilled.
Another dry rmethodof gas cleaning is the electrcstatic precipitator, Which
involves the use of electrically charged metal plates to capture tne charg-
ed particulate matter entrained in the gas stream. With the baghcuse meth-
od, the gases nust be water cooled prior to cleaning. Cooling of the fur-
nace gases is accomplished in an evaporation chamber to Which water is ap-
plied. The dust captured by the electrcstatic precipitator is collected in
a hopper and conveyed to landfill. Neither of these tWo gases cleaning
systems result in an aquecus discharge and therefore do not require any
water pollution control equipment.

51. The semi-wet system also involves the use of electrostatic preci-
pitators but results in an aqueous discharge. This system water-cools the
furnace gases in a spark box chamber Which is about one-third the size of
 - 169 -

the evaporation chamber used for a dry system. Water is oversupplied to

the spark box to ensure adquate cooling and thus results in an effluent
from the system.

52. Wet gas cleaning systerm generally in%olve the use of high energy
Venturi scrubbers. The hot particulate-laden gases emanating from the fur-
nace are conveyed to Venturi scrubbers for cooling and cleaning. Particu-
late rmatter is remtved as a result of a pressure drcp acrcss the throat of
a scrubber. Water is supplied to the scrubber to entrap the particulates
and to cool the gases. The resulting water effluent is discharged.

53. Wastewater characteristics are affected MDstly by the type of gas

cleaning system used, the principal dif ference being in the quantity of
fume particulates. The electric arc furnace has two main water systems:
(a) electric arc furnace door, electrode ring, roof ring and cable and
transformer cooling; and (b) fuure collection scruboer and gas cooling.
Only the scrubber and cooling system is important fram the pollution stand-
point, since all otlher water uses are for noncontact cooling purposes.

54. The parameters of major interest are the suspended solids and pil
levels in the effluent. CLaracteristics of a typicaL wastewater effluent
are srown in Table 5.

TABLE 5. Characteristics of Typical Electric Arc Furnace Wastewaters

Susp.
Type of Flcw Solids
System L/Mg mg/L pH

Dry (No li uid discharges)

Semi-llet 630 2200 6 - 9
Wet 8800 3400 6 - 9

55. Wastewaters ray also contain fluorides, zinc, ccpper, lead and
ot*her poLltltants dependin3g upon raw materials used, extent of recycling,
and other factors.

56. Dusts, particulates, sludges, and otler solid materials will be

pr-oduced- as part of the operation and waste control Erocesses. These will
vary in quantity and must be considered on a plant-by-plant basis.

EffluentLimitations

57. As previaosly stated, an effective fume and gas cleaning system

will eliminate the disdharge of any emissions to the atnmsphere. Gaseous
 - 170 -

emissions are to be maintained at or below the limitations shown in para-

graph 13, above. The limitations on wastewaters fran semi-wet arnd wet gas
systems, based on using best practicable treatment currently available, are
snown in Table 6.

TABLE 6. Effluent Limitations - Electric hrc Furnace Operations

F- - Suspended Solids
Source g/Mg mg/L pH

Semi-Wet (No wastewater discfiarges)

Wet System 26 50 6- 9

Control and Treatmnent of Wastes

58. Gas cleatiing systems, as described above, will adequately control

or prevent the discharge of gaseous and particulate emissions to the atxiDs-
phere. Wvhere semi-wet or wet systems are used the materials are transfer-
red to the liqlid medium and tlherefore require treatment of the resulting
wastewaters.

59. The treatretnt canponents for discharges from tlhe two gas cleaning
systems are essentially tllesame. The basic treatment uses a clarifier or
th-ickener for primary sedimientation, following a classifier or othler prina-
ry solids separation device to remrve the heavier solids. The thickener
underflow (or sludge) is dewatered in vacuum fiLters. Filtrate fran the
vacuum unit is returned to the thickener. Chemical flocculation can be
used to aid in the settlement of solids and the remtval of toxic metals and
fluoride. In the semi-wet system the thickener overflow is completely re-
cycled. In the wet gas system the thickener overflcw is discharged to re-
ceiving waters.

60. Additional levels of treatmenit may be required, where significant

quantities of inorganic toxic pollutants and fluorides are present. Sever-
al methods have been sucessful in controlling these sub3tances. These
methods include lime and polymer flocculation, lime precipitation, and pre-
cipitation with sulfide ccmpounds. The use of sulfide compounds has been
rmore useful in reducing effluent metal concentrations than in the case of
lime flocculation.

61. Significant quantities of sludge are generated from sedimentatio-i

of gas cleaning system wastes. These may be dispDsed of to landfill or to
the sintering plan, following drying to a fairly high solids content. The
presence of zinc in the sludge may make it unsuitable for recycling to the
sinter plant without dezincing. The dusts collected in the dry system bag-
house may be transferred to a landfill site for disposal.
 - 171 -

BIBLICORAPHY

1. "Environmental Control in the Iron and Steel Industry," Inte-national

Iron and Steel Institute, Brussels (1978).

2. "The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel". Ed. by H.E. McGannon.

Ninth Edition. United States Steel Corporation. Pittsburgh (1971).

3. Russel, C.S. and Vaughn, W.J. "Steel Production: Processes, Products

ani Residuals". Resouces for the Future. The Johns Hopkins University
Press, BaLtimrre and LDrdon (1976).

4. United Nations Industrial Developirent Organization, Development and

Transfer of Technology Series No. 11 "Technological Profiles of the
Iron and Steel Industry". United Nations, New York (1978).

5. U.S. Environrmental Protection Agency "Draft Developrenit Docnztents for

Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines ard Standards for t1he Iroii arl
Steel Industry". Doc. EPA 440/1-79/024a. Washnington. (October 1979):
Vol. IV - Basic Oxygen Furnace arxi Open Ileartlh Furnace
Subcategcries.
Vol. V - Electric Arc Furnace, Degassire, arl Contincus Castirg
Subcategries.

6. 1U.S. Environrrental Protection Agency "Guidelines for Lowest Achievable

Eknission Rates fran 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Canpounds". Dec.
EPA-450/3-79-024 Washington (April 1979).

7. U.S. Envirorunental Protection Agency. "Industrial Guile for Air

Pollution Control". Doc. EPA-625/6-78/004. Washington (June 1978).

8. Jarrault, P. "Limnitation des Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de

L'Air-Valeurs Reglementaires dans les Principaux Pays Industrialises".
Institut Francais de l'Energie. Paris (1978).

9. APHA, PAWA,WPCF. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

Wastewater". 14th Edition. Anerican Public Health Association. New
York (1975).

10. United Kingdom Departrment of the Environrrent, "Analysis of Raw Potable,

and Wastewaters". H.M. Stationery Office, London (1972).

11. U.S. Envirormental Protection Agency. "Handbock for Monitoring

Industrial Wastewaters". Washington (August 1973).

12. U.S. Environrrental Protection Agency. "Water Quality Criteria".

Doc. EPA-R3-73-33, WIashington (NMarch1973).
 - 172 -

THE WORLD BANK SEPTEMBER 1982

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFBAIRS

LEAD SAMPLINGAND ANALYSES

1. This document covers the sampling and analyses for determining

inorganic lead concentrationsin the gaseous and liquid wastes fran indus-
trial operations as well as other sources discharging to the envirornment.
For gaseous and particulatedischarges,both stationaryand ambient sources
will be discussed.

2. Stationary sources consist mainly of primary and secondary lead

smelters. Primary plants are those producing lead fran lead sulfide ore
concentrates by pyronetallurgical processes. Secondary plants are tlose
producing lead fran scrap materials, such as manufacturers of storage bat-
tery ccnmponents. Ambient source rronitoring measures the discharges reach-
ing the environment fran these installations, as well as dischlarges fran
autornobile exhausts and other similar sources.

STATIONARYSOURCEAIR MONITORING

Sampling

3. Stack sampling ports are used for this purpose. These are to be
located at least eight stack diameters "downstream" of any bends, constric-
tions, abateaetnt equipment, or other flow disturbances. If this is not
possible, then tlhe sampling location should be at least tWo stack diameters
"upstream" of any flow disturbances. Where these criteria cannot be met a
stack extension beyond the discnarge and may be required. Ports should be
installed flush with the stack wall, and extend outward frorn the exterior
wall for between 5 and 20 centimeters, unless additional extension is
required for installation of gate valves or other appurtenances.

4. If the sum of the stack inside diameter plus one port length is
less than 3 meters, two ports should be installed on diameters 90 degrees
apart. If the sun is greater than 3 meters, then four ports should be in-
stalled on diarmeters 90 degrees apart.

5. Because particulates exhibit inertial effects and are not uni-

formly distributed within a stack, the sampling procedure is mDre complex
than for gaseous pollutants. Samples are taken at several traverse points
along the stack diameters (or cross-section). For a rectangular cross sec-
tion the equivalent diameter is to be determined fram the equation

De= 2LW
(f31w)

where De = the equivalentdiameter, L = the length, and W = the width of

tihecross-section.
 - 173 -

6. When the eight and two-diametercriteria can be met, the minimum

number of traversepoints should be (a) twelve, for circularor rectangular
stacks with diameters (or equivalent diameters) greater than 0.61 meter;
(b) eight, for circular stacks having diameters between 0.30 and 0.61
meter; and (c) nine, for rectangular stacks having equivalent diameters be-
tween 0.30 and 0.61 meter.

7. The stack sampling train for determining inorganic lead when

using the atomic absorption spectropbotometer procedure is shown schemati-
cally in Figure 1. It is inmportant in the sampling of particulates that
samples be withdrawn isokinetically, i.e. the linear velocity of the gas
entering the nozzle should be equal to the velocity of the undisturbedgas
stream at the sample point.

8. The filter holder uses a glass fiber filter. A temperature of

120 + 140 C is to is to be maintained by a suitable heating system sur-
roundingthe filter holder. The very fine particles and the vapor fraction
which pass through the filter are trapped by the impingers.

9. The sampling period is to be at least one hour's duration, and

longer if required to extend over a complete project cycle. The minimum
volume should be in the range of 0.85 to 0.9 dry standard cuLbicmeter
(dscm) per nour.

10. When using the dithizone analyticalprocedure, a different samp-

ling train is used. This is shown schematicallyin Figure 2. The train
consists of a 0.45 micron mnembranefilter, or equivalent, (to capture
larger particles) followed by a sampling tuoe contai.ning act-i'.ted carbon
(to capture particles smaller than 0.45 microns). Generally, a total sam-
ple of not over 150 to 200 cubic meters is collected

Analyses

11. The preferred methods of analysis for stack samples is "Method

12", as designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In this
meth-od the particulate and gaseous lead emissions (consisting mainly of
lead oxides) are withdrawn fran the source and collected on a filter and in
dilute nitric acid. The collected samples are digested in acid solution
and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, using an air acetelyne
flame. On the basis of tests on samples with concentrations ranging from
0.61 to 123.3 mg Pb/m 3 , the within-laboratory precision of the -metlhod var-
ies fran 0.2 to 9.5 percent.

12. High concentrations of copper iTayinterfere with the P) analysis

at the 217.0 nrnline of the instrument. Tnis interference can be avoided
by analyzing the sample at the 283.3 nm line. (rm = nanometer = 10-9
meter)

13. Where atomic absorption spectrophotometry cannot be used, due to

unavailability of equipment or for othier reasons, the colorimetric dithi-
zone method, as published by ASTM, may be used. The method measures par-
ticulate lead concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10.0 micrograms per cubic
 1 E.Vl. A' irt 'I R

'-.~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
g IF Al 0 tTIf.

_
-~~~~~~~~I I'i- ., r .7 I,, tEAl3slR rE*,ilTt TO 5CER
T
0F,Mr.

MOT rUBE ' F/fl II MILEDE

I11LD /
I__/ ,'~VAL VE

PElODc / li STACK 7

~~ ~~~ ~VACUUM
REVERSE-TYPE | LIN,
TUBcE
PITOT ;t L '2._ > -

7r
PITOTleANO'ME G '!iGIlS ILEUATii
BYTASSVAtVEr

- I .Afl AV

TtIEfMOMETEERS '.41AN VALVE

Da)YGASMETER TIGH.T
AIFR
PUNIP

Figure 1 - lnorgnnic Lead S..n 1ir.g Tra.n (FTrom U. S. Feci±ral TRcgister

?. 16576, Ppril 1;, 1982).
 - 175 -

meter. It will also measure the vaporous lead, captured1on the activated
carbon column, at concentrations below 0.5 microgram per cubic meter.

14. For the dithizone method, the filter sample is digested with ni-
tric and perchloric acid, and the dissolved lead then determined colorim-
itrically. For the carbon column portion of the samples, the lead is sep-
arated from the activated carbon with hyclhrochloric and nitric acids, filt-
ered, and the lead in the filtrate determined colorimetrically.

15. In the presence of weak ammoniacal-cyani.1e solution (pHl 8.5 to

9.5) dithizone gives colored complexes with bismuth, stannous tin, mono-
valent thallium, and indium. In strong amlToniacal-citrate-cyanide solu-
tions (at pH of about 11.0), the dithizonates of these ions are unstable
and are only partly extracted with chlorofonn-dithizotne solution. The
method has been found to be without interference from 20 micrograms .f
bismuth, 20 of rmnovalent thallium, 100 of stannous tin, and 200 micrograms
of trivalent indium. The ASTMprocedure includes various steps to reduce
the effects of these and other interfering ions.

AMBIENTAIR MONITORING

Sarpling

16. When the atomic absorption spectrophotometer is to oe used for

the analyses, ambient air samples are best collected with a high-volume air
sam-npler. This type of sampler utilizes a vacuum-like device to dlraw large
volumes of air through a fiber glass filter on vlnich particulates are col-
lected for measurenent and analysis. The sampler must be capable of pass-
ing environmentalair through a 406.5 cm2 portion of a clean glass fiber
filter at a rate of at least 1.70 m/ 3 min. The notor must be oapable
of 24-lhour continuous operation, '#ihich is usually the normal sampling
period.

17. The glass-fiber filters should have a collectionefficiency of

at least 99 percent for particles 0.1 to 100 microns in size. If other
filter materials are used, care must be taken to use filters that contain
very low background concentrations of the pollutant being investigated,
which in this case would be lead.

18. The total air flow througha the sampler is based on rotameter
readings taken at the beginning and end of the sampling period. Tne pro-
cedure assumes that the decrease in fLow is linear with time and that the
24-hour rate as recorded is a representative average of the entire sampling
period.

19. While the high-volume sampler does not entrap all of the vapor
fraction it is considered that the portion not entrapped is widely dis-
persed and highly diluted by the time the plume reaches the ground. Ambi-
ent sampling, for the most part, is done outside the plant fence. There-
fore, it is generally assumed that the particulates collected by the samp-
ler contain essentially all of the lead present in the ambient air.
 - 176 -

20. When the dithizone analyticalmethod is to be used, the sampling

train shfon in Figure 2, and briefly described above, is to be used.

Analyses

21. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency procedure designatedas

"Reference Method for the Determination of Lead in Suspended Particulate
Matter Collected from Ambient Air" is the method of choice for determining
the lead-content of samples collected on the high-volume glass-fiber
filter.

22. Lead in the particulate matter collected by the fiber-glass fil-

ter is solubilizedby extraction with nitric acid (HNO3) facilitated by
lheat,or by a mixture of HNO3 and hydrochloric acid (HC1) facilitated by
ultrasonication,which will extract metals other than lead from the partic-
ulate matter.

23. The lead content is determined by atomic absorption spectrophoto-

metry, using an acetylene flame, the 283.3 or 217.0 nm lead absorption
line, and the cptimum instrumental operating conditions recommended by the
manufacturer.

24. The typical range of the method is 0.07 to 7.5 micrograms Pb/m3,
assuming an upper linear range of analysis of 15 micrograms/ml and an air
volume of 2400 m 3 .

25. Both chemical and light scattering interferences are possible

with this method. Mbst analysts report an absence of chemical interfer-
ences. Where interferences do occur, the published method includes the
steps necessary to reduce or eliminate both types of interferences.

26. When the USEPA method cannot be used due to lack of proper in-
strumentation or for other reasons, then the ASTM dithizone method may be
used. The procedure is briefly described above.

WASTEWATER
MONITORING

Sampling

27. Wastewater sample collections should be based on the actual pro-

cess operations. Composition of the effluents will vary either with time
or flow. Cbuiposite samples, consisting of portions collected at intervals
over a 12 to 24-hour period, are considered to be most representative, al-
though grab or spot samples may be collected for special purposes.

28. Where the con-position varies according to time, the samples

should be of equal volume. Where the samples vary according to the flow,
the sample size should be in proportion to the flow. For situations when
samples must be collected at frequent intervals over long periods, the use
of automatic samplers is recommended.
 - 177 -

- INLET

F g T7-mmTUBIIJG

I I

I |R 24/40
.
- GLASSJOINT
C
USE NO S` OP COCK GRC-.AE

I'K24-mm
I.0. GLASSTUBF.
ACTIVAED CAREC0N(IO.C) GRAMS
; :;: : *QOF NO. 20-50 tMESHSIZE)

.. CRON-SIZE GLASS WOOL (3ORO-

SILICATE GLASS) I IGXToLYPACKED
TO A DE' TH4 CF 6.mri-Onr)
; [ ,ZUPPCRTS
WOOL
GLASS
E0 | 7 ?mm TU:IlG
A- ~~~~~I

ACTIVC7ES fl
CARBON VU L GAS LFJ
E-R o1S~~~~
FIGURE3aP
~ ~~~~~~~~~
ir- PUL- M.P
I
T E' I"
E--
E

47nim FILTER HOLDER

AND GLASS FIBER FILTERt

Figure 2 - Activated Carbon Scrubber and Sampling Train (Fromn ASTMlTest

Metlhod D3112-77)
 - 178 -

29. Preliminary sampling througchout the plant, to include all import-

ant sources of the pollutant, will indicate the location and minimum number
of sampling stations. It is important to know the lead content of individ-
ual waste streams within the plant, as well as in the final effluent.
Since flows must also be detennined, it is considered best to combine the
flow measurement station with the sampling station whenever possible.

30. Sampling stations should be located so that (a) the flow of the
waste streams is known or can be determined; (b) the station is easily ac-
cessible, with no safety hazards for personnel; and (c) the wastewater is
thoroughly rmixed. When flumes are used for measuring flows, the sample is
uslually well-mixed. If weirs are used to measure ilows, the waste stream
may not necessarilybe well-mixed, since solids tend to settle behind the
barrier while floatingmaterial passes over the weir.

31. The total volume cf sample to be collected will depend upon the
anaLyticalprocedure to be used. The volume shlouldbe sufficientto allow
for repeating the analysis, supplying samples to other laboratories for
clheckpurposes where indicated,and sim:ilarfactors. Care should be taken
to properly oreserve the samples during the sampling period and in trans-
porting to the laboratory,so that the composition does not change between
collection and analysis.

Analyses

32. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the method of choice for

roitinely detenni-iing lead in waste waters, as is the case with air-borne
effluerits. The methodi is rapid, sensitive, and specific for the particular
metal involved. The procedure is described in detail in the Fifteenth
Fiitio'± of "Standards Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater".

33. W4herethe atomic absorption spectrophotometer is not available,

lead concentrations may be determined by the dithizone method, also des-
cribed in "Standard .Methods". In this procedure, an acidified sample of
lead is mixed with ammoniacal citrate-cyanide reducing solution and extrac-
ted with dithizone in chloroform, to fonr a cherry-red lead dithizonate.
The color of the mixed solution is then measured colorimetrically. The
procedure may be subiected to interference frrm bis.nuth, stannous tin, and
monovalent thalliurr. Modifications are provided to avoid interference from
these ele-ments, rarticularlyexcessivequantitiesof bismuth or tin.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,Title 40, Sub-ChapterC, Part 60,

Subpart L, 'Standards of Perfonrancefor Secondary Lead Smelters"and
SuLbpart R, "Standards of Performance for Primary Lead Smelters".
Office of the Federal Register, GSA, Washington, (July 1, 1981)

2. U.S. Federal Register. "Standardsof Performancefor New Stationery

Sources; Lead-AcidBattery Manufacture" Vol. 47, No. !4, W 16564-
16579. Washington. (April 16, 1982).
 - 179 -

3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). "StandardTest

Method for Lead in the Atmosphere by Colorimetric Dithizone Pro-
cedure". ANSI/ASTM D-3112-77. Philadelphia (1977).

4. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,Title 40, SubchapterC, Part 50.

"National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards". Office
of the Federal Register, GSA, Washington (July 1' 1981).
5. American Public Health Association. "Standard Methods for the Exami-
nation of Water and Waste water". 15th Edition. New York (1980).

6. "Treatmentof IndustrialEffluents". Edited by A.G. Callely, C.F.

Forster,and D.A. Stafford. Halsted Press Division of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York (1976).
 - 180 -

THE WORLDBANK October 1983

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

LEATHERTANNINGANDFINISHING

1. Tanning is the process by Which animal skins are converted into

leath-er. The skin consists of three layers: flesh, derma or corium and
epidennis. The epidermal and corium layers constitute the leather making
portion, consisting mainly of the protein collagen. Basically, leather is
formed by the reaction of collagen fibers with tannin, chramium, alum or
other tanning agents.

2. Waste production in the leather tanning and finishing irdustry

will be affected by the mranufactuxring pxocess used to convert various types
of aninal .skins to the tanned and finished leather. In terms of the waste
loads, four general processes are used in this industry: beamhause; tan-
house; retan, color and fatliqcur; and finishing. The principal chemicals
employed in these processes include lime, sodium sulficde and sulfhydrate,
basic chrortium sulfate, vegetable ccrpounds, -mineral acids and sodium
chloride.

3. This docunent wiLl deal with the processing of cattle hides,

sliep skins anr pig skins. These are the raw materials of principal con-
cern in Banik projects, and will serve as typical examples for illustrating
waste productionr and control in this industry.

INIDUSTRLAL
PROCESSES

Cattle Hide Tannery

4. The beamhouse process provides for receiving the hides and for
the initial cleaning and preparation for the other opearations. Nearly all
hides as received will have been trimned and graded, and salted or brined
at the meat packing plant prior to shnipment to the tannery. They are nor-
mally received and stored at the tannery in packs of 1.5 to 2 meters high.
The rmisture content in the hides, as received, is rraintaired during stor-
age.

5. The first step in the processing is to umfold and trim each hide,
and cult it in half along the backbone, the step being frequently referred
to as halving or siding. The trimmings are collected for shipment to glue
or other by-product nanufacturing plants.

6. The sides (or whvle hide, in some instances) are transferred to

vats, drums, or hide processors for washing and soaking to restore mnis-
ture. This serves to remnve dirt, salt, blood, manure and non-fibrcus pro-
teins fr(n the skins.
 - 181 -

7. Tne skins are next transferred to a fleshing mad-Line, irl vhich

tlhy are carried tbrough rolls and across rotating spiral blades to remove
any flesh still clinging. Most hides are fleshed at the packing hcuse or
in a separate facility. Fleshings are nonnally reccverei and sold for ren-
dering or conversion to glue. With proper handling this operation contri-
butes very little liquid or solid waste.

8. The final bearrhouse cperation is the rerval of hair. This is

done by dhemical loosening, followed by either machine pul ling or dieii-
cally dissolving the hair. Machinre rernDval is practiced where hair is to
be recovered. Renmoval is acccipLished in vats, drums or hide crocessors
with a limLe slurry. "Sharpeners", such as sodium sulfide and sodiuLm
sulfhydrate, are added in varying strengths depending upon vhether or not
the hair is to be saved. The unhairing process is one of the principal
waste sourt es in tannery operations.

9. The basic tanning is accctplished in the tanhcuse process. Lhe

first step is the "bating", which prepares the stock for tanning. The
hides are placed in a solution of amnoniim salts ard enzymes in order to
de-lime the skins, reduce ssnelling, peptize fibers anl renove t7he protein
degradation products. Bating is followed by "pickLing", frequently done in
the same containers. A brine arnl acid solution is used to brirn the hides
to an acid condition for subosequent tarning. This treatment also prewents
precipitation of chraium salts in the chrane tanniig procedure.

10. Neacly a'll cattle hides are either chrane or vegetable tanned.
In a fewi instances alum or otlher tanning materials are used. For heavy
l eathers such as sole, mechanical, and saddle leathers, vegetable tanning
is used, in a solution containina vegetable tanners or atlher plant
extracts. Shoe upper leathers are usually tanned in a bath- coritaining
clracniuan sulfate. The tanned haide is rthen split to produce a grainside
piece of essentially constant thickness and a flesh side layer.

11. The retan, color and fat]iquor cperations constitute the thir(d
major step. Retanning is done principally to impart different characteris-
tics to the finished leather. Chrane, vegetable, or synthetic tanning
agents may be used for this purpose. Bleaching with sodium bicarbonate and
sulfuric acid commnnly follows tne tanning in producLng sole leather. Co-
loring is done in the same drums as the retanning, tising natural dyes or
synthletic products. The fatcoloring operation adds oils to the leatner in
order to replace the natural oils to the leather in order to replace the
natural oils lost in the beamhouse and tanhouse procedures.

12. After the wet processes thke hides are subject to the finishiny
steps such as drying, staking or tacking, and plating prior to marketing.
Staking or tacking involves stretching tlhe hide to iinke it more pliable and
avoid shrinkage. The plating operation "presses" the hnide in order to give
it a srmothaersurface.
 - 182 -

Sheep Skin Tannery

13. Sheep skin tatneries generally onit the beanihcuse process but do
include a degreasing cperation. Thus, the three rajor processes are the
tanhouse; retan, color and fatliquor; and the finishing.

14. The tanhouse process includes receiving, storage, flesning,

degreasing, tanni-ng and refleshing. After fleshing, the skins are placed
in drums, washed, and soaked. A solvent or detergent is then added to
rerve the grease. which is recovered as a by-product fran those skins
where the wool has been remrved. Grease recovery is not normally practiced
wh4en the wool (shearlings) is still attached to tlhe skin. The solvent is
recovered andl reused.

15. Sheep skins may be either clhrcme or vegetable tanned, wth chLrcme
being rist frequently used. Where skins are received in the pickled
condition there are no liming or bating operations. In sone cases tanning
is follcwed by refleshirin, which results in a small amount of solid wastes.

16. Skins to be dyed are imrurrsed in drums containing a dye (usually

synthetic) solution. Sam bleaching may be done prior to colDring of
shearlings. Fatliquoring follows the dyeing, an] is usually carried olt in
the same containers.

17. Tre finis',hing process, fllo\wing the color arr1 fatliquDr op,cra-
tions. includes drying, skivirq,+ (renoval of the skin's thin surface
layer), staking, carding, clipping, sanding, (use of abrasives or wheels to
produce a specific texture), and buffing.

Pig Skin Tannery

1.8. Pig skin tannery cperations are similar to tlose for sheE
skins. There are essentially no bearmhouse operations, but degreasing is
generally required in thve tanhouse processing. The skins are received at
the tannery in a fresh frozen or brined and refrigerated state. Refriger-
ated storage is provided if they are to be held before tanni-ng.

19. Degreasing is practiced by marry of these tanneries. After wash-

ing and soaking in warm water a solvent is added to remnve the grease. The
resulting solution of solvent, grease and water is pumped to large tanks,
where some separation is achieved by decanting. The solvent is recovered
for reuse. Grease is recovered by decanting or skimnmng fran the top of
the holding tanks.

20. Liming (to remove embedded hair), bating, and pickling follows
the degreasing. Tanning is done next, using either chrome or vegetable
compounds. Pig skins are generally fully tanned at this point, thus elimi-
nating the need for retanning. 'After tanning, the skins are tumble dried,
split, and shaved or skived tcp produce the desired thickness. lhe splits
(small pieces of non-uniform tlickness) are sold for fertilizer production.
 - 183 -

21. Frcmn the tanhcuse, the skins go to the coloring and fatliqu:ring
operations. The drying, coating, staking, and sanding cperations follow
next to caWlete the process. Th-ese are principally dry operations and are
considered as minor sources of wastes.

WASTESOURCESAND CHARACTERISTICS

22. Wastes fran tannery operations will contain a numrbec of constitu-

ents, of varying quantities and significance accordling to the raw mwteri-
als, orocesses and final p)roducts. Materials -which canl appear in tannery
wastes include hair, hi(de scraps, pieces of flesh, blood, rranure, lirt,
salt, lime, soluble proteins, sulfides, amines, chranium salts, tannin, so-
da ash, sugars and starches, oils, fats, greases, surface agents, mTineral
acids, dyes ardl solvents.

23. W1aste constituents, wien present, may be discharged in t7he gas-

eous, liquid, or solid state. The liquid wastes are of rra~pr sigiifi-
cance. Iowever, gaseous anal solid materials are important in certain irrdi-
vilual operations, andl consideration should be given to their dispEal.

24. The nmst iwortant paramters for defining thle charateristics of

the liquid wastes are: 5-day biodcenical oxygen de;rand (B0D5 ); total
Kjeldahl (amnonia plus organic) nitrogen (TKN): total suspenled solids
(TS,); chromium (^r);, oils and greases (O/G); sulfides; hydrogen-ion
concentration (p,)) and fecal colifomn organisms.

25. Particulate rnatter arn nydrcgen sulfide are the tbc potential
gaseais discharges of significance. The principal sources of hydrogen sul-
fide are t-he reactions of involving sulfide wastes frin unziairing qera-
tions. The removal of nitrogen fran the wastes by aTmnDnia stripping, when
required, creates another potential air pollution problem. Dnissions fran
tannery boilers can also be a source of gasecus dlisdiarges, and fly ash
emissions generally occur when coal is used as a fuel. Sulfur dioxide will
be found in boiler stack gases when high- sulfur coals or heavy fuel oils
are burned.

26. Solid wastes inclu(de fleshings, hair hide trimning, sad-ling

dlusts, slulges, greases and general plant wastes. Most plants recover
fleshings anl raw hide trimmings for sale to rendering plants or conversion
into glue. Where hair is recovered, it is sold as a by-product.

27. In terms of liquid wastes, certain op-erations are canmon to near-

ly all tanneries. These include: washing and soaking; degreasing (for
sheep and pig skins); unhairing; lating; pickling; tanning (including
bleaching for some vegetable tanning); retanning; coloring; fatliquoring
and finishing. The principal waste constituentscontributed by each of
these variaos operationsare presented in Table I.
 - 184 -

28. Not all plants utilize all of the operations indicated in Table
1. Based on the combinations most frequently enccuntered in the industry,
tanneries may be categorized by prinrmy rprocesses, as shown in Table 2.
The color and fatliquor processes are not included since tlheir wastes are
normilly of very low strength, even though highly variable in wDlune.

Table 1. Principal Liquid Waste Constituents Contributed By Specific

Operations.

rOperation Waste Constituents X

Waslhing and soaking BOD5, TSS

Degreasing 13D5 , TSS, O/G

Urlairing BDD5 , TSS, pHl, Sulfides,

Nitrogens

Bating Ammonia nitrogen

Pickling Acids, salts

Tatning Chrcniurn, vegetable tannins

Retanning, Coloring, Color, Oil

Fatliquoring
Finishing Essentially none

29. Average raw water characteristics based on the categories given

in Table 2, are presented in Table 3 for itore important pMllution para-
reters.

EFFiUENTLIMITATIONS

30. The collection and disposal of gaseous anr solid wastes siould
provide for essentially no discharge of such materials to the environment.
The sources and metlrds of handling these substances are discussed below.

31. Limitations on liquid effluent discharges to surface waters are

presented in Table 4. These are based on thle best technology currently
available and corsidered to be economically feasible.

32. Liquid effluent quality requirements for industries discharging

to municipal sewers car. oe less stringent than those disdharging to a water
course. However, wastes discharged to nnicipal facilities usLally will
require sore degree of pretreatimnt, depending upon the VD]Ume and strength
of the wastes, degree of municipal treatment and local regulations.
 - 185 -

Table 2. Plant Categories By Primary Processes. a/

Primary Process

Category

Bearhouse Tanning Finishing

A Pulp Hair Chrane yes

B Save Hair Chrane Yes

C Save Hair Vegetable Yes

D Hair Previously Previously

l Removed Tanned Yes

E Hair Previously Chrane Yes

Rerrovedor
Retained

F Pulp or Save Chrane or No

No Tanning

a/ Fran EPA Doc. 440/1-74-016-a

CONTROLAND TREATMENTOF WASTES

33. While there are variations in individual cperations between

plants, available control and treatmrent techniques are generally applicable
to most situations. Control of wastes is acconplished through a canbin-
ation of in-plant measures, disposal to municipal facilities, or disd&arge
to the air, water and lard envirornents.

Gaseous Wastes

34. Gaseous emissions of hydrogen sulfide, principally fran the un-

hairirkg procedures, may be controlled by oxidation of the sulfides with a
catalyst prior to discharge to the main plant sewers. This not only avoids
potential air pollution and odor problems but also protects the safety of
workers exposed to the waste streans. Removal of nitrogen through biologi-
cal system rather than by am-onia stripping avoids potential Froblems
createu by venting amnnonia fran highly concentrated wastes.
 - 186 -

Table 3. Average Tannery Raw Wastewater Characteristics-

Kg per Megagram of Raw Hides Processed. a/ b/

Parameter Category

A B C D E F

Flcw 53 63 50 20 63 28

BDD5 95 69 67 37 67 110

TKN 17 13 9.2 3.7 6.0 16

TSS 140 145 135 47 88 110

Tbt. Cr 4.3 4.9 0.2 2.6 1.2 4.4

O/G 19 43 33 7.9 24 6.6

Sulfides 8.5 0.8 1.2 2.1 4.5 3.7

pH 1.0- 4.0- 2.0- 3.4- 1.5- 9.2-

13.0 12.6 13.0 11.2 12.5 10.4

a/ From EPA Doc. 440/1-74-016-a.

'/ Except Flow and pH. Flow = m3 /Mg Raw Hides Processed
1 megagram = 1 metric ton.

35. In addition to process sources, air pollution problems can also

result from operation of the tannery boilers. Wet scrubbers or electro-
static precipitators can remove over 98 percent of the fly ash fran coal
fired facilities. Sulfur dioxide enissions can be greatly reduced by burn-
ing coal and fuel oils having a lcw sulfur content. Gas scrubbers capable
of remnving sulfur dioxide from boiler flue gases are currently under
develcpment.

Liquid Wastes

36. The use of hide processors (essentially concrete mixers), in

place of vats, paddles, or drums, will greatly reduce water consmption in
applicable wet processing cperations. Other in-plant mreasures to reduce
waste flow include: employee awareness and application of water saving
measures, changing continuous rinses to batch rinses- usinn meters or
tirers to J.imit individual flows, and use of wash or rinse waters for
process solution makeup.

;
 - 187 -

Table 4. Daily Maximum Effluent Limitatons - Leather Tanneries.

Plant Category

Constituent
a/ A B C D E F

BOD5 2.8 3.2 2.6 1.0 3.2 1.4

TSS 3.0 3.6. 2.8 1.2 3.6 1.6

O/G 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.48 1.3 0.68

Sulfides 0.010 0.012 0.010 0.004 0.012 0.006

Tot. Cr. 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.04 0.12 0.06

TKN 0.54 0.64 0.50 0.20 0.62 0.28

pH 6.0 to 9.0

Fecal Col. Not over 400 per 100 mL

a/ All limitations, except pH and Fecal Coliforms, expressedas kg/

Megagram of Raw Hides Processed.

37. Tan liquor discharges can be reduced through recycling in vege-

table tanneries or reuse in retanning cperations. Chrane tanning solutions
can be regenerated and reused by settling the spent liquDr, and adding
chrcmium salts, sulfuric acid, and sodium chloride to restore the prcper
concentration. Unhairing solutions are also aminable to "regeneration" and
reuse. Final disposal of chrcme liquors should be given special attention,
since chrrme in its varicus valence states is hazardous to nan, aquatic
life, and vegetation. The chrane can be precipitated, in clarifiers or
eqgalization basins, as chromium hydroxide at a pH of 8.5 to 10.5. Dispos-
al of chrane sludges is discussed below, in paragraph 41.

38. Pretreatment may be required for sewer safety and maintenance,

protection of biological treatment systems, meeting final effluent dis-
charge limitations, or conforming with sludge disposal criteria. The fol-
lowing methods, alone or in combination, may be applied for this purpose:
screening, flcw equalization, sedimentation, coagulation, pH adjustment,
and separate sludge disposal.
 - 188 -

39. Fbr plants discharging wastes directly to surface waters, on-site

treatment should be provided in order to meet effluent limitations. Bio-
logical systems are nst effective. The specific system to be used should
be designed for the volume and characteristics of the wastes discharged.
Trickling filters, aerobic and anaerobic lagoons, and activated sludge sys-
tems have been effective.

40. Additional treatment may be required in certain cases. When

there are high concentrations of nitrogen ccapounds, nitrogen removal may
be necessary. Micrcscreening, carbon adsorption (using fixed beds of acti-
vated carbon), color removal, ion exchange, and reverse osmcsis are effec-
tive in providing additional treatment where necessary.

Solid Wastes

41. Sanitary landfills are best suited for disposal of those solid
wastes whidi are not recovered as valuable by-products. Incineration and
high tenuperature treatment are not recammended for sludges or other wastes
containing chrome, to avoid oxidation of the chrcius fran the trivalent to
the hexavalent state. These sludges slould be sprea on land until such
time as their impact upon the environment is better understood.

42. Proper selection of a site for use as a landfill is of primary

importance in avoiding environnental damages. Site selection factors
should include: sufficient area; reasonable haul distance; distance from
existing or planned residential, camnercial and recreational areas; soil
conditions and rock formations; access to transporation networks; looltion
of existing flood plains; and potential fire hazards.

BIBLIOGRAPH{Y

1. "Developrent lDcument for Effluent Linitations Guidelines and New

Source Perfonnance Standards for the Leather Tanning ald Finishing
Industry". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Document
EPA-440/1-74-016-a. Washington, (March 1974).

2. Villa, J.A. "The Interrelationship Between Parameters of the Leather

Industry". UN Industrial Develcpment Organization. United Nations.
New York (1973).

3. "Information Sources on the Leather and Leather Goods Industry". UN

Industrial Develcpment Organization, Guides to Infornation Sources
No. 3. United Nations. New York (1972).

4. "International Glossary of Leather Terms". International Council of

Tanners. London (1967).

5. Harris, D. "Dictionary of Terms Used in the Hides, Skins, and Leather

Trade". Agriculture Handbock No. 465. U.S. Department of Agriculture.
(April 1974).
 - 189 -

THE WORLDBANK JULY 1983

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MEAT PROCESSINGAND RENDERING

INDUSTRIALWASTEDISPOSAL

1. Meat processing plants are those whose operations are confined to

dressing and curing of carcasses, to preparing specialty and other pro-
ducts, and to canning, following slaughter of the animals. The raw input
generally consists of carcasses of cows and hogs. Processing operations
may be carried out in conjunction with a slaughterhcuse or at a separate
location. Slaughterhouses will not be covered in these guidelines since
they are the subject of a separate document.

2. A rendering plant is one which converts the inedible and discard-

ed remains of the animals (such as fats, bones, heads, blood, and offal)
into useful by-products such as lard, tallow, oils and proteinaceous
solids. Rendering may be done on-site as an adjunct to processing opera-
tions or off-site as an independentoperation.

INDUSTRIALPROCESSES

2. Meat processingproduces a number of productswhich may be gener-

ally grouped as follows:

=- Meat cuts and related products (such as steaks, chops,

roasts and hamburgers) for hotels, restaurants and
privadte consumers;

-- Hams and bacon, requiring curing in pickling solutions

followedby cooking and sirking, cooling, and slicing or
other preparation prior to packaging and marketing;

-- Ccmminuted meat products, requiring substantial size re-

duction and mixing. The final product will be in a casing
or container, such as sausages or sausage meat; and

-- Canned products such as hams, sandwich spread and pet

foods.

4. Most plants will produce a mix of these, although some do confine

themselves to one specialty only.
 - 190 -

5. Plant waste waters usually discharge through catch basins, grease

traps, or flotation units. While there is a waste reduction benef it, the
basic purpose of this procedure is to separate the greases for later by-
product recovery, rather than to provide waste treatment per se.

6. In the rendering operation, the bulk material (offal, bones,

trimmings, etc.) are dumped into a pit and then conveyed to a grinder,when
grinding is necessary. The raw mixture is next heated or cooked to melt
the tallow or grease and permit separation fran the proteinaceous materi-
als. The proteinaceous material, also know as "cracklings", is normally
screened and ground to produce a meat and bone product. Both edible and
inedible by-products result fram the rendering operation, depending upon
the canposition and freshness of the raw materials and on the procedures
used.
OF WASTES
SOURCESANDCHARACTER

7. Liquid wastes, carrying various amounts of solids are the major

concern in this industry. Solid wastes, resulting mainly from screening
and housekeeping,may also be of concern but this will depend upon the de-
gree of separation and by-product recovery practiced at the individual
plant. Other than odor problems, gaseous wastes are not significant. The
purely hazardous types of comiponents, such as heavy metals and pesticides,
are not normally found in meat processingeffluents.

8. The most imrportant parametersapplicable to liquid effluents are

5-day biochemical oyxgen demand (BOD5), total suspended solids (TSS), oils
and greases (0 + G), hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), and fecal coliform
organisms. In addition, phosphorous may be of concern in meat processing
while ammonia may be of significance in rendering operations.

9. Odors can originate fran both point and non-point sources. They
generally result from bacterial activity on organic matter, the heating of
animal materials, and the handling of warm animal residues.

10. The processing of carcasses and remains adds to the waste load-
ings as follows:

-- Preparation of meat materials. Large volumes of

highly contaninated waste are generated in thawing
raw materials by water imersion. The breaking, cut-
ting, trimming, and boning of meats for further pro-
cessing generates very little flow and waste load.
Waste loads originate primarily fram cleaning the
equipment used for grinding, mixing, blending, and
emulsifyingthe processed materials into other pro-
ducts. Additionalwastes are generated from extrusion,
stuffing,or molding operationsrelated to forming or
containerization of the product mixture prior to cook-
ing.
 - 191 -

Pickling or curing operation. This involves use of

a solution for pickling hams, bacon and other products.
Wastes result fram the nature of the process and the
washing down of floor areas.

-- Product cooking. Products are generally cooked in

ovens (smokehouses)or in wet cookers using live steam
or hot water. Wastes are generatedprincipally from
the sprayingapplied to drench the products after cook-
ing and from equipment cleaning.

-- Canning. Large volumes of water are generated in the

canning operation. Plants using automated canning lines
will discharge less water and wastes from this source.

11. In the rendering industry the major waste sources are fram raw
materials receiving, condensing cooker va. -rs, plant cleanup,and truck and
barrel washing. These mainly contain orgaiLic matter and suspended solids,
along with various inorganic blood, meat and fatty tissue, body fluids,
hair, dirt, manure, hide curing solutions, tallow -l 3 grease, meal pro-
ducts, and caustic or alkaline detergents.

12. Typical raw waste characteristicsfor various types of operations

are shown in Table 1.

OF WASTES
CONTROLANDTREATMENT

13. As has already been stated, the principal and usually only air
pollution problem connected with the meat processing and rendering indus-
tries is that of odors, particularly in the rendering operations. Other
possible sources are the smokehouse operation and the dryers. Air scrub-
bers are most ommpnly used for odor control. T'bavoid increasing the liq-
uid waste loading the scrubber water may be recycled if the air is not too
heavily loaded with smnke and grease particles.

14. Liquid waste discharges to receiving waters can be reduced in

volume and concentration through effective water managemnt, in-plant waste
controls, process modifications, and by the use of treatment systems. The
wastes may also be released to municipal systems provided that certain pre-
treatment measures are taken prior to discharge fran the industry.

15. In-plant control techniques include the use of screening, skim-

ming, or settling (alone or in conbination) to reduce the discharge of sol-
ids. Because these solids, to a large degree can be processed into sale-
able by-products, this treatment step is routinely employed in most
plants. Excess solids can be hauled to a landfill. Where possible, steps
should be taken to prevent useful materials fran reaching the floor in
order to reduce general cleanup operations. This conserves water and re-
duces effluent flows. Catch basins can be employed for separation of
greases and other solids. Dissolved air flotation systems have also been
effective in removing grease and finely suspended solids.
 - 192 -

Table 1. Typical Raw Waste Characteristics- Meat Processingand Rendering.

Flow BOD3 TSSJ 0 + G a!

Type of Plant (Liters) _(Kg (Kg) - (Kg)

Per Megagram of Final Product (FP)*

Small Processor b/ 3,330 1.1 0.80 0.49

Meat Cutting 600 0.52 0.64 0.12

Sausage and
Lunch Meats 9,600 2.6 3.5 1.2

Ham Processing 10,600 5.5 3.3 2.4

Meat Canning 11,200 12. 4.5 2.1

f
Per Megagram Raw Material Input (RM)

Rendering c/ 3,260 2.2 1.1 0.72

a/ 0 + G = Oils and Greases

b/ Total production= less than 2,700 Kg/day

c/ Following in-plantmaterials recoveryusing catch basins, skimmers,etc.

* 1 megagram = 1 metric ton

 - 193 -

16. Biological systems can generally be effective for treating these

wastes, particularly where in-plant "primary" treatment for recovery of
useful solids is being utilized. Secondary treatment, such as anaerobic
processes, aerobic lagoons, the activated sludge process, and high-rate
trickling filtration are the techniques most frequently used.

17. If treatment beyond "secondary" is required the effluent my be

subjected to slow sand filtration, microstraining, spray-irrigation, ion-
exchange, or other t,.:tiary systems.

18. Maximun daily effluent limitations, after treatment, are present-

ed in Table 2.
 - 194 -

Table 2. Daily Maximum Effluent Limitations- Meat Processingand

Rendering Plants

Type of Plant a/ BOD5 TSS Oils + Greases

TpoPlta(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)

Per Megagramof Final Product (FP)

Small Processor b/ (No dischargeallowable) c/

Meat Cutting 0.02 0.02 0.01

Sausage and
Lunch Meat 0.28 0.38 0.20

Ham Processing 0.32 0.42 0.22

Meat ranning O.34 0.44 0.26

Per Megagram Raw Material Input (RM)

RenderingPlant d/ 0.14 0.20 0.10

a/ For all plants: pH 6 to 9; Fecal ColiformMPN 400/100 ml.

b/ Total Production= less than 2,700 kg/day.

c/ May be dischargedto municipal system with adequate pretreatment.

d/ For plants where hide curing is carried out, the followingadditive

adjustmentsare to be made:

BOD5 - 6.2 X (no. of hides)

(Kg of RM)

TSS = 12.6 X (no. of hides)

(Kg of RM)
 - 195 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "InfonmationSources on the Meat ProcessingIndustry",UN Industrial

DevelopmentOrganization. Doc. UNIDO/LIB/SER.D1/Rev.lNew York (1976).

2. Jones, Harold R. "PollutionControl in Meat, Poultry,and Seafood

Processing". Noyes Data Corporation.,Park Ridge, N.J., and London
(1974).

3. Levie, Albert. "The Meat Handbook",AVI PublishingCo. Westport,

Connecticut. (1963).

4. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency DevelopnentDocuments for Effluent

Limitations Guidelines and New Source Perfonmance Stdandards for the
Meat Products and Rendering Processing Point Source Category, as
follows:

(a) Doc. EPA-440/1-74/031, Processor Segment (August 1974)

(b) Doc. EPA-440/2-74/031-d, Group 1. Phase II, Renderer
Segement (January1975).

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "UpgradingMeat Packing Facilities

to Reduce Pollution", EPA Technology Transfer Seminar Publication. 3
Vols. Washington (October1973).
 - 196 -

THE WORLDBANK JULY 1982

OFFICE OF ENV1RONMENTAL AFFAIRS

GUIDELINES

STRIP (SURFACE MINING OPERATIONS)

SEDIMENTANDEROSION CONTROL(LAND RECLAMATION)

1. Control of erosion and sedimentation h2as assumed a new importance

in view of world-wide industrial expansion and increased energy needs.
Greater reliance is being placed on coal as a rmajor energy source. Many
mineral ores and coal supplies are readily accessible through strip (or
surface) mining operations. Therefore measures are necessary to protect
the environment from uncontrolled soil mnovement and offsite damage that
could result from such operations.

2. Measures are also necessary to ensure the safety of workers and

others who are required to be at or near the site. On March 24, 1981, 19
persons were buried alive when their homes, located at the edge of an open
cast tin mine, were destroyed by a landslide. The ground on which the
homes were standing slipped 60 meters downhill into an excavation. This
tragic event occurred at Puchong, Selangor State, Malaysia.

3. Each Bank appraisal report should include a coxmplete and detailed

proposal, with a timetable, for oontrolling erosion and sedimentation which
could result from projects. The plan should provide for initiating land
reclamation and other necessary measures in the early project stages, and
in no case later than three (3) years following the start of mining opera-
tions.

4. These guidelines present basic concepts and sources of sediment

pollution, principles of control, and the planning needed for effective
control measures.

CONCEPTSANDCOURCESOF SEDIMENTPOLLUTION

5. Surface mining, like any large-scale earth-moving operation, can

generate large volumes of sediment. If the sediment can be contained
within the mining site, then no problems acc created. Hawever, if the
sediments are not contained but are allowed to each adjacent waterways, as
is most frequently the case, then they become pollutants.

6. As pollutants, the sediments can have a number of detrimental ef-

fects, such as:

-- Reducing storage capacity in reservoirs;

--Filling lakes and ponds;
--Clogging stream channels;
-- Destroying aquatic habitats;
 - 197 -

-Increasing water treatments costs; and

-- Acting as carriers of other pollutants (such as plant
nutrients, insecticides, heavy metals and diseas organisms).

7. The major sources of sediment pollution are those land-disturbing

activities associated with mining, construction, agriculture, and fores-
try. It has been reported that active surface mining and construction
operations cause the highest rates of erosion.

8. The major sources of sediment in surface mining cperations are

the areas being cleared, grubbed (renoval of stumps and roots), and scalped
(removal of vegetation cover); roadways; spoil pits; and active mining
areas.

9. Soil losses frau clearing, grubbing and scalping operations are

caused by:

-- Failing to install perimeter control measures prior to

start up of operations;
--Exposing soils or steep slopes;
-- Clearing too far above the unexcavated face of the over-
burden;
-- Clearing and grubbing too far ahead of the open cut;
-- Improperly placing or protecting the salvaged or stock-
piled materials; and
-Creating a surface that impedes infiltration or concen-
trates surface runoff, such as leaving bulldozer cleat
marks that run up and down a slope.

10. Roadways are often the major source of sediment, and may function
aes conduits for sediment washing down fram other areas into the natural
drainage systems. This includes the roadways within the mining area itself
as well as the access roads outside the actual mine site.

11. Long access roads can adversely disrupt the natural drainage sys-
tems by intercepting, concentrating and diverting runoff. This will result
in severe soil losses fram roadway surfaces, ditches, cut slopes and safety
berms.

12. Acceleratedonsite and offsite erosion will occur after the mine
ceases operations if steps are not taken to permanently stabilize exposed
surfaces with vegetation and to otherwise lessen disruption of the normal
drainage patterns.

13. In area strip mining operations, carried out in level or gently

rolling topography, the spoil accumulating below the cutcrop line has the
greatest potential for causing offsite sediment damage. Water pumped fran
the pit during rainfall can also contribute significant quantities of sedi-
ment and other contaminants.
 - 198 -

14. Contour strip mining, carried out in steep or nountainous terrain

has a much greater potential for sediment damage. Since contour mines have
a narrow, linear configuration rmore of the spoil area tend(s to discharge
directly into the natural drainage systems. Another onatrihllting factor is
that the receiving waterway is generally closer to the sediment source and
separated by relatively steep terrain. Additionally, the mine site
receives erosive runoff from unlistuirbed areas above it.

15. Mountain-tcp removal minirng has, in recent years, been an alter-

native to strip mining. The most critical areas at this type of cperation
are the spoil slopes around the perimeter, mine roadway exits, and valley
fills. The fills are highly susceptible to piping (subsurface removal of
soil) and to landslides. Another serious problem can be the soil losses
from the face of the slop due to rainfall and runoff. Chemical and acid
pollution can also cause serious problems.

16. Certain reclamation practices contribute significantlyto en-

vironmentaldamage if not properly carried out. Configurationof the grad-
ed areas, the pattern of reestablished drairtageways, revegetation measures,
tillage practices, and followup maintenance will all influence the long
term soil losses and offsite damages.

PRINCIPLES OF EROSIONAND SEDIMENTTRANSPORT

17. As applied to mining operations the most important types of eros-

ion are those caused by a stormwater runoff. Three basic types are of
mkijor significance:

-- Sheet erosion - resulting fron rain strikinga bare

soil surface,and displacingsoil particles;
--Rill and qully erosion - removal of soil by water through
smeall,well-definedchannels; and
--Stream channel erosior.- scouring of the stream channel
by sediment reaching the stream from land surfaces.

18. The erosion potential of any area is determined by climiate (pre-

cipitation, tenperature and wind); vegetative cover; soil characteristics
(structure, texture, organic matter, moisture, and permeability);and to-
pography. While these factors nust be considered separately, it is their
cormbinedeffects whic, detenmine the total erosion potential.

19. Sediment transportation and deposition are influenced by the flow

patterns of the water and the nature of the particles being tr-isported.
As velocity and turbulence increase, more sediment is transported. Small,
light particles such as fine sand, silt and clay are easily transported.
Conversely, coarser and 'neavier particles are more readily deposited.
 - 199 -

CONTROLTECHNOLOGY

20. Stormwater runoff, which is the basic cat'seof soil erosion, can
be controlled through applications of proper vegetative and structual prac-
tices, and construction measures that control the location, volume, and ve-
locity of runoff. To this should be cormbined a suitable program of schedu-
hing mining operations to minimize problems related to seasonal climatic
fluctations.

21. Control may be acccoplished through one or rmre of the following:

--Reduction and detention of the runoff;

-Interception and diversion of the runoff; and
--Proper handling and disposal of concentrated flow.

22. Soil stabilizationis another means of preventingsoil erosion.

Stabilizationmeasures may be either vegetative or non-vegetative,short
term or long term, or a combination of these. Vegetative stabilization
utilizes different types of vegetation to protect the soil fram erosion.
Non-vegetativestabilizationemploys a multitude of measures that depend on
materials other than vegetation to prevent erosion. Frequently the two
types are used together.

23. Mulching and chemical stabilization are the two major types of
short term measures applied. Mulching, with organic materials such as
straw, hay, wo,odchips, wood fiber or other products, is most often used.
Chemical stabilizers serve to coat and penetrate the soil surface and bind
the soil particles together. These are must effective for dry, highly per-
meable spoil or inplace soils subject to sheet flow.

24. Mulching and channel stabilization are mist frequently used for
long term stabilization. However, mulching in this case involves the use
of fiber glass, plastics, or other non-biodegradablematerial to protect
seed beds during the germination and early plant developmentperiods. In
general, structual channel stabilization involves the use of stone riprap
(broken rock) or other durable material to stabilize ditches and other
waterways. Stone surfacing is sometimes used to stabilize highly toxic
surfaces or excessively wet seepage areas on slopes.

25. Sediment is the product of erosion and hence must be oontained,

and every effort should be made to control sediments at, or as close to,
the source as possible. The procedures ased successfully for trapping
(such as sanLdbags and straw bales), settling basins and chemical coagula-
tion.

26. All erosion control and sediment containment facilities must re-
ceive proper maintenance during their design life in order to perform ef-
fectively. They should be located in a highly visible area so as not to be
overlooked. They must also be readily accessible to personnel and equip-
ment for regular inspections, and for the performance of routine and emer-
gency repairs.
 - 200 -

27. Once the mining operation is finished, all sediment control

structures should be disosed of in such a way as to present both the struc-
tures and the accumulated sediments fram becaming nuisances and contribu-
ting to environmentaldeterioration.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

28. Runoff and arainage fron surface mining cperationsshould not ex-
ceed the following limitationsprior to discharge into surface waters:

Total Suspended Solids: 30 - 100 mg/L

Total Iron 4 - 7 nmg/L
pH 6 - 9
Alkalinity Greater than acidity
Soluble Toxicants None

CONTROLPLANNING

29. An erosion and sediment control plan serves as the basis for op-
erating the mine and at the same time minimizing or eliminating environmen-
tal damage.

30. Preparation of a control plan requires five basic steps:

-Identification of legal and technical requirements;

-- Collection and evaluation of site information;
-- Development of a control strategy;
-- Interdisciplinary review of the feasibility of the
preliminaryplan; and
-Revision and finalizationof the control plan

31. Table 1 presents a list of the major components which should be

considered in formulating an erosion and sediment control master plan.
This should be made an integralpart of the overall mining operation.

LAND RECLAMATION

32. Surface mine reclamation shall be performed in such a manner

that the lands are returned to conditions capable of supporting prior land
uses or uses that are equal to or better than prior land use. The cperator
must backfill and grade to cover all acid and toxic materials. Highwalls
and spoil piles must be eliminated and the approximateoriginal contour re-
stored. All surface areas must be stablized and protected in order to con-
trol slides, erosion, subsidence and accompanying water pollution. Water
impoundments, retention facilities, dams, or settling ponds shall be ade-
quate for intended land use. These faclities cannot produce significant
adverse effects to adjacent water resources. Operators must use best prac-
ticable commercially available technology to minimize, control, or prevent
disturbances to surface or underground water quality, quantity, or flow.
Mining wastes and rubbish must be prcperly disposed of so as to minimize,
control, or prevent water pollution.
 - 201 -

Table 1. Carponents to be Considered for Preparation of Erosion and

Sediment Control Plans a/

lftklSound in@ofmltion: *idule oftwsitenring:

t Genta Miag onatetIofi nr'r

Loction of proiva Z O tu r'

Extant Of area to be affected
TWOeof mininq ooevaUon | ih..A of oveiburcen hanohng
l hvidenc
cf Cornhaonce with Slie's 'qal ilandling of firt cut
MQUintments Plan vViewof cvtrOUft:n storeq"
tes
2. S;t invwntorv Stornmtatar hanodling in overcurden
noree eas
Topography ITernorstrynac,lzation eansum
CeolOQic Anv Pe.
ft ianertsanil.zstion measure
SOanays
4
Oimitit analysis
Hydrologic analyVis Rtedimdor coeraoionst
Vetastive analysis
ard gse analyns 1. iaavuling of texic rnatelialh

Modl of hadling to3x&c arral

I4uimtent to be used
Se!aiule of aMtiset:
. Sopol rohendling atid gradin.
Site artion~
1TDjCtl ctr .tion Of .rae tl;g
.. Aa a roeds i:quirent to be used
AhJeoo af xxvnding tousaii cr %.oGCr
Pun view Uoation) horizon "Wrl..5n " v W7 ad
Typic atlao sectioss Sarv. rurvehtir aoooxiltate
Pmtea thIicknos of trt ftai surfactr
l tIMunait
fsauirvetw and s1bdule Iiter
ffi i~~~~~ehod
of dreilrg Contuo for tts
2. 0"ianege aW sirnrent em,roi
t aIc%;r% fii rarcd area

Pan wew (ilocation) a heon:

Typidcl rossseolsosi
Deils (s*teo riedee i fhod tobe swis
Diesign Ceftaiaons (WiM 0ecan) Surfat prepaesbion
haintame requiemnt am seceule vo of vegetation
ilu 5Palh:l (n-asnod
2. Cloew"o and gnAbOing: mu)
S. w a nevegtation
t
pa sdsedul Ad
PUs viW Of limits of area to be as at
cioion of pocdusn Muldch apli=tion (Imncdd tmo rseie
MICAICAeYto be used ateena i*uequirmn ts and s1crea-
Method of dipoigg of t0 a. brus. are
W" ftaaisls
tdemalfiatin of critial area euvN 4. Mie tdmsrrnt:
lwP rwYsbifization
lMied for ditpo wiad astiliaoon
of drainag reot

t. SC"oirs LUid fatr fil'.a-ien ar/or

d4.le ot of haui t
Mehs oft csaling tnpaoitl numi4i AnignmAn i of retvonstc,i.tv toer m,
Suin - to be umd pensinent wuzawtra left teidaxt
PFileaf of %osoi store aMniae pr*gr*no and secho*de
Sarsy vmqa sub,ilasuon of for wr# parritit reuctum in
S mand

a/ USEPA "Erosion and Sediment Control". IDc. EPA-625/3-76-006. (October

1976).
 - 202 -

33. It is inportant that land reclamation be started as soon as pos-

sible and at the latest 3 years after the opening of the mine. The Bank
Mission should receive concrete and detailed proposals on the reclamation
program and on the means necessary to achieve it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Grim, E.C. and R.D. Hill. "Environmental Protection in Surface Mining

of Coal". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Technology Series,
Doc. EPA-670/2-74-093. Washington (October1974).

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency "Erosion and Sediment Control".

(2 Vols.) Doc. EPA-625/3-76-006. Washington (October 1976).

3. "Guidelines for Reclamation and Revegetation, Surface-Mined Coal Areas

in Southwest Virginia". Virginia Polytechnic Itnstitute and State
University, ExtensionDivision. Blacksburg,Virginia (February1973).
 - 203 -

THE WORLDBANK JULY 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

UNDERGROUND
COALMINING

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Many of the world's mineral resources are extracted from the

earth through underground mining operations. The principal ones include
coal, and to a lesser degree, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, uranium, and
otlers. This document will be confined to the environmental effects of un-
derground coal production and its associated operations.

MINING PROCESSES

2. Undergroundmining is a highly complex operation,involvingbasi-

cally working beneath a thick overburden, connected to the outside by
shafts and passagewayswhich are sometimeshundreds of meters long. Major
problermswhich are not found or are of lesser importance in surface mining
include roof supports, ventilation, lighting, drainage, methane release,
equipment access and coal conveyance.

3. Once a main access portal has been establislhed, parallel entries

are driven into the coal deposit to provide corridors for haulage, ventila-
tion, pcwer and other operational needs. Cross-corridc__ then reach to the
sides of the mine, leaving pillars in a checkerboard fashion to support
the roof and overburden. The deeper the mine, the larger the pillars must
be relative to the mined out areas. Where large pillars are required for
support during operations it may be desirable to mine the pillars as the
equipment retreats back tcward the main tunnel. The roof must then be sup-
ported by other means or allowed to collapse.

4. Equipment used in underground mining ranges fran relatively sim-

ple to highly automated machinery. Many small mines still rely primarily
on hand labor. Coal is blasted from the face of the seam and loaded into
shuttle cars, using mechanical techiques in most cases. This involves un-
dercutting, drilling, blasting and loading. Shuttle cars, filled by porta-
ble oonveyor belts, take the coal either to an undergroundtransfer point
or directly out of the mine.

5. These operationsproduce large amounts of dust and liberatemeth-

ane trapped in the coal, requiring that exposed areas be kept essentially
free of particulates or open flames to prevent coal dust or methane explo-
sions. Machines are usually connected to a water supply to provide a spray
for dust control. Frequent methane testing is required at the seasn face to
avoid danger to the workers.
 - 204 -

6. Continuous machines are employed in many locations. Basically a

rotating head digs into the coal and loosens it while arms scoop it onto a
conveyor belt for loading ir-no a shuttle car.

7. Longwall mining has been used in Europe for many years and is now
gaining popularity in other regions. Corridors about 100 to 200 meters a-
part are driven into the coal and interconnected. The longwall of the in-
terconnecti on is then mined in sJ -.ces. The roof is held up by steel sup-
ports while the cutter makes a pass across the face. The roof supports
are advanced with the shearing machine to make a new pass, while the roof
in the mined out area collapses behind the supports.

8. For most uses, the mined coal must be processed to meet consuner
needs in terms of size, moisture, mineral concentrations,heat content and
other properties. This may be done by either physical or chemical proced-
ures, and usually takes place at the mine site.

9. Physical coal cleaning involves crushing,grinding, sizing, sol-

ids separation,washing and flotation in various combinations. These tech-
niques remove portionsof the sulfur and ash contents. Although the sulfur
exists in the coal in both the organic and inorganicforms, physical clean-
ing is effective only in reducing the inorganic portion. Because of par-
tial ash removal, the procedure also increases the per kilogram heat con-
tent.

10. Chemical coal cleaning or desulfurizationinvolves treating coal

with a reagent capable of converting the sulfur to a soluble or volatile
form. Leaching solutions such as nitric acid, hydrofluoricacid, chlorine,
anmmnia, and organic solvents have been reported to be successful. How-
ever, this cleaningprocedure is still in the experimentalstage and is not
currently being applied commercially.

SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICSOF WASTES

11. Coal mining operations and equipment choices vary widely, and are
generally selected on the basis of local geology and other natural condi-
tions. The specific environmental effects will depend upon the mining
t':hniques utilized and the existing geological or geochemical characteris-
'±cs.

Air Emissions

12. Air pollutants from coal mining operations are not consideredto
be significant. Dusts originate from drilling and blastingprocedures,but
these are generally controlled by water sprays at the working face. Meth-
ane is controlled through effective ventilation with air in order to reduce
the gas concentrations to levels below the flanmable or toxic limits, and
thus avoids the possibility of underground explosions. The methane problem
increases with greater depths because the methane has less opportunity to
diffuse to the surface over geologic time. It has been estimated that at
mining levels methane 4s produced at an average rate of 5 cubic meters per
ton of coal mined.
 - 205 -

Liquid Effluents

13. The principal environmentalpollutant resulting frcinunderground

coal mining ope-ations is acid mine drainage. The acidity results when
naturally occurring pyrite (FeS2 )in the coal seam and wastes are oxidized
in the presence of air and water to form sulfuric acid (H2S04) and iron
suliates FeSO4 and Fe2(S04) This very acidic (pH 2 to 3) effluentmust be
treated for pH and dissolved iron before release tc water courses. At the
lcw pH values heavy metals (such as ircn, manganese,cadmium,copper, zinc,
and lead) are nmre soluble and can create serious water pollution
problems. Continuous acid discharges will seriously affect aquatic
ecosystems. Acid waters containingheavy concentrationsof dissolvedheavy
metals will support only a limited water flora, such as acid-tolerant molds
and algae, and will not support fish. Acid waters are not suitable for hu-
man conisumption nor for most industrialuses.

14. The amount and rate of acid formation and the quality of water
discharged will depend upon the amount and type of pyrite in the overbur-
den and in the coal, ti-L of exposure, characteristicsof the overburden,
and amount of available water. It has been estimated that in the Appala-
clian bituminous coal mining regions of the eastern United States an aver-
age of 1200 liters of acid mine water is discharged for each metr'.- ton of
coal mined.

15. 'Water is supplied to coal mines primarily for suppressing dust

(continuousmining and conveyor belt operation) and for equipment cooling.
Rain water can enter mine areas through infiltration. Hence, continuous
water:removal is requiredto assure continuityand efficiency of the mining
process
16. In coal preparation the water is deliberately introduced into the
unit process operations which include wet screening, tables, cyclones,
gravity separation and heavy media separation. Water is also used for dust
control, equipment cooling, and transporting coal in the washing process.

17. The parameters of principzl concern in underground coal mining

operations and for coal preparation plants include hydrogen ion concentra-
tions (pH), total suspended solids (TSS), total iron, and total manganese.
Average levels of these parameters found in typical undergroLnd mining and
coal preparation plants are given in Table 1.

Solid Wastes

18. Solid wastes are generated both during underground mining and du-
ring the preparationprocess. The solid waste from underground mines (com-
monly referred to as "gob" results from the digging required to reach the
coal seams. Normally this material is transported to the surface aid dump-
ed in piles on the land. Its composition in general corresponds to the
overburden found in the mining area.
 - 206 -

Table 1. Average Quality of Raw Effluents From Acid Mine Drainage

and Coal Preparation

Parameter Acid Coal

Drainage Preparation

Total Susp. Sol. - mg/L 153 218,000

Tbtal Manganese - mg/L 4i.9 8.4
Total Iron - mg/L 135 733
pH - Units 5.7 7.0

19. Refuse from the coal extraction and preparation,consisting of

solid wastes and other impurities, is also generally disposed of by dumping
on nearby land areas.

20. The waste piles are unsightly,causing degradationof local prop-

erty values and destruction of esthetics. The refuse contains flannable
material readily susceptible to spontaneous combustion and difficult to
quench. This burning prcduces particulate matter and rumes high in sulfur
dioxide. Acid mine drainage and siltation can also result from runoff from
the piles. Siltation is influencedby the steepness, ccmpaction,drainage
control structures,and cover naterial of the pile.

WASTE DISCHARGELIMITATIONS

Air Eknissions

21. Dust and methane gas are the principal air pollutants of concern
in underground mining. Particulates should be controlledby water sprays.
Methane gases should be controlledby efficient ventilationsystems bring-
ing outside air to the working areas.

22. Coal preparationplants can be sources of dischargesof particu-

late matter to the atmnspniere. Pneumatic cleaning and thermal drying are
the chief sources. Particulates should be limited to:

Ann. Geom. Mean 75,ug/m3

Max. 24-hours 260 pg/m3

(outside the mine fence at ground level)

 - 207 -

Liquid Effluents

23. Liquid effluents fron subsurface mining and coal preparation op-
erations should conform to the limitations shown in Table 2.

Table 2 - Effluent Limitations for Acid Mine Drainage and Coal Preparation

Parameter Limitation

Total Susp. Sol. - mg/L 70

Total Manganese - mg/L 4
Total Iron - mg/L 6
pH - Units 6 to 9

CONTROL AND TREATMENT OF WIASTES

Air Emissions

24. Dust control in the mines is effectedby continuousspraying of

the working face. The methane is diluted with air to less-than-flarinable
limits to avoid the possibilityof undergroundexplosions. In some instan-
ces the methane can be drained fran the coal seam before mining. Such an
operation recovers the gas for use as a fuel and at the same time reduces
the danger of mine explosions.

25. Particulate matter fran coal preparation originates f ran crush-

ing, pneumatic cleaning and thermal drying. These emnissions can be effec-
tively controlledby use of baghouses or other dust collectiondevices.

Liquid Effluents

26. The acidity in the acid mine drainage may be controlled through
pH adjustment and chemical precipitation. Hydrated lime (Ca(OH) 2) is nost
comnwnlyused for this purpose, and can be introducedas an aqueous slurry
or as a dry powder. In large installationscalcined lime (CaO) (also term-
ed "unslaked" or "quick" lime) or limestone (CaCO3 ) may be mnre econcnical
to use. Caustic soda (NaOH) or soda ash (Na2 003) can also be used, but are
much mnre expensive.

27. Control of the pH will also result in a reduction of the iron and
manganese levels in the effluent, by causing oxidation which converts the
ferrous iron to ferric iron and thus precipitatesit out of solution. The
upward adjustment of the pH causes a solubilitydecrease and precipitation
of the heavy metals in the effluent. The precipitates can then be removed
by settling.
 = 208 -

28. The effectivenessof neutralizationand settling in c- olling

the effluent is governed by the reagents used, the influent and effluent
pH, temperature, volume of flow and the presence of any side reactions, in-
cluding metal chelation and mixed-metal hydroxide complexing. (Chelation
is a chemical reaction in which a central metallic ion is captured in a
complex within a ring containing several atoms).

29. Oxidation of certain components common to coal mine wastewaters

(such as ferrous ions) to easily removed compounds can also be acccoplished
by aeration, either mechanical or simple cascading flow. The resulting
sludge and other solids are readily settled in settlingbasins.

30. Wastewater from coal preparation plants may be satisfactorily

treated by settling. If the settling pond capacity is limited it may be
necessary to use a coagulant. The overflow from the ponds is generally
suitable for recycling through the preparation systems, resulting in lit-
tle or no discharge to surface waters. Where sufficien-it land area is
avaJlable two or nwre ponds are used on an intermittent basis. As a pond
is filled with settled solids, it is taken out of service for removal and
disposal of the sludge.

Solid Wastes

31. Refuse from the mining operation may be left underground but in
most cases it is brought to the surface and dumped nearby. Refuse fran the
coal cleaning is generally collected and also dumped near the site.

32. Steps should be taken to assure that leachate and surface runoff
from the piles does not cause hanm to surface waters or groundwater sup-
plies. Leaching, which should be monitored, can be minimized or prevented
by careful composition and layering of the refuse material. Leaching water
will be treated if need be.

33. Sludges from the settling ponds can be dredged and conveyed to a
refuse pile and sludge lagoon. Where sufficientpond capacity is provided,
the sludge may be allowed to dry in the lagoon. This will reduce the
volume and facilitate remrval and final disposal.

COALSLURRYPIPELINES

34. Although it is not being widely applied at this time, coal slurry
pipeline technology has already proven to be a omnercially successful al-
ternative for transportation of coal. Because use of this technology is
expanding, it is considered advisable to outline the possible environmental
effects. Guidelines on use of pipelines for transportation of petroleum
and its derivatives have been prepared by the Bank's Office of Environmen-
tal Affairs.
 - 209 -

35. The wajor risks of environmental damage occur during the cons-
truction phases of slurry pipelines. The environmental effects and measur-
es that can be taken to minimizw these effects are shown in Table 3. Coal
pipelines nay extend for distances of as much as 500 to 2000 kilometers.
The facilities are usually buried underground and henoe cause no permanent
esthetic damage.

Table 3 - EnvironmentalEffects of Coal PipelineConstruction.a/

J Activity EnvironmentalEffects IMitigation

Measures

(1) Clearing and Destroyswildlife habitat Revegetatequickly

grading Encouragesrunoff and Slow runoff
erosion Leave screening
Degrades esthetics vegetation

(2) Ditching Potentialrunoff from Close ditch as soon as

spoil pile possible
Covcring top soil may Separate top soil and
produce rock rubble set aside
Hautlto approDriate
disposal site

(3) Hauli;agand Increased truck Limit haul hours and

Stringing Pipe traffic route

(4) Welding Pipe None 11one

(5) Coating Pipe Accidentalspill of normal care in operation

coating materials and availabilityof
cleanup materials

(6) Backfill Extra top soil or Use existing or properly

ditch "padding" soil sited borrow pits
may be needed

(7) Clean-up Erosion of right-of- Adequate revegetation

way program
PRestoredrainage
patterns
Mlonitoringof recovery

(8) Testing Systern Requires large volumes Careful selection of

of water water source and discharge

a/ From EPA Document EPA - 600/7-77-015 (See Bibliography)

a
 - 210 -

36. The risk of spills fram such facilities is considered to be neg-

ligible. The control and prevention of corrosion are well developed techno-
logies because zf extensive use of these underground systems to transport
petroleum, natural gas, and other resources.

37. Cperational impacts are affected by the coal preparation, pumping

stations , and dewatering facilities. Problems are associated with prepar-
ation of the coal slurry, inter-basin transfer of large quantities of water
required, and discharge or disposal of the separated water at the de-
stination.

38. Since preparation of the slurry is generally done at the site of

coal preparation,as previously discussed, the handling of wastes is gen-
rally included in the measures otherwise taken at the site. To prevent
settling and possible obstruction in the system, ponds are provided at in-
tervals for emptying the line in case of a system breakdawn or other inter-
ruption.

39. At the discharge end, the coal slurry goes into agitated tank
storage, from which it is conveyed to the dewatering systems. Dewatering
is done by natural settling, vacuum filtration, or by centrifuge. Addi-
tional thermal drying is required before use of the ooal. The finely
ground coal still remaining in the water is generally removed by chemical
flocculation. The reclaimed water may be used for oooling or other pur-
poses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Lajzerowicz, J. "Environmental Factors and the Requirements for Control

of Effluents", in "Economics of Mineral Engineering". Inter-regional
Seminar organized by the United Nations in cooperation with the Govern-
ment of Turkey, held at Ankara, Apri 1 1976. Mining Journal Books Ltd.
London (1976).

2. Lajzerowicz,J. "Institutional Aspects Related to Coal Developmentin

Canada". Presented at United Nations Symposium on World Coal Pros-
spects, Katowice, Pr'and, October 15-23, 1979.

3. Alexanderson, G. ai -aevebring, B.-I. "World Resources: Energy,

Metals, Minerals". Walter de Gruyter. Berlin and New York (1978).

4. "The Direct Use of Coal-Prospects and Problems of Production and Com-

bustion". Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United
States. Waslhington (1979).
 - 211 -

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency". Monitoring Environmental Im-

pacts of the Coal and Oil Shale Industries: Research and Development
Needs". Doc. EPA-600/7-77-015.Washington (February1977).

6. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Developmnt Document for

Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines,New Source Performance
Standards, and Pretreatment Standards for the Coal Mining Point Source
Category". Preliminary Contractor's Draft. Washington (January 1980).

7. "Standards of Performance for New Sources -- Coal Mining Point Source

Category". U.S. Federal Register, V.44, 9. pp 2536-2592. Washington.
(January12, 1979).

8. "World Glossary of Mining, Processing,and GeologicalTerms". Ed. by

R.S.M. Wyllie and G. 0. Argall, Jr. Miller Freeman Publications. San
Francisco (1975).

9. Powers, Philip W. "Haw to Dispose of Toxic Substancesand Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, New Jersey and London
(1976).

10. "PollutionControl Objectives for the Mining, 5melting,and Related In-

dustries of British Columbia".British Columbia Ministry of Environ-
ment, PollutionControl Board. Victoria (1979).
 - 212 -

'THEWORLD BANK NOVEMBER 1982

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS

NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS

GUIDELINES

1. Oxides of nitrogen present in the atmosphere originate from both

natural and man-made sources. Natural sources include lightning, volcanic
eruptions, and bacterial action in the soil. Although these natural emis-
sions far exceed those generated from mane-made activities they are not con-
sidered significant. They are distributed over the entire earth, and the
resulting air concentrations are practically negligible. The background
concentration of nitrogen dioxide in land areas generally ranges between
0.4 and 9.4 microgransper cubic meter.

2. This document will concern itself with those oxides of nitrogen

discharged from man-made sources. They include nitric oxide (NO) and ni-
trogen dioxide (NO2 ). At the point of discharge the predominant form is
nitric oxide, but this is readily converted to nitrogen dioxide through
chemical reactions in the atmosplere.

SOURCESANDEFFECTS

3. The principal source of man-made emissions is the combustion of

fossil fuels. In this context fossil fuels include coal, oil and its de-
rivatives,and natural gas. The predominant oxide of nitrogen emitted by
combustionprocesses is nitric oxide, with small anounts of nitrogen diox-
ide. Emissions originate from both stationaryand mobile sources. Specif-
ically, emissions originate from transporation (principallyautcmxbile ex-
hausts); fuel combustion for pcwer generation and industrial production;
and certain non-combustionsources. Home corbustionof fuels may also make
significant contributions in some locations. Other industrial sources in-
clude fertilizers, glass, iron ore preparation (sintering and pelletizing)
plants, and petroleum refineries.

4. Stationarycombustion sources will generally account for 50 per-

cent or more of the total nitrogen oxide emissions. For example, the pro-
portions are estimated to be 60 percent in Japan, 59 percent in the Nether-
lands, 82 percent in the United Kingdom, but only 44 percent in the United
States. Home of fuels is
crrolbustion said to contribute between 5 and 6
percent of the emissions in the United Kingdom and the United States.

5. Transportation sources include personal automobiles, buses,

trucks, railroad vehicles, aircraft, and ships on inland waterways. Gaso-
line powered vehicles are by far the largest contributors among these. Of
the total emissions, transportation facilities contribute approxirrately 40
percent in Japan, 41 percent in the Netherlands, 18 percent in the United
Kingdom, and 51 percent in the United States.

A
 - 213 -

small portion of the total nitrogen oxide emitted, they can be significant
in certain local situations. The manufacture of nitric acid is the most
irportant of these. Other examples include electroplating and processes
using concentrated nitric acid, such as the manufacture of explosives or
the production of sulfuric acid by means of the chamber process.

7. Oxides of nitrogen formed in combustion processes are usually due

either to thermal fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the combustion air
(resulting in "thermal NOX'") or to the conversion of chemically bound
nitrogen in the fuel (resulting in "fuel NOx"). For natural gas and dis-
tillate oil firing, nearly all NOX emissions result from thermal fixation.
For residualoil and coal, the contributionfrom fuel-boundnitrogen can be
significant, and even be predominant under certain operating conditions.

8. When a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen (such as air) is heated

above 16000 C, oxides of nitrogenwill result. Normal combustiontenpera-
tures in car engines are well above this level. As a result, over 0.3 per-
cent of the exhaust can consist of a mixture of NO and NO2. Emissions are
lcwest at lower engine speeds. The character of the emissionswill depend
upon the operating characteristics of the engine, such as temperature, du-
ration of the combustion cycle, air/fuel ratio, etc. Diesel engines also
are emission sources but to a nuch lesser degree because of the lower com-
bustion tenperatures in the cylinders. Gas turbines and other similar en-
gines are also less significant as sources.

9. AutcmDbile exhaausts will also release unburned hydrocarbons into

the atmosphere. While hydrocarbons are not in themselves generally harm-
ful, they can form photochemical oxidants commonly kncwn as smog when re-
leased in the presence of oxides of nitrogen and exposed to sunlight. Pho-
tochemical smogs can occur anywhere, but they have been most severe in Los
Angeles, California, where they are a year-round phenomenon due to frequent
temperature inversions.

10. Ozone is the main constituent of photochemical oxidants and can

have severe effects on the respiratory system. Smog can irritate the lungs
and seriously aggravate asthma or other respiratory diseases. Coughing,
eye irritation, headaches, and throat pain are conmonly experienced during
exposure to smog.

11. The nitrogen oxides from man-made sources can also exist as pri-
mary pollutants in areas not subject to formation of smog. Such exposure
is believed to increase the risks of acute respiratory disease and suscept-
ibility to chronic respiratory infection. Nitrogen dioxide (N02 ) contri-
butes to heart, lung, liver, and kidney damage, and can be fatal at high
concentrations.

12. Nitrogen oxides arr also toxic to vegetation. Although many

plants can metabolize low concentrationsof NO0x,the higher concentrations
will reduce growth and the fertilityof seeds.
 - 214 -

13. Nitrogen oxides can also affect the environmentby contributing

significantly to the acid rain problem. Through complex atmospheric reac-
tions, these oxides can be converted to nitric acid, which is then depos-
ited with rain or snow. In the United States acid precipitation, nuch of
which is due to nitric acid, has reduced or destroyed conmercially and re-
creationally imrportant species of fish in several areas.

EMISSION SAMPLINGANDANALYSES

14. The unit of measurement used to denote the ambient concentrations

of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, aft'-r emission from either stationary
or mobile sources, is expressed as weight per unit volume of air or, spe-
cifically,as microgramsof nitrogen dioxide (NO2) per cubic meter 9.g/m3).
This unit is to be used in all World Bank project reports.

15. Plant emissions,prior to reachingthe atmospheremay be express-

ed in terms of plant input or output. Exanples of these limitations,as
applied to fossil fuel and nitric acid plants, are given below.

16. Sanpling and analytical procedures for determining nitrogen ox-

ides are covered in a separate guideline issued by the Office of Environ-
mental Af fairs.

ACCEPTABLESTANDARDS

17. Two types of standards are generally used -- ambient and emis-
sions. Ambient standards express the allowable concentration of a contami-
nant in the air (in this case) surrounding the industrial site, following
discharge and mixing. Ambient levels are essential for determining poss-
ible environmentaldamage and for evaluating adverse physical, health, and
other effects upon the surrounding area and its inhabitants.

18. Emission standards express the allowable co,.centrations of a con-

taminant at the point of discharge,before any mixing with the surrounding
medium (air). Emission levels are necessary for identifying specific pol-
lution sources and designing remedial works.

19. For all Bank projects ambient air concentrations of nitrogen ox-
ides, expressed as N0 2 , should not exceed the following:

Annual Arith. Mean: 100,ug/m 3

(0.05 ppm)

20. For guidance purposes, emission levels for stationary source dis-
charges, before mixing with the atmosphere,should be maintained as fol-
lows:

(a) For fuel fired steam generators, as Nanograms

(10-9 gram) per Joule of heat input:
Gaseous fossil fuel 86
Liquid fossil fuel 130
Solid fossil fuel 300
Lignite fossil fuel 260
 - 215 -

(b) Nitric acid plants:

1.5 Kg N02 /metric ton acid produced.

21. In special situations, strict adherence to these standards may be

difficult for a number of reasons. Where this occurs, Bank missions shotuld
very thoroughly document such cases, with sufficient information to allcwi a
judgement to be made. Exanples of situations where these standards could
not be met, with acceptable modifications, include:

-- Expansion of existing plants - The x mual Arithmetic

Mlean and the maximum 24-hour peak resulting from
the combination of the old units with the new ones
should be no greater than the values existing prior
to operation of new units. In addition, the new units
by themselves should meet established standards.

More sinply, emission plumes fram new and existing

sources should not mix to the extent that combined
anbient concentrations exceed maximum ainbien-t concen-
trations obtained from the existing source alone. This
may be accomplished by (a) increasing the stack height
of the new source, (b) changing the stack location of
the new source, or (c) reducing the new source emission
levels. Furthermore, if plume mixing is not a problem
the new source units should, by thermelves, meet the
above standards.

-- Revanping of existing plants - Every effort should

be made to decrease existing pollution levels and
provide measures which will minimize concentrations
without placing unreasonable econcmic burdens on the
industry.

-- Inversions - When the NOx source location is in a valley

or surrounded by mountains, inversion layers which may
occur during certain seasons of the year could trap the
stack emissions. These same emissions can drcp back to
ground level, stagnate there, and damage crops sensitive
to both S02 and NOx. In World Bank financed pro-
jects it may be inpossible to change the site loca-
tion (i.e. in the case of an expansion of an
existingplant). To protect human and plant life
in such cases, the peak concentration should be
decreased from 500 ug/m 3 during any 24-hour period
down to 350Jug/m 3 during 4 hours, unless it can be
shown that the effluent will not be trapped by the
inversion layer.
 - 216 -

CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

22. Emnissioncontrol measures must be designed for each individual

plant, particularly since the system must be capable of reducing more than
one polludant in most situations.

23. The most common method currently used to reduce NO, emissions
from autcmobile exhausts (which are the major sources) is the catalytic
converter. The method utilizes a catalyst instead of high temperatures to
achieve simultaneous oxidation of the remaining fuel, and reduction of NOx
to N2 . The catalyst achieves the double goal of decreasing concentrations
of both NOx and hydrocarbons on a metal catalyst deposited on ceramic mTa-
terial.

24. Mobile source emissions are also reduced through changes in com-
bustion chamber design (such as lower compression ratios), spark retar-
dation (including both basic timing and a "slower" advance curve), and ex-
haust gas recirculation.

25. The NOx emissions from oil-fired combustion systems can be re-
duced by mixing water with the oil before it is sprayed into the burners.
Water decreases the cormbustion temperatures, and can reduce NOx emissions
fran liglt-weight oils by as much as 15 percent. Energy-wise, however, th-e
method is considered to be costly.

26. Emissions from stationary sources, such as utility and industrial

combustion installations, can be reduced by a number of methods. AiTong
these, staged combustion, low excess air cperation, and flue gas recircula-
tion are widely used.

27. Staged combustion is effective for control of both thermal and

fuel nitrogen oxides. The method consists of initiallyproviding less than
the amount of air (02) required for cormplete combustion. After a time de-
lay more air is added in one or mare steps or stages. The method is appli-
cable to a wide range of fuels and facilities, from pulverized coal burners
to small scale irndustrialboilers. Addition of this meth1odto existing
coal-buring installations has resulted in a 30 to 50 percent reduction of
NOx emissions.

28. In the low excess air method, the principal mechanism is also the
lack of available oxygen for combining with either thermal activated or
cracked fuel activated nitrogen atoms. This method can be combined with
the staged combustion process, and can reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by
40 to 70 percent, withlout seriously increasing carbon monoxide emissions.

29. Flue gas recirculation has been effective in controlling thermal

nitrogen oxides. The recirculation of exhaust gases to the flame regions
reduces peak temperatures and oxygen availability, thus reducing nitric
oxide formation. This method is more difficult to apply, since it requires
increased operation oontrols and greater capital investment.
 - 217 -

30. A number of methods are under further study for stationary source
emissions. These include burner design changes, water/steam injection, wet
scrubbing with aqueous ammonia, and fluid bed combustion.

BIBTIOGRAH

1. World Health Organization "Oxides of Nitrogen". Environmental Health

Criteria 4. Geneva (1977).

2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develcpment. "Photochemical

S&iog-Contribution of Volatile Organic Cobpounds". Paris (1982).

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Technology Assessment Report

for IndustrialBoiler Applications- NOX CoibustionModification".
Document EPA-600/7-79-178f.Washington (December1979).

4. Dianiant,R.M.E. "TmhePreventionof Pollution". Pitman Publishing.

London (1974).

5. U.S. Ervironniental Protection Agency. "Research Summary-Controlling

Nitrogen Oxides". Document EPA-600/8-80-004. Washington (February
1980).

6. Jarrault, P. "Limitations des Emissions de Polluants et Qualite de

L'Air. Valeurs Reglementaires dans les Principaux Pays Industri-
alises". InstitutFrancais de L'Energie. Paris (1978).

7. obrldHealth Organizastion. "Air Quality Criteria and Guides for

Urban Air Pollutants". WHO Technical Report Series No. 506. Geneva
(1972).

8. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,Title 40, Sub-ChapterC, Part 60,

Subpart D "Standardsof Performancefor Fossil-FuelFired Steam Gen-
erators for Which Construction is Conmenced After August 17, 1971".
Office of the Federal Register,GSA. Washington (July 1, 1981).

9. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,Title 40, Sub-chapterC, Part 50..

"NationalPrimary and SecondaryAmbient Air Quality Standards". Office
of the Federal Register,GSA, Washington (July 1, 1981).

10. Organizationfor Economic Cooperationand Development. '"Photochemical

Oxidant Air Pollution". Paris (1975).
 - 218 -

THE WORLDBANK NOVEMBER

1982

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

NITROGENOXIDE SAMPLINGANDANALYSES

1. This document supplements a companion Bank document, titled

"Nitrogen Oxide Smissions". It provides procedures required for sampling
and analysis of stack emissions and the ambient atmosphere to determine
compliance with NOx pollution limits for Bank projects.

2. Major man-made emissions of nitrogenoxides are fossil fuel com-

ktstion in stationary sources (heating, power generation, etc.) ard ex-
hausts from nDtor vehicles and any rnovablesources utilizing internal com-
bustion engines.

3. Land areas normally have natural background concentrations of ni-

trogen dioxide in the range of 0.4 to 9.0 micrograms per cubic meter. In
urban areas, world-wide, average annual background concentrations may vary
from 20 to 90 micrograms per cubic meter.

4. Oxides of nitrogen, for purposes of this document, include nitric

oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ). At point of discharge from man-made
sources, the principal oxide is nitric oxide. This is rapidly converted to
nitrogen dioxide by atmospheric chemical reactions. Nitric oxide and ni-
trogen dioxide can be measured separately or collectively by various tech-
niques.

STATIONARYSOURCE MONITORING

Sampling

5. Stationary source samples are collectedthrough cpenings provided

for that purpose in stacks or other ducts carrying emissions fron combus-
tion chambers. Sampling ports should be located at least eight stack di-
ameters beyond any bends, constrictions, abatement equipment, or other
causes of flow disturbance. If this is not possible then the sampling lo-
cation should be at least two stack diameters ahead of the flow disturb-
ance. Where these conditions cannot be met, it ray be necessary to extend
the stack.

6. Sampling ports should be flush with the stack walls, and extend
outward from the exterior wall for 5 to 20 centimeters. However, addition-
al extension may be requited for installing valves or other appurtenances.

£ I
 - 219 -

7. The sampling apparatus is shown schematically in Figure 1. The

sampling probe may be placed at any location across the stack diameter, and
a grab sample collected in an evacuated flask containing a dilute sulfuric
acid-hydrogen peroxide solution. This solution reacts with the nitrogen
oxides. The volumetric flow rate and moisture content of exhaust gas
stream must be determined for calculating the total mass emission rate.

8. Each grab sample is obtained rapidly (15 to 30 seconds) and four

grab samples consitute a run. A minirum of three runs should be taken, or
a total of 12 grab samples. Furthermore, an interval of 15 minutes should
elapse between each grab sample.

9. Since a grab sample collects a relatively small amount of materi-

al relatively short period of time, the result obtained will be essentially
an instantaneous measure of the nitrogen oxides. It will be representative
of the emissions only if the gas stream is well mixed and the concentration
is constant with time. Multiple samples are therefore necessary.

Analyses

10. Nitrogen oxide levels are determined by the EPA procedure desig-
nated as "Method 7". Nitrogen oxides (except for nitrous oxide-N 2 0) are
measured colorometrically using the Phenoldisulfonic Acid Procedure. The
method is applicable for measurement of nitrogen oxides (as N02 ) from sta-
tionary sources in the range of 2 to 400 milligrams per dry standard cubic
meter, without laving to dilute the sample.

11. A similar method has be'en deveirped by the American Society for
Testing and Materials, designated as Method ANSI/ASIM-D-1608-77. This meth-
od is applicable to concentrations ranging from 4 to several thousand mill-
igrans per dry standard cubic meter.

AMBIENTAIR MONITORING

Sampling

12.
* he number of sampling points required for an ambient air moni-
toring network will depend upon program objectives, effluent requirements,
meteorologicalconditions, topography, and other related factors. For a
small source, particularly if one wind direction predominates,only two
sites are required. One site would be for monitoring source effects while
the other would provide upwind or background concentrations. Where wind
directionisare variable several samplingpoints are required.

13. It is desirable to place collectiondevices in areas most likely

to receive the highest ground-level concentrations of pollutants. Plume
trajectoryfrom emission source to the point of ground-levelimpact may be
predicted roughly from a kniowledgeof predominantwind directions. A con-
venient tool for performing such an analysis is the "wind rose"; a chart
which plots wind directionsand percentageof time, annually, that wind is
blawing fram that direction. Where more precise informaticn is required
for site selection,computerizedatmospheric dispersionrodels may be nec-
essarv.
 CFEVACUATE BULB
SQUEEZE

e PUAGE UMPVALVE

PROBE FLASKVALVE,vY3 SAMPLE PUMP

FtLTER 1[IPMANOMETER

GROUND-GLASSSOCKET. fLASX . .i \ I EVACUATE

-JVN
-

NO.12/5 \IOfr,
t X \ I 0 . . \ ) ~~~~~~~VENT
FLASKSHIELD-.% . \
1tO~ In\ e 3)PURGE
110 9N L \THERMOMETER

3-WAYSTOPCOCK.
T.BORE.I PYREX.
2-nn BORE.0-mmOD
;

2
J

OAM

/ '\ \ ~~~~210
m . j .:._-FOAM ENCASEMEtNT
GROUND-GLASSCOEME.E1T
STANDARDTAPER. GROUND-GLASS 7 fnr
SOCKET, NO. 12,S
NO. 24/40
SLEEVE
PYREX - \ I -

18o mm , BOILING-FLASK
2-LITER.ROUND-BOTTOM. SHORTNECK.
WITHS SLEEVENO. 24/40

Figure 1 - NitrogenOxide SamplingTrain for StationarySources

(From U.S. Code df Federal Regulations,Title 40, Part 60, AppendixA-July 1, 1981).
 - 221 -

14. The principal factors in selecting the sampling locations are

topography and meteorology. Other oonsiderations include:

(a) Location of the sampling site, relative to

pollutant source, accessibility, and
operation.

(b) Sanple delivery to laboratory facilities.

(c) Proper handling of samples to prevent deteriora-

tion or conversion that would produce inaccurate
results.

(d) Availability of suitable analytical procedures

and instrumentation for generating acceptable
quantitativeand qualitativedata.

(e) Legal restrictions(such as effluent limitations)

affectingthe discharges fram existing sources.

15. Preferably,ambient levels should be monitored continuously.Con-

tinuous samples may be obtained by a variety of instrumenttechniques and
are particularly suitable for averaging over long time periods. Non-auto-
matic (or dynamic) samples nay be used when continuous types of equipment
are not available.

16. A typical continuous monitoring device consists of an inlet sec-

tion, gas pretreatment section, detector, photomultiplier, spectrometer,
and readout device. Depending upon conditions of the gas to be analyzed,
pretreatment could include pressure adjustment, partic-ulates removal (usu-
ally by filter),moisture removal (usuallywith silica gel column) and ten-
perature adjustment (usuallyby condenser).

17 Basic components for a dynamic samplingunit (shown in Figures 2

and 3): include inlet, fritted bubbler, drying tube, temperaturegauge, dry
test meter, pump, and manometer.

Analyses

18. The chemiLluminescent method, adopted by the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency, and cited in the Bibliography, is the preferred analyti-
cal method for determining nitrogen dioxide levels in ambient air samples.
This is an automated continuous method which records a measurement every
few seconds, and readily permits determination of specific time average
levels. The method is applicable to measurements in the range of zero to
about 2,000 milligrams per cubic meter.
 - 222 -

PUMP
INLET

TEMP,
-UAGE
P

DRYINO TU9C

MIST ELIMINATOR L MANOUETER

DRY TEST
FITTEO METEi
R
BUBBLER

Figure 2 - Nitrogen Dixoide Sampling Train (From

ASTMMechod D-1607-76).

MALE
M

$ - CENTRICWITH FLASK
/ aO. r3M ANOFRF17TE.,
CYLINOER SO T.IAT .'.NER
ANOOUIfER Pi[-ES ARE
_NERCHAN,lEADLE.
100 ml BULB

(2031r« f tI:rs.l \ fAITTED CYLfNCER,

BOTtO.M.POSCSITY IS
CRIliCAL. r?jsr BE 6C1
/MAX.POREDIAMETER.

3
C 'wain Ann,) CI9mnn

Figure 3 - Fritted Bubbler for Sampling Nitrogen Dioxide

(From A5VT "¶ethod P-3 A7-7 )i
 - 223 -

19. Chemiluminescence analyzers will respord to other nitrogen con-

taining cormpounds, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate. Atmospheric concentra-
tions of these potenitial interferences are generally lcw relative to N02 ,
and hence valid N02 measurements may be obtained. Where levels of inter-
fering substances (such as sulfur dioxide and ozone levels) are suspected
of being high, then an alternate method should be used.

20. Nitrogen dioxide levels may be determined manually by the Griess-

Saltzman Method, adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials,
and cited in the Bibliography. The sampling train shlown in Figures 2 and 3
should be used for this purpose. Samrpling periods should be between 15 and
30 minutes, at a flow rate of about 0.4 liter/per minute. The method is
applicable for levels in the range of 4 to 10,000 nmicrograms per cubic
meter.

22. In the Griess-Saltzman Method, NC2 is absorbed in an azo-dye-

forming reagent. A red violet color is produced within 15 minutes, and its
intensity measured spectrometrically at 550 nanometers.

23. A ten-fold ratio of sulfur dioxide to nitrogen dioxide produces

no effect. A 30-fold ratio slowly bleaches the color to a slight degree.
Addition of acetone to the reagent retards fading, and permits reading the
color intensity within 4 to 5 hours instead of 45 minutes required without
acetone. A 5-fold ratio of ozone to nitrogen dioxide will cause a small
interference, with the maximal effect occurring within 3 hours. Other ni-
trogen oxides and other gases that may be present in polluted air aould al-
so interfere with the accuracy of the manual method.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. World Health Organization "Oxides of Nitrogen". Environmental Health

Criteria 4. World Health Organization. Geneva (1977).

2. U.S. Code of Fedeal Regulations, Title 40, Part 60, Appendix A, Method
7, "Determination of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Stationary sources".
Office of the Federal Register. Washington (July 1, 1981).

3. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Handbook-IndustrialGuide to

Air Pollution Control". Document EPA-625/6-78-004.Washington (June
1978).

4. American Society for Testing and MaŽterials. "StandardTest Method for

Oxides of Nitrogen in Gaseous Comtbus- on Products (Phenol-Disulfonic
Acid Procedures)". Method ANSI/ASTM D-1608-77. Philadelphia (1977).

5. organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Photochemical

Oxidant Air Pollution". Paris (1975).
 - 224 -

6. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,Title 40, Part 50, Appendix F.

"Measuremnt Principle and Calibration Procedure for the Measurement
of Nitrogen Dioxide in the Atmosphere (Gas Fhase Chemiluminescence)".
Office of the Federal Register. Washington (July 1, 1982).

7. American Society for Testing and Materials. "StandardTest Method for

Nitrogen Dioxide Content of the Atmosphere (Griess-Saltzman Reaction)".
Method ANSI/ASTM D-1607-76. Philadelphia (1976).
 - 225 -

THE WORLDBANK AUGUST1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

NOISE

1. Bank missionswill be concerned with noise and its environmental

effects in various types of projects. Among these are highway and railway
projects, airports, agricultural enterprises (frcm operation of farm
machinery),and industrialinstallations.

BASIC CONCEPTS

2. Noise may be described as sound without agreeablenusical quali-

ty, or as "unwanted sound". Generally, noise is produced when an object or
surface vibrates rapidly enough to generate a pressure wave or disturbance
in the surrounding medium. Fron the standpoint of environmental effects
the medium of greatest concern is air, although sound nay also be transmit-
ted through liquids and solids.

3. Sound is transmitted by wave nmotion. It propagates as the result

of the elastic interactions between the molecular conponents of the medium
through which it travels. The speed of sound, therefore, depends upon the
mnass of molecules (density) and their elastic reactions (pressure). The
human ear responds to the pressure fluctuations set up in the surrounding
medium. Airborne sound travels at a speed of 344 meters per second at a
temperature of 200C. In seawater sound travels at the rate of about 1490
meters per second.

4. The decibel (dB) is used to measure the relative pressure of dif-

ferent sounds. The decibel is equal to 20 times the logarithm of the ratio
of sound pressure to a reference pressure of 20OpPa*, or

Sound pressure level (dB) = loglo Measured Pressure

Reference Pressure

Thus, a sound with 10 times the pressure of another is considered to be 20

dB louder, and each succeeding 10-fold increase adds another 20 dB to the
sound level. Relative sound pressure levels for various degrees of "lotud-
ness" are presented in Table 1.

5. The quality of sound (or noise) is measured by flow of energy per

unit area. Frequency is a measure of the number of complete vibrations
occurring per second, and is measured in "hertz" (Hz). Thus, 1 Hz equals 1
cycle per second. Normally, the human ear cannot detect sounds above
15,000 Hz (ultrasound). The lawer limit of human detection depends more on
the quantity of sound. At 65 Hz the human ear does not normally detect
sounds below 60 dB.

* 1 Pascal (Pa) = 10 dynes per square centimeter.

 - 226 -

Table 1. Relative Sound Pressure Levels for Various Sources of Noise a/.

Relative Sound
Pressude Levels
A.pparent E.xarnples dB Rto~Pascals
Loudness dB 0 dB Pasc

Deafening Je- aircraft 140 10,000,000 I 200

Thieshold of feeling 130 2,162,000

Very loud Elevatedtrain,thunder 120 1,000,000 20

Subway train, riveter 110 316,200
Noisy Ind. Plant 100 100,000 2
Loud street noise 90 31,620
Noisy office B0 10,000 0.2

Loud Av. Street noise 70 | 3,162

Av. office 60 1 1,000 0.02
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - _ - - - -I

Moderate Mod. restaurant clatter 50 316

Private office 40 100 0.0:C2

- - - - - - - -1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I- - - - - -

--
Faint
- - - - - -
j -
Rustlingleaves
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20
- - - - - - -
10
- - - - - - -
0.0002
- - - -I

Viery faint Normal breathirg 10 3

Threshold audibility I 0 1 0.00002

a/ From "Sound Control Constructions" U.S. Gypsum Co.

 - 227 -

MEASUREMENT
OF NOISE

6. The basic goal in quantifyina sound is to determine the time and

location variations of noise in the environment throughout a community and
to assure that the data can be used as a measure of the effects of environ-
mental noise on people.

7. The Sound Level Meter (SLM) is the basic instrument for measuring
sound or noise. While such instruments are available fran a number of man-
ufacturers, all meters to be used for this purpose mnust meet the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) specificationS1.4-1971,or the latest
ANSI issurances. Both Type 1 (Precision)and Type 2 (General Purpose)
meters are acceptable. The Type 2 meter has broader performance toler-
ances, and is usually less bulky, lighter, and less expensivethan Type 1.

8. A sound level meter electronicallyweighs the amplitude of the

various frequenciesin accordance with a person's hearing sensitivity and
sums the resulting weighted spectrum into a single nunber. The typical
meter contains three different response weighting networks: A, to match
the response of the ear to sound of low intensity; B, to match response to
sound of moderate intensity and C, to match response to sound of high in-
tensity. The A scale is comnnnly used, since it closely approximates the
numan perception of sound. The weighted sound level unit, at the A setting
is conomnly designated as dB (A).

Table 2 - Corrections from "Flat" Response Levels to A Levels.

Octave Band Center Correction

Frequency (Hz) (dB)

31.5 - 39.5
63 - 26
125 - 16
250 - 8.5
500 - 3.0

1000 0

2000 + 1.0
4000 + 1.0
8000 - 1.0
16000 - 6.5
 - 228 -

9. The SLM A-setting measures the sound level at a frequency of

1,000 Hz. Where frequency readings differ from the standard of 1,000 Hz,
then a correction must be made to convert "flat" response readings to the A
levels. The term "flat" response designates the uniform response of an in-
strument over a wide frequency range, up to 20 K Hz.

EFFBCTS OF NOISE

10. A universal effect of noise is its interferencewith the under-

standing of speech. This is one aspect of "masking" -- an interactionof
two acoustic stimuli whereby one of them changes the perceived quality of
the other, shifts its apparent location or loudness,or makes speech can-
pletely inaudible. Various factors enter into the degree of speech inter-
ference, such as speech, age, and hearing of individuals. Children have
less precise speech than do adults, while older persons are nore suscept-
ible to interferencefran backgroundnoise.

11. Noise can elicit a variety of physiologicalresponses,but no

clear evidence exists to indicate that continued activation of these re-
sponses leads to permanent health effects. Sounds of sufficientintensity
can cause pain to the auditory nervous system. It can be presumed that
noise exposure can cause general personal stress, either by itself or in
comxbination with other stress sources. Noise exposure to noderate intensi-
ties that may be found in the environment does have some effect on the car-
diovascular system, but no definite pennanent effects on the circulatory
systems have been demonstrated., Moderate noise levels have been knowvn to
cause vasoconstriction of the periphereal areas of the body and pupillary
dilation, but there is no evidence that these effects can lead to harmful
consequences over a period of time.

12. Continuous noise levels above 90 dB (A) have detrimental effects

on human performance, especially in so-called "noise-sensitive" functions,
such as vigilance tasks, information gathering, and analytical processes.
Noise levels below 90 dB (A) can be disruptive, particularly if they have
predominantly high frequency components, and are intermittent, unexpected
and uncontrollable.

13. Frequencies below 16 Hz are referred to as infrasonic, and in-

clude such sources as earthquakes, wind, thunder, and distant jet air-
craft. Man-made infrasound occurs at higher intensity levels thar.those
found in nature. Effects associated with infrasound resemble mild stress
reactions and bizarre auditory sensations, such as pulsating and flutter-
ing. Ultrasonic frequencies are those above 20,000 Hz, and are produced by
a variety of jet engines and industrial equipment. Above 105 dB, the ef-
fects of high intensity ultrasounds resemble those observed during stress
situations.

14. Noise has the same general effects on wildlife and other animals
as it does on humans. Noise of sufficient intensity can disrupt normal
patterns of animal existence. Exploratory behavior can be curtailed,
avoidance behavior can limit access to food and shelter, and breeding
 - 229 -

habits can be disrupted. Hearing loss and masking of auditory signals can
conplicate an animal's ability to recognize its young, detect and locate
prey and evade predators. Physiological effects of noise exposure -- such
as changes in blood pressure and chemistry, xornmne balance, and reproduc-
tivity -- have been demonstrated in laboratory animals and, to scoe extent,
in farm animals.

15. Secondary effects of noise on the health and welfare of man in-
clude three general types: sonic boam effects, noise induced vibration and
sonic fatigue. Sound can also cause buildings to vibrate, and this can
h.avea direct effect on humans. Sonic booms of sufficient intensity not
only can break windows,but they can also damage building structures. How-
ever, sonic booms can be controlled to levels which are innocuous in rela-
tion to buildings and structures. Noise induced vibrations near rocket
launch sites can also cause window breakage. Construction activities may
have similar effects. Sonic fatigue is also a problem where material is
used near intense sound sources, but such problems can be avoided by proper
design and this type of fatigue does not usually cause environmental prob-
lems.

NOISE CONTROLTECHNIQUES

16. Noise control techniques fall into two general categories: con-
trol at the source and control of the path of sound. Within the urban en-
vironment noises originate principally from aircraft and airport cpera-
tions, industrial operations, construction activities and highway traffic.

17. Aircraft related noises mainly affect the populationsliving near

airports or in the flight paths of low flying airplanes. Although many niew
types of jet-powered ships introduced since 1972 emit less noise than
earlier nodels, noise continues to be the rmst serious constraint currently
facing airport operations.

18. A number of techniques may be applied, alone or in combination,

to the reduction of aircraft noises and their effects. The principal ones
include:

- Operational measures designed to limit the production

of noise by aircraft. This could involve special take-
off and landing procedures, restrictions on the total
noisy aircraft traffic, banning of night traffic, di-
version of part of the traffic to other regional air-
ports, and application of local airport noises regulations.

-- Measures aimed at changing the land use in areas exposed

to heavy noise. This requires close coordination of air-
port planning with regional and local landuse policy. Such
an approacd is most easily implemented in the case of new
airports in areas not yet intensely developed. However,
even around existing airports it is possible to re-zone the
heavily impacted areas over a period of time and minimize
 - 230 -

noise exposures for private dwellings,schools,hospitals

and recreationalareas.

-- Measures aimed at reducing the impact of noise at the

point of reception. This will require sound-proofing
of private residences, hotels, offices and other
structures. Such measures should be taken as a last
resort, since they do nothing to eliminate the source
of the noise or to improve the outdoor environment.

19. Noises resulting fran industrial operations are generally confin-

ed within the plant structure. Machinery and equipment are the main sourc-
es, and the effects are felt mostly by the individual workers. Controls
may be acconplished through measures at the source (relocation, vibration,
vibration control, etc.); installation of acoustical shields, enclosures,
or otler barriers to interrupt the path of the sound; or through limiting
the duration of the exposure by the receiver. The first two of these meas-
ures will help reduce the noise levels in the environment outside the
plant.

20. While construction operations are not permanent, large projects

are carried out over relatively long time periods, and measures are fre-
quently required to reduce noise emissions. Construction noises can origi-
nate from such sources as crane and hoisting equipment, air cxapressors,
concrete mixers, tractor and bulldozing equipment and materials delivery
vehicles.

21. Noise control at constructionsites will require an analysis of

each individual situation to determine which measures should be applied.
The general measures which can be effective include:

== Assurance that the manufacturer has designed, built

and equipped the unit to conform with existing noise
control regulations.

-- Adequate cperation and maintenance of equipment.

-- Limiting the time of day during which equipment

may be operated.

Limiting the places or zones in which equipment

may be used.

22. The effect of vehicle noise on populations is usua] ly dependent

upon traffic concentrations rather than on any one individual vehicle. Al-
though trucks are normally fewer in number, they tend to contribute the
 - 231 -

Table 3. Yearly Average EsTivalentSound Levels Required r

Protectionof Public Health and Welfare 1/

Indoor To Protect Outdoor To Protect

Activity tHearingLoss ATainst Activt leirnr I oss Agaist
Measure litt r- Considera- B;nt Inter- CoiisiJ.,ra- gol Et-
2/ fIrtnie tion Ie rence tion

Residential 'A ith Ou;- 'iU; 45 45 55 55

sideSpaceandF3rm 70I
Residences Le it_4) | | 10 70

Residentialwith ' < Lsn 45 45

OutsideSpice 0
-rii I 70 70Leq(24)
7
COnmmerCiai I ' q(Ž4) (a) 70 Otc) (a) 70 70(c)
7
InsideTr4nsporutoaz
on i r J) (a) 70 ta)

Industfial | t:a) -0 f 70(c! Za) -0 70(c)

Hiospitals Ldn 45 45 555

5

______ jLeetl
___4__ 4) jC _ 70

Educ.::iorcl Lcql
LS(2 .j45 S' 55

L,q(24)(d i _0 - - 70

Recreationa!
Areas L,,'4) (a) 70 70(e) | (a) ! 70 70(c)

Farn Lalid aiid Le.1('4) | (a) 70 70(c)

GeneralUnoopotautcJ
Land

Code:
a. Siiice different t%pesof activitiesJapear to be asociatedwith rtifferent levels.tidientifi-
etion of a ilnJxinai level tor activity inmertercit n.e beuil ficult exept in hiOse
circurrstatcei where spuLul
c uaI.ii.1;.;on 1I .. -::lci! JaJtvltv.
uiill

b. Basedon l xt level.
c. d%se, only oin hjriit tluoss.
d. An Lel,st) °l 75 *IB m.ayNeidentilied lni thesesituationhs so louigas theexposureover
the rcilainile I 6 Wa irs 1er dIJ) iS lowVcnoIugih
to result in a ntgiLgiblecontril. tion to
the '4-liour jerj;e. i.e..no greaterth1Jnan L,,j of Go'tlt.

1/ From Ref. 4

2/ Ldn = Day-night average A - weighted equivalent sound level,

with a 10-decibel weightirg applied to night time levels

Le (24) = Equivalent A-weighted sound level over 24 hours.

 - 232 -

largest share of the noise. Motorcycle traffic can also be a significant

contributor. Fbr highway vehicles, noises originate from the exhaust sys-
tems, engines, special features (such as loading machinery on solid waste
carriers and heavy duty trucks),and other individualcharacteristics.

23. Noise abatement measures are similar to those for construction

equipment, as given in paragraph 21. Additional controls may be inposed
through licensing and inspection procedures, and through driver education
on operational procedures.

ACCEPTABLENOISE LIMITATIONS

24. There are considerable variations in the recommended allcwable

noise levels emitted by the many individual sources existing in the en-
vironment. The limitations presented in Table 3 represent the net effect
of cumulative contributions frcn all sources. The levels given are con-
sidered adequate for protecting the health and welfare of the general pub-
lic in the specific environmental situation. The tenm "public health and
welfare" denotes personal comfort and well-being as well as the absence of
hearing damage or other clinical symptoms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Peterson,A.P.G. and E.E. Gross, Jr. "Handbookof Noise Measurement"

General Radio Inc. Concord, Mass. (1974).

2. U.S. Departmentof Cbmmerce/NationalBureau of Standards. "Quieting:

A. PracticalGuide to Noise Control". NBS Handbook 119. Washington
(1976).

3. U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. "Public Health and Welfare Cri-

teria for Noise". Doc. 550/9-73-002. Washington (July 27, 1973).

4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Information on Levels of En-

vironmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and Welfare with
an Adequate Margin of Safety". Doc. 550/9-74-004. Washington (March
(1974).

5. United States Gypsum, "Sound Control Construction-Principles and Per-

formance". 2nd Ed. Chicago (1972).

6. United Auto Workers, "Noise Control-A Worker's Manual". Detroit (Febru-

ary 1978).

7. U.S. Federal Register, "Noise EmissionStandards for Construction

EquipmentNew Wheel and Crawler Tractors". Vol. 42, No. 132, pp 35804-
35820. Washington (July 11, 1977).
 - 233 -

8. "Transportation Criteria,Ed.
Noises",A symposiumon Acceptability
by JamesD. Chalupnik.Universityof WashingtonPress. Seattleand
London(1970).
9. "Airports and the Environment". Organization for Econoiaic Cooperation
and Development. Paris (1975).
10. U.S. Ehvironmental Protection Agency. "Fundamentals of Noise:
Measurement, Rating Schemes, and Standards". Doc.NTID 300.15.Wash-
ington(December 31, 1971).
 - 234 -

THE WORLD BANK MARCH1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

NON-FERROUSMETALS INUXJSTRY

ALUMINUM
PRODUCrIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL
GUIDELINES

1. The non-ferrous metals category includes a large number of metal-

lic elements, but only a few are of concern to World Bank operations at
this time. Those most frequently encountered in Bank activities are cover-
ed in four separate documents in the series, as follaws: (a) aluminum; (b)
lead and zinc; (c) copper and nickel; and (d) silver, tungsten, columbium,
and tantallum. This document will concern itself with aluminum production.

2. Both primary and secondary aluminum will be discussed, the class-

ification being based upon the raw materials used in the production. Norm-
ally, the primary metal is produced from the raw ore, while the secondary
metal is produced from manufacturing scrap, discarded consumer items, and
other residues containing eccnomically recoverable quantities. The manu-
facturing process and waste sources are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

3. Aluminum is considered to be the most abundant metal in the

earth's crust. The aluminum industry is international in scope, and its
manufacture, fabrication, and use are currently worldwide. The wastes re-
sulting from the industry's operations are of significant proportions, and
hence their effects must be considered in environmental impact assessments.

PROCESSES
MANUFACTURING

4. The basic material used in the manufacture of aluminum metal is

bauxite ore. Major sources of the mineral are South America, the Caribbean
and Australia. Specific sources include Jamaica, Haiti, Costa Rica, Suri--
nam, Guyana, French Guiana, Brazil, Ghana, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Cameroon,
Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

5. The most commonly used method for the production of aluminum met-
al from bauxite ore is the Bayer Process, follcwed by the Hall-Heroult Pro-
cess. Thus, aluminum production may be considered a two-step process.

6. In the Bayer Process the bauxite is digested with a hot, strong

alkali solution (generally sodium hydroxide) to form a sodium aluminate
solution and an undissolved residue commonly called "red nud". The red mud
is separated by filtration and reworked for recovery of additional alum-
ina. The sodium aluminate solution is hydrolyzed to aluminum hydroxide by
cooling and dilution, and the hydroxide then induced to crystallize by
seeding with alumina crystals. The precipitate (which is the aluminum hy-
droxide) is separated from the liquor, clarified in tray thickeners, washed
with hot water, and filtered. As the final step the hyudroxide is calcined
 ANTHRACITE, PITCH COKE

PAT C~S G PARTiCULTE BAHUSOLIDS TO

BLENDINGASINt RECYCLE

POTL NING SOLIDS

L!SPOSAL HAO

PRES 5IN | EMISSIONS Em;LECOSfATIC PASTE PLANT LIOUOR

COOLING SCflUBtEtR
BAliING P,lECIPITATOR
11

SODERBE-RG PREf4K

ALTIO A DtECTECURRENT|

CRYOLITE,CaF1AIFm redct
Proces

(AOUORm U
DISPOSAL SPENT POTLINER B

4 ~~~~~A UMw
LU I1tN

; l_, _ J ~~~~~~~~~~~AEiSORPTION
__
,
SOLIDS TO
LADIL aOR MIXED GASES fUMES 4
ACTIVATED ALUUINUM TO ECLECTROLYTIC
H,O- CELL

COOLING I ATNo LIOUOR

WATER C< OLING SCRUBBE

SLOWDOWN ALUMINUM.
TO TREATMENT

Fig. 1 - Primary Aluminum Reduction Process

(From US EPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 236 -

ALUMINUM SCRAP

WASTE OA ;HOUSE SORTING

DPRYINGD
DUST CRUSHING

; REMOVED IRON SEPARATION

REVERaERATORY FUMES AFEURR EXAS

CHIARGING 0

tn, Sl, Cu. Mg,RNACE j EF

ER Y F SOR RECYCLE
SLIUDGE
SN-P ALUMINUMYINGT
SNBP MOLTEN ALUMINUM -

Fig.
2, CaC2
Second Alt r

YING ~ ~ LGTODSOALO l LN
~
Zn.~~
mgetc ~ Si Cu. EPAU8BER
(From US EPAE5 Document li0/9CR

| 8KIMMING FUMS
Cia,~ N...

l S ALUMINUM ~~~~~~HzO
TO RECYCLE OR TREATMENT

SHIP ItOLTEN ALUMINUM SHIP ALUMIN UM INGOTS

Fig. 2 - Secondary Aluminum Smelting Process

(From US EPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 237 -

in rotary kilns, at tenperatures up to 1800°C to produce alumina (A12 03),

cooled, and shipped to reduction plants.

7. The alumina is then reduced electrolytically by the Hall-Heroult

Process, to produce aluminum. This invo'ves the electrolysis of alumina
dissolved in a fused salt electrolyte consisting of cryolite (Na3 Al F6 ),
with minor additions of other fluoride salts. The process is carried out
in a cell (pot) -- consisting of a carbon anode, a cathode, and the elec-
trolyte -- contained in a carbon-lined steel box. This is followed by al-
loying and casting into ingots. The ingots are then shaped for final use
by casting, rolling, forging and/or extrusion.

8. For secondary aluminum production, the raw materials include new

clippings; forgings and other solids; borings and turnings; residues; old
castings and sheets; and high iron scrap.

9. The smeltingprocess for secondaryaluminum generally consists of

six steps: charging scrap into the furnace, addition of fluxing agents,
addition of alloying agents, mixing, demagging (magnesiumrenoval) or de-
gassing, and skimming. Some plants also process residues to recover a high
aluminum fraction for smelting and a low aluminum fraction for use by steel
manufacturers as ingot topping. High-iron scrap undergoes presmelting
treatment for iron removal.

WASTESOURCESANDCHARACTERISTICS

10. The major environmental concerns in bauxite mining operations are

land erosion, runoff water control, and dust control. In the processing of
bauxite to produce aluminum the principal environmental concerns include:
(a) disposal of bauxite residue (red mud); (b) dirt losses (c) emissions
from fuel burning; and (d) waste liquid and slurry streams.

Air Emissions

11. In the primary aluminum industry, gaseous emissions originate

from the potlines, potroom, paste plant, anode bake plant, and the
degassing operation. Mbst plants effectively collect and remove the
various emissions and therefore very little escapes to the atrmsphere. In
the secondary aluminum category emissions originate in the demagging
(magnesium remnval) operations and from processing of furnace residues.
These also are effectively collected and removed.

12. The emissions, in both primary and secondary plants, will contain
dusts, fluorides, sulfur conpounds, fuel combustion products, certain or-
ganic pollutants, phenols, cyanides (in cryolite recovery) and organic car-
bon in varying amounts.

Liquid Wastes

13. The conventional water pollution parameters (biochemical oxygen

demand, chemical oxygen demand, total organic carbon, oils and greases,
etc.) have limited values in the non-ferrous metals industry. High concen-
trations of metals, a characteristic of the wastes, will inhibit biological
activity and render these tests ineffective and of limited value.
 - 238 -

14. In primary aluminum production the significant parameters are to-

tal fluorides, total suspended solids, and pH. For secondary production
these are also significant, but to them must be added anmmnia nitrogen,
aluminum, and copper.

15. Process wastewater in primary aluminum production originates from

the wet scrubbers used for air pollution control in the potline, potroom,
paste plant, anode bake plant, and the degassing operation. Other waste
streams originate from the cryolite recovery, ingot cooling, and cathode
making. For secondary aluminum operations the wastewater results from de-
magging, wet milling of residues, and contact cooling.

Solid Wastes

16. Solid wastes include bauxite residues (red mud), residues from
air pollution control devices (precipitatorsand scrubbers),and the waters
used to cool the ingots and castings. The cathodes, consistingof carbon
liners which hold the molten aluminum, are replaced periodically and re-
quire disposal. Spent cathodes will have a significant fluoride content,
and water runoff from storage areas used for the spent units will contain
fluorides. Scrubbers, furnaces, and ingot cooling are the principal solid
waste sources in secondary aluminum production.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

AIR EMISSIONS

17. Control measures should be such that there will be very minor or
no emissions to the atmosphere. The dusts and gases are usually collected
for recycling and byproduct recovery, or for discharge with the wastewater
streams.

18. Where gaseous emissions are discharged to the atmosphere, the

following limitations are to be observed:

Sulfur Dioxide (S0 2 )

Inside Plant Fence Ann. Arith Mean 100 pg/m3

Max. 24-hour Peak 1000pg/r 3
Outside Plant Fence Ann. Arith Mean 100pg/M 3
Max. 24-hour Peak 500/ig/m 3

Fluorides (as HF) Ann. Arith Mean lO/ig/m 3

Max. 8-hour Peak 100 pg/m 3

Particulates Ann. Geom. Mean 75 ug/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 60/ug/m3

Liquid Effluents

19. Discharge limitations, based on the best practicable control

technologycurrentlyavailable,are as follows:
 - 239 -

Primary Aluminum - Smlting

Max. 24-hour

Fluorides (total) 0.05 Kg/Mg* Aluminum

TSS 0.10 " "
pEI 6 to 9 units

Secondary Aluminum - Smlting

Max. 24-hour

Fluorides (total) 0.4 Kg/Mg * Aluminum

TSS 1.5 "
NH3 (as N) 0.01 "
Al 1.0 "
Cu 0.003 " "
pH 6 to 9 units

* 1 Mg = 1 Megagram = 1 Metric ton.

Solid Wastes

Bauxite Mining

(a) There is to be no disposal of mine tailings to waterways or

to the sea, except under very special circumstancesand very
carefully controlledconditions.

(b) A reclamation program is to be established for handling mine

tailings. The project sponsor is to submit a proposed plan
of action, which will be evaluated as part of the project
appraisal.

(c) The reclamation program is to be initiated within three (3)

years of the start of project operations.

Bauxite Processing and Refining

There is to be no disposal of red mud into either the waterways

or into the sea.

CONTROLANDTREATMENT
OF WASTES

Air Emissions

20. The industry makes extensive use of both wet and dry methods for
control of particulates and gases. Liquid effluents from the wet systems
are discharged with the wastewater, except where there is byproduct recov-
ery or utilization. Dry systems are preferable to wet systems, since re-
movals are just as effective and liquid waste flows are reduced.
 - 240 -

Liquid 3ffluents

21. In-plant controls should be care fully considered as the first

step in reducing wastewater loadings and volumes. In-plant measures
include inprovement of housekeeping practices, byproduct recovery,
wastewater recycling (with or without treatment), and others.

22. Technology applicable to prinary aluminum wastes includes treat-

ment of wet scrubber water and other fluoride-containing effluents to pre-
cipitate the fluorides. This is followed by settling of the precipitate
and recycling of the clarified liquid to the wet scrubbers. Recycling will
control the volume of wastewater discharged.

23. Wastewaters containing fluorides will originate from the potline,

potrooms, anode bake plant, used cathode disposal, used cathode storage
area, and storm water runoff. Precipitation of these effluents way be ac-
conplished by addition of cryolite or lime. Holding ponds or lagoons
should be provided for settling of that portion of the flow not recycled.

24. In secondary aluminum production, wastewaters originate from met-

al cooling, fume scrubbing, and residue milling. Metal cooling flows may
be reduced or eliminated through air cooling of ingots or recycling. Fume
scrubber wastewaters may be recycled after pH adjustment and settling. Ef-
fluents from residue milling should be given three or four-stage settling,
pH adjustment, and total inpoundment.

Solid Wastes

25. While a number of disposal methods for bauxite residues have been
investigated, some form of dunping is currently considered to be the best
method, including (a) land inpoundment; (b) ocean dumping by ships, barges,
or pipelines; and (c) seashore reclamation.

26. Land impoundment in a diked inpevious area is most frequently

used, and is the method to be generally enployed for Bank-supported pro-
jects. Care nust be taken to avoid contamination of ground waters. lhe
settling ponds can remove 30 to 60 percent of the solids. In som cases,
water from the inpoundment area can be returned to the process as make-up
water.

27. Sea disposal is practiced in a number of areas. At some sites in

the Mediterranean, the residue is discharged via pipelines into underwater
canyons at depths of over 2,000 meters. In Japan sea dumping is permitted,
but only to areas and by methods specified by government regulations, with
disposal areas being located over 300 kilometers from shore. Use of baux-
ite residue for seashore reclamation is permitted in Japan on a limited
basis, but has been found to be very costly. For Bank-sponsored projects
sea disposal may be used in special cases only, under carefully controlled
conditions, and with the assurance that there will be no harmful effects on
sea life.
 - 241 -

28. Sludges from settling or other treatment of waste streams are

transferred to contractors or reprocessors for recovery of metals. Drying
beds, lagoons, landfills,or incinerationare also used. Gravity thicken-
ing, vacuum filtration,or other conditioningmay be applied ahead of ulti-
mate disposal.

29. Particulate matter from dry scrubbers is burned, dumped on land,

or recycled for byproduct recovery.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "The Aluminium Industry and the Environment." UNEP Industry Sector

Seminars, Aluminium Meeting, Paris, 6 to 8 October, 1975. Papers and
Documents. (1975)

2. "Environmental Aspects of the Aluminium Industry - An Overview." UNEP

Industry Programme. Paris (May 1977)

3. "Environmental Recommendations for Siting and Operation of New Primary

Aluminium Industry Facilities." International Primary Aluminium Insti-
tute. London (1977)

4. "Air Pollution Control in the Primary Aluminum Industry." Singmaster &

Breyey. New York (1973)

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Environmental Considerations of

Selected Energy Conserving Manufacturing Process Options." Alumina/
Aluminum Report. Doc. EPA 600/7-76-034 h. Washington (December 1976)

6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document for Pro-

osed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Stl.nd-
ards for the Bauxite Refining Subcategory of the Aluminum Segment of
the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA
440/1-74-019-c. (March 1974)

7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Developmnt Document for Pro-

posed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Stand-
ards for the Primary Aluminum Smelting Subcategory of the Nonferrous
Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-74-019-d.
(March 1974)

8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document for Ef-

fluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for
the Secondary Aluminum Smelting Subcategory of the Aluminum Segment of
the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc.
EPA-440/l/74-019-e. (March 1974)

9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document for Ef-

fluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Nonferrous Metals
Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-79/019-a.
(September1979)
 - 242 -

10. " tandard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater." 15th
I ition. American Public Health Association. New York (1980)

11. "Code of Federal Regulations - Protection of Environm. ," Title 40,

Parts 400 to 424, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington (July 1,
1981)

12. Atkins, M.H. and J.F. Lowe. "The Econonics of Pollution Control in the
Non-Ferrous Metals Industry." Pergammnn Press. Oxford (1979)

13. Boodson, K. "Non-Ferrous Metals - A Biographical Guide." Macdonald &

Co. (Publishers) Ltd. London (1972)
 - 243 -

THE WORLD BANK MARCH 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

NON-FERROUS METALS INDUSTRY

COPPER AND NICKEL PRODUCTION

ENVIRONMENTALGUIDELINES

1. The non-ferrousmetals category includesa large number of metal-

lic elements, but only a few are of concern to World Bank operations at
this time. Those most frequently encountered in Bank activities are cov-
ered in four separate documents in this series, as follows: (a) aluminum;
(b) lead and zinc; (c) copper and nickel; and (d) silver, tungsten, colum-
bium, and tantalum. This document will cover the production of primary and
secondary copper, ard primary nickel.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

COPPER

2. Smelting is the first step in the production of primary copper

frornthe ore. One of two main process schemes is generally used: roast-
ing, smelting, and converting; or simply smelting and converting. Roasting
is used where rnumeroustypes of ores are processed, in order to reduce the
content of sulfur and other inpurities in the feed stock. Ore concentrates
of uniform consistency frequentlydo xx)trequire the roasting step.

3. Smelting is carried out in either a reverberatory furnace or an

electric furnace. The smelting and refining processes are illustrated in
Figures 1 and 2. The end product is a milten copper-iron-sulfide material
called matte. The matte goes to a converter, while the slag containing the
impurities is skirmied off as waste material for disposal.

4. In the converting step, the iron-sulfide ccxrponent of the matte

is oxidized to sulfur dioxide and iron oxide. The sulfur dioxide is
carried off in the exhaust air streams. The iron oxide further reacts with
silicate (added as a fluxing agent) to fonn iron-silicateslag. This slag
contains significantamounts of copper and is thus recycled to the smelting
step. The product fram the converter units is called blister copper.

5. Blister copper, which contains various impurities, is casc into

anodes and sent to electrolytic refining for purification. A small percen-
tage of plants use fire refining to produce refined copper. Insoluble
slimes are generated during the electrolytic process. These may contain
ecomomically significant amnunts of copper, selenium, tellurium, lead, sil-
ver, and other precious metals. The slimes are usually treated off site,
but may be treated on site, for byproduct recovery.
 - 244 -

COPPERCONCENTRATES

GREEN FEED

ROATI TG SOLIDS TO DISPOSAL

STEAM TO
POWER PLANT INE
EMISSIONS MATTE

TSEAAWATER
SOLIDS TO 6IE
SMELTING

EMISSIRIRFINNOCABO

SLO O ACI
WN PLANTR

L TROSTAT CASIN
i-4
SLA

A I R~~~~I

WATWA WAEEWATER

SULFURICACID ANODE OR fIRE REFINED

COPPER TO ELECTROLYSIS
OR MARKET

Figure 1. Primary Copper Smelting and Fire Refining Processes.

(From U.S. EPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 245-

AIR
IIUSTER COPPER POLE

GRADECOPPER
INTERMEDIATE r ANOI

CASTING WASTEWATERW

IANODES
CATHODESHEETSI
ElcCTROLYTE
O I 8EED
BLAOR ELCIOYC SCflAPANODES
CPPR CL CELL
OECOPPERIZED__
ELEC1TlOLYTE SUMIEStO BY-PRODUCt
RECOVERY
l t ~~H, O PCATH
OME

C 3_!>~NNI WASTEWATER ow

ELECtRLYTAM FIES_ VENTTOAtMOSPHERE_

j EVAPOR F~~~~MuE
lNOC CRBE UGUOR

LACIC
ACICEO~ FU

ORYER~~~
~
ORYER
C ~ A ~~~~S OOING
0
7lN WASTEWATER

NI O4 ALTERNATE
USE COPER
ORDISPOSAL PROOUCTS

rigure 2. Primary CoPper ElectrolyticRefining Process.

 - 246 -

6. Industrial copper-bearing scrap, discarded consumer items, and

residues from melting and refining are the basic raw materials used in sec-
ondary copper production. The manufacturing prccess consists of pretreat-
ment of scrap, smelting, and refining. The processing depends upon the raw
materials used and the desired end product. The process is illustrated in
Figure 3.

NICKEL

7. The nickel extraction industry may be divided into two major seg-
ments, based on the compositionof the raw ore. Those ores which are mined
underground are mainly sulfide ores. The nickel minerals are concentrated
by physical methods, and the concentrates then smelted by pyrometallurgical
methods.

8. Nickel oxide ores (also known as laterite ores) come from open
pit mines, at or near the surface at maximum depths of some 30 meters. The
nickel deposits frcm open mines cannot be concentratedby physical means.
The metal is extracted either in a chemical form by leaching or as ferro-
nickel by smelting.

9. Nickel sulfide concentrates are smelted with a flux to prodluce a

copper-nickel-iron matte. The resulting furnace matte is treated to remove
iron slag and part of the sulfur as sulfur dioxide gas, and to produce a
sulfur-deficient copper-nickel matte.

10. The copper-nickel matte is slowly cooled to form copper and nick-
el sulfide crystals, plus a nickel-copper allcy containing significant
quantitiesof precious metals. The crystal mass is pulverized to separate
the components from each other. The nickel-copperalloy in the pulverized
mixture is extracted nagnetically and then refined electrolytically. The
nickel-coppersulfide minerals are separatedby flotation.

11. In one type of process the nickel sulfide concentrate is treated

by selective leaching with ammonia, under pressure, and the solution then
heated to precipitate the copper. Nickel and cobalt are recovered separ-
ately, as metal powders,by hydrogen reductionof the purified solution.

12. The carbonyl process can be also used to recover nickel from the
nickel-sulfideconcentrate. The sulfide is roasted to produce nickel ox-
ide, and this is reduced with water gas to form crude sponge nickel. The
sponge is then treated with carbon monoxide to form nickel carbonyl. Heat
is applied to the carbonyl to decompose the Ni (CO)4 mixture and produce
nickel pellets or nickel powder. Iron sulfide concentrate, the residue
from the carbonyl process, is further treated to recover nickel oxide as a
marketable product.

13. Nickel oxide laterite ore, after drying and screening, is pro-
cessed by smelting with coke, limestone, and gypsum to form an iron-nickel
matte. The matte is then treated in the same way that mattes with similar
composition are smelted and refined in the processing of sulfide ores.
 - 247 -

I~~~~~~~~~G
A
SEPAIIIRAT
IONT
| DlA CRADE SME

PELLfTIZiN3 StRIOTINV G ETC.

BURNOUC _ TISW
CLASSIICT OR SHOUTIRE.EE ET

| | bRE IDINC _ DUSt 0X n~~~~DUS

COPTR-t STOICH
FRAC ION

1
LS O ENO ASTOOIRON

ALL_ift |J ON
| ~~CACKINCOP-PEINO
Pt INI 'L INLG Lf

w~~~~SETN OR R=ltNIICOD15

Fu-LWGRD
BLACKESOR
COPPER ArENAS OR 8RONZ
B~~RASS LaiETN'EFNN
NGOTS OR SHOT
IlCCOt INGOTS ORNEDO| _

Y0lID
WS YA5TE_
MAIR, POLLUTION
LOR-LOW RESIDUES
GRADE !
SLO-SLUDGE
Ds-EPLE TEDISUO MGHPURITT COPPE
BILLETS.CAKE ROOS. ETC

Figure 3. SecondaryConper ProductionProcess.

(F^.omU.S. EPA Document EPA 440/1-791019a).
 - 248 -

14. Another method of processing laterite ores is to smelt them with

coke and limestone, or other carbon reductant, to produce ferronickel. The
ferronickel is refined by dephosphorization, and removal of the silicon and
chromium as a slag. The refined product is marketed.

15. Oxide ores may also be processed by leaching with ammonia or with
sulfuric acid. Pxrmnia leaching will produce nickel oxide, which can be
marketed or further refined by the methods used for sulfide ores. In sul-
furic acid leaching the nicke.land cobalt are precipitatedas sulfides by
hydrogen sulfide. The crude sulfide is leached in a weak acid solution to
redissolve the nickel and cobalt, then neutralizedwith ammonia and pro-
cessed for recoveryof nickel and cobalt powders.

WASTESOURCESAND CHARACIERISTICS

COPPER

Air Emissions

16. Emissions from the copper smelting and refining operations origi-
nate in the roasting, smelting, and converting processes. Sulfur dioxide
and particulates are the principal pollutants. In some plants these gases
pass through a boiler for heat recovery and then through a low-velocity
flue device to settle out the heavier particulates. The smaller particles
are usually removed by electrostatic precipitators or by baghouses.

17. Where gases are not burned in a boiler, the sulfur dioxide is re-
covered as liquid SO2 or as sulfuric acid. Gases are preconditionedby
electrostaticprecipitatorsor scrubbing towers to remove the particulates
and prevent the buildup of soluble salts such as metallic sulfates and
chlorides. In secondary copper production, some emissions result from
burning, drying, and shredding of the raw stock, hut these are not consid-
ered to be significant.

Liquid Effluents

18. Wastewater from smelting in primary copper productionoriginates

from the acid plant blowdown, contact cooling, and slag granulation. In
the refining facilities the effluents consist of waste electrolyte and cat-
hode wash, anode wash, and contact oooling waters. Sources within a secon-
dary copper plant include slag milling and classification, smelter air pol.
lution control, contact cooling, electrolyte, and slag granulation.

Solid Wastes

19. Solids are produced mainly from air scrubbers and precipitators,
furnaces (as slag), and scrap pretreatment in the case of secondary copper.
 - 249 -

IIICKEL

Air Emissions

20. Emissions fror the processingof nickel s;ulfide ore concentrates

contain significant amounts of both particulates and gases. These origi-
nate mainly from the roasters, smelters, and converters as well as from
pawer generation facilities which may be part of the production facility.
The character of the particulates depends upon the source. Gases will in-
clude one or more of the following: Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon
ionoxide, and water vapor. Some nickel oxide is carried to the atmosphere
from roasting of precipitated nickel carbonate to remove carbon dioxide.
Normally there will be no visible emissions from a well-operated nickel
electrolytic refining operation.

21. Emissions from processing of nickel oxide ores will also contain
significant amnunts of particulates and gases. Sources and composition are
similar to the emissions from nickel sulfide ore processing, but levels
will differ. In furnaces which produce ferronickel,for example, sulfur
oxides are a nuch lesser problem . Ammonia and sulfuric acid leaching
operationsare generally carried out in closed systems and hence contribute
no emissions to the atmosphere.

Liquid Effluents

22. The major sources of liquid effluents will be the waters used for
cooling at various points in the process. This would include the converter
matte, furnace matte, converter slag, driers, reduction kilns, pelletizers,
and wet scrubbers, where used for emissions control. Power generation
facilities,if operated as part of the installation, may also be a source
of oooling * -er.

23. Significant parameters governing discharges to adjacent waters

will be tenperatureand total suspended solids. Oils and greases should
also be considered in case of equipment leakages, spills from oil storage
facilities,or other possible sources.

Solid Wastes

24. Solid wastes will originate periodically from emission control

devices, settlings in cooling pits, and sludges from waste treatment facil-
ities.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

Air Emissions

25. Wet or dry systems for removal of particulates, combined with

collection of the gases for recycling or product recovery, will normally
provide sufficient control to drastically reduce or eliminate discharges to
the atmosphere. Where discharges are made to the environment then emission
levels, for both copper and nickel production, are to be maintained at or
below the following levels:
 - 250 -

Sulfur Dioxide (SOs)

Inside Plant Fence Ann. Arith. Mean 100 pg/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 1000 pg/m3

Outside Plant Fence Ann. Arith Mean 100 pg/m3

Max. 24-hour Peak 500 .g/m 3
Particulates

Ann. Geom. Mean 75 ug/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 260 /1 g/m 3

Nitrogen Oxides (as NO2 ) pg/rn 3

Ann. Arith. Mean 100 gm

Carbcn monoxide (CO)

Max. 8-hour Aver. 10 mg/m3

Max. 1-hour Aver. 40 mg/m3

Nickel Compounds (as Ni)

All processes Maximum 20 mg/m3

Liquid Effluents - Copper

26. Plants Which engage in the smelting of prirmry cqpper fran ore or
ore concentrates are those whose operations include, but are not limited
to, roasting, converting, leaching (if preceded by a pycametallurgical
step), slag granulation and dumping, fire refining, and the casting of pro-
ducts fran these cperations.

27. Based on the application of the best practicable control technol-

ogy current'y available, there should be no disdcarge of process waste-
waters to surface or ground waters. Effluents nay be impounded, with or
without pretreatment,and recycledin most cases.

28. Wiere impoundnent is not practicable or there nust be periodic

releases, then the following effluent Limitations apply:

Max. 24-hour Consecutive

30-day Aver.
Mg/Liter of Effluent

TSS 50 25
As 20 10
Cu 0.5 0.25
Pb 1.0 0.5

Cd 1.0 0.5
Se 10 5
Zn 10 5
pH 6 to 9 Units 6 to 9 Units
 - 251 -

29. Plants engaged in the elecrolytic refining of copper are those

whose cperations include, but are not limited to, anode casting (perfonred
at refineries which are not located onsite with a smelter), product cast-
ing, and by-product .ecovery.

30. On the basis of best practicable control technology currently

available, wastewater effluents from such plants should not exceed the
following limitations:

Max. 24-hour Consecutive

30-day Aver.
Kg/Metric Tbn of Product

TSS 0.10 0.05

Cu 1.7K10-3 0.8x10-3
Cd Ex10-5 3x10-5
Pb 6x10-4 2.6x10-4
Zn 1.2x10-3 0.3x10-3

31. Plants engaged in secondary copper production are thaose which re-
cover, reprocess, and remelt new and used copper scrap and residues to pro-
duce copper metal and copper alloys. There should be no discharge of
liquid effluent from this source. Wastewaters may be imnpounded and in many
cases recycled, either with or without pretreatment.

32. Wthere inpoundment is not pract -able, or periodic releases are

necessary, then discharges should meet the following limitations:

Max 24-hour Consecutive

30-day Aver.
Th/7iter of Effluent

TSS 50 25
Cu 0.5 0.5
Zn 10 5
Oil & Grease 20 10
pH 6 to 9 Units 6 to 9 Units

Liquid Effluents - Nickel

33. Based on best practicablecontrol technologycurrently available,

wastewater discharges from primary nickel production may be iTpounded and
recyled in marnycases, with or without pretreatment. Where impoundnentis
not possible then discharges are to meet the following limiations, based on
results achieved at Canadian plants:
 - 252 -

Consecutive
30-day Aver.
Mg/Liter

TSS 15
Cu 0.2
Ni 0.5
Fe 0.5
pH 6 to 9 Units

CONTROLANDTREATMENT
OF WASTES

34. As a first step in developing measures for control of emissions,

wastewaters, and other sources of wastes, a critical analysis should be
made of plant operations to determine what internal measures can be taken
to reduce discharges to the environment. This includes utilization or
recycling of waste products, process changes, isolation of highly
concentrated waste streams for separate treatment, improved housekeeping
procedures, control of water use, and other similar measures.

Air Emissions

35. Gaseous and particulate emissions can be controlled by wet or dry

scrubbers,cyclone filters, electrostaticprecipitators,or other devices.
Discharges from wet systems are added to other liquid process wastes and
receive the same treatment. Dry systems are preferable where possible,
since they are generally as effective and do not add to the volume of
wastewaters. The collected dusts and particulates are more readily
disposable or reusable in the dry state. Tall chimneys (with heights in
the 75 to 125 meter range) may be needed in addition to the scrubbers or
other emission systems.

Liquid Effluents

36. Scrubber waters from primary copper smelters can be treated by

settling, combining the supernatant with the cooling water, applying
chemical precipitation, and recycling. Contact cooling waters from primary
copper refineries may be recycled. Acid plant blowdown waters should
receive chemical precipitation and filtration, and the filtrate recycled.

37. Slag mill wastewaters in a secondary copper plant can be settled,

and the supernatant combined with the oontact cooling water for treatment
by chemical precipitation. The supernatant may receive further filtration,
stored and recycled, thus resulting in zero discharge.

38. Oil leakages, in both copper and nickel production facilities,

from machinery, fuel storage, or other sources can be controlled by
installing oil trapping and recovery systems. A dike system may be
advisable for the oil unloading and storage areas.
 - 253 -

39. Most of the liquid discharges in nickel production will come from
cooling the mattes and slag casts. These streams will be high in suspended
solids and contain varying degrees of nickel, cobalt, iron, and other
inpurities. The wastewaters should be settled in ponds or tanks, and the
supernatant cooled and reused within the plant. Depending upon the
suspended colids contents, the supernatant waters may require filtration or
other additional treatment before reuse or discharge to surface waters.

40. Where waters are discharged to nearby surface waters temperaturEs

must be reduced in order to avoid interference with other uses of the
receivingwaters. Discharge temperaturesshould be about 300 C or lower.

Solid Wastes

41. Solid wastes may contain reusable materials,and this should be

the first considerationin developing disposal measures. Sludges, if not
sold for reprocessing,may be dischargedon-site to drying beds, lagoons,
landfills, or similar facilities. Dried sludges, dry particulates, and
other similar residues can be piled on land or used for landfill. Care
should be taken at dunp sites to avoid contaminatingground waters and to
prevent the pollution of surface waters by runoff.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. NationalAcademy of Sciences. "Medicaland BiologicEffects of pollu-

tants - Nickel." Washington (1975)

2. Canada Departmentof Mines and Resources, Mineral Resources Division.

"Nickel-Canadaand the World." Mineral Report 16. Ottawa (1968)

3. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. "Non-Ferrous

Metals - A Survey of Their Production and Potential in the Developing
Countries." Vienna (1972)

4. Jarrault, P. "Limitation des Emissions de Polluants et Oualite de

L'Air." InstitutFrancais de L'Energie. Paris (1978)

5. U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. "Guidancefor Lowest Achievable

Emission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Oreganic Compounds."
Document EPA 450/3/79-024. Washington (April 1979)

6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document for

Effluent LimitationsGuidelinesand Standards for the NonferrousMetals
Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-79/019-a.
Wiashington(Septener 1979).
 - 254 -

7. Atkins, M.H. and J.F. Lokwe,"The Economics of Pollution Control in the

Non-FerrousMetals Industry." PergamonPress. Oxfoid (1979).

8. Powers, P.W. "How to Dispose of Toxic Substancesand Industrial

Wastes." Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, UJ.and London (1976)

9. "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater." 15th

Edition. American Public Health Association. New York (1980).

10. Nievala,E.C., H.R. Butler, and H.J. Koehler. "AquaeousEffluent Treat-

ment at the Sudbury Processing Complex of INCO Limited." Presented at
24th Industrial Waste Conference, Toronto, Ontario, May 29 to June 1,
1977.

11. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40, "Protectionof Environ-

ment". Chapter 1, Part 42, "NonferrousMetals ManufacturingPoint
Source Category". Washington. Washington (July 1, 1981).
 - 255 -

THE WORLDBANK 1983

NOVEMBER

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

METALSINDUSTRY
NON-FERROUS

LEADAND ZINC PRODUCTION

GUIDELINES
ENVIRONMENTAL

1. The non-ferrous metals category includes a large number of

metals, but only a few are of concern to World Bank operations at this
time. Those most frequently encountered in Bank cperations are covered in
four separate documents in this series, as follows: (a) aluminum; (b) lead
and zinc; (c) copper and nickel; and (d) silver, tungsten, columbium, and
tantalum. This document will be confined to the production of primary and
secondary lead, and primary zinc.

PROCESSES
MANUFACTURING

LEAD

2. Galena, cerusite, and anglesite are the principal mineral ores

used in the primary lead industry. The manufacturing process includes both
refining and smelting. Usually both operations are carried out at the same
locations, but are independent of each other. The manufacturing process is
shawn in Figure 1.

3. The smelting process consists of bleading the ore concentrates

with recycled products and fluxes. The blend is pelletized and fed to a
sintering machine. From the machine, the sinter passes through a breaker
for breaking and sizing. Oversized particles are charged to the blast fur-
nace and the small particles returned t_othe sinter feed cperations.

4. The blast furnace is the primary reduction unit of the smelter

process. Three mnlten layers are usually formed in this unit. The top
layer consists of a slag containing silicate of iron, calcium, magnesium,
trace inpurities, and scmetimes significant quantities of lead and zinc.
The middle layer (which does not always form) is conposed of copper and
iron sulfide, along with some precious metals. The bottom layer conprises
the lead bullion which goes to the refining process.

5. Hard lead (sometimes referred to as antimonial lead) is the

principal product of the primary lead industry. The initial step in the
refining process is usually called "dross decopperizing" and serves to re-
move the copper. The dross (or skimmed slag) is treated in a reverberatory
furnace to separate the lead. The copper matte from the decopperizing goes
to a copper smelter. The separated lead is further processed to remove the
antimony, gold, silver, bisnuth, zinc, and any other impurities which may
be present.
 - 256 -

LfAD CONCENTRATUB

FLUX

DROSS ET;LE,S YS AOT PE M

COKE
BLAST SLAG SLAG SETtLER
ACIWASTEWASTe WT
< 1 -=- [ YSTf YM4wASYSTE

roEOAST EIAO L WASTE WTRErC

REFINtaY U 21NC SUIIIING _ FUUEERO RECYCLEUTO

IUMS CO CKELLECIIONAlEDOID

DROSS0LEAD5BULE LD SLAG RO
T WASTE

|EFNE AD LEAO

PARTIAL YNIO
FtECVCLE
OF 9 U
PriaryLeadManufacturing
Figure
S1 ~ AREICLA
~ ~ ~ AD ED
URAC
ro sO
IIN
TTE AHOUSE5
NTIMORA
HRD LA
(*Du E COPPER SMELTER

; _fUMES O COKE NX$C0*61'CA EEADOtlOE

fJGHOUSE
a f
AIR_; tGr ENlh FRdCMF NTNIAL A-SEIALT

SOFTENED LEAD LS^TCAGFEA IN (BY-PRODUCT)

DESILVERIZING
~~~~~~~LAD ZINC TO DESILVEIZING AIR

SECONDARY SILVER SKIMS PbO(LITHARGE)

< ^ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RECIRCUL
LEAD TO g F.

ZD2NINC 2 PRESS5

-- ~~~~~~~CHARCOAIL

Ca, mg BISlETn BISUT L

METAJTHT

NwOz_ ~PFFeN >_ FMOVAL TRACES OF Z SC ANODAS

MSNO, | "STC GROSS TO CHAPRCt PRE PRIXLTION)

REFINEOxLIAO

Figure 1 - PririaryLead Manufacturing Irrocess.

(From U'SEPADocument EPA 440/.-79/019a).
 - 257 -

6. The principal raw materials used in the secondary lead industry

are storage battery plates and lead residues. Some use is also made of
solder, babbit (an alloy used to line machine bearings), cable coverings,
and others. The lead is produced by charging the scrap materials to a re-
verberatory furnace (to produce soft lead) or to a blast furnmace (to pro-
duce hard lead). The soft lead may be further refined to produce lead ox-
ide. The hard lead may either be shipped without additional processing or
further processed at the site to fill specific needs. A flow diagram for
the secondary lead/antimony smelting process is presented in Figure 2.

ZINC

7. The two major sources of raw material for production of primary

zinc are the zinc concentrate recovered as a co-product from lead and cop-
per ores and the zinc ores from mining operations. The pyrolytic and elec-
trolytic processes are the two methods in general use for primary zinc pro-
duction.

c. In the pyrolytic process, shown in Figure 3, the concentrates are

roasted after drying and blending to remove sulfur as sulfur dioxide, as
well as to remove varying amounts of other volatile impurities such as rner-
cury, lead, and calcium. The roasted concentrate (calcine) is blended with
coke, moisture, and sometimes silica sand, and then pelletized. The pellets
are sintered and crushed, and then fed to a reduction furnace. Most of the
cadmium and lead is rernoved during sintering.

9. The zinc contained in the sinter is reduced to zinc oxide or

metallic zinc in a vertical retort furnace or an electrothermic furnace.
In either case, the resulting zinc vapor is condensed and cast into in-
gots. The uncondensed zinc and carbon monoxide are passed through a wet
scrubber. The exhausted carbon monoxide is used as a fuel, and the zinc is
removed from the scrubber water for reprocessing.

10. In the electrolytic process, presented in Figure 4, the roasting

is followed by leaching of the calcine with spent electrolyte (H2 S0 4 ) to
dissolve the zinc and cadmium. The solids (gangue) are separated by sedi-
mentation and filtration, and sold to other processors for recovery of the
lead and copper.

11. The zinc solution is further purified by adding zinc dust (and
sometimes scrap iron) in stages. These steps first precipitate copper and
other impurities and then cadmium. The pure solution is filtered, cooled
and then passed to electrolytic cells, where the zinc is deposited on alum-
inum cathodes. The purified zinc is stripped from the cathode, melted, and
cast into various shapes for marketing.

12. The solids from the filtrationstep are usually processed on site
to recover the cadmium, if they are rich in cadmium, and the residues sent
elsewhere to other processors for recovery of other metals. Cadmium-ricI
solids are leached with sulfuric acid to dissolve the cadmium, and then
treated with zinc dust and other reagents to precipitate a cadmium sponge.
The sponge is then further processed to produce cadmium metal, which is
cast into shapes (usually small spheres) suitable for electroplating.
 WASTE BATTERIES
LEAD RESIDUES

H,O BATTERYH ELECTROLYTE

CRACKING TO TREATMENT.

CASINGS TO DISPOSAL

SCRAP IRON

WASTE U =
MIS|A RATony SAGHSE - WASTE

SOIS
SOFTLEAD
H,O LIOUOFR
TORECYCLE
U'

SCRUBEFi P ANTIMONIAL SCRUiBER

TO RECYCLE
LIOUOR
H0
MSiOS

41
1EIMELT

|K.T`TLE
_ .,

,
. _
BARTON

OXDTO
~~~~~~~~ 1
D
~~~~~~~As.Cu
_
Et'LT

KETL
_

REFINED LEAD LEAD OXIDE ANTIMONIAL LEAD LEAD ALLOY

Figure 2 - Secondary Lead/Antimony Smelting Process.

(From USEPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 259 -

ZINC CONCENTRATES
WATERI

SLUDGE CENTRATE

WATER GAS

WASTEWATER A SO
TO TREATMENT _ T
ROASTER COLLECTA PLAN

CALCINE CA IUM
L ~~~PLANT
COKE
SAND SINTERING CETN

IPZINCARICH 'WO
RESIDUE
T LARMINE PLANT

(From TJSA REDUCTumNE 4

CAIFGOOINCOWLER ZlNCOXID E A
TREATMENTU FURNACE |. tOPATS

iCTh E sPATUr

FEPROSILICON_ _
J WATER CAS71NG _ v ~COOLING
TOWER

'LEADREFINERY

SLAB,
FiguE BLO KS PoutionLU
mm"roiicZn PrWOcEss
OTHER
SHAPES

Figure 3- Pyrolitic Zinc Production Process

(From USEPA Document EPA-440/1-79/019a)
 - 260 -

ZINC CONCENTRATES

PRE-LEACH WATSR GAS

PLANT L R

fOASTER
R _ . DUST a _ .-SO4
H
1 W . . _ ~~~OLLECTION

WATE
CATING BOWCALCINE
SLAS IER DUST
SALL MILL

UNDERFLOW ZINC SOLUTION FROM

_ < ~~~~CADMIUM
PLANT

SOLIDS TO
COPPER OR _-_O
LEAD THCKNRS
I
REFINERY FL&ER
tF.LI RS

SOLIDS TO _
CADM;UM ZINC < - ICDUSt
PURIf ICATION

ELECTROLYSISSPNCELAI

M ELTING
ZINC OXIDE FURNACE

SHAPESPM EL CI

WATER | CASTI MC COOLINGTOWER

BLOCKS
OTHER
SH.APES

Figure 4 - Electrolytic Zinc Reduction Process

(From USEPA Document EPA-440/1-79/019a)
 - 261 -

WASTESOURCESANDCHARACrERISTICS

LEAD

Air Enissions

13. The smeltingprocess in primary lead productiongenerates gaseous

emissionsof sulfur oxides, arsenic, antimony,and cadmium in the sintering
of the ore blends. A highly concentratedSOx stream produced during the
initial phase of the operation may or may not go -toa sulfuric acid plant.
Particulatesare removed by flue, baghouse, or wet scrubbers for recycling
to sinteringmnachines.

14. In the refiningprocess, some fumes are produced, mainly by the

softening furnace. Established air pollution control devices are used to
remove these emissions, and no significant quantities are normally dis-
charged to the atnosphere.

15. Secondary lead, produced mostly from discarded storage battery

plates, generates gaseous emissions from both reverberatory and blast
furnaces, and the remelt kettles. These are removedby baghouses or scrub-
bers. Water from the scrubbers is generally recycled.

Liquid Effluents

16. Liquid wastes in primary lead smelting originate from sintering

air pollution control units, acid plant blowdowns,blast furnace emission
control devices, zinc fuming control units, slag granulation, and dross re-
verberatory furnace emission control devices. Wastewater in the refining
process can originate from wet scrubbers, but this water is usually re-
cycled and no discharge results. Cooling of the castings is usually a non-
contact operation and the water is normally recycled.

17. For secondary lead plants the waste streams include battery acid,
raw cooling, and washdown from the battery cracking. Furnace and kettle
air pollution control devices and contact cooling contribute wastewater in
the smelting process. Battery acid streams are strontgly acidic and contain
significant levels of suspended solids, as well as several metals such as
antimony, arsenic, cadmium, lead, and zinc. Metal cooling is usually ac-
complished by non-contact methods.

Solid Wastes

18. Solid wastes originate from air pollution control devices,prepa-

ration of feeds, furnace cperations, and other sources. A significant por-
tion of these residues are reused in the process.
 - 262 -

ZTK

Air Emissions

19. Emissions originate fran the drying process in pyrolite zinc pro-
duction, from which they are removed by wet scrubbers and discharged with
the wastewater. The roaster units remove sulfur as sulfur dioxide, as
well as other volatile impurities such as arsenic, lead, and cadmium. The
exhaust gases pass through a dust collection system before transfer to an
acid plant for conversion to sulfuric acid. The waste solids are later
treated to recover cadmium.

20. The blending and pelletizirn of the ore concentrate also produces
a dust, which is collected and treated to recover cadmium and lead. The
reduction of the zinc contained in the sinter to zinc oxide or metallic
zinc produces uncondensed zinc and carbon monoxide. These are passed
through a wet scrubber, with the carbon monoxide being used as a fuel and
the zinc recovered for reprocessing.

21. The roasting furnaces in electrolytic refineries remove sulfur as

sulfur dioxide from the ore concentrates, and this goes to a sulfuric acid
plant. These emissions may also contain othei impurities such as mercury,
lead, and cadmium. Calcine dust fran the roasters is separated fran the
sulfur dioxide in the dust collectors and returned to the process.

Liquid Effluents

22. Wastewater flows in primary zinc production originate from the

wet scrubbers which collect emissions fram the concentrate, roasting, sint-
ering, and leaching units. Other effluents are discharged from the acid
plant blowdown, reduction furnace, preleaching, anode/cathode washing, and
contact cooling. Depending upon the source, the waste streams will contain
varying concentrations of lead, arsenic, cadmium, zinc, and other pollut-
ants. Tbxic heavy metals should be removed by neutralization before dis-
charge.

Solid Wastes

23.. In gereral, the dusts and other so-ids resulting from zinc pro-
duction contain significant quantities of other metals, sucn as lead and
-opper. These residues are sold to other processors fo- recovery of
valuable corponients.

24. Cadmium byproduct recovery, nearly always practiced at primary

zinc plants, does not generate any significant quantities of solid wastes.
 - 263 -

EFFLUENT LIMITATrIONS

Air Emissions

25. For botl lead and zinc plants, equipnent is readily available
(such as wet or dry scrubbers) to avoid the discharge of particulates and
gases to the atmosphere. However where these substances cannot be or are
not removed, then the following limitations will apply:

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Inside Plant Fence Ann. Arith Mean 100 ug/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 1000 ug/m 3
3
Outside Plant Fence Ann. Arith Mean 100 ug/m
3
Max. 24-hour Peak 500 ug/m

Particulates Ann. Geom. Mean 75 ,ug/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 260 ug/m 3

Arsenic (as As)

Inside Plant Fence 24-hr. Av. 0.006 mg/m3

Outside Plant Fence 24-hr. Av. 0.003 mg/m3

Cadmium (as Cd)

Inside Plant Fence 24-hr. Av. 0.006 mg/3

Outside Plant Fence 24-hr. Ave. 0.003 mg/m3

Lead (as Pb)

Inside Plant Fence 24-hr. Av. 0.008 mg/m3

Outside Plant Fence 24-hr. Av. 0 .004 mg/m3

Liquid Effluents

26. On the basis of best practicable control technology presently

available, liquid discharges should not exceed the following limits:

Primary Lead
Consecutive
Max-24 hour 30-day Aver.
Kg/MT Product

TSS 4.2x10- 2 2.1x10-2

Cd 8x10- 4 4x10-4
Pb 8x10- 4 4x10-4
Zn 8x10- 3 4x10-3
pH 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units
 - 264 -

Secondary Lead (Battery Cracking)

TSS 5x10-2 2.5xl0-2

Cd 4x10-5 2x10-
Pb lx10- 3 0.5x10-3
As lx10 4 0.5x10 4
pH1 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units

Consecutive
Max-24 hour 30-day Aver.

Kg/MT Metal Product

Primary Zinc

TSS 0.42 0.21

As 1.6xlQ-3 8x10-4
Cd 8x1l- 3 4x10-4
Se 0.08 0.04
Zn 0.08 0.04
pH 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units
CONTROLANDTREATMENT OF WASTES

Air Enissions

27. Both the lead and zinc industries make extensive use of wet and
dry methods for removal of particulates and gases. Liquid effluents from
the wet systems are handled with the wastewaters and receive the same
treatment. Dry systems are preferable, since removal efficiencies are high
and wastewater volumes are reduced. Current trends are toward dry systems
for new plants and replacements.

Liquid Effluents

28. The initial step in disposing of wastewaters is to critically ex-

amine housekeeping practices. In-plant measures such as process changes,
monitoring of water use, byproduct recovery, and recycling can make signif-
icant reductions in the amount of liquid effluents that must be treated and
discharged.

29. Except for acid plant blcwdownwater, zero discharge by recycling

is achievable in a primary lead plant. Acid plant blowdown waters may be
treated by chemical precipitation and filtration.

30. Wastes from secondary lead production fram battery cracking can
be treated by using lime for pH adjustment, followed by flocculation, pre-
cipitation, and settling.

31. Waste streams from primary zinc production can be treated by

chemical precipitation, using alumina, and filtration. Cooling waters may
be oambined with other streams and receive the same treatment. Generally,
all effluents can be collected, after treatment, and recycled.
 - 265 -

Solid Wastes

32. Sludge disposal is a problem in these industries, since the waste

streams nay carry large concentrations of metals. Sludges are frequently
removed by contractors for off-site disposal or sold to reprocessors for
recovery of metals. Drying beds, lagoons, landfills, incineration, or a
combination of these can be effectively used for on-site disposal.

33. Particulate matter from dry scrubbers may be burned, placed in a

landfill or reprocessed for byproduct recovery.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations IndustrialDevelopmentOrganization. "Non-ferrous

Metals - A Survey of Their Productionand Potential in the Developing
Countries." Vienna (1972)

2. Atkins, M.H. and J.F. Lawe, "The Economics of Pollution Control in the
Non-FerrousMetals Industry." Pergamon Press. Oxford (1979)

3. Boodson,K. "Non-FerrousMeta'. - A BiographicalGuide." Macdonald &

Co. (Publishers)Ltd. London (1972)

4. Powers, P.W. "Hcw to Dispose of Toxic Substancesand Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, NJ. and London (1976)

5. "StandardMethods for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater." 15th

Edition. American Public Health Association. New York (1980)

6. "ChemicalEngineers Handbook." Ed. by Robert H. Perry and Cecil H.

Chilton. Fifth Edition. McGraw-HillBook Co. New York (1973)

7. U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency. "DevelopmentDocument for Ef-

fluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Nonferrous Metals
Manufacturing Point Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/i1-79/019-a. (Sep-
tember 1979)
 - 266 -

THE WORLDBANK MARCH1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

NON-FERROUSMETALSINDUJSTRY
SILVER, TUNGSTEN,COLUMBIUM,AND
TANTALUMPRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENTALGUIDELINES

1. The non-ferrous metals category includes a large number of metal-

lic elements, but only a few are of concern to World Bank operations at
this time. Those most freque.tly encountered in Bank projects are covered
in four separate documents in this series, as follows: (a) aluminum; (b)
lead and zinc; (c) copper and nickel; and (d) silver tungsten, columbium,
and tantalum. This document will cover the p:oduction of (a) secondary sil-
ver from photographic and non-photographic wastes; (b) primary tungsten
salts (ammonium paratungstate-APT) and metal; and (c) primary columbium and
tantalum salts and metals.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
SECONDARYSILVER
2. The principal sources of raw materials are photographic wastes,
plating and sterling ware wastes, electrical conponents, and miscellaneous
sources. Photographic wastes are the largest single source. Typical pro-
duction processes are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

3. In the recovery of silver from photographic materials, the film

is chopped into small pieces, followedby separationof the silver fram the
films by nitric acid stripping. Then follows sedimentation,decantation
and filtration. The plastic residue is disposed of as solid waste, while
the liquid portion is mixed with chemicals to precipitate the silver.
Spent photographicsolutions may also be added at this point for recovery
of the silver. The supernatant is decanted and sent to treatment. The
sludge is thickened, filtered or centrifuged, dried, roasted, and cast into
ingots (also known as Dore plates). The ingots may be further refined on
site or shipped elsewhere. The roasting furnace slag is crushed and class-
ified, the silver concentrate is returned as furnace feed, and the tailings
go to landfill.

4. Cyanide solutions from the plating and sterlingware industries

are treated with sodium hypochloriteto precipitate the silver and oxidize
the cyanide. Following initial settling more sodium hypochloriteand lime
are added, and the solution resettled. The resulting silver-chloridepre-
cipitate is washed and dried for further processing or sold as a final pro-
duct.
 - 267 -

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM SCRAP

[GRANUALATION]

USTRIPPING
|--NITRIC
ACID

TO
LANDFILLfi&FILTfATION
WASTEFILM SEDIMENTATION

PRECIPITATION
REAGENTS
SILVER-FREE
WATER l PRECIPITATION *4 WASTE PHOTOGRAPHIC
I -1 SOLUTIONS

SILVER-FREE ISILYER SLUOGE

WATER =FILnATiON

i ROASTING "a
4 SILVER-BEARIHG PHOTOGRAPHIC
FILM ASH

CASTING

Iv
ELECTROLSIS

ELECTRIOLYSIS
ELECTROLYSISSLIMES

TO Au & Pt RECOVERY

PfELTING
C;ASTING
SILVER INGOTS

Figure 1. Silver Refining From Photographic Wastes

(from IJSEPA Docum.entEPA 44nl1-79/Ol9a)
 W0WTITNOACiAW FLULED
NIS

I A~~~~SA

_' I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

COLL[ CTIONA LA
WI,CD IOCE %1AIO
_~~~RIIt AU
bEVDSCR^i
DULLIW l siw
| rrt.v S-#tillN0~~~~~~~~~A SCtDnSnW
UTOS i

Fge.
Produ_tion
(_.om CA
IsUS
eo
EPA
EPA Document
44
Proce1,
rSlr
9an 1)
fo o-Ptrhc ra
CTION
50 tE
UAS-C

CSILVERs CATOOis 1hs

Figure 2. Secondary Silver Production Process from Non-PhotgraphicScrap.

(From US EPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 269 -

5. When electricalcomponents scrap is not suitable for electrolytic

refining, it must be further processed to recover the silver. The scrap
is first melted in a reverbatory furnace to produce lead bullion, copper
matte, and slag. The lead bullion is melted to produce litharge and preci-
ous metals layers. The litharge goes to a lead refinery and the precious
metals layer is cast into anodes for electrolytic refining. The copper
matte is processed to separate the silver, which is cast as ±ngots. The
slag is smelted in a blast furnace to separate the lead and copper por-
tions. Blast furnace slag is discarded as waste. This procedure is shown
in Figure 2.

PRIMARYTUNGSTEN

6. A number of processes are available for producing tungsten salts

and metal. Ferberite (FeW04) and scheelite (CaW04 ) are the two ores mDst
widely used to produce ammonium paratungstate (APT) and tungsten metal pow-
der. Typically, tungstate (Wo4 ) is purified from concentrates and convert-
ed to tungstic acid (H2 W04 ) through a series of filtration and precipit?
tion reactions. Further processing produces the intermediate product des-
ignated as APT. The APT is dried, sifted, and converted to oxides which,
in turn, are finally reduced to tungsten metal powder. The powder is
eventually used to produce the metal, or combined with carbon or other
metals to make carbides or metal alloys. The production process is shown
in Figure 3.

PRIMARYCOLUMBIUM
ANDTANTALUM

7. Columbium is dhe more popular name for niobium, which is element

41 in tihe periodic system. Tantalum (number 73 in the periodic system) and
columbium generally occur together in nature as the minerals tantalite and
col,nbite, respectively.

8. Raw materials for the production of primary columbium and tanta-

lum salts are ore concentrates and slags. The slags used are generally
those resulting from tin production. Three types of plants are encount-
ered: producers of metals and salts from concentrate and slags; producers
of purified salts only from concentrates and slags; and producers of metals
from purified salts. The salts of these two elements are produced first in
the process. The salts are then subjected to aluminothermic, sodium, or
other reduction in order to produce the two individual metals. Production
processes are illustrated in Figure 4.

WASTESOURCESANDCEARACTERISTICS
SECONDARY SILVER

Air Emissions

9. In the production of silver from photographic film, dusts and

particulates originate in the fibm chopping operation. Particles are also
released when the film is incinerated. The dusts are collected and return-
ed to the process for recovery of the silver. Roasting furnaces also cause
emissions but these are readily controlled by the use of wet scrubbers.
 - 270 -

OROUNO
CONCENTRATE

DIGESTION - NaOH

SETTLE
WASTE SOLIDS &
FILTER

N8aWO,

P=RECIPITATION
'JaCI & - CaCI,
DE CANTATION

CaWO, SLURRY

HCI
WASTE SCRUBBER WATER LACH CaC1, SOLUT:ON
I ~~~TO
WASTE

HaWO4 SLURRY

I dt ~~~~NH,OH
WASTE SCRUBBER WATER b- WASTE SOLIDS

NH 4 W0 4

iDRYING
WASTESCRUBBER WATER

APT

WASTE SCRUBBER WATERE

TUNGSTEN POWOER

Figure 3. Primary Tungsten Production Process

(From US EPA Document 440/1-79/019a)
 - 271 -

DIGESTION
AIR SCRUBBER WASTES CONCENTRATE

Cb/To BEARING
SOLUTION

AIR SCRUJBBER WASTES EXTRACTION

fLOORWASHING WITH
RAFFINATE WASTES MIBK

Cb/To IN WATER
NH -

KCI .- jjNH 3

To
PRECIPITATION
I Cb
PRECIPITATION[
I TO NH-
TO WASTE STRIPPING
TREATMENT B
FILTRATION FILTRATION

AIR - o - I- b-
S AL
AIR
SCRUBBER
fCRUBBER TSAT
DRLi DRYING TO NH3
Tb WASTE
TREATMENT DYGDYIGSTRIPPING

O
SCRUBBER l l
RtINSE REDUCTION REDUCTION |
WATER

To METAL Cb METAL

and Tantalum
Colurl'um. Production Process
Figure 4. Prinary
(From US EPA Document EPA 440/1-79/019a)
 - 272 -

10. Secondary silver production fran mn-photographic materials re-

sults in emissions fron the leachingand stripping of the scrap materials.
These will contain significant levels of acids, cyanides (if used in the
process), and metals. Smelting furnaces will also produce emissions of
particulates and fumes. Wet or dry dust-fume collectors isolate the
materials for return to the process or to waste.

Liquid Effluents

11. Liquid waste sources in the processing from photographic films

and other photographic wastes include leaching and stripping, precipitation
and filtration, roasting furnaces, electrolysis units (for recovery of
other metals) and contact cooling. Wastewater from the leaching process
will be stronglyacidic or caustic,depending upon the leachate used. This
effluent may also contain significantquantitiesof chromium, copper, lead,
and zinc as well as some organic pollutantswhich are used in the manufac-
ture of the film.

12. Waste effluentsalso result from the precipitationof silver fron

the leaching and stripping solution. These are similar to the leaching
wastewaters, but will also reflect the conposition of the chemical addition
used. Iron, zinc, and soda ash are among the chemicals used for precipita-
ting the silver. The precipitate is dried, roasted, cast, and cooled.
Direct contact cooling water is discharged.

13. In silver production from non-photograplhic materials, a highly

acidic -wastewaterresults from the control of emissions in the stripping
units. This effluent may also contain significantquantities of cyanides
(if used in the stripping process) and other metals. The filtrate from the
precipitationof the silver in the stripping solution is also dischargedas
wastewater. Wet scrubbers used to collect furnace emissions are another
liquid effluent source. In those plants using electrolytic refining, the
spent electrolyte, wastewater, and wet scrubber systems contribute to the
final effluent. Contact cooling is a final source of waste flows in the
plants.

Solid Wastes

14. Solid wastes generated in these processes include the plastic

portion of the film remaining after stripping, solids from wet and dry
scrubbers (when not recycled to the system) and sludge residues from which
silver has been removed.

PRIMARY TUNGSTEN

Air Emissions

15. Principal emission sources in tungsten production are the leach-

ing, dissolving, drying, and reduction units. Wet scrubbers are usually
installed for this purpose, and discharges to the atmosphere are insignifi-
cant.
 - 273 -

Liquid Effluents

16. Wastewaters originate fron precipitation and filtration, leach-

ing, andlthe wet scrubbers, in the conversion of ore concentrates to ammon-
iun paratungstate (APT). The wastewater streams reflect the conposition of
the ore concentrateand the processing steps used prior to leaching. They
are typically strongly acidic, very high in chlorides,and may contain sig-
nificant levels of such metals as arsenic, lead, and zinc. Scrubber efflu-
ents from the drying way contain high concentrations of ammonia, and may be
',ubjected to amnonia recovery before discharge.

17. The reduction units, which convert the salt into the metal, will
produce wastewaters from the wet scrubbers. While this effluent may be
high in ammnia, it usually is not treated for amnonia recovery.

Solid Wastes

18. A gangue, or residue, results fran the fusion reaction in the

formation of soluble sodium tungstate from the ore concentrates. These
waste solids are usually transferred to landfills, but in some cases the
residue is sold for mnlybdenurn recovery.

PRIMARY COLUMBIUM AND TANTALUM

Air Emnissions

19. Air enissions from the productionof columbiumand tantalum salts

and metals originate frcm the treatment with methyl isobutylketone (MIBK)
or other organic solvent, the salt drying units, and the reduction of salts
to the pure metal.

Liquid Effluents

20. The most significantwastewater sources are the digestion, sol-

vent extraction, and precipitation processes required for extraction of
the salts from the concentratesand slags. The processing involves the use
of acids, ammonia, and organic solvents. All of these are present in the
final effluent. Production of the metals fron the salts results in waste-
water from the leaching operation (following reduction) and from wet air
pollution control devices.

Solid Wastes

21. Treatment of the wastewaters and quench waters results in produc-

tion of sludges, for which disposal nust be provided.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

Air Enissions

22. In general, particulates and gases emitted from the production of

the metals covered by this document are readily controlled and eliminated
 - 274 -

by the use of wet or dry scrubbers. Wflere any of the emissions are dis-
clharged to the atmosphere, then the following limitations are to be observ-
ed in all cases:

Sulfur Dioxide (SO)

Inside Plant Fence Ann. Arith. Mean 100 ;g/m3

Max. 24-hour Peak 1000 pg/m 3

Outside Plant Fence Ann. Arith. Mean 100 ug/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 500 ug/m 3

Fluorides (as Hr) Ann. Arith Mean 10 ug/m 3

Max. 8-hour Peak 100 ug/m 3

Particulates Ann. Geom. Mean 75 pg/m 3

Max. 24-hour Peak 260 ug/m3

Liquid Effluents

23. On the basis of best practicable technology currently available,

liquid discharges are to he maintained within the following limitations:

Secondary Silver --

Fhotographic

Max 24-hour

Kg/MT Metal Prod.

TSS 0.60
Cr lxl(-3
Cu 6xl-4
Pb 2x10-4
Zn lx10-2
Ag 4x10 4
pH 6 to 9 units

Secornary Silver

Non-photographic

TSS 0.30
Cu 3x10-2
Zn 0.10
Ag 3x10-3
pH 6 to 9 units
 - 275 - Max. 24-hour

Kg/MT APT Prod.

Primary Tungsten --
Ore to Salt

TSS 1
NH3 -N 1
Cr 2x10-3
Cu 6x10-3
Pb 4x10-3
Ag 4x10-3
pH 6 to 9 units

PrimraryTungsten --
Salt to Metal

Max. 24-hour

Kg/MT Metal Prod.

TSS 9xl0-2
NH3 -N 4x10-2
Cr 4x10-4
Cu 6x10-5
Pb 2x10-2
Ag 6x10-5
pH 6 to 9 units

Primary Columbium and Tantalum --

Ore to Salt

Consecutive
Max. 24-hour 30-Day Aver.

Kg/MT of Purified Salt

Fluo:.ide (total) 11.8 5.9

TSS 8.4 4.2
NH3 -N 10 20
pH 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units

Primary Columbium and Tantalum --

Salt to Metal

Consecutive
Max. 24 hour 30-day Aver.

Kg/MT of Metal

Fluoride (total) 8.4 4.2

TSS 6.0 3.0
pH 6 to 9 units 6 to 9 units
 - 276 -

CONTROTANDTR;MMENT OF WASTES

Air &nissions

24. The production facilities discussed in this document generally

control and eliminate air emissions through tlhe use of dry or liquid scrub-
bers. Gases are frequently utilized in the plant, either as a fuel or as a
conponen-. of another product. Particulates are discharged with the waste-
water streams, where wet collection methods are used, or else are utilized
for othor purposes within the plant. If dry collection systems are utiliz-
ed then the particulates are dumped on land if they have no recovery value.
Liquid Effluents

25. Housekeeping practices should be critically examined and improved

as a first stcp in the contrGl of liquid effluents. Process changes, moni-
tot-ing of water use, by-product recovery, and recycling are among the meas-
ures that can significantly reduce the volume of wastes requiring treatment
and disposal.

26. Wastewaters from secondary silver processing from both photogra-

phic and non-photographic wastes can be treated by steam stripping of the
high amonia streams, and applying chemical precipitation and filtration to
the combined stream. Treated effluents may be recycled or discharged.

27. In the production of primary tungsten metal, both in the ore to

salt phase and in the salt to metal phase, high ammonia streams can be
stripped to remove and possibly recover the ammonia. The residual can be
combined with other streams and receive chemical precipitation and filtra-
tion. The resulting effluent may be recycled or discharged.

28. In the wastewaters from the production of the salt from the ore
concentrate, steam stripping provides a high degree of anmonia removal and
recovery. Lime precipitation is effective in removing the fluoride ions and
results in the precipitation of metals dissolved in the waste streams.
Suspended solids are rzmoved by sedimentation.

29. Effluents from the production of the metal from the purified salt
can be treated by lime precipitation to remove the fluoride ion and dis-
solved metals. Sedimentation removes the suspended solids.
Solid Wastes

30. Sludge disposal is a problem in these industries. These waste

streams may contain large quantities of one or more heavy metals, and these
are most corronly removed from liquid effluents by chemical precipitation.
Consequently, the sludges contain large concentrations of the metals.

31. Sludges are dispcsed of by contractors or are sold to reprocess-

ors. They may also be transferred to drying beds, lagoons, landfills, or
incia.eration.
 - 277 -

32. Other solid wastes, such as wet scrubber residuals,are added to

the waste strearm receive the sane treatmnrt and disposal and hence add to
the sludge loads. Particulate natter from dry scrubbers is burned, dumped
on land, or is recycled for by-product recovery.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations Industrial Developmtent Organization. "Non-Ferrous Met-

als -- A Survey of Their Production and Potential in the Developing
Countries." Vienna (1972)

2. Atkins, M.H. and J.F. Lcwe, "The Economics of Pollution Control in the
Non-Ferrous Metals Industry." Pergamon Press. Oxford (1979).

3. Boodson, K. "Non-Ferrous Metals - A Biographical Guide." Macdonald &

Co. (Publishers) Ltd. London (1972)

4. Pcwers, P.W. "How to Dispose of Toxic Substances and Industrial

Wastes." Noyes Data Corporation,Park Ridge, N.J., and London (1976).

5. "Standard Methods for the Examunation of Water and Wastewater." 15th

Edition. American Public Health Association. New York (1980).

6. "Chemical Engineers Handbook." Ed. by Robert H. Parry and Cecil H.

Chilton. Fifth Edition. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York (1973).

7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Developmnt Document for Efflu-

ent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Nonferrous Metals Man-
ufacturing Paint Source Category." Doc. EPA-440/1-79/019a. Washing-
ton, (September 1979).
 - 278 -

THE WORLDBANK SEPTEMBER1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMETALAFFAIRS

OFFSHOREHYDROCARBON
RESOURCEDRILLING OPERATIONS
EFFLUENTGUIDELlNES

Background

1. Drilling operations for oil atid gas can be classified into three
phases: exploration and appraisal, development, and delineation Each ciase
differs to some extent in types and quantities of pollutants discharged.

2. Drilling can also be classified in terms of physical location, name-

ly onshore, near offshore (including bays, estuaries, rivers, coastal
w,aters, possibly lakes) and far offshore. This classification infltuences
the manner in which effluents should be treated.

3. Guidelines presented herein address only offshore operations. Addi-

tionally they only address pollution and environment. They do not consider
mechanical integrity of rigs, well control requirements (e.g., blaoout pre-
vention), and mitigation of risks from fire, explosions, etc. These issues
are extremely important, but beyond the scope of these guidelines. A bor-
rower must give written assurances that he will meet internationally ac-
cepted and widely recognized standards and practices for all these factors.

Description of Operations: Exploraton

4. Exploration usually consists of special surveys such as seismic,

gravimetric, magnetic to determine the subsurface structure and to estimate
the potential for oil and/or gas accumulation. Having established exist-
ence of favorable conditions, wells are drilleu to determine the nature and
extent of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.

5. Exploratory drilling is performed witlh a rotary drill (discussed be-

lcw) outfitted to a mobile rig. Rig design may be one of several commonly
used types: some rnbile rigs are -ounted on barges and rest on the bottom
for shallow water drilling, others also barge mounted are jacked up above
the water on legs, to allow drilling in deeper water (<300 feet). For very
deep water operations, rigs are momnted on floating units. Floating rigs
may be a vessel (with a ships' hull) or a 'semisubmersible" type ... essen-
tially a floating platform.

6. Th-emain purpose of an exploration rig is to house rotary drilling

equipment. The drill is designed for only one function, to nake a hole.
It requires four main subsystemr to perform this function: power, hoist-
ing, rotating, and circulating. In addition facilities for supporting a
work crew (living, dining, etc.) for extended periods most be available. A
brief description of these subsystems is given below.
 - 279 -

7. Power: Most rigs require 1,000 - 5,000 HP for hoisting drill pipe
and circulating drilling mud (discussedbelow). A fraction of this power
is used for electricitygeneration. This power is normally suppliedby two
or more generators.

8 Hoisting: Wells are drilled with long strings of pipe, scimetimes

reaching a weight of 500,000 pounds. A sophisticatedhoisting system, and
well trained and coordinatedcrew are needed to perform this successfully.

9. Rotating: The drill bit at the end of a drill string must be rota-
ted in order to efficiently penetrate geologic formations. As with the
hoisting operation, drilling subsystems (swivel, kelly cock, kelly, rotary
table, drill pipe and collars, and drill bit) are all sophisticated pieces
of equipment requiring a well trained and coordinated crew for successful
operation .

10. Circulation: In the course of drilling, a fluid termed "drilling

mud" is circulated in the drill hole. There are several reasons this is
necessary: (a) the hydrostatic column of mud exerts a downward pressure on
the formation fluids and prevents blowouts (well control), (b) it cools and
lubricatesthe bit, thereby increasingdrilling efficiency and penetration
rate, and (c) it continuallytransports cuttings away from the drill bit,
again increasingdrilling efficiency.

11. Drilling mud is a constantlycirculating medium of commiunication to

the surface of d-mrhole conditions. It carries warnings of impending
kicks, and formation leaks or fractures (lost circulation).

12. in a physical/chemical sense, mud is a mixture of clays, chemicals,

and either water or oil, all carefully formulated for optimum performance
in a given well. Basic mud componentsinclude bentonite (clays for proper
rheologic properties), barium sulfate (barite) -- a weighting agent, and
lime or caustic soda for pH control. Additional materials for lubrication,
and emulsifaction may also be used at times.

13. Oil based muds are used in special situations and represent a high
potential source of pollution. They are normally used where: bottcm hole
temperatures are high, water based muds would hydrate sensitive clays or
shales, or drilling is to be done in permafrost regions.

Descriptionof Operations: Development

14. Development drilling is usually performed frcm a fixed platr-rm.

This is done to produce the field, by drilling a large numoer of wells
(10-30) in a fixed pattern.

15. Frcona pollution view, development drilling produces qualitatively

the same kinds of dischargesas exploratorydrilling. However,because de-
velopment drilling involves a greater number of wells, the volume of dis-
charges may be much greater than that of an exploratory well.
 - 280 -

Description of Operations: Production

16. After a well is drilled, and has proved that oil can be produced
economically, the well is prepared for sustained operation, and a permanent
installationreplaces the mobile unit.

17. Hydrocarbon fluids move to the surface through tubing contained

within the cased borehole. For oil wells, energy required to lift fluids
can be provided by natural formation pressures or various induced mechani-
cal means. The most ccmronly used induced methods are: fluid (water or
gas) injection to maintain pressure, forcing gas into the oil stream for
overall reduction in hydrostatic fluid density with a subsequent "lift",
and last the use of pumps.

18. At the surface, oil, gas and water are separated: gas from any
liquids, oil frcatwater. Fluids produced from oil reservoirs normally con-
sist of oil, natural gas, and saltwater (brine) which, in turn, contains
suspended and dissolved solids. Gas wells can produce dry gas, but usually
produce varying quantities of light hydrocarbons (called gas liquids or
condensate). In both oil and gas production, suspended solids in produc-
tion waters are normally clays, sand, or similar materials.

19. Gas, oil, and water are comonly separated in several stages. Gas
dissolved in oil is released as pressure above the liquid phase is re-
duced. Oil frot.high pressure wells require several stages of decompres-
sion to become gas free. Oil and brine are sometimes present as an emul-
sion, either by natural occurrenceor from the vigorous mixing experienced
in bringing the fluids to the surface. The emulsion may be "broken" (i.e.
separation of oil and water phases) by moderate heat, chemical addition,
electric charge, or quiescent settling.

20. Gas and oil separated in the above manner can be considered as in-
puts into commercial gas pipelines and as crude petroleum feedstock (for
refinieryinput), respectively.

Sources and Characteristicsof Wastes

21. Exploration: Atmospheric emissions consist mainly of exhausts from

diesel engines supplying power to meet rig requirements (drilling,hoist-
ing, electricity, etc.). These emissions may be small amounts of sulfur
dioxide (dependentupon fuel sulphur content) and exhaust smDke (heavy hy-
drocarbons). An unexpected gas formation encountered during drilling may
result in a blowout, or gas discharge. If this occurs transient emissions
of light hydrocarbons and possibly hydrogen sulfide may occur.

22. Liquid wastes consist primarily of drilling mud, drill cuttings,

sanitary wastewaters from the drilling crew (toilets, urinals), and domes-
tic wascewaters generated from sinks, showers, laundries, and galleys.
 - 281 -

23. As mentioned earlier water based muds consist of natural clays, and
additives (organic and inorganic) to achieve proper density, viscosity, and
lubrication characteristics. Additives of particular concern fron a pollu-
tion) view are ferrochrom lignosulfate (chromium pollution) and lead com-
pounds (leadpollution).

24. Oil based muds contain oxidized asphalt, organic acids, alkali, sta-
bilizing agents and diesel oil. Clay solids and weighting agents can also
be added. Oil emulsionmuds also used are either of oil-in-wateror water-
in-oil varieties.

25. Drill cuttingsconsist of various rocks, fines, and liquids released

from geologic formationsin the drill hole.

26. Sanitary wastes such as human wastes and domestic wastes or those
generated from cleaning (soapwater) and cooking (food scraps). These
wastes are to be properly treated before discharge.

27. Tables 1 and 2 present characteristicsof waates generated from

drilling operations, and combined sanitary-domestic waste from typical off-
shore facilities.

28. For purposes of design and/or planning, sanitarywaste loads should

be estimated from the followingper capita parameters:

Parameter Daily per capita coefficient

BOD5 0.22 lb.

Total Suspended Solids 0.15 lb.
Flow Rate 284 liters

29. Thus a rig with 50 workers would generate the followingwastes:

BOD5: 11 lbs/day
Total Suspended Solids: 7.5 lbs/day
Flow Rate: 14,200 liters/day

30. Production: Atnospheric emissions may result from fuel combustion

necessary for any heat required for oil-water separations,or for any heat-
ing requirements in the crew living quarters. Also, any electric power
generation facilitiesneeded for punps, etc., may also produce emissions.
Amount of gaseous and particulateemissions depend upon fuel(s)used, power
and heat requirementsand levels of emissioncontrol employed.

31. Continuous emissions may also be produced if there is any gas

flaring. Emissions of concern from flaring should consist primarily of
sulfur dioxide.
 - 282 -

Table 1: VOLUMEOF CUTrINGS PRODUCEDAND MUDS REQUIRED IN A TYPICAL

3,000 METER DRILLING OPERATION

Volume of Weight of Volume Weight

Drilling Hble Size Cuttings Cuttings of Mud of Mud
Interval (Centi- Produced Produced Mud Components Components
(Meters) meters) (Bbl) a/ (MT) Used (Bbl) (MT)

0-300 60 560 230 Seawater/ Variable -

Natural Mud
300-1100 40 620 247 Gelled Seawater 700 37
1100-3100 30 920 360 Lime Base 950 195

Totals - 2100 837 - >1650 >232

a/ 1 Bbl (Barrel) = 159 liters (42 U.S. ge.llons). Figures in the

Table represent volume produced in the drilling interval.

Table 2: TYPICAL RAW WASTEWATER LOADS FRaM COMBINED SANITARY-DOMESTIC

FLCWS OF AN OFFSHORE FACILITY

Nunber of Flow BOD Suspended Solids Total

Men (liters/sec) (mg/L) (mg/L) Coliform (X10)

76 0.241 460 195 10-180

66 0.046 875 1025 -
67 0.082 460 620
42 0.094 225 220
10-40 0.127 920 -

Estimated Deck Drainage: 0.61 liters/second

S I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 - 283 -

32. Liquid wastes may occur from oil leaks (at producing and abandoned
well, piping, or storage facilities),accidental spills, produced water,
deck drairage, and domestic and sanitary wastewaters.

33. Effluents generated fran leaks, accidental spills, and deck drain-
age, are primarily polluted with oil and grease. It is difficult to char-
acterize pollutant levels because they are so dependant upon maintenance
and housekeepiing practices.

34. Produced water, e.g., wastewater derived in extracting oil from flu-
ids emanating from a well, contains several hundred to perhaps one thousand
or wore parts per million (ppm) of oil and grease. In addition, produced
water may be high in total dissolved solids (TDS), oxygen demanding organic
materials, heavy metals, and other toxics (notably phenolics).

35. Table 3 presents analysis of produced waters in select locations of

wells drilled at coastal sites in the United States.

36. Domestic and sanitary wastewaters for production facilitiesare as

presented in Table 2.

37. Sands and other solid materials may be produced with the normal ef-
fluents from the well. Such solids usually have a high oil content. These
materials are produced at rates varying between nothing to about one ton
per day.

Effluent Limitations

38. Air: Under normal circumstances, emissions during exploration ac-

tivities are primarily diesel exhausts. These exhausts should adhere to
Bank guidelines on dusts (see separate environmental guidelines entitled
"Dust Emissions").

39. Since the risk of blcwout and/or drillmng through hydrogen sulfide
pockets is ever present, monitors for hydrogen sulfide should be installed
wherever the risk of this gas accumulating (it is denser than air) is pres-
ent. Monitors should be set to activate warning signals when detected lev-
els are no more than one half the threshhold limit value (TLV) or 5.0 parts
per million (0.0005 percent by volume). It is recommended that these de-
tectors be set for 2 or 3 parts per million.

40. Emissions during production cperations originate primarily from

fuel combustion, electrical generation facilities, and flares. Dependant
upon fuel type and quality, sulfur dioxide and dust are mwst likely pollu-
tants, and their levels must meet Bank Guidelines (see Guidelines entitled
"Dust Emissions", and "Sulfur Dioxide Emissions").

41. Water: Oil and grease are the principal pollutantsof concern.
Discharges of drilling muds, drill cuttings, or sands fran produced waters
should contain no free oil and grease. Oil based drilling muds are not to
be used unless no choice is available. If they are necssary these muds are
 - 284 -

not to be released to the environnment, and their cuttings must contain no

free oil before being discharged.

42. On the basis of best practical control technology, oil and grease
content of produced water and deck drainage discharges is to be maintained
at no higher than 72 mg/liter for any one day, and not over 48 mg/liter for
any consecutive30 day period.

Table 3: CompositionCharacteristicsof Offshore ProducedWaters

Location

Coastal Louisiana Offshore Texas

(Statisticsfor 25 ProducingWells) (One Well)
Average Value Range

Oil and Grease 202 7-1300 -

Cyanide <0.01 <0.01-0.01
Total Organic Carbon 413 30-1580
Total Suspended Solids 73 22-390 12-656
Total DissolvedSolids 110,000 32,000-202,000 806-169,000
Chlorides 61,000 10,000-115,000 42,000-62,000
PhenolicCompounds 53
BOD 126-312
COD 182-582
Arsenic <0.01 - <0.02
Cadmium <0.068 <0.005-0.675 <0.02 - 0.193
Chromium <0.10 - 0.23
Copper <0.10 - 0.38
Lead <0.01 - 0.22
Mercury <0.001 - 0.13
Nickel <0.01 - 0.44
Flow-Rate (Bbl/day) 15,000 250-200,000

All compositionsare mg/liter

< means less than

43. Chemical additives used for drilling should not contain mrercury,
cadmium, or organo-tin compounds. The follcwing trace metals, and toxics
(either from chenical additives or produced water) should not be discharged
in excess of 100 ppm in open waters.

Arsenic-Beryllium-Chromium-Copper
Lead-Nickel-Vanadium-Zinc-Phenolic CcmTpounds

Also, effluants containingin excess of 100 ppm of these metas should not
be discharyji into any lakes, estuaries, or similar confined water body
whose minimum surface area is less than 200 hecLares.
 - 285 -

44. Sanitary wastes (primarily human wastes) if they are to be dis-

carded should be treated, then chlorinated before discharge. A minimum re-
sidual chlorine level of 1.0 mg/liter is to be maintained in wastewaters
before discharge. Domestic waste (galley, etc.) should be ground up in
order to minimize floating solids upon discharge.

ENVIRONMENTAL/XECOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS

45. Initial background pollution measurements should be made for

waters in the area of a proposed project, prior to initial installation of
any exploration or production rigs. Fbr far offshore operations, back-
ground measurements of oil and grease, and suspended solids should be made.

46. With near offshore operations (bays, coastal waters, estuaries,

rivers or lakes) waste materials should be piped ashore treated and dispos-
ed of onshore as well. If either treated or untreated waste is to be con-
sidered for discharge, background measurements should be made in the re-
ceiving waters and bottan muds for oil and grease, dissolve2 solids,(re-
ceiving waters only) suspended solids, fecal coliforms and toxic metals.

47. If cuttings, drilling muds, accumulated sands or similar solid

materials are considered for discharge (after suitable treatment) in near
offshore waters, background ecologicalstudies should be made. These stud-
ies, should include benthic organisms, breeding grounds, feeding areas in
the project vicinity. Sensitive ecosystems such as marshes, bays, mangrove
swamps, coral reefs, and kelp beds, as well as unique or significant feed-
ing or nesting areas are to be avoided as discharge sites.

48. Also, hydraulic characteristics(flushing rates, turnover,hy-

draulic exchange, tidal excursion ranges, thermal and salinitywedges etc.)
should be characterizedto predict impacts of solids setting in near off-
shore locales.

49. If hydraulic characteristics or background pollutant levels will

not allow adequate dilution or pollutant buildup would be excessive, no
materials should be discharged in these surface waters.

50. Finally, near offshore operations should avoid, insofar as pos-

sible, commercial fishing and diving sites, tourism and recreational areas,
areas of unique scientific interest and any areas of social or cultural
value. Also, onshore effects to any local population fran these activities
should be carefully accomodated to minimize or avoid property damages, and
degradation of either the human environment (e.g. small tribal fishing vil-
lages) or the natural environment.
 - 286 -

TREATMENT AND CONTROL OF WASTES

51. Atmospheric emissions in both exploration and production activi-

ies should for the nDst part be minor. If high dust levels and/or high
sulfur dioxide levels are anticipated (high ash and/or sulfur in fuels)
control techniques presented in those respective guidelines should be
used. If drilling conditions are believed to be such that hydrogen sulfide
will be encountered, procedures equivalent for those presented in API RP 49
(API Reccmmnded Practices for Safe Drilling of Wells Containing Hydrogen
Sulfide)should be followed.

52. Liquid Wastes: Water based drilling muds may be discharged to

surface waters at far offshore sites. If mud recirculationis preferred,a
conventionalrecirculationsystem includingpumps, mud pits, and attendant
conditioning equipment (shale shakers, desanders, desilters, and degassers)
should be used. At near offshore installations,mud reconditioningcan be
done with facilitieslocatedon the rig, or mud can be piped aslhore,recon-
ditioned and recirculatedback to the rig.

53. Oil-based mud is simply not -tobe discharged into any surface
water. It is to be stored in mud saving containers with special precau-
tions taken for spill preventionand control.

54. Drill cuttings are discharged into surface waters when water
based muds are used. However, drill cuttings frcm oil-based mud is to be
collected and transportedto shore for disposal. Alternativelythese cut-
tings may be cleaned with a solvent/watermixture (for oil and grea3e re-
roval) and then discharged into surface waters. Solvent water is rec )vered
and reclaimed onshore.

55. Offshore sanitary wastes vary widely in concentration and flow

rate from one rig to the next. Even on a given rig wastewater flow rate
can vary by 300-400 percent of the average. Current treatment systems are
either physical/chemical or biological. They must be designed to accomo-
date these variations.

56. Waste treatment facilitiesare normally on the rig. Waste may

also be pumped ashore and treated at land base facilities,or it may be re-
tained and subsequentlyshipped ashore for treatment.

57. Physical/chemical treatment may be evaporation/incineration, or

chemical addition. These units are most frequently used with rigs having
small workforces,or those manned intermittantly.In general physical/chem-
ical systemshave not worked well offshore.

58. Biological treatment systems (aerobic digestion, or extended

aeration) are nost coimon for offshore cperations. These systems usually
include: a comminuter (for solids grinding), aeration tank, clarifier with
sludge recycle, and a chlorination tank. These systems have been proven
acceptable for rigs occupied continuously with ten or mare workers. Recom-
mended design parameters for these units are presented in Paragraph 28.
 - 287 -

59. Domestic waste (kitchen, laundry, shower) does not contain fecal
coliforms, therefore does not need chlorination. Maceration with a comrmi-
nuter, to assure no floating solids upon discharge, is sufficient treat-
ment.

60. Deck drainage and deck washings may be combined with produced
water and treated jointly or treated as a separate stream. This effluent,
when treated separately, only requires oil and grease removal. As such,
gravity separation,or gas flotation is most effective. These separators
operate best when: crankcase oil is collected separately,no detergentsare
used in rig washing, and inverted emulsionmuds are not allowed in the deck
drainage system. However, to maintain rig cleanliness water based deter-
gent cleaners may be used. Hydrocarbon solvents are not to be used for
general maintenance cleaning. They are hard to handle, harsh to eyes,
lungs and skin even with currently available protective devices.
Additionally they will seriously pollute receiving waters.

61. Sand, which accompanies production of oil anA cjs, accumulatesin

various lines and valves of the separation train. Upon flushing, this sand
is collected. It may be taken ashore for disposal or have its oil and
grease remnved by solvent wash and then discharged at sea. Solvent may be
regenerated and recycled in a manner similar to that described for drill
cuttings (Paragraph55).

62. In production, produced water representsthe largest volume of

polluted effluent. Disposal to surface waters is considered to be the only
plausible means of disposal. However, oil and grease must be removed (see
Paragraph 42 for effluent limitations). Several systems are available for
oil and grease removal: gas flotation has been found most effective and re-
liable, but parallel plate coalescers (e.g. API separator), fibrous and
granular filtration units, and gravity separators may also be used. In
several instances, chemical addition has enhanced removal efficienciesof
these devices. Three types of chemicalshave been found useful in this re-
gard; surface active agents (surfactants,foaming agents, demulsifiersand
emuilsion breakers), coagulating agents (floc promotors) and polyelectro-
lytes.

63. Produced waters can have elevated levels of trace metals, phe-
nolic cmopoundsand other toxic materials. There are no currentlyaccepted
treatment schemes for reroving these materials. Producedwaters containing
high levels of toxics are not to be discharged in near offshore surface
waters.
 - 288 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Fundamentalsof Petroleum,PetroleumExtension Service,The University

of Texas at Austin,, Austin, Texas (1981).

2. Review of EnvironmentalProtectionRegulationsfor Offshore Crude Oil

operations,Bechtel Petroleum Inc., for the World Bank, Job No. 14344
(December1980).

3. United States Envirornental P.otection Agency, Development Document for

Interim Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Proposed New Source
Performance Standards for the Oil & Gas Extraction Point Source Cate-
gory. Doc. EPA 440/1-76/055-a Group II. Washington, D. C. (September
1976).

4. Commnittee on Assessmentof Safety cd:.OCS Activities, Marine Board,

Assembly of Engineering, National P.search Council, Safety and Off-
shore Oil, National Acadenry Press, Washington, D. C. 1981.

5. Office of Environmental Affairs, Environmental Reconnaissance and

General EnvironmentalGuidelinesfor OffshoreExplorationand Pro-
duction Projects, The World Bank, Washington,D. C. (1981).

6. American Petroleum Institute,API ReconmendedPractices for Safe

Drilling of Wells ContainingHydrogen Sulfide,API RP 49, Dallas,
Texas (August 1978).

7. Menzie, Charles A., The EnvironmentalImplicationsof offshore oil

and Gas Activities,Enrviron.Sci. Technol.Vol. 16, No. 8, 1982.
 - 289 -

THE WORLD BANK AUGUST 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

OIL PIPELINES

1. A wide variety of comToditiesand resources (gaseous,liquid, and

solid) are presently transported by pipeline, over distances varying frcm a
few meters to several hundred kilometers. This document will confine it-
self to pipelines designed for the bulk transportation of oil products over
long distances, as opposed to piping necessary in the local handling, in-
dustrial processing, and marketing of crude oil and its by-products.

2. Pipelines are used for transport both between crude product and
processing installations entirely on la. i, as well as between offshore
wells and onshore transfer or processing facilities. In Europe, for exam-
ple, transportation of crude oil has been mainly between ocean terminals
and inland refineries, which are usually near the c=-ters of consumption.
In the United States pipelines have been used primarily to transport crude
oil from production fields to refinery centers. Pipelines constitute an
important element in the transferof crude oils, both in terms of economics
and time, as opposed to transfer by tanker. The development of supertank-
ers has dcanged the economics of pipeline versus tanker transport.

3. Both crude oil and nearly all finished petroleum products can be
transported by pipelines. Heavy fuel oils (residual fuel), used widely by
industry and p,owerstations, generally cannot be shipped by pipeline with-
out considerable extra cost and over limited distances. All the lighter
products can be handled through a pipeline. A single line, by transferring
batches in correct and properly scheduled sequences can be used to supply a
large part of the variety of oil requirements of a specific area. Pipe-
lines to date have the best safety record among the various methods used to
transport crude oil.

AND OPERATION
PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

4. Pipelines do not have the flexibility of tankers. They are per-

manent fixtures and, once installed, cannot be rerouted eve., if conditions
change or a different means of transport becomes more advantageous. There-
fore, they are initially designed and constructed on the basis of the ulti-
mate estimated capacity. The construction of a pipeline must be based on
broad forecasts as to the flow of oil over a specific route for many years
in the future.

5. Offshore pipelines, located in waters as deep as 350 to 450 me-

ters, are frequently used to transfer oil from ocean production sites to
onshore storage,handling, or processing facilities. Pipe sizes will range
 - 290 -

up to 90 cm or more in diameter, depending upon water depth as well as the

flows to be carried.

6. Ocean pipelines are usually installed in one of three ways: (a)

sections ara assembled and joined onshore, and towed out to sea as assembly
proceeds (b) sections are joined at or near shore, towed out to sea as
units, and sunk at the proper location. Sections are joined b-y divers
after being put in place at the sea bottom; and (c) pipe sections15 to 20
meters in length, depending upon diameter, are taken to sea on "derrick-
lay" barges, welded together on the barge, section by section, floatedout
.- long the end of the barge, and then allowed to sink to the bottom. Re-
gardless of the laying technique used, all pipe ends are joined together by
welding at some stage of the installation.

7. Where depths permit the pipeline rests in previously prepared

trenches on the sea bottom, and these are back-filled after the pipe is in
place. In other situations, the line rests on the bottom but care must be
taken to assure that it lies flat and avoids laying on large 1 -oulders or
other obstructions. The pipe must be weighted to minimize or eliminate
shifting after it is set in place. This can be accomplished by providing a
heavy concrete outer coating on the pipe, some 10 cm. in thickness, before
it is set in place; anchoring to cement filled bags; attached to the seabed
by means of drill-in expandable rock anchors; or other similar techniques.

8. Laying pipes on land is considerably less complicated than in the

case of marine installations. Once the route is established and rights-of-
way cleared, the pipe is laid in trenches, especially prepared according to
the soil conditions, topography and other factors. Sections of pipe are
laid in the trench, and welded end-to-end at the site.
9. Pumping is required for transport of the petroleum over long dis-
tances. Centrifugal pumps, provided with variable speed drives, are most
frequently used. Where only one product is to be nioved at all times con-
stant speed units are suitable. Pump design selections, and location are
based on a number of factors such as viscosity of products to be transport-
ed, topography, distances, pressure gradients, and other characteristics.
Power for pumping facilities is from diesel fuels and usually generated at
the site, since locationsare generally remote from populationcenters.

10. Once installed,pipelines can operate with relativelylittle at-

tention. However, constant inspection and maintenance must be provided.
The major costs are those for installation,includingconstruction,burial,
materials and pumping equipment. Total operating costs, including direct
operations and capital charges, will average about 10 percent of the total
capital costs.

SOURCESOF POLLUTION

11. The principal source of pipelinie pollution is from leaks which

can result from a number of causes. Assuming a "zero percent loss" at time
 - 291 -

of installation, leaks can arise fron corrosion, damage from external

forces or factors, and carelessness.

12. Pipe corrosion may occur both externally and internally. With
nmdern techniques, this is no longer considered to be a significantprob-
lem. Cathodic protection enables advance detection of weak points.

13. Damage fron external forces is considered potentially to be the

most serious source; particularly when lines pass throughi or near large in-
dustrial or buila_ ig sites. Lines in areas subject to cperation of heavy
agricultural equipment may also suffer damage. Ship anchors catching on
lines laid in shallcoo waters are another potential source of damage. Leak-
ing pumps and valves cen also contributepollution.

14. Carelessnessis generally the result of hunemnerrors, and is the

cause of spills in connectingto or delivery from the pipelines.

15. In the case of pipelines on land, soil erosion and discharge of

sediment to surface waters can occur during the trenching required as part
of the construction phase. The construction of necessary access roads and
landing strips are also potential sources of sediment from runoff.

POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES

16. Pipeline pollution can be prevented or minimized by various

means, both before and after operations are started. During the construc-
tion phases (a) all materials should be carefully inspectedfor manufactur-
ing defects; (b) all welded joints should receive careful inspection; (c)
hydrostatic test, at pressures above normal working pressures, should be
made; (d) corrosion control technology should be applied; and (e) alarm
systems, capable of providing advance or immediate warnings of failures or
breakdowns, should be included. After the line is operating, an effective
inspection and maintenance program will be required.

17. Hydrostatic tests are made on each pipe length to detect the pre-
sence of wall cracks, pinholes, or other defects which might cause leak-
age. Welding edges and pipe surfaces are inspected by visual and ultra-
sonic methods for material defects before welding. When completed, all
welded joints should be inspected by X-ray techniques. Pressure relief
valves are included in the system to provide for a rise in the internal
pressure due to a temperaturerise, or other occurrencewhich might cause a
blockage.

18. Protection against external corrosion may be provided by coating

with sucn materials as asphaltic mixtures, coal-tar enamels, or epoxy con-
pounds. Pipelines should be electrically insulated from platforms and land
structures. These measures protect against the loss of metal that could
endanger the strength and safety of the lines. Internal corrosion may be
controlled by addition of corrosion inhibitors to the materials passing
through the lines.
 - 292 -

19. Cathodic protection methods can also be used to minimize or elim-

4 nate external corrosion in land-based lines. The sacrificial-anode meth-
od, most often used, depends upon making the metal to be protected (the
pipeline, inLthis case) the cathode in the electrolyte involved. The soil
functions, as the electrolyte. Zinc, magnesium, or aluminum are used as
the metal anode and provide the extra (or sacrificial metal which can be
"sacrificed"in the corrosion process. The metal anode "bracelets" are at-
tached to the steel pipe, at distances of 100 to 200 or more meters, and
are generally of sufficient size to last for the projected life of the
pipeline.

20. Inspections along the length of pipelines, for land installa-

tions, are necessary to detect major leaks or losses. Helicopters are well
suited for this purpose, particularly in marsh or sparsely populated
areas. The inspection should cover not only possible leaks but also irreg-
ularities which might endanger the line such as places where the pipeline
has been exposed, conditions of river banks interesected by the line, dam-
ages to ccmnunicationlines adjacent to or part of the pipelineoperation,
and extraneous work underway near the pipeline.

21. In the case of pipelines running through the ocean and other wat-
ers, measures to control pollution should include:

(a) Providingall pipelines leaving a structure and

receiving production from the structure with a
high-low pressure sensor to shut off the wells.

(b) Providingall pipelines deliveringproducts, to

either offshore or onshore production facilities,
with a shut-offvalve at or near the receiving
facility,connected to an automatic,or remote shut-
off system.

(c) Providing sensors and autcmatic shut-off valves or

devices on all pipelines crossing a structure,to
avoid uncontrolled flow at the structure.

(d) Equipping all oil pumps with automatic high-low pressure

shut-off devices.

(e) Providinga metering system to give continuous ccnpar.i-

son between input and output on all lines, and thus de-
tect any line leaks.

(f) Providingprotective cotatings, cathodicprotection,or

other measures to avoid loss of metal and weakening of
the pipe.

(g) Assuring that all pipelines are installed and maintaned

so as to be compatible with trawler operations.
 - 293 -

(h) Intalling and maintaining pipelines to assure pro-

tection against water currents, storm scouring, soft
bottoms, and other environmental influences.

(i) Inspecting the ocean surface above the pipeline at

least once per week for indicationsof leakage. Air-
craft, floatingcraft, or similar means may be used
for this purpose.

(j) Conductingan external inspectionof all lines by

side scan sonar or other acceptable means, at least
once per year, to identify exposed portions of the
pipeline. Exposed sectionsare then inspected in
detail by photographicor other means to determine
if any hazards exist to the line or to other users
of the area.

22. An acceptable, fully detailed system for operation, inspection

and maintenance of the installationshould be establishedbefore the start
of operations. Once operationsbegin accurate records of all inspections,
events, unusual incidents,actions taken, etc. should be maintainedas part
of the overall records system. Good operation and maintenance constitute
the most effective method for controlling pollution fran oil pipeline in-
stallations.

23. An acceptable, fu ly detailed system for operation, inspection

and maintenance of the installationshould be established before the start
of operations. once operationsbegin accurate records of all inspections,
events, unusual incidents,actions taken, etc. should be maintainedas part
of the overall records system. Good operationiand maintenanceoonstituten
the most effective metlod for controlling pollution fron oil pipeline in-
stallations.

STANDARDSAND REGULATIONS

23. National standardsand codes of practice exist or are under con-

sideration in many countries throughout the world. Generally these cover
minimum standards and requirementsto assure design, construction,opera-
tion and maintenanceof pipelines according to internationallyaccepted and
proven engineering 3afety practices. While these standards may or may not
have legal status, they are widely recognized and are sponsoredby reput-
able engineering or standards organizations.

24. by the United Kingdom Institute of Petrol-

Standards proimulgated
eum, the American Petroleum Institute,and the USA Standards Insttutehave
received wide acceptance. The Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), Organ-
ization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and other inter-
naticaal agencies have also promulgated codes and standards dealing with
oil pipelines.
 - 294 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Organization for Econamic Cooperation and Developmnt "Pipelines - The

United States and Europe - Their Legal and Regulatory Aspects", Paris
(1969).

2. Abrahamson, Bernhard J. and Joseph L. Steckler "Strategic Aspects of

Seaborne Oil", InternationalStudies Series No. 02-017, Vol. 2. Sage
Publications, Beverly Hills/London (1973).

3. Hubbard, Michael. "The Economics of Transporting Oil to and within

Europe". Maclaren Sons Ltd. London (April 1967).

4. Pipeline Design and Construction". Manual Compiled from 1976 issues of

Oil and Gas Journal. Petroleum PublishingCo. Tulsa (1977).

5. Economic Commuissionfor Europe "Proceedingsof the Seminar on the Pro-

tection of Ground and Surface Waters Against Pollutionby Crude Oil and
Oil Products". Geneva, 1-5 (December 1969). 2 Vol. United Nations.
New York (1970).

6. U.S. Departmentof the Interior,Geological Survey. "OCS Orders 1

through 14 GoverningOil, Gas, and Sulphur Leases in the Outer Con-
tinental Shelf and the Gulf of Mexico Area". Washington (January
1977).

7. U.S. Departmentof the Interior, Geological Survey. "Notice to Lessees

and Operators of Federal Oil and Gas Leases in the Outer Continental
Shelf Pacific Area". Washington (June 1, 1971).
 - 295 -

THE WORLD BANK AUGUST 1982

OFFICE OF ENVIROMENTAL AFFAIRS

PALM OIL INDUSTRY

GUIDELINES

1. The oil palm is found in a wild, semi-wild, and cultivated state

in several equatorial tropical areas, but principally in Southeast Asia,
Africa, Central America, and the Caribbean. By 1976 Malaysia had increased
its oil palm plantings to the point whlere it had become the world's leading
producer of palm oil.

2. The fruit of the oil palm is a one-seeded fruit (drupe) whose

outer pulp (nmesocarp) provides the palm oil of Commerce. A hard-shelled
nut within the mesocarp oontains tlLepalm kernel, from which are produced
palm kernel oil (similar in conposition to cocoanut oil) and palm kernel
cake (useful as a protein source for livestock feed).

3. Both palm oil and palm kernel oil are used primarily in the rmariu-
facture of margarine, cooking fat, and soap. Tb a lesser extent they are
also used for producing candles, glycerine, mayonnaise, bakery goods, and
otlher edible and non-edible products.

INDUSTRIALPROCESSES

4. The fruit of the oil palm grows in clusters, called fresh fruit
bunches (F.F.B.), in which form it is harvested from the tree. Some loose
fruit is trapped between the leaf and the stem, and is collected with the
tunches. The bunches and loose fruit are transferred as quickly as poss-
ible to the factory for processing. Since naxinum factory efficiency is
achieved by maintaining a constant input of raw material, the fruit is
sometimes placed in storage prior to processing.

5. In a typical operation the fruit is accurately weighted upon re-

ceipt and then either tei.porarily stored or transferred to processing. The
fruit is processed as quickly as possible in order to minimize oil quality
degradation. The initial processing step is sterilization, usually by
steam injection, done to loosen the fruit in the bkndhes, and facilitate
the stripping as well as other operations which follow.

6. After sterilization the fruit is fed to strippers to separate it

from the leaves. The fruit falls through the slats of the strippers to a
conveyor, and to the digesters. The empty fruit bunches are remved from
the strippers for separate disposal. The bLnches contain significant
quantities of nutrients.
 - 296 -

7. The purpose of digestion is to release oils fron the pericarp

cells, raise the temperatureof the mass to facilitatesubsequentpressing,
and drain away free oil to reduce the volune of material to be pressed.
The pericarp cells are the main oil-containing tissue in oil palm fruit.
The digester is provided with rotating knives or beater arms, which serve
to stir and pLlp the fruit into a mash. The wet mash is then drawn off for
the crude oil extraction.

8. Oil is extracted either by centrifuging or by squeezing the di-

gested pullp. Centrifuging has been used mostly in factories having a low
output. Ram presses (manuallyor hydraulicallyoperated) and screw presses
are most frequently usee For the larger plants. Solvent extraction has
been attempted, but to dz .e its use has been limited to extraction of oils
from palm kernels.

9. The liquid drained from the digesters and extractors is the crude
oil product, and consists of a mixture of 3il, water and cell debris. The
mixture is passed through vibrating fine screens to remove particles of
fiber and shell enids and, after heating, goes to the clarifiers. The
screenings are returned to the digesters.

10. Static clarification is the method most frequently used to purify

the oil. In this process, the oil and water mixtures go through a funnel
to the bottom of a drum, one-fourth filled with hot water. Clean oil rises
to the top and overflows, while the dirt tends to fall to the bottom. Cen-
trifuging is used to remove oil frot the settled dirt. The purified oil
is then run through a high-speed centrifuge to remove the bulk of thze re-
maining water and impurities. Frornthe purification system the oil passes
to storage tanks.

11. The residues from the extraction presses, containing the whole
and broken nuts and shells, is dried and passed through an air stream to
separate the lighter fibers. The nuts are further dried to shrink the ker-
nel within the slhell, allow easier separation after cracking, and reduce
the amount of broken kernels. After drying, the nuts are passed through a
nut cracker and then to a screen for separating the uncracked nuts from the
kernels and shell fragments. The shell and kernel are then separated, by a
1hydrocyclone. The kermels are dried, bagged and stored for subsequent pro-
cessing. The separated shell material may either be burned or used as fill
material.

12. Generally, palm kernel oil is not produced at the sY- producing
the crude palm oil. The conditions for release of kernel oils are differ-
ent from those of palm oil but are similar to those of copra and hard oil-
bearing seeds. The kernels must be crushed to a very fine meal before the
oil can be extracted under pressure. Steam aooking releases the oil still
furthler, and it is then extracted by hydraulic batch presses, continuous
screw presses, or by solvents.

13. A typical system for the production palm oil and kernels is shown
in Figure 1.
 N tCracked

F ibre A nots Dcperiiarp r -rckur

FDigester
K.rln verlnel
_ < = < 2 <; ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N-,i<t

4. lly tl(lIll) 1
iulr Jrving~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:
terl s ThreOcr

ICru dn
ply/

fIrchlea iiig
{arlk~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t t hildersci

Storage l c} r _ t } : }jb ~~~~~~~~~~~Sludgc

witer t-o drain
C Ilitlilouns ShIiidr:g S
toratlnkrOl rfier
drier cl1ritica;ili in 1ak c.:w,r rigge
lank

Oil and Kernels

Figure 1. Typical System for the Productionof Palm
(From Turner and Gillbanks).
 - 298 -

WASTESOURCESANDCHARACTERISTIC-

14. Wastes originating from palm oil processing operations are gener-
ally limited to solids and liquids. The solid materials are readily amen-
able to separation and disposal.

15. The enpty bunches, following the stripping operation, create a

major disposal problem. They contain quantitiesof recoverable nutrients
which are lost if the material is merely dumped. Dumping also crrnatescon-
ditions favorable for fly breeding, giving rise to nuisances. Use of t1.±
empty bunches for nulching has been found to be unecomonical. Separated
shells are another solid waste for which provision nust be nradefor dispos-
al. Uncontrolled incineration of these residues, where utilized, could
create air pollution proble s.

16. Liquid wastes originate principally from (a) the sterilizers,

w\herethe fresh fruit bunches'are heated under high pressure steam, &rd (b)
the oil clarificationstep, in which the oil is separated frornthe sludge
coiing from tlledigester.

17. The most significantpollution parametersfor palm oil processing

wastes are 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) chemical oxygen demand
(COD), total suspended solids (TSS), and hydrogen-ion concentration (pH).
Other parametersray also be of significanceat individualplants. Charac-
teristicsof a typical palm oil mill waste effluent are presented in Table
1.

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

18. The w&rk done towards establishing effluent limitations for the
wastes from this industry has been very limited,and ruch of it has been
inconclusive. Considerablefurther development is needed on the chemistry
and other characteristics of palm oil effluents under a variety of condi-
tions.

19. It has been observed that waste effluents from palm oil process-
ing are very similar in characteristicsand belhaviorto effluents from the
production of olive oil and by-product cake or meal from raw olives. The
limitations and handling of wastes related to palm oil processing are based
to some extent on acceptedpractices in the olive oil industry.

20. It is feasible to achieve 100 percent reductionof pollutant and

waste effluent discharges to surface waters bryone of the following meth-
ods:
 - 299 -

Table 1. Typical Palm Oil Mill Waste Effluent a/.

Parameter Average Range

pH 3.7 3.5-4.5

BOD5 - mg/L 25,000 20,000-35,000

COD - mg/L 45,000 30,000-60,000

NH3 N - mg/L 30 20-60

Org.N - mg/L 600 500-800

NO3 - mg/L 30 20-60

Tot. Sol. - mg/L 35,000 30,000-40,000

Susp. Sol. - mg/L 25,000 20,000-30,000

Ash - mg/L 4,500 4,000-5,000

Oil/Grease - mg/L 7,000 5,000-10,000

Starch - mg/L 2,000 ---

Protein - mg/L 3,000 ---

Tot. Sugar - mg/L 1,000

Flow - kg/kg FFB 0.6 ---

Empty Bunches - kg per

kg FFB Processed 0.25

a/ From Sinnappa.

* mg/L = milligram per liter

 - 300 -

-- spray irrigation
-- land application
-- evaporationponds
-- discharge to nunicipalsystems

21. Where the above methods cannot be applied, the wastes are amen-
able to biological treatment. However, because of the high strengths of
the raw effluents, treatment efficiencies in the order of 99 percent or
better will usually be required to avoid damages to the environment. Ef-
ficiencies of 95 to 97 percent are the levels generally economically
achievable, and in many cases these may not be adquate.

CONTROLAND TREAThENTOF WASTES

22. As previously stated, the empty bunches present a disposal prob-

lem. Because they contain significant quantities of useful nutrients it is
generally economical to institute by-product recovery measures. Currently,
the mDst effective disposal metlhod is slow burning by incineration, Xhich
reduces the bulk and produces an ash which can be used as a source of pot-
ash fertilizer.

23. The shells that have been separated froin the kernels are col-
lected and may be used either as fuel for steam generation or as road
fill. When used alone, this residue Le; not satisfactory for boiler fuel
since it contains silica which volatilizes and forms a glassy coating on
the fire bars and refractory lining. Consideration has been given to the
use of the shlells as a filler for plastics, but no significant market ex-
ists at thfis time for this purpose.

24. The sludges originating in the sterilizer condensate and the cla-
rification proccess have a high oil and solids content, and cause very
strong and disagreeable odors. A conmmn method of handling these is by
means of a series of sludge pits. Water and dirt sink to the bottom of the
pits, while the oil floats to the top. The oil is recovered by skimning,
and used for soap manufacture in sore countries. The sludge settling in
the pits may be used as a fertizlizer, or the water and sludge mixture
disposed of by spray irrigation.

25. Where spray irrigation is applied to disposal of the effluent,

pumping distances should be less than one kilometer. Land requirements
will be abDut 200 square meters per cubic meter of effluent per day.
26. For land application the terrain should be terraced and graded to
level. Waste effluents are then discnarged to one terrace at a time, to a
depth of about 8 cm. As a terrace dries it is plowed in preparation for
tlhenext application. Care should be taken to avoid contamination of fresh
water aquifers.
 - 301. -

27. Evaporation ponds are operated in series for maxirumn effective-

ness, and should be lined to prevent percolation to ground waters. One
Pond at a tine should be filled conpletely, to a depth of about 0.6 rneter.
Tne next pond in the series is then filled, while evaporation is taking
place in the filled units. Enough ponds should be provided to penrit
handling the plant's total annual discharge. The number of ponds required
will depend upon the annual waste volume, the annual net evaporation rate,
and other local factors. The ponds are to be dredged periodically to
rernve the accumnulated sludge.

28. The experience of several years in the Malaysian palm oil indus-
try shcws t) at liquid effluents afe amenable to biological treatment. The
anaerobictreatment is done in two steps: in the first, called the acidifi-
cation phase where despite the name, the pH increases from 4.8 to 6.0 and
the BOD drops to 6000 mg/L; in the methanogenic phase the pH goes first to
7.3 and then to 7.9. After this phase, the BOD falls below 200 mg/L.

29. This can be followedby aerobic oxidationwhere the BOD falls be-
lcw 100 mg/L and the pH reaches 8.5. If ponds are used, the total reten-
t-on time for the effluent is between 55 and 60 days.

30. To prevent depositionof bard sludge on the bottom of the methan-

ogenic ponds, the liquor is desludged on sand beds and the cake used as
fertilizer on the estaite.

31. Ponds can be replaced by agitated tanks consuming more energy but
allouing for the recovery of methane gas. Odors are riot a nuisance if foan
is kept on top of the mtethanogenic ponds.

Effluent Limitations

32. Limitations for liquid effluent fron palm oil pressing plants are
shown below:

pH 6 to 9
BOD below 100 mg/L
COD below 1000 mg/L
TSS below 500 mg/L

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations Industrial Development Organization "Technical and Eco-

nomic Aspects of the Oil Palm Fruit Processing Industry," Sales No.
E74.II-B '.0. United Nations, New York (1974).

2. "The Oil Palm". Papers presented at Conferenceheld in London, May

3-6, 1965. Ministry of Overseas Development-TropicalProducts Insti-
tite, London (1965).
 - 302 -

3. Thrner, P.D., and R.A. Gillbanks, "Oil Palm Cultivation and Manage-
ment." The Incorpora -ed Society of Planters, Malaysia (1974).

4. Hartley, C.S.W., "The Oil Palm." L<ngmans, Gram and Company, Ltd.
London, (1967).

5. Abmad, A.A.B., and F.L.C. Iv'.ng, "Palm Oil Processing Effluent Treat-
ment -- Foreseeable Technological Problems." Malaysia Factories and
Machinery Department, I)oc. 628-54/634-614, Kuala Iunpur (1975).

6. Sinnappa, S. "Treatment Studies of Palm Oil Mill Waste Erfluent." De-

partment of Chemistry, Malaysia (1977).

7. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Draft Development Docurnent

Effluent Limitation Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards
for the Miscellaneous Foods and Beverages Point Source Categcries".
Prepared by Environm-ental Science and Engineering, Inc., Gainesville,
i'lorida (Feoruary 1975).

8. BUEKITKraiong Palm Oil Mill, Highlands and Iwlands BE-), the Engineer-
ing Department, Barlow Boustead Estates Agency SDN, BED, Malaysia Bio-
logical treatrrent of palm oil mill effluent by ponding, using a 2 phase
anaerobic digestion and facultative oxidation.

9. Division of Environment, Ministry of Science, Technlology and Environ-

ment, Kuala Lunpir, Malaysia. Effluenrt standards for palm oil industry
(1982).
 Annex i
P'age 1

AN ASSESSMENT OF APPROPRIATE POLLUTION CONTROL

TECHNOLOGIES FOR PALM OIL MILL EFFLUENTS (POME)

Malaysian Practice

1. Various combinations of effluent treatment are practiced by the

public and private sectors of the palm oil milling industry in Malaysia. The
more popular well-proven combinations include:

a) Anaerobic/facultativeponds
b) Anaerobic tank digestion (open or closed)/facultativeponds
c) Anaerobic tank digestion (open or closed)/mechanicallyaerated
ponds or fertilizer irrigation
d) Use of various types of POME as fertilizer

Another more recently developed system which is being widely touted by the
equipment suppliers is:

e) decanter/sludge drier/facultative pond system,

which the Malaysian industry is treating with some skepticism, as discussed

below.

2. These systems have been developed to meet the special needs of a

range of topographical, land availability, economic and operational cons-
traints experienced throughout the Malaysian palm oil industry. In general,
the private sector seems to favour more complex systems, which require
less land but stricter operational control, while the public sector generally
prefers simpler systems that require less supervision and maintenance but are
willing to sacrifice land for this purpose. In some cases, however, where
land availabiity is a constraint, anaerobic tank systems are also being
installed by the public sector.

3. Since January 1st, 1984, the Malaysian palm oil industry has had to
meet very strict effluent standards which are listed below:

BOD, 3 day, 30°C (mg/l) 100 (50)+

Suspended solids (mg/l) 400
Oil and grease (mg/l) 50
Ammoniacal nitrogen (mg/l) 100*
Total nitrogen (mg/l) 200*
pH 5-9
Temperature ( IC) 45

+ Arithmetic mean based on average of 4 samples taken at least over a week for
four conservative weeks.
* Filtered sample.
 Annex I
Page 2
- 3uL -

4. Each of the systems described below has been designed to meet this
standard during the peak processing period, assuming 20 hours operation per
day, 7 days per week. In Malaysia the effluent flowrate for a conventional
mill is usually in the range of 0.5-0.8 tons/ton FFB. A figure of 0.7 tons/
tons FFB is often quoted as a design value, based on good maintenance and
operation in the mill. A 1981 survey of 40 representative oil palm mills in
Malaysia indicated raw effluent quality as follows:

Parameter* Range Mean

BOD 10,250- 47,500 25,000

COD 15,500-106,360 53,630
Total Solids 11,450-164,950 43,635
Suspended Solids 410- 60,360 19,020
Oil and Grease 130- 86,430 8,730
Ammoniacal Nitrogen 0- 110 35
Total Nitrogen 180- 1,820 770
pH 3.8-4.5 4.1

* All except pH in (mg/l).

a) Anaerobic/FacultativePond System

5. Despite biochemical complexity, the anaerobic digestion process is

essentially diphasic. The acid-producing bacteria and their associated
enzymes degrade most types of organic material mainly into fatty acids. The
methanogenic bacteria converts the soluble products of the acid-producers into
methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. Efficient operation of the
conventional 'mixed' anaerobic process requires that the acid-forming
organisms grow in harmony with the methanogenic formers. Any imbalance of
activities of these two groups of organisms, particularly in favour of the
relatively fast growing acid-formers, leads to an upset in the digestion
process. Recognizing this difference in the metabolic characteristicsof the
acid and methane formers, the benefits of phase separation in the system are
obvious. Phase separation provides optimum separate environments for each
group of organisms. The acidification stage is to promote the growth and
proliferation of the acid formers. In the second stage, the methanogenic
phase digestor receives the products from the first stage and provides an
environment optimum for the methane formers. Phase separation should not be
construed as a total elimination of all species of methane formers from the
acid digestor and vice versa. Complete elimination is not desirable nor
achievable in practice.

6. The two-phase digestion process is seen as having several benefits:

Capability of maintaining the closest opFimum environment for

each group of digestor organisms.
 Annex I
Page 3
_ 305 -

* Reduction in total digestor volumes and ccnsequent savings in

capital costs.

• Higher rates of solid stabilization; increased production rate

and contact of the final product gases.

* A more reliable and stable system.

7. Other points worthy of note on the anaerobic treatment process are:

Truly anaerobic digestion effectively destroys offensive smells

other than those of the product gases released.

Acid-formers have a relatively short doubling-time in the order

of hours.

The methanogenic bacteria has a much longer doubling-time in the

order of days.

M bacteria are more susceptible to inhibition by a

l.fethanogenic
variety of materials, e.g., heavy metal, soluble suphide, etc.

Reduction in COD also avoids the harmful effects of applying

untreated carbonacesus wastes direct on to land.

Pathogenic organisms are destroyed.

Degradation of most of the lipids and other constituents which

would otherwise attract flies and vermin.

Waste water is stable and free from offensive smells.

8. It was upon all of the above considerations that the ponding system
for POME is designed to incorporate:

a) An acidification phase;

b) A methanogenic phase;

c) Recycle of biomass; and

d) Recovery of sludge cake which is not obnoxious.

9. A schematic flow diagram of the ponding system showing the typical

stage by stage degradation of the POME as operated by the Bousted Estates is
shown in Figure 1. A typical anaerobic/facultativepond system used by FELDA
mills is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows a different arrangement of
ponds.
 Annex I
Page 4
- ,06 -

Description of the Pond Components

De-Oiling Tank

10. This is a concret,utank to serve the functions of:

Trapping remnants of free oil in the hot effluents.

Homogenizing the effluent.

Solids settlement.

* Partial releasing of bonded oil.

I' holds the equivalent of 1-1.5 days hydraulic retention time. Temperature
of the POME in this tank ranges from 60° - 70°C.

Flow Monitoring Device

11. The ability to measure the flow rate of the raw effluent is of
fundamental importance to the control of the anaerobic/facultativetreatment
process. FELDA have designed a simple barrel type measuring device with a
revolving counter to monitor effluent flow.

Cooling/AcidificationPonds

12. There are two ponds in a series, each having a one day (FELDA)
or two-days (Bousted) hydraulic retention time. In the Bousted scheme hot
effluent from the deoiling tank entering the first acification pond is mixed
with an approximately equal volume of partially digested liquor from the
primary anaerobic pond through a synchronized recycling operation, while FELDA
prefers to recycle anaerobically treated effluent to the second acidification
pond. Recycling of partially digested anaerobic liquor is to serve the
functions of:

Cooling the influent.

Buffering the pH of the ponds; and

Supplying seed bacteria for the anerobic process.

13. The acidification stage is a very rapid process wherein acid

bacteria convert the organic components of the waste-water into volatile fatty
acids (vfa), which in turn act as substrate for the next phase of the
anaerobic process. During vfa formation pH of the system is depressed. The
main reason for constructing these ponds in series is to restrict sediment
build up and release of oil to the surface at the first pond, thereby reducing
the magnitude of cleaning operations.
 Annex I
Page 5
- 307

Anaerobic Ponds

14. In the Bousted treatment process, the second phase of the anaerobic
digestion process is carried out over two ponds in series with hydraulic
retention times of 30 days and 15 days, respectively. FELDA, on the other
hand, prefers to operate 2 ponds in parallel with a total hydraulic retention
time of 50 days. If one pond shows signs of souring, the flowrate to this
pond is reduced to stabilize the process. In these ponds the predominantly
methanogenic bacteria convert the vfa to methane, carbon dioxide, and other
trace gases.

Facultative Ponds

15. The facultative ponds in the Bousted design are either in

configurations of three ponds in series or a total of four ponds in paired
series; in either mode the total retention time is about 16 days. These are
shallow ponds of about 1.5 metres liquor operating depths for quiescent
aerobic respiration of the anaerobically treated waste water. FELDA recommend
a longer retention time of 40 days in a series arrangement as shown in Figure
2. This longer residence time enables shock pollution loads to be treated
more effectively. In addition to further BOD reductions, levels of nitrogen
and suspended solids are reduced in the facultative ponds.

Sludge Drying Beds

16. Sand-beds are used extensively to dewater the anaerobic sludge from
the cooling, acidification, and anaerobic ponds. The process works on the
principle of percolation through the sand-bed and of evaporation by heat from
the sun. In practice, it takes from 4-8 days of drying for the cake to reach
a liftable stage of 75%-80% moisture content. Duration of drying is subject
to weather; a notable characteristic is that once the partially dried cake has
had 3-4 days of sunshine, rain the following day does not unduly soak the
cake. The use of sand drying beds for desludging have effectively kept the
solids build-up in the anaerobic ponds under control. The sand-beds are
usually 30 meters x 7 meters divided into four compartments (51 m2 /compart-
ment), yielding 2.24 T of sludge cake at 60% moisture content (0.9 tonne of
absolute dry sludge cake). The filter media is a total of 9" thick bed with
lower 6" as gravel topped with 3" sand and overlaid with a screen-mash. The
sand-beds can take about 6"-8" of loading at a time, representing 11.2 tonne
wet sludge (8% solids). The annual maintenance per sand-bed is
M$1,500-M$2,000, which is mostly for screenmesh.

17. FELDA uses a simple evaporation pond to collect accumulated solids.

Solids are withdrawn from the anaerobic ponds using a high capacity mobile
pump. High pressure water is used to break up the accumulated deposits.
 Annex I
Page 6
-308 -

OperationalConsiderations
18. In the anaerobicdigestionprocessthe methaneformingbacteriagrow
quite slowly comparedto the acid producingbacteria,since they obtain very
little energy from their food. This causes the methanebacteriato be very
sensitiveto change in BOD loading,pH and temperature.The objectiveof good
anaerobicprocessoperationis thereforeto controlfood supply,temperature,
and pH, thus keepingthe acid and methanebacteriain balance.
19. The processperformsbest if the feed is of consistent
characteristics and not subjectto wide fluctuationsin BOD and oil loads
throughpoor maintenanceand mill operation. It is criticalthat as much oil
as possibl-be removedfrom the effluentbefore enteringthe anaerobic
treatmentstage. The oil separatorsand the first stage cooling/acidification
ponds are thereforevital pretreatmentsteps to remove the oil. They require
regulardeoiling,desludging,and maintenanceto ensure maximumcollection
efficiency. An oil scum must not be allowed to collecton the surfaceof the
anaerobicponds.

20. Regularmonitoringand controlof the anaerobictreatmentprocessis

essentialto maintainthe system in a healthyoperatingconditionand prevent
souring (i.e.,acid conditionsresultingfrom imbalanceof acid and methane
producingbacteria). Parameterswhich should be monitoreddaily and
preferablyeach shift includetemperature,total volatileacids, total
alkalinity,and pH.

Temperature

21. Most of the anaerobicdigestorsare operatedin the mesophilic

range, i.e., 29°C-37°C. In the tropicsthereis very littlevariationin
temperaturethroughoutthe year. However,the feed temperatureneeds some
attention. Raw effluentshould be adequatelycooled before it is fed to the
digestor. This can be achievedin the cooling/acidificationponds.
VolatileFatty Acids/Alkalinity

22. Volatilefatt-acid and alkalinityare two importanttests for

digestorcontrol. The ire fast and simple to performwith inexpensive
apparatus. The tests ild be carriedout daily or on each shiftby the mill
laboratory. The alkalinityof a digestoris importantbecauseit determines
the abilityof the digesterto neutralizethe acids formed during digestionor
presentin the raw feed. The concentrations of volatilefatty acidsand
alkalinityare the first measurablechangesthat take placewhen the process
of digestionis becomingupset. As l-ng as the fattyvolatileacidsremain
low, comparedto alkalinity,the dige .,orcan be consideredhealthywith good
digestiontaking place. The volatileacid/ 'kalinityratio can be in the
range of 0.1 to 0.5 without significant effe.ts on anaerobic digestion. Each
 Annex I
Page 7
- 30C,9

system has its own characteristic ratio for good digestion. However, an
increase in the ratio is the first warning that trouble is starting in the
digestor and that serious changes will occur unless the increase is stopped.
If the ratio increases the following changes will occur:

a) The C02 content in the biogas will increase;

b) The biogas production rate will decrease;

c) The pH of the digestor will drop and the digestor may go sour,
if preventative action is not taken in good time.

The pH

23. The pH is the simplest test that can be run to indicate the health
of the digestion process and should be run as frequently as possible.
However, it cannot be used solely for process control. Because of the
buffering effect of alkalinity in the digestor, the pH changes very slowly.
In fact, the digester may be partially upset before the pH change is
registered. (As shown in Figure 3). If an upset condition is detected, the
main method of control is to temporarily reduce the feed to the digestor.

Lime or ash from the first bunches incineration plant can also be used to
adjust the pH and restore healthy operation. At all times, the pH in the
digestor should be maintained near neutral (6.8 to 7.2).

24. FELDA carries out a complete analysis at each stage of the treatment
process once per fortnight, (i.e., BOD, COD, total solids, suspended solids,
oil and grease, ammoniacal nitrogen and total nitrogen). The Malaysian DOE
requires monthly analyses of the effluent system operation, which are
submitted quarterly to the DOE regional offices.

25. The most difficult phase in these anaerobic systems is during start
up. The best source of seed organisms is another anaerobic digestor at a
nearby palm oil mill. Several tanker loads of anaerobic sludge may be
required. If this is not available, chicken or cow manure can also be used,
or expensive propietary formulation can be utilized.

Capital and Operating Costs

26. FELDA estimates that the 1986 capital cost of a 30 t/hr FFB POME
ponding treatment system is about $M500,000 depending on the local terrain and
distance from the mill, while for a 60t/hr FFB mill the cost is about
$M800,000. Operating costs are low. One effluent controller is required for
daily supervision of the ponding system and one laboratory assistant is
required for daily monitoring and analysis. Deoiling of the acidification
ponds and maintenance of ponds is subcontracted to outside contractors. At
the Trolak mill about twenty 44 gallon drums of oils are collected from the
 Annex I
Page 8
-310 -

first acidification pond each year. In 4 years of operation, only the first
two acidification ponds have required cleaning to remove accumulated solids.
However, at other FELLA factories, siltation of ponds within one or two years
presents major problems. In 1983 alone FELDA spent about $M 590,000 on
cleaning up effluent ponds at 17 of its mills. Very little oil accumulates on
the second acidification pond, and none on the anaerobic ponds. With close
supervision the anaerobic ponds have been kept in a healthy condition without
the need for liming or shutdown.

27. Where suitable land is available and irrigation is not feasible, the
anaerobic/facultativepond treatment system is the most attractive system for
POME because of its low capital and operating costs, its reliability,
stability, and ease of operation by semi-skilled labour.

(b & c) AnaerobicTank Digestors

28. Where suitable land is not available for a pond system the Malaysian
palm oil industry is installing anaerobic tank digestors of open, as well as
closed design, with and without forced circulation. In the closed digestors,
recirculating biogas mixers are replacing mechanical stirrers because of the
ease of maintenance, lower energy consumption, and lower installation cost.
The tank digestors are more efficient than anaerobic ponds because of better
mixing conditions, low surface area to volume ratio, etc., and therefore can
be designed with lower hydraulic retention times. Forced circulation
digestors also are more efficient than the unstirred tanks. Typical designs
utilized by the Malaysian industry are given in the examples discussed below.

(i) Harrison's Malaysian Plantation Berhad (HMPB)

Effluent Treatment System

29. HMPB palm oil wastes are treated in a primary unstirred two-phase
anaerobic contact digestion process followed by extended aeration in a pond.
Figure 4 is a typical flow scheme of a HMPB treatment plant. The plant is
designed for a one-day acidification of the incoming waste followed by methane
digestion in mild steel tanks for about 20 days. The anaerobic liquor is
subsequently treated by extended aeration in a lagoon designed for a
twenty-day retention time. The solids in the aerated liquor are removed by
sedimentation in a two-hour retention clarifier. Biosolids are intermittently
recovered from the bottom of the methane digestors and the aerobic
sedimentation tank for application on the oil palm estates as fertilizer. The
final treated aerobic liquor is either recycled to the mill as process water
or discharged to estate drains.

Performance of Individual Units

Acidification Pond

30. POME is first acidified in an open pond for about one day before
being treated in the open tank anaerobic digestor. The acidification process
is operated by mixing POME with anaerobic liquor from the methane tank
 Annex I
311 - Page 9

digestor or anaerobic solids from the anaerobic solids settling pond in ratios
1:1 or 1.5, respectively bv volume. The mixtures are allowed to react for one
day. The acidification pond also provides for cooling of the POME and further
oil separation before anaerobic treatment. The effectiveness of the
acidification process is measured by the rise in volatile fatty acid (vfa)
content of the mixture. Tests at several HMPB oil palm mills indicate an
average vfa increase of 10,000 mg/l in the acidification pond.

Unstirred Open Tank Digestor

31. A two or three open tank system operating in parallel is preferable

to a single tank digestor as it allows greater operating flexibility should
the onset of souring be detected in one of the tanks. In this case the feed
rate to the problem digestor can be reduced and a greater proportion of the
pollution load can be diverted to another healthy digestor until the souring
reactor is restored to healthy conditions. The system is considered
anaerobically stabilized when the digestor liquor has the following
characteristics:

pH: 6.8 -7.2

Total Alkalinity: 2000-5000 mg/l as CaCO3
Total Volatile Acid: < 600 mg/l as CaCo3

Ratio of Total Volatile Acid: <0.5 (optimum 0.2)

Total Alkalinity

32. In the HMPB effluent treatment tests BOD reductions of about 95%
were recorded in the unstirred open tank digestors resulting in BOD of about
1500 mg/l in the anaerobic liquor. The major problem with open tank digestors
is the heavy corrosion which occurs above the liquor level even with
application of special epoxy coatings.

Anaerobic Sedimentation Pond

33. The HMPB process includes an anaerobic sedimentation pond scheme to

increase the solid retention time and improve solids destruction. Stabilized
anaerobic solids are an important source of nutrients for application on the
palm oil estates and are utilized for this purpose by HMPB. Biosolids can be
recovered from the unstirred anaerobic digestors and anaerobic sedimentation
pond (as well as the aerobic sedimentation pond) by direct discharge through
bottom offtakes. Currently, all HMPB effluent plants are supplying biosolids
by means of tractor/trailer tanks to the estates at rates of about 0.1 tonne
anaerobic biosolids per tonne FFB and 0.05 tonne aerobic solids per tonne
FFB. Sludge is currently applied at rates of about 360 litres/palm/yearand
550 litres/palm/yr for coastal and inland estates, respectively.

34. A further reduction in BOD occurs in the anaerobic sedimentation

pond to about 700 mg/l (in the liquor).
 Annex I
Page 10
- ,12 -

ExtendedAerationPond

35. The rate of biologicaloxidationin the final aerobictreatment

phase can be incr_asedby installingmechanicalsurfaceaeratorsin the
aerationpond. Hence, the surfacearea and volumeof the pond can be reduced
where land area is a restriction. Other more complexactivatedsludge systems
can be used to furtherreduce land area requirementsbut these can be
justifiedfor POME treatmentonly under exceptionalcircumstances.Extended
aerationtreatmentfor 20 days has been found to reduce BOD of the supernatent
liquor in the HMPB plants to about 70 mg/l.

36. Use of mechanicalaeratorsincreasesthe operatingand maintenance

cost of the effluenttreatmentsystem. Mechanicalaeratorsrequireregular
maintenanceand a stock of spare partsmust also be regularlymaintained.

Capitaland OperatingCosts

37. Replacinganaerobicponds by open anaerobictanks digestors

increasesthe capitalcost by a factorof about 2. Replacingfacultative
pondsby an extendedaeracionsystem increasesthe capitalcost by an
additionalfactorof about 1.2-1.3. Operatingcosts for the HMPB open-tank
of FFB (1984 prices),
treatmentsystem is quoted in the range $MO.3-0.6/tonne
while utilizationof biosolidsas fertilizeris estimatedto yield an
equivalentbenefitaveraging$MO.7/tonneof FFB.

(ii) Sime Darby Plantations(SDP)StirredClosed

Tank AnaerobicTreatmentSystem

38. An advantageof a closed tank systemis the possibleuse of the

digestorbiogasesas a fuel for direct combustionor for electricity
generationin a gas generatingset. For example,the amountof biogas from a
50 tonne FFB/hr mill operatingat 20 hrs/dayis approximately 20,000 m3/day,
enough to generate1,300Kw electricitycontinuously.In view of the
variationsin volume of crop actuallyprocessed,the realizablevalue is
probablyabout 70X of this figure. Stirredclosed tank digestozscan be used
in placeof open tanks in the HMPB treatmentsystem describedabove,or as
shown in the SDP scheme in Figure 5 where anaerobicallytreatedeffluentis
used to irrigateand fertilizeoil palms on the company'splantations.

SDP StirredClosedTank Digestor

39. The hydraulicretentiontime for POME in the closed stirredtank

digestoris reducedto 10 days due to the efficientmixing and contactbetween
liquor and biomass. For a 60 tonne FFB/hrmill operating20 hrs. with a POME
dischargeof 0.7 tonne/tonneFFB, two 4,200m3 closed tanks are required
operatingin parallel. SDP have operatedclosed tankswith mechanicalmixers
but are convertingall theirdigestorsto a static biogasmixer systemas
 Annex I
Page 11
- 313 -

shown in Figure 6. The gas mixer consists of an emitter and a draught tube as
illustratedin this figure and dependingon the size of the digestor,one or
more gas mixers are installed. Biogas produced from the tank digestor is
first compressed using a gas compressor and is then discharged into the
emitter where the rising gas bubbles induce circulation and mixing. This
system realizes a substantial saving, in terms of energy compared with the
mechanical stirrers, namely: 1.8 kW per l000 m3 or operating digestor
capacity vs. 14 kW per 1000 m3 . The flowrate of biogas used for mixing is 2
m3 /min or 24% of the total biogas produced per digestor. Mechanical stirring
systems are also more difficult to maintain than the biogas recycle system and
are more expensive by a factor of about 1.25. The cost of two 4,200 m3
anaerobic digestor units complete!with gas mixer and excess gas flare is
approximately $M1,000,000 (1984 prices), of which the gas mixing unit costs
about one tenth. Tank corrosion is substantially reduced in a closed system
compared with an open tank digestor.

d) Use of VariousTypes of PONE as Fertilizer

40. The SDP system utilizes the anaerobically treated POME as a source
of nutrient for the oil palm plantation using various land application
systems, including long bed, flat bed, furrow, sprinkler, or tractor/tanker
methods. The Malaysian industry has tested various forms of treated and
untreated POME as a nutrient source for oil palm plantations and these results
are discussed below.

Sprinkler/Pipe Irrigation System

41. Treated POME is applied by means of a fixed or movable sprayline

sprinkler system. This system consists of a network of pipes with sprinklers
spaced at regular intervals in the field.

Flathead/Longbed Systems

42. The flatbed system comprises a series of flattened bunded beds of 15

cm depth. They are constructed along alternate interrows occupying about 1/3
of the interrow space. These flatbeds are interconnected by channels.
Treated POME is pumped up to the top most bed and allowed to flow by gravity.
As the bottom most bed is filled up, the channel is closed and the next lowest
bed allowed to fill. This is contained until all the beds are filled. In
flat terrain, the longbed system is adopted in which the construction is
similar to the flatbed, except the length may be as long as 70 m.

Furrow/Gravity Flow System

43. In this system, the treated POME is pumped into a tank located at
the highest point in the area. The POME is allowed to flow down by gravity
along furrows and channels. These furrows are usually 20-30 cm in depth and
30 cm wide, and constructed along the slope. The rate of flow is controlled
by regulating the outlet of the tank.
 Annex I
314 Page 12

System
Tractor/Tanker

44. The equipmentrequiredfor this system is a tractor/tankerand

centrifugalpump. The POME is transportedto the field in a tractor-drawn
tanker. The slurryor effluentis appliedwith the assistanceof a
centrifugalpump mountedon the tankerchassis.

Dried Sludge
45. system or by
Dried sludge may be producedby the decanter-drier
simple sun-dryingof suspendedsolidsabstractedfrom the anaerobicor aerobic
ponds. The dried sludge is appliedmanuallyto palms or nurseryseedlings.

46. The choice of irrigationsystem for any plantationdependson

severalfactors,includingthe type of POME available,soil type, costs of
POME treatmentor partialtreatmentvs. applicationcosts and fertilizer
substitutioncost/benefits, climaticconditionsand the terrainof the area to
be treated. Even untreatedPOME can be used for land application. Table 1
lists the fertilizerequivalentvalue of varioustypes of POME.

Table 1

FertilizerEquivalentValue of VariousTypes of POME

FertilizerEquivalent
Type of POME ApplicationRate Value (M$)
(tonne/ha)

Control,estate practice Normal chemical 572.62

fertilizersapplication

Raw POME 135 572.76

Closed stirreddigestoreffluent 140 571.22

Pond digestedeffluent 250 587.59

Pond digestedeffluent& 10% 200 462.60

slurry

Open tank digestoreffluent 45 546.35

Anaerobicliquor after 130 350.31

settlingsolids
Aerobicslurry 85 567.64
 Annex I
Page 13
- 31 -

able 2

Costs of Various Land Application Systems for POME

System Capital Cost Operating Cost

(M$/ha) (MS/ha/yr)

Long bed 1400 150

Flat bed 1500 196

Furrow 1500 196

Sprinkler 1500-2600 242-260

Tractor/tanker 320 90

e) Decanter/Drier System
47. The main purpose of this new system is to capture and recover the
sludge which is the major source of organic pollutants entering the oil palm
effluent, amounting to some 70-80% of the total BOD load. One proposal is to
sell the dried sludge as an animal feed supplement, or alternatively as a soil
conditioner and source of nutrients for the oil palm plantation. The key
additional item of equipment is the horizontal centrifuge decanter as shown by
comparing the conventional flow diagram (Figure 7) with the modified decanter
system flow diagram (Figure 8). This figure shows that the decanter is
located after the screw press aad coarse fibre screen to treat the extracted
oil/water mixture before passing into the cojntinuous oil clarifier. In this
arrangement the decanter is operated as a two-phase machine with oil/water as
one phase and a semi-solid sludge as the second phase. Another arrangement
which is not favoured by most experienced oil palm milling experts is to
operate the decanter as a three-phase system taking off an oil phase for
direct purification, a water phase for recycle and a solid sludge phase for
subsequent disposal. In this case the continuous clarifier is sometimes
eliminated, although most palm oil engineers do not favor eliminating the
continuous clarifier for operational reasons.

48. In the conventional arrangement the slurry nozzle separator is

operated in a two phase mode with the oil/watt-r phase being returned to the
continuous oil clarifier and the slurry containing a small amount of oil being
discharged to waste. With the decanter/drier modification as shown in Fugure
8 the nozzle separator is converted to a three phase mode of operation, where
the oil phase is recirculated to the clarifier, the water phase is returned to
the screen and/or the presses and the concentrated slurry sludge is U
transferred to the drier with the sludge from the decanter. This arrangement
eliminates the major pollution load, namely, the high BOD sludge from the
 AUinex I
Page 14
- 316) -

nozzle separators leaving only the sterilizer condensate, hydrocyclone

effluents, and floor/vessel washings for treatment.

49. The other major item of equipment in the modified arrangement is the
rotary drier in which flue gas from the boiler is used as the heating medium.
A schematic diagram of the equipment is shown in Figure 9. The dimension of
the drier is two meters in diameter and 15 meters in length. The exterior is
insulated with fiberglass and aluminum foil so as to minimize heat loss and
maximize drying efficiency. When installed in existing mills the flue gas is
t-?ped from the chimney above the boiler exhaust fan. The ducting size would
be the same as that of the chimney. The portion of the chimney above the
ducting is closed with a damper so that the flue gas can be directed into the
drier through the ducting.

50. In new mill projects, individual boiler chimneys can be eliminated

and replaced with a common chimney at the drier outlet with suitable ducting
to connect the boiler exhaust with the drier inlet. A by-pass system between
drier inlet and outlet makes it possible to undertake repairs of the drier
during operation of the boiler. Inside the drier drum, special baffles and
chains are incorporated at specific positions, to break up the solids, to
prevent the accumulation of solids in the drum and to maintain a uniform flow
of flue gas. At the discharge end, an axial exhaust fan is incorporated to
expel the flue gas. The fan would be sized according to the predetermined
flow rate of the flue gas in which the temperature of exit gas should not be
less than 120°C.

51. The amount of heat available for drying is dependent upon the type
of boiler installed as well as the steaming capacity. Equipment suppliers
claim that generally an average factory with a minimum steam!ng capacity of
500 kg steam/tonne FFB processed and a boiler exhaust gas temperature of
minimum 300'C will have enough waste heat available to dry the decanter and
nozzle separator sludge down to a moisture content of 10%. However, in
practice Malayslin experience has shown that boiler exhaust gas temperature
has to be above 350°C and that frequently there is insufficient heat to dry
the product to the required moisture content. If the dried sludge is to be
used immediately as a fertilizer on the palm oil estate, this may not be
critical, but for extended storage or use as an animal feed supplement
moisture content is an important control parameter. Addition of the drier
component certainly adds to the operating complicity of the system,
particularly if sludge moisture control is important.

Capital and Operating Costs

52. Capital and operating costs are summarized below for a 30 tons
FFB/hr mill operating on average 16 hours per day. It is assumed that the
dried solids are used as a fertilizer on the palm oil estate and its
equivalent fertilizer value is indicated as a revenue resulting from sludge
recovery. Prices are quoted in Malaysian dollars (1984 prices). These
capital and opera.Ing costs do not include cost of treating the residual
effluents from the sterilizer condensate hydrocyclones and floor washings.
 Annex I
Page 15
- 31 7 -

Table 3

Estimated Capital and Opetting Costs (HS)

for Decanter/Drier System
(30 T/HR FFB Kti1l)

Investment Cost
Decanter including auxiliary
equipment in-plant modification 520,000
Rotary drier 2000 mm 0 x 15000 mm 300,000
Installation 80.000

TOTAL 900 000

Operational Costs
Decanter
Cost of rebuilding conveyor and
balancing after 7000 hrs - MS20,000
Annual repair cost for a 30 tons FFB/hr
mill operating 16 hri/day x 300 days
or 4800 hrs.
(Processing capacity 144,100 T/FFB
28,800 T/oil (20%)

TOTAL MS20,000 x 4800 MS13,728

7000

Rotarv Drier
Replacement of carry rollers after
4800 hrs - MS 4,000
Replacement and repair of internal
activators, conveyorsJ, etc. - MS12,000

TOTAL MS16,000

Labour
(Labour costs for drier only. No tabour
costs involved for decanter).
Three workers for a two shift 3 x 10 x 300 MS

TOTAL MS9,000

TOTAL OPERATIONAL COST MS38,728

Revenue
Throughput 144,000 ton/FFB/year
Percentage solid to FF8 - 2.4%
Fertilizer value of solids (102 moisture) -
MS70/ton
Solids produced 2.4% - 3456 ton/yr
tncome from sale of cake - 3456 x 70 MS241,920

Return of investment
Income from sale of cake MX241,920

Less
Cost of operation - MS38,728
Depreciation MS900,000 10% - MS90,000 MS128,728

Return of investment MS113,192

Costings per ton FFB and per ton Oil

MS/t FFB MS t/Oil

Conveyor repair 0.095 0.478
Drier repair 0.111 0.555
Labour 0.063 0.313

TOTAL 0.269 1.346

 Annex T
- 318 - Page 16

Figure 1

PONDING SYSTEM OF P.O.M.E. USING TWO-PHASE ANAEROBIC

DIGESTION AND FACULTATIVE OXIDATION ACIDII '^ATION PHASE

MILL Influ fi DEOLN TAKAIIIAIN_-

=__ CDF
Raw EMuent. POND I
PONDI
pH 4.2__ _ _ _ _ _ _

C.O.D. 54O000mg/l 1) Traps Removal of Free Oil Each Two (2) Days E.R.T.
e
Ce.D o r mg/i 2) Homogenous
Effluent
5.3. 18.000mgI 3) SolidsSettlement No.1 No.
T.S. 35,000mg/A 4) Partial Releaseof BondedOil pH 5.0
A.N. 10 mg/i 4 V.F.A. 5500 (mg/I) 5100 (mg/I)
T.N. 200 mg/I

Recycle Biomass at 1:1 Ratio for

1 I) Buffering
()2) Cooling
METHANOGENIC PHASE I

ANAEROBIC MATURATION PRIMARY ANAEROBIC

POND POND
15 days h.r.t. 30 days h.r.t.
t. , - _.
Monitored Monitored
I) Alkalinity 3600-4000 mg.^ 1) Alkalinity 4200-4400 mg/l
2) V.F.A. 80-90 mg/l 2) V.F.A. 110- 135 mg/I
3) B.O.D. 250mg/I 3) B.O.D. 7.3-7.4
4) pH 7.8-1.9 4) pH 400 mg/I
Desludging

F %CULTATIVE FACULTATIV']
POND la POND2a
4 days h.r.t. 4 days 's.r.t. t

FACULTATIVE FACULTATIVE
POND lb POND 2b
4 days h.r.t. 4 days h.r.t.

I) Alkalinity 2200-22300 mg/I 1600-1800 mg/!

2) pH 7.8-8.2 8.0- 8.5

FINAL TREATED DISCHARGE

Tyrical Quality
pH. 8.7
B.O.). .eI00 mg/I
C.O.D. <1000 mg/I SAND-BEDS
S.S. 450 mg/ISADB S
T.S. 6000 mg/l Dewatering& Recoser%
A.N. 40 rug/I of Sludge Solids
T.N. 85 rig/I Ash 43.800-o
Nitrogen 4.60tsO Dried
Phosphorus(P) 0.95 Cake
Potassium(K) I -04rO Typical
BOUSTED ESTATES AC:NCY SDN. BHD. Clagnecium (C g) I .00r Proper0
GRC-JP ENGINEER'S DEPT. pH 6Ca
I.5)
pH 6.5-,.5
 Annex I
- 319 - Page 1T7

Figure2

EE:DA POW PON 1XEAMkN SYSM4

oil

Flow | L:B Ratio1:1 L:B Ratio1:1

Nozzle 1 nitoring I 1
Separator Device (I dayhrt) ( dayhrt)
Sludge Cooling Hblding
+a 1 ) > _ po~~~~~Fnd I b-nd
Floor Separator I 2 (Acidification) (Akidification)
Floor .
MLUl Wash QLl 1.5 m depth) (1.5m depth)

_ t t t ~~~Sludge
Sterilizer C Sludge
T Cordensate - _- -
Recycle
- - - - - - - - - -
|lu g

Kerrel Hydrocyclor* Water Anaerobic

(50 day hrt)

dayhrt) ((20 )

(2.5m depth)
L:B Ratio3:1 Anaerobic

(50 day hrt)

(6-7 m depth)
L:B Ratio 2:1

Algae Algae Algae 'lb

Forxi > Pond Pbnd River
(7 day hrt) (7 day hrt)| (7 day hrt)

1-1.3 m depth 1-1.3 m depth 1-1.3 m depth

L:B Ratio 3:1
Wet
Sludge

BOD < 100 mg/l

Sludge SS < 400 mg/l
Drying ||AmRn. < 100 mng/l
Beds pH 7-8

Estimated Capital Cost (1986) 30 t/hr FFB EM500,000

60 t/hr FFB SM800,000
 Annex I
Page 18

- 320 -

Figure 3

Relationship of Volatile Acids to Alkalinity

and pH in an Anaerobic Digestor

TIME

MG/L
2000, Alkalinity

1000,
V. ACID
200-

U VA/ALK RATIO

I' I

0.6
VA/ALK R

m RELAnONSDP OF pH CHANGETOCHAGE IN "I"

6.8
~.ipH
..

6.It
6.4--l
 Flow Scheme of HHPB 2-Phase Unstirred Anaerobic
Contact and Extended Aeration Process

AerobicDischap
FD- Final
An S- AnerobicSludge
Ac S- AerobicSludge

Methane
Tank
Digestion
Acidification
Pond Aerobic
Coolcd Settling m

2 0 d ays | FD
ay

I dall 20days

Anaerobic Extended
Settling Aerobic
An S Pond Pond A S
(10Iraclor-trailer (to tractor-trailer
for fertiliser for ferfiliser
application) application) ,
rnrz
(D(
 Schematic Diagram of Anaerobic Tank and Application System

tJli,Iizaiona l /Digscted POME

of Itigas
of lh X , ,_-_> ~~~~~Raw
I~~~~~~~~~

Condlensate I

LandApplication

Biiogai.(wmprcor Anacrobic Digester

DigestedEffluent Sump
Land Application

- Staofage
Ditch for
DigestedEffluent

D DD

O "_
 Annex I
Page 21

- 323 -

Figure 6

Gas Mixer Showing Flow Pattern of Digestor Content

Biogas

Digested
POME 0

Draught Tube

! -- Gas Bubble

t- / Compressed
_
Raw Biogas
PUME~
P0N1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'I ITTi
 Annex I
Page 22

- 32!; _

Figure 7

Conventional Flow Diagram of Palm Oil Milling

FRUIT BUNCHES

[' RLOW~-OFF
ST SEIIE
ONDENSATE---t TO EFFLUENT
TREATMENT

THRESHE EMPTY BUNCHES

n I -
g TO INCINERATOR

FRUtTS AIH

STEAL-- DIGESTER

WATER ~~-9REW
PRESS

\ ^ + SIUDGE
OIL SOLID MATTER

DEPERSCAPER IBRE TO BOILER

CLARIFIER NUTS

NOZZLE SEPARATOR CRACKER

I(2-PHASE)
O LL

O1 L WINNOWER HELL TO BOILER

HYDROCYCLONS TO EFFLUENT
TREATMENT

EFFLUENT KE NEL
TREATMENT
 Annex I
Page 23

- 325 -

Figure 8

Modified Flow Diagram of Palm Oil Milling

Incorporating Decanter/Drier

FRUITS

SCREW PRESS a

OIL + SLUDGE SOLID MATTE

|SCREEN
| ~~ETC.

WA ER

OIL/WATER
<< ~~~~OIL

OIL

L NOZZLE SEPARATOR| f |STACK

(3-PHASE)
F~~FO SLUDGEi
< D~~~RIER

FLUt: GAS
FROM
BOILER
DRIED CAKE FOR
ANIMAL FEED AND/
OR LAND DISPOSAL
 The Decanter-drier System in the Clarification Station for Crude
Oil Separation and Sludge Treatment

clifn Tanik ,1Oil

I)ige VoI icrin

~ ~~~~~~~~~~~i
NIOF~

_ _Sorag'Tcank valves
_ ll I l ~~~~~~~~Waler
Phase .I ;

0SiS N <l - 4_L- Bole PI Axial lFan

-1 C~~~rudc ()11 5 .* ,C
;I 011~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i
Solid Shtidge . l 1
I I ~~~~~4E
_ I ~~~~~Phiase Conlveyor -X*f
Keception X._t1
< | . L ra.,k ( ~~rudcOil hdcIir|;_ laglg

>

iD XD
 - 327 -

THE WORLDBANK NOVEMBER

1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

SAFETYANDOCCUPATIONAL
HEALI1

PESTICIDE MANUFACTURE

1. This guideline will address safety of personnel working in the

plant as well as health hazards inside the plant.

Plant Safety:

2. Toxic organic chemicals and highly volatile solvents are used in

the manufactureof pesticides. Danger of fire and explosion is always pre-
sent; accidents can happen if process conditions change, leaks develop or
static electricitybuilds up on equipment,or storage vessels.

3. Major explosions follcwed by fire can occur at the plant as the

follcwingexamples shaw. A control thermometernot in the liquid phase of
a distillationvessel recorded erroneouslylow temperaturesand thus caused
overheating. The reaction reached explosive speed, and the vessel blew up.
No injurieswere reported and the equipment damage was around US$300,000.
The instrumentation equipment was then changed and the problem disappeared.

4. Process conditionswere changed in a distillation vessel to in-

crease capacity. The reactionreached explosive velocityand the distilla-
tion reactor blew up. This time, one operator was killed and damages
amounted to US$500,000. Sweeping changes were made and the process con-
ditions were brought back into a safer zone. The vessel was put in a con-
crete bunker and provided with a high pressure diaphragm which will rupture
before the vessel does. Alarms and trips were also added to forewarn the
operators of changes and to shut off the process, if necessary, before the
danger point is reached.

5. A company was producing Malathion at a higher temperature than is

normally accepted. At this high temperture, some of the reagents were un-
stable, and an explosion resulted. Seven operators were wounded and burn-
ed--three died later on. The equipment damage amounted to US$800,000.
Malathion productionwas then discontinued.

6. Toxic or dangerous materials in the form of gases, solids and

liquids, are handled by employees. Included are raw materials, in-process
materials, finished products and effluents. Among the most toxic gases are
sulfur dioxide, chlorine and phosgene. The most dangerous liquid (and to a
certain extent vapor) is mercury. Every finished product, whether solid or
liquid, is toxic to a certain degree.
 - 320

7. In order to decrease minor accidents and avoid a serious one,

standing orders for safety should be issued, and the Safety Officer should
make sure these regulations are implemented. Tme Safety Department's main
duties should be:

Fire protection and maintenance of fire-fighting equipment.

Accident prevention.
Evaluationof hazardous, toxic and flammable materials.

8. Materials should be segregated in three classes, according to

their flammability:

Class A - Flash point */ below 6.670C.

Class B - Flash point between 6.67 and 21.10 C.
Class C - Flash point above 21.10 C.

9. Toxic substances should also be divided into three classes

according to their LD 50 **!

Class A - LD 50 less than 100

Class B - LD 50 between 100 and 800
Class C - LD 50 over 800

10. According to their class, materials should be stored in three

areas;
a) in the open-non-flammable or low flammable products
or low toxicity,

b) in closed warehouses-products of medium toxicity or

flaTmmability.

c) in trenches or in buried storage tanks--productsof

high toxicity of flammability.

11. Every enployee should receive instructionsin safety and accident

prevention and be aware of the dangers involved in handling toxic pro-
ducts. Prevention measures should be backed up by fire-fighting and
toxicity fighting measures and equipment. The water fire loop should have
a sufficient number of hydrants and should deliver a flcw of at least 150

*/ The flash point is the minimum temperature at which the vapor of a

liquid will ignite under certain test conditions.

*/ LD 50 represents the lethal dose for 50% of the test animals.

Measured as 100 mg/kg of animal body weight will cause 50% of the
test animals to die. The smaller the value for LD 50 the rore toxic
the material (less material wi.ll cause 50% of the animals tod'ie).
 - 329 -

m3 /hr at a pressure of four to six kilos from a tank containing at least

500 m 3 . In case of power failure, a generator connected to an emergency
electrical pump should make the fire loop independent from the outside
power supply. Every cperator should be trained in fire-fighting and first.
aid. Special teams should receive additional fire-fightingtraining. The
conpany fire-fighting brigade should train with the town fire-fighting
brigade on a regular basis. Besides the water fire loop, there should be
portable fire extinguishers (chemical powder or CO2 ) distributed in the
plant and inspected regularly.

12. Each enployee should receive a gas mask. Air packs (portable
breathing equipment with a reserve of air or oxygen) should be available in
each unit. A doctor should be on duty and all cases of allergy or poison-
ing reported to him. Special measures should be taken for mercury pollu-
tion or any other toxicant. In some units every enployee should have urine
and blood tests taken every six months to detect and cure any poisoning.

13. A record of lost time by accident should be kept. The record

should also include frequencyand severity indexes for each accident.

14. The safety engineer should be well experienced and enthusiastic.

Every piece of safety equipment should be in excellent condition. The
safety engineer should supervise the fire chief and be assisted in his work
by one or more safety technicians.

Plant Surroundings:

15. Plant wastes can be classified as liquid effluents or gas pollu-

tants. Liquid effluents contain raw materials and intermediate or finished
products which, if toxic, can create serious safety and pollution prob-
lens. Mbst important are toxicant losses. The conpany should avoid dis-
charging in the environment any toxic waste effluent, regardless of its
biodegradability.

16. Several gas pollutantsare released by the different processes.

Among the most inportant in a pesticide plant are sulfur dioxide, chlorine,
hydrochloric acid and mercaptans. These pollutants should be scrubbed be-
fore being discharged into the atmosplhere.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations Development Programme. "Environmental Operations Guide-

lines", with Attachments 1101 through 1106. Document G3300-1/TL., New
York (28 May 1981).
 - 330 -

ANNEX 1 Page 2
Fron US EPA

HERBICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

SUBSTITUTE FOR

2,4,5-T EBDC

HERBICIDES

Bromacil o
MSCA/DSMA 0
Cacodylic acid o
Dinoseb (DNBP) o
Dicamba o
Monuron 0
Simazine o
Trifluralin o

FUNGICIDES

Captan o
PCNB o
Folpet o
 - 331 -

ThIE WORLDBANK NOVEMBER

1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

PESTICIDES

GUIDELINES FOR USE

1. A pesticides conponent is now very often incorporated in Batik

agricultural projects. As a consequence,this Office has received several
requests for advice on the toxicity and the use of certain pesticides.

2. In some cases, the answer given was not corrplete

because the name
mentioned was a trade name unknown in the US. To prevent this, sponsors
should be asked to supply the chemical name and the common name generally
used in the pesticides trade. For instance, if the sponsor decides to use
RAVYON, there is no way here to identify the material. The sponsor should
give the generally accepted common name CARBARYL, the chemir-altkane
l-naphtylmethyl carbamate,and if possible the chemical formula.

0
7 0>
-C-NHC. 3

or even the US trade name. In this case SEVIN.

Choice of Pesticide

3. The criteria for choosing pesticides should be based on the fol-

lcwing factors:

Biodegradability
Toxicity to Mammals and Fish
Risks of Application
Price

4. Biodegradability should be the most important criteria as stable

* chemicals will accumulate, and this accumulation can be mragnified into the
food chain. This is why chlorinated hydrocarbons which are very stable,
chemically speaking, should be avoided and why the US Environmental Pro-
tection Agency banned the follcwing products: DDT, Aldrin Cilordane and
Heptachlor.

5. Using these products in Bank projects should be avoided i' at all

possible. If they are absolutely required, the detailed reason should be
given; price differentialis not a sufficientreason.
 - 332 -

6. Depending on when the chemical is used and where it will end up,
toxicity for manmals and/or fish should then be taken into account.

7. Toxicity figures show the relative toxicity of the product to

laboratory animals (white rats unless otherwise specified). LD5 0 is the
dose th.t kills half of the experimental animals in any test expressed in
milligrams of the chemical per kilogram of animal weight. The higher the
LD5 0 value, the lower the toxicity. Toxicity can be oral (mouth inges-
tion), dermal (skin absorption), or inhalation dusts. Special measures
should be taken when handling products with high dermal toxicity.

8. Risks of application depend in part on the toxicity but also on

the physical properties of the material and the way it is applied. The
product can be sold as a concentrate, a solution, an erulsifiableconcen-
trate, a wettable powder, or a dust. It is for instance safer to apply a
solutionon the ground than a dust, but it may not be always possible to do
so. Aerial spraying is potentiallythe most damaging.

9. Price as an element of choice between two pesticides should only

be consideredafter the other criteriahave been decided.

Application of Pesticides

10. Even the safest among pesticides will probably involve some
health risks. To avoid any serious accident, the appraisal mission should
make sure that the people going to handle or be in contact with the product
(dealers - formulators - applicators - farmers)have been properly trained
in its use and known about the hazards of handling it. The product should
be shipped in adequate containerswith labels, clearly identifiable,show-
ing how to use it, how to avoid any problems, and how to give first aid in
case of an emergency.

11. The use of casual (migrant) workers for aplying pesticides is

widespread but should be avoided for the following reasons: These workers
do not have the knowledge or the experience necessary for safe application
and they will have a tendency to disregard the safety rules.

12. If these workers must be enployed, they nust be educated and

trained, keeping in mind that their schooling is most of the time inade-
quate or nonexistant. Secondly, they must work under experienced super-
visors doing nothing but supervisingthe pesticide application.

13. Disposal of containers should not be overlooked. In 1967, 16

people died in Mexico from eating flour and sugar stored in Parathion
drums.

14. Comrmontransportation of pesticides and food in the same vehicle

should be forbidden. In Colombia 63 people died and 165 became seriously
ill from eating flour contaminated with Parathion during transport by
truck.
 - 333 -

ANNEX 1 - Page 1
From US EPA

INSECTICIDES

SUBSTITUTE FOR

PRODUCT DDT Aldrin Dieldrin Chlordane Hevtachlor

Phorate o o o 0
Demeton o
Methyl parathion o
Parathion o o o 0
Guthion o
Aidicarb o
Azodrin o
Diazionon o o a 0
Dimethoate o
Fenthion o
Methomyl o
Crotoxyphos o
Chlorpyri.os o o o o
Bux a a 0
Carbofuran o o o 0
Counter o o 0
Dasanit o o o o
Disulfoton o o O °
Dyfonate o o ° °
Landrin o o o
Trichlorfon o o o o
Dacthal 1
Aspon a ° a a
Siduron a
Ethion o a o o
Propoxur o a o o o
Acephate O 0 a
Methoxychlor o o o
Endosulfan a o o c 0

tay 1976
 - 33!: -

ANNEX 1 - Page 2
From US EPA

HERBICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

SUBSTITUTE FOR

2,4,5-T EBDC

HERBICIDES

Bromacil 1
MSCA/D,%IA 0
Cacodylic acid o
Dinoseb (DNBP) o
Dicamba O
Mmnuron o
Sirrazine o
Trifluralin o

FUNGICIDES

Captan o
PCNB o
Folpet O

May 1976
 - 335 -

15. For additional details see UNIDO's book "Industrial Production

and Fbrmulation of Pesticides in Developing Countries" - 2 volumes - UN -
New York, 1972.

16. Annex 1 contains the EPA tables which shcw equivalent acceptable
substitutes for banned pesticides.

17. The follawing pesticides should not be used: DDT, Aldrin, Diel-
drin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, 2,4,5T (2,4,5 TrichlorophenoxyaceticAcid),
EBDC (Ethylenebisdithiocarbamate),all mercury compounds, all arsenic com-
pounds, MIREX (Dechlorane),and DBCP (DibromschloroPropane).

18. The product Phosvel (leptophos)an organo phosphate made, blitnot

sold in the United Stdats should also be banned for its long range ef-
fects. Chronic neurologicaldisorders,paralysis, and scmetimesdeath are
associated with this chemical believed to eat away myelin, the sheathing
around the nerves. The pesticide EDB (EthyleneDibrcmide)is a proven car-
cinogen.

19. The following pesticides are suspect of long-range chronic ef-

fects and should be avoided: endrin, toxaphene, strobane, 1080, strychnine,
kepone, lindane, cadmium, DECP, EHC, dimethoate, diallates, triallates,
chlorobenzilate, ethylene oxide, EPN, carbaryl, aramite, PCP, creosote,
chloranil, monourea, benomyl, DDVP, chloroform, (SST) DFF, piperonyl butox-
ide, rotenone, perthane, safrole, promide and merphos.

20. The use of DBCP and EDB should be restricted to cases where no
substitutesexist for the consideredapplication. The use of MIREX should
be restricted to compounds where it is mixed with products enhancing its
photodegradability.

21. In view of the added potential damages to the environment and of

the Bank's official policy favoring "Intermediate Technologies", aerial
spraying of pesticides should be discouraged whenever it can be replaced by
ground spraying.

22. Ultra lcw volume application (ULV). ULV techniques with quanti-
ties habitually below 5 liters p:r hectare are now well proven and should
be promoted in Bank projects either for aerial or ground spraying. To be
effective this technique requires proven equipment, strict control of the
spray droplets diameter (usually in the order of 30 um), and experienced
supervisionto take into account the weather conditions. The main pesti-
cides manufacturers will supply technical bulletins on ULV and also trained
supervisors.

ADDENDUM

1. The pesticide MIREX (Dechlorane) has been forbiddenby the EPA and the
same Organization has suspended the use of the pesticide DBCP (Dibro-
mnchloto Propane).
 - .36 -

2. The pesticide EDB (EthyleneDibromide) is a proven carcinogen. EPA

has cancelledall major uses of EEB and the "largestvolume use has
been emergency suspended" (an action taken only once before against a
pesticide in the entire history of EPA).

3. The use of DBCP and EDB should be restricted to cases where no substi-
tutes exist for the considered application.
 - 337 -

THE WORLDBANK SEPTEMBER1983

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIEENMENTAL

REFINL
PETROLEUM -

1. The petroleum industry is a omplex combination of inter-depend-

ent operations, which can be divided into three major divisions: produc-
tion, refining, and marketing. This document will be concerned only with
refining, and thus cover only those operations necessary to convert the
crude oil into consumer products, prior to marketing.

REFINERYPROCESSING

2. The production of consumer products fron crude oil involves sev-

eral separate processes which are fundamental to refinery aperations. Each
of these produces wastes that are identifiable and rrust be disposed of un-
der controlled conditions to avoid environmental damages. The principal
processes are discussed below.

3. Crude and Product Storage. Crude oil is stored in order to pro-

vide constant supplies of feedstocks for primary fractionation runs of eco-
namical duration. Intermediate products are stored to equalize flows with-
in the refinery. Finished products are stored to await shipment, for mix-
ing and blending on or off the premises, and to lessen the effects of
changes in product demands. Storage is provided in steel tanks, permitting
sufficient detention for settling of water and suspended solids. The set-
tled water layers are drawn off periodically.

4. Crude Desalting. This removes inorganic salts and some of the

suspended solids f ran the crude oil, in order to minimize mechanical plug-
ging and corrosion in process equipment. Salts are separated by water wash-
ing in the presence of chemicals specific to the type of salts present and
the characteristicsof the crude oil.

5. Crude Oil Fractionation. This is the basic refiningprocess, by

which crude petroleum is separated into intermediate fractions of specified
boiling point ranges. Topping (sometimes called prefractionation or skim-
ming) is the first step in the process, and serves to separate the econom-
ical quantitiesof the very light distillates fran the crude oil.

6. Cracking. Thermal cracking breaks down heavy oil fractions into

lower nrolecular weight fractions, such as heating oils. Catalytic cracking
also breaks down heavy fractions into lower molecular weight fractions but
utilizes a catalyst and runs at lower tenperatures and pressures than in
thermal cracking. Hydrocracking converts hydrocarbon fee&stocks (including
distillates, gas oils, and residues) into gasoline, high-quality middle
distillates,LPG, or low-sulfurresidualfuel. Hydrocrackingconsists bas-
ically of catalytic cracking in the presence of hydrogen.
 -- 33 -.

7. Hydrocarbon Processing. Several operations are included in this

category. Polymerization converts olefin feedstocks into higher-octane
polymer gasoline, propane and butane. Alkylation converts normally gaseous
hydrocarbons into high octane alkylates for use as gasoline blending com-
ponents. Isomerization is also used for converting light gasoline stocks
into higher-octane isomers to produce higher octane rrotor fuel, as well as
to convert isobutane from normal butane for use as fuel-stock in the alky-
lation process. Reforming converts low octane naphtha, heavy gasoline, and
naphthene-rich stocks to high octane gasoline blending stock.

8. Solvent Refining. Used primarily to obtain lube oil fractions or

aronatics from feedstocks containing mixtures of hydrocarbons and undesir-
able materials such as unstable acidic, sulfur, organometallic, napthenic,
and/or nitrogen conTpounds. Refined oils, high-octane blending corponents,
and high-purity aromatics are produced. Dewaxing which is also a solvent
process, is used to remove wax from lube oil stocks to produce lubricants
with low pour points and to recover wax for further processing.

9. Hydrotreating. Saturates olefins and renoves sulfur, nitrogen,

and oxygen cornpounds and other oontaminants fran either straight run or
cracked petroleun fractions to produce materials having lcw sulfur, nitro-
gen, and olefin contents and improved stablity. The process occurs in the
presence of hydrogen.

10. Grease Manufacture. l3lerids various alkali earth metal hydroxides

and fatty acids for soap manufacture with lube oils, waxes and other mater-
ials to produce lubricating greases.

11. Deasphalting. Separates asphalts or resins frcan viscous hydro-

carbon fractions, segregates heavy or medium neutral fractions by propane
extraction, and/or removes paraffinic catalytic cracking stock fran distil-
lation residues. The resulting products are deasphalted or decarbonized
oil, asphalt, and heavy fuel blending stocks.

12. Wax Manufacturing. Takes high-oil-content wax fractions directly

fram crude fractionation and/or waxes from dewaxing of lube oils and con-
verts then to paraffin and microcrystalline waxes of low-oil-content, high
melting point, and other characteristics required for high-quality waxes.

13. Product Finishing. Drying and sweetening are used to renove sul-
fur compounds, including hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans, and to improve
color, odor, oxidation stability, and inhibitor response to produce materi-
als suitable for blending, shipping or further processing. Lubricating oil
finishing takes petroleum fractions that have been solvent extracted and
dewaxed, and converts them to finished lube oils ready for blending and
comgpounding. Blending and packaging are the final steps in preparation of
the petroleum products which must meet those specifications required by in-
dustries, retailers, and consumers.
 339 -

14. Hydrogen Production. Produces the hydrogen needed for refining

operations, such as hydrotreating and hydrocracking, and for petrochemical
feedstocks. Tne primary raw materials are natural gas, refinery gas, pro-
pane, butanes ala others.

15. General Utilities. Certain utility facilities,such as supplies

of steam and cooling water, generally serve several processes. Boiler feed
water is prepared and steam generated at a single location. Non-contact
steam, used for surface heating, is circulated through a closed loop, from
which needed quantities are made available for specific process purposes.
The condensate is recycled to the boiler house, with a certain portion
being discharged as blowdown. Steam is used principally for: non-contact
process heating; power generation in turbines, compressors, and process
pumps; and as a diluent, stripping nedium, or vacuum source with steam jet
ejectors.

16. A petroleum refinery consists of a complex combination of inter-

dependent operations concerned with separation of crude molecular constitu-
tents, molecular cracking, nmolecular rebuilding, and solvent finishing.
Only the major processes have been identified above, since thae intermediate
and finislhed products are too numerous and too variable in composition to
cover in this document. Not all of these operations are necessarily
carried out at one refinery. The products of one or more of these opera-
tions are frequently transferred to other plants for further processing in-
to marketable cona-Ddities.

SOURCES AND CHARACTERSTICS OF WASTES

17. The principal environmental problems in oil refinery operations

are due to both enissions and effluents.

Gaseous Emissions

18. The air pollutants emitted by refineries are affec-ed by crude

oil capacity,air pollution control measures being utilized, general level
of naintenance and housekeeping,and the specific processes being carried
out. Table 1 presents the prncipal potential sources of various contami-
nants.

19. Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons,carbon mtnoxide,

and odor are the emissions of greatest concern. Particulates,aldehydes,
anmonia, and organic acids may also be present but are usually of lesser
importance.

Liquid Wastes

20. Refineriesvary in complexityfrcm small installationsemploying

perhaps single atmospheric fractionation,to the very large integrated
facilities producing a broad spectrum of petroleum and petrochemical com-
nxlities fromi a wide variety of feedstocks. Basic refinery operations may
be grouped into five categories on the basis of the effects on rew waste
water loadings.
 340 -

Table 1. PotentialSources of Oil RefineryEmissions a/

Emission PrincipalPotentialSources

Sulfur Oxides Boilers, prccess heaters, catalytic cracking unit

regenerators, H2 S flares, decoking cperations.

Hydrocarbons Storage tanks, wastewater separators, catalyst re-

generators, pumps and valves, cooling towers,
volatile hydrocarbon handling equipment, process
heaters, czmpressor engines.

Nitrogen Oxides Process heaters, cxmpressor engines, catalyst re-

generators, flares.

Particulate Matter Regenerators, boilers, decoking, incinerators.

Aldehydes Catalyst regenerators

Amnonia Catalyst regenerators

Odors Treating units, drains, tank vents, wastewater

separators.

Carbon Monoxide Catalyst regenerators, decoking, aoupressor engine

incinerators.

a/ See Ref. 1.

21. The categories used are patterned after the American Petroleum
Institute (API) classification system. These categories and the refinery
operations included in each are as follows:

- Topping: Topping, catalytic reforming, asphalt

production, or lube oil manufacturing
but no cracking or thermal operations.

- Cracking: Topping and cracking

- Petrochemicals; Topping, cracking and petrochemicals opera-

tions (first generationand isomerization
products or second generationproducts).

4
 - 34l -

- Lube: Topping, Cracking and lube oil manufactu-

ring processes.

-- Integrated; TIbpping, cracking, lube oil ranufacturing

processes, and petrochemicals operations.

22. The pollution parameters of major significance in this industry

are as follows:

-- 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5 )

-- Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

-- Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

-- Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

-- Oils and Greases (O/G)

-- Phenolic Compounds

-- Amnia Nitrogen (NH3 -N)

-- Sulf ides

-- Total ChratLiurn (Tot.Cr.)

-- Hexavalent Chromium (Cr+6)

-- Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

23. The wastewater flows and characteristics of refinery effluents

can vary considerably according to the type of operations. Table 2 lists
the median (50% of occurrences less than or equal to the values shown) raw
waste flows and loadings, representing the oil separator effluents for each
of the processing categories cited above. In general, all wastewaters frcm
processing units discharge to large basins or ponds (API separators) which
function as oil and water separators. The oil is usually recovered as a
valuable by-product. Hexavalent chromium is present in refinery effluents,
due to the addition of chronates to oooling waters in order to inhibit
corrosion.
Table 2. Median Waste Flows and Loadings for Petroleum Refinery
Operations,Following Oil/Water Separation. a/.

Process Category

Parameter
Topping Cracking Petro- Lube Inte-
Chem. grated

Net Kg per 1000 m3 of Feedstock b/

BOD5 3.4 73 172 217 197

COD 37 217 463 543 329

TOC 8.0 41 149 109 139

TSS 12 18 49 72 58

O/G 8.3 31 53 120 75

Phenols 0.03 4.0 7.7 8.3 3.8

NH3 -N 1.2 28 34 24 20

Sulfides 0.05 0.94 0.86 0.01 2.0

Total Cr 0.01 0.25 0.23 0.05 0.49

Cr+6 0.007 0.15 0.13 0.02 0.30

Flow c/ 67 93 109 117 235

a/ FrctnEPA Doc. 440/1-74-014a.

v Feedstock = Crude oil and/or natural gas liquids throughput.
cJ As m3 per 1000 m3 of feedstock

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

Gaseous Emissions

24. Limitations for gaseous emiissions frcm specific refinery process-

ing operations are given in Table 3. For processing operations not covered
in these limitations, acceptable ambient air quality standards applicable
to the specific pollutant are to be applied.
 - 343)-

Table 3. PerformanceLimitationsfor Petroleum

RefineryEmissions

Parameter Source Limitations

Sulfur Fuel gas combustion shall not burn any gas oZntain-
Oxides ing over 230 mg H2S per dry m3
at standard conditions

Sulfur Sulfur recovery Not over 0.025% S02 by 'Dolume

Oxides plant at zero oxygen on a dry basis,
with reduction control system
and incineration

Not over 0.030% sulfur cxipounds

and 0.0010% H2S by wlume at
zero oxygen on a dry basis, with
reduction control system but no
incineration

Hydrocarbons Storage vessels No discharge to atmosphere.

capacity of over Equip with floating roof and
150 Mg (40,000 vapor recovery system if true
Gallons)* vapor pressure is over 76 kPa
kPa

Particulate Catalyst regen- Not over 1 kg/1000 Kg coke burn-

Matter erator off

Carbon Catalyst regen- Not over 0.050% by volume

Monoxide erator

Opacity a/ All emissions Not over 30% except for 3

_mnutes in any 1 hour period

a/ "Opacity" is the degree to which emissions reduce the transmission of

light and obscure the view of an object in the background.

* 1 megagram = 1 metric ton, 1 mm Hg = 133.3 Pa

Mg = megagram, I atmosphere = 100 Kilopascals

Liquid Effluents

25. Table 4 presents the permissible maximru daily discharge of vari-

ous rollutants in petroleum refinery effluents. These limitations are
based on the application of best demonstrated end-of-pipe technology cur-
rently available, the use of API (or equivalent) oil and water separators
in the plant, segregation of non-contact waste waters fran process waste
waters, and effective in-plant process control and housekeeping neasures.
Table 4. Liquid Effluent Limitations for Petroleum Refinery Wastes.

Maximum Daily Discharge- Kg per 1000 m3 of Feedstock a/ b/

Process
Category BOD5 COD TOC TSS O/C PIIEN. N11
3-N SIDE- TOTAL CR+6
_________ ______
___ _____ _____ __ ___ ______ FIDES CR

Topping 6.3 32 8.2 4.0 1.9 0.04 1.3 0.04 0.10 0.002

Cracking 8.7 61 11. 5.8 2.6 0.06 8.6 0.05 0.14 0.002
Petrochemicals 12 69 15. 7.7 3.5 0.08 11 0.06 0.19 0.003

Lube 18 126 24. 12. 5.6 0.12 11 0.10 0.31 0.005

Integrated 22 152 29. 14. 6.7 0.14 11 0.12 0.37 0.006
Runoff c/ 0.03 0.19 0.03 0.02 0.01 -- -- -- - -

Ballast d/ 0.03 0.24 0.03 0.02 0.01 __ __ __ _-

a/ Feedstock - Crude Oil and/or natural gas liquids throughout.

b/ For all effluents pH = 6 to 9.

c/ Applies only to process area runoff treated in main treatment system.

All runoff from tank fields and non-process areas shall not exceed
35 mg/L of TOC or 15 mg/L of O/G when discharged.
d/ Applies only to ballast waters treated at refinery.
 - 345 -

CONTROLANDTREATMENT
OF WASTES

26. The gaseous emissions and the liquid effluents are of equal im-
portance in the refinery operations and the discharges must be controlled
in order to avoid environmentaldamage. A combinationof process control,
in-plant housekeeping, and treatment technologycan usually be effective in
achieving reduction of these discharges to acceptable levels.

Gaseous Effluents

27. It is difficult to categorize emission sources on the basis of

refinery operations, since many of them are cormun throughout the plant.
For purposes of emissions control the refinery should be considered as an
integrated systems of storage facilities, process heaters, cooling equip-
ment, pumps, valves and other units and cperations.

28. Hydrocarbon emissions originate principally fram storage facili-

ties, valves, punps, compressors, wastwater separators, and loading facil-
ities. These emissions can, in mnst instances be collected by vapor recov-
ery systems or ventilating systems and eliminatedby burning. Disposal is
most frequently through elevated flares, using steam ejection. Flares must
be so located as to avoid proximity to combustible materials, tanks and
processing equipment.

29. Other measures for reducing emission discharges include high ef-
ficiency dust renoval equipment on catalytic cracking units, waste heat
boilers on catalyst regenerators, smokeless flares, and sulfur recovery
systems. Improved housekeeping, coupled with maintenance and enployee edu-
cation can also contribute significantly.

Liquid Effluents

30. Technology for oontrol and reduction of effluent loadings falls

into three categories: in-plant control, at source pretreatment, and end-
of-pipe technology.

31. Two types of in-plant measures can greatly reduce the volume of
final effluents. The first of these utilizes the reuse of water from one
process to another, such as using blowdowns from higher pressure boilers as
feed to low pressure boilers or using treated effluent as makeup water
whenever possible. The second approach is to utilize recycle systems that
use water more than once for the same purpose, such as using steam conden-
sate as boiler feed water or using cooling towers.

32. Good housekeeping will further reduce waste flows. Exanples are
minimizing waste when sarrpling product lines, using vacuun trucks or dry
cleaning methods to clean up oil spills, applying effective maintenance and
inspection in order to keep the refinery equipment as leakproof as possi-
ble, and providing individual disposal for waste streams having special
characteristics,(such as spent cleaningsolutions).
 - 46

33. in most cases applicable to both existing

Process m-odification,
and new installations,could include:

-- Substitution of improvedcatalystshaving longer life

and requiring less regeneration.

Replacement of barometric condensers with surface con-

densers or air fan ocolers to reduce a major oil-water
emulsion source.

-- Substitution of air fan cooler for water cooling to re-

duce blowdown discharges.

-- Installation of hydrocracking and hydrotreating processes

designed to generate the lowest possible waste loadings.

Provision of automatic monLoring equipment, such as for

TOC, to assure early detection of process upsets and avoid-
ing excessive discharges to sewers.

-- Maximum use of improved drying, sweetening, and finislhing

procedures to minimize volumes of spent caustics, filter
solids and other materiaLs requiring disposal.

34. Major at-source pretreatment measures include stripping of sour

waters, neutralization and oxidation of spent caustics, ballast water sepa-
ration, and slcp oil recovery. Gravity separators remove the major portion
of thie free oil found in refinery waste waters. Most of these oils can be
reprocessed, and hence the separator is considered an integral part of the
refinery operations.

35. End-of-pipe control technology relies most heavily on a oombina-

tion of flow equalization and biological treatment methods. Equalization,
which eliminates surges in flows and loadings, is particularly inportant
for a biological treatment system since, for example, sudden discharges
containinghigh concentrationsof certain materials can upset or oompletely
kill the organisns in the system.

36. Among the biological techniques most corrmnly applied are dis-
solved air flotation,oxidation ponds, aerated lagoons, trickling filters,
activated sludge, physical-chemical methods, granular media filters, anc
activated carbon. These may be applied singly or in combination, depending
upon the volume and characteristics of the wastes to be treated, availabil-
ity of land areas and other factors.

37. The most frequently used methods for disposal of chromium bearing
wastes are by reduction of the hexavalent to the trivalent fonn (with sul-
fur dioxide, sulfites, ferrous sulfate, or other reducing agents), followed
by neutralization and precipitation of the reduced chromium with alkali.
 - 747 -

38. Sludges produced f ran biological treatment may be disposed of by

land-filling, land farming or incineration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Jones, Harold R. "PollutionControl in the Petroleum Industry".

Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J. and London (1973).

2. Powers, Philip W. "Hcw to Dispose of Toxic Substancesand Indus-

trial Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J. and London
(1976).

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Docunent for Ef-

fluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for
the Petroleum Refining Point Source Category". Doc. EPA-440/2-74-014a
(April 1974).

4. UN Environment Programme. "Seminar on Environmental Conservation in

the Petroleum Industry- 29 March to 1 April, 1977". Doc. UNEP/lss
5/10 (Final). United Nations. New York (June 10, 1977).

5. Printing Office, Washington,

U.S. Federal Register, U.S. Governmfenlt
D. C., as follows:

(a) Vol. 39 (39FR9308), March 8, 1974

(b) Vol. 40 (40FR46250),October, 1975
(c) Vol. 41 (41FR36600),August 30, 1976
(~. Vol. 41 (41FR43866),October 4, 1976
(e) Vol. 43 (43FR10866),March 15 1978
(f) Vol. 43 (43FR21616),May 18, 1978
 - 34K -

THE WORLD BANK SEPTEMBER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

PLATINGAND ELECTROPLATING

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

Process Description

1. Electroplatingconsists of depositing a thin layer of material on

a metal surface by applicationof electricity. Copper, nickel, chrcmium,
zinc, tin, lead, cadmium, iron aluminum or combinations thereof can be used
as coating material. Precious metals sud- as gold, silver, palladium,
platinum, rhodium or mixtures of these metals can also be used for plat-
ing. Chemical plating on metals or plastics is also possible. Generally a
single plating facility is capable of performingboth processes.

2. A plating line is a sequenceof tanks in which one or nore coat-

ings are applied. It may be broken down into three steps; (1) preparation
of the surface for coating, (2) applicationof the coating and finally, (3)
post treatment.

3. Pretreatment consists of cleaning, descaling and degreasing.

Cleaning removes oil, grease and dirt. It is usually done with organic
solvents, alkalis, emulsions,ultrasound or acids. Salt bath descaling is
used to remove difficult oxides from stainless steels or other alloys. A
typical eletroplatingpretreatmentis shown in Annex 1 and a typical chenii-
cal plating pretreatment in Annex 2.

Waste Characteristics

4. Annex 3 shows pollutantsoccurrence for the U.S. plating industry

in gener 1 and by section (commn metals, precious metals, chemical plat-
ing, anodizing,coating,milling and etching, and printed circuit boards).

5. All pollutants mentioned in Annex 3 are commonly present in sig-

nificant amounts and require some removal fron the effluent discharge.
This control can be achieved by currently available technology.

Waste Removal

Reduction of HexavalentChromium

6. The high toxicity of hexavalent chromium requires it to be re-

duced to the trivalent state. This is done with any reducing agent, but
S02 is mrst cxommDnlyused at a pH between 2 and 3. The reaction takes two
to three hours and sulfuric acid may have to be added to maintain the pH
within these acceptable limits.
 -- 349-

Oxidation of Cyanides

7. Any oxidizing agent will be effective. Chlorine, hypochlorites

and hydrogen peroxide are nDst comTDnly used, but oxygen from air is also
effective if there is a large enough area near the facility to construct an
aerated pond. Cyanates are much less toxic than cyanides, thus there is no
need to completely oxidize cyanide to nitrogen, it is sufficient to have
all the cyanides disappear and only be oxidized to cyanate.

Metals Removal

8. Trace metals can be removed from wastewater by pH adjustment.

Lime addition to the waste water will increase the pH and promote precipi-
tation of metal hydroxides. The maximum precipitation point corresponds to
a well defined pH for each specific metal. Small pH deviations away from
the maximum precipitation point causes the metal solubility to increase.
And, as mentioned earlier, the maxirium precipitation point varies for each
metal. For example, at pH 10.5, nickel solubility is 0.001 mg/L but at the
same pH chromium solubility is 1.0 mg/L. The precipitation of metal hy-
droxides may consequently have to be done in several stages: each stage
with a spoecific pH to precipitate a specific metal.

9. Solubility figures given above are for pure solutions of the

metal in water. Other factors such as temperature, other salts present,
corumrnions, etc. can alter this solubility.

10. In industrialpractice, precipitationof metal hydroxides is pro-

moted by adding inorganic coagulants or polyelectrolyte flocculants in a
clarification tank and/or pond.

11. Sludge collected from the clarification operation is first de-

watered and then either buried in a landfill, incinerated, or hauled away.

Results of Treatment

12. More sophisticated treatment that can replace or supplement the

operations described above. However, overall, the best treatment that can
currently be achieved should allow trace metal effluent levels no greater
than the following:

Pollutant Residual (mg/L)*

Copper 0.5
Nickel 0.03
Cr Total 0.1
Cr Hexavalent 0.01
Zinc 1.2
Cyanide 0.01
Cadmium 0.02
Lead 0.03

*/ mg/L - milligram per liter

 - 250 -

13. These figures are current World Bank guidelines for trace metal
effluents in the plating industry. In addition, effluent pH should always
be maintainedbetween 6 and 9.

Costs of Treatment

14. Annex 4, 5 and 6 taken fram the EPA publication Electroplating

(see bibliography)gives investmentand operating costs for clarification,
chromium reduction, and cyanide oxidation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

For nore information consult EPA 440/1-78/085 - Electroplating.

Point Source Category. Publisher: United States EnvironmentalProtection
Agency - February, 1978.
 ANNEX I

PARTS SOLVENT ALKALINE BC1

___> DEGREASE ___CLEAN _, RINSE CLFAN RINSEC

ANODIC _ANODIC
] __ALKALINE __ RINSE _liICL CLEAN _j RINSE h LKALINE _
CLEAN lCLEAN

| ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ELECTROPLATE

fIGURE 3-7 TYPICAL ELECTROPLATING PRETREATMENT

SEQuENCE
 AI.7ZXII

PARTS
VAPOR ALKALINE COLD RINSE C ACID
DEGREASE CLEA.N CLEAN

___ COLD RINSE ¢, ALXALINE >_ COLD RINSE _q ACID .

: ~~~~~CLEAN C-LEAN t

_~~_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

NICKEL STRI1CE . TO ELECTROLESS PLATING

HOT RINSE (ELECTROPLATE) RINSE

FIGURE 3-9 TYPICAL ELECTROLESS PLATING ON METALS-PRETREATMENT SEQUENCE

 ANNEXIII

iC!rIjMNiE
PAP*A.":FTER
POLLUTANT'

(mg/L)

p0ollutaiit C'r~nwa~IPectous T ktosIIChcmic:al

i7i ng Coatings Millijrg &
Printc±d
Circuit
P~rr,rneter f1orPlating Metals PlatinA I
_____________ ~Plat.ing tchirj
r.dtl Bloards

",),32-02.5 00r_ 0 _2-47._ - 0.206-272.5 1.582-535.7

,--'&70.032-C
*c-el |
l2954
0.CV',-29o54
13.002-,47.80
f Q,8-4'.^.1i3
0.0
T_ __0.027-8.44C

. T.otall 0.0,3-53*5.9 i 0.2(.H-79.2(1 0.190-79.20 0.088-525.9 O.C05-38.52

_._____m~ ____ ,. ____ _____- - _________

11u cvri0nt .5
G.Od510-314 jO.C805-5.0G0 0.005-5.G05 0.G05-.334.5 0.004-3.543

Zinc .]-7:. -- .__,__ 0.138-200.0 0.112-;'00.0

.y,d,Xtal t)OSl;.l 0.005-9.9'70 0 .005-12.00 0.055-7a.no 0.00-,-126.0 0.005-12G.( 0 0.002-5.333

Ar.tan;> Q.;}0-]'30 .0 0.003-8.420 | .(:CS-1.00 0.004-67.56 0.504-6.56v 0.005-ldl1.3 |0.005-4.6;'4 1 J

Flu;orid3e 0.t)22-14.1.7 0.110-18.00 0.022-141.7 0.648-680.0

Cal,-, iuzn O.007-21.60

Lbcad 0.663-2i.39 0.044-9.701

'ron 0.410-i.o2 _ 0.4'0-168.0 0.075-263.0 |

O.C60-103.4 | 0.102-6.569 0.068-103.4

rhxosphorus 0.020-144.0 0.020-144.0 0.030-109.0 0.176-33.00 0.060-53.30 0.060-144.0 0.075-33.80

SoIIds .1-9970 .1-9970 .1-39.00 36.1-924.0 19.1-5275 .1-4340 1. 0-408.7

Silver 0.050-176.4 i 0.036-0.202

. ~~~~~
~__________ ._______ ~ ~~~~~
1---
-_________
Gol1d I ____ 0.013-24 .89 __ ___ _____ _______ _____0007-0.190

Pailadium| 0.038-2.207 | | 0.008-0.097

Piatinr;m 0.112-G.457 i_

Rhodium* 0.034

*Only 1 plant had a measurable level of this pollutant

 '5- 4

ANNEX IV

CLARIFICATION-CONTINUOUS TREATMENT SETTLING, TANK

Flow Rate
(Liters/Hr) 37, 850 75,700 157,708

Investment 71,363 $91,575 $130,102

Annual Costs:

Capital Costs 4,552 5,842 8,301

Depreciation 14,273 18,315 26,020

Operation & Maintenance

Costs (Excluding Energy
& Power Costs) 2,506 2,565 3,851

Energy S Power Costs 36 72 150

Total Annual Cost $21,367 $26,794 S 38,322

TABLE S--7

CLARIFICATION-BATCH TREATMENT SETTLING TANK

Flow Rate
(Liters/Hr) 1,893 3,785 18,925

Investment 525,551 $28,529 $38,032

Annual Costs:

Capital Costs 1,630 1,820 2,427

Depieciation 5,110 5,706 7,606

Operation & Maintenance

Costs (Excluding Energy
& Power Costs) 2,334 2,341 2,394

Energy & Power Costs 41 81 811

Total Annual Cost $ 9,155 $ 9,948 $13,238

 - 55-

ANNEXV

CHROMIUMREDUCTION - CONTINUOUS TREATMENT

Flow Rate
(Liters/Hrl 3,785 7,570 18,925

Investment $20,416 $21,538 $24,003

Arnnual Costs:

Capital Costs 1,303 1,374 1,531

Depreciation 4,083 4,308 4,801

Operation & Maintenance

Costs (Exclud3.ng Enerqy
& Power Costs) 1,086 1,375 2,089

Energy & Power Costs 256 256 256

Total Anrual Cost S 6,72Z. 7,313 $ 8,677

TABLE 8-9

CHROMIUM REDUCTION - BATCH TREATMENT

Flow Rate
(liters/Br) 189 379 1,893

Investment $8,493 $9,535 $14,405

Annual Costs:

Capital Costs 541 608 919

Depreciation 1,699 1,907 2,881.

Operation & Maintenance

Costs 'Excluding Energy
S Power Costs) 155 295 1,415

Energy & Power Costs 256 256 256

Total Annual Cost $2,651 $3,066 S 5,471

 - ')rr

ANNEXVI

CYANIDE OXIDATION - CONTINUOUS TREATMENT

Flow Ra te
(LItcLrs/Hr) 3,785 5,678 7,570

Investment $47,808 $51,875 $55,556

Annual Costs:

Capital Costs 3,050 3,310 3,544

Depreciation 9,561 1C,395 11,111

Operation & Maintenance

Costs (Excluding Energy
S Power Costs) 2,218 2,750 3,563

Energy S Power Costs 90 135 180

Total Annual Cost $14,920 $16,570 $18,098

TABLE 8-11

CYANIDE OXIDATION - BATCH TREATMENT

Flow Rate
(Liters/Hr) 189 757 1,893

Investiment $10,325 $13,258 $17,069

Annual Costs:

Capital Costs 659 846 1,089

Depreciation 2,065 2,652 3,414

Operation & Maintenance

Costs (Excluding Energy
& Power Costs) 464 1,854 4,636

Energy & Power Costs 5 18 45

Total Annual Cost $ 3,192 $ 5,370 $ 9,184

 - 257 -
THE WORLDBANK SEPTEMBER1983

AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MANUFACTURING
PL'YWOOD

GUIDELINES
ENVIRONMENTAL

1. Plywood consists of several layers of wood (or veneer) joined to-

gether by means of an adhesive. The material has many uses. It can be
designed and engineered for both construction and decorative purposes, and
in various shapes (flat, curved, or bent). Hardwood plywood is generally
used for decorative purposes and has a facing layer of wood from deciduous
or broad leaf trees. Softwood plywood is generally used for construction
and structural purposes, with the facing layers being from coniferous or
needle-bearing trees.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2. The operations required for converting logs into veneer and then
into plywood are mainly mechanical. The process flaw diagram for a typical
veneer and plywood mill is presented in Figure 1.

3. Logs are delivered to the plant either with or without the bark,
and cut to proper lengths. Where barking is required the bark is removed
by any one of several wet or dry processes. The machines most commnnly used
include drum, ring, bag, hydraulic, and cutterhead barkers.

4. The most important operation in the process is the cutting of the

veneer, since the appearance of a plywood panel is greatly dependent upon
the manner in which the wood layers are prepared. Prior to cutting, the
log is heated or "conditioned" to inprove the cutting properties, particu-
larly in the case of hardwoods. When conditioning occurs prior to debark-
ing then bark removal is greatly facilitated. With the increasing use of
ring and cutterhead barkers, whose operations are not aided by prior heat-
ing, the conditioning more ccmronly occurs between the barking and veneer-
ing operations.

5. TWo basic methods are used to heat the logs: (a) directing steam
onto the logs in a steam vat (or steam tunnel) or (b) heating the logs in a
vat full of hot water, in turn heated either directly by live steam or in-
directly by steam coils.

6. The cutting of veneers may be accomplished by (a) rotary cutting,

(b) slicing, (c) stay log cutting, or (d) sawn veneering. Rotary cutting
is the mDst widely used method at the present time. In this method a log
or ("bolt") of wood is centered and turned on a lathe against a knife ex-
tending across the length of the unit. A thin sheet of veneer is peeled
from the log as it turns. Log lengths will vary fram about 0.6 to 2.4 m,
although lengths of up to nearly 5 m are not uncormon. Rotary cut veneers
generally vary from 1.3 to 3.6 mm in thickness.
LIQUID WASTE
GREEN END STEAM CRIER WASH 4
OVERFLOW FROM CONDENSATEANDDELUGE I EXHAUST
LOG POND WATER j GASES

LOGSICRf.CE
(LOG PO'ID, LOG LOG VENEER VENEER J GLUEWASH
COLDDECK DEBARKING STEAMING LATHE DlIER WATER
OR C3)Tii)

GLUE
GASES I PREPARATION

SOLIDS _
BARK GLUE RECYCLE
LIQUIDS U.

VENEER GLUE PRESSIN IFNISHING

PREPARATION LINE
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

I UNUSABLE I TRIM AND

I VENEER AND I SANDER
I I TRIMMINGS I DUST

SOLID WASTE IS BURNED IN BOILER

CHIPPED FOR REUSE OR SOLD

Figure 1. Process Flow Diagram for Veneer and Plywood Production.

(From EPA Publication EPA-440/1-74-023-a).
7. Freshly cut veneers are usually dried to a moisture contenitof
less than 10 percent since, if not dried, they would be unsuitable for
glueing. In addition, the undried materials are also susceptibleto attack
by molds, bluestain and wood-destroying fungi. Several drying methods are
in use, the most conmmn being a long chamber, equipped with fans and heat-
ing coils, through which the sheets are transported under controlled temp-
eratures and humidity conditions.

8. Following the drying operation the stock is prepared for glue-

ing. Preparation includes grading and matching, redrying, dry-clipping,
jointing, taping and slicing, and inspection. Except for jointing and
splicing, which generally requires an adhesive, these steps are completely
mechanical.

9. Adhesives may be divided into three principal categories:

(a) Protein-containsvarious combinationsof

water, dried blood, soya flour, lime, sodium
silicate, caustic soda, and formaldehyde.

(b) Urea-formaldehyderesin-containsvarious cao-

binations of water, defoamer, wheat flour, and

(c) Phenol-formaldehyde-contains various combina-

tions of water, furafil, whfeat flour, phenolic
formaldehyderesin, caustic soda, and soda ash.

10. mixture is used almost exclusively for

The p'henol-formaldehyde
exterior applicatior.s, while the other two are used chiefly for inLterior
applications. Current information indicates that.urea-base glues are the
-most widely used.

11. Most plants mix their own glues. Application to the veneers is usu-
ally by means of power driven rollers which spread the adhesive on the
sheets More recently sprays and curtain-coaters have been coming into
wider usage. After glueing, the sheets are subjected to pressure of up to
17 or 18 atmospheres,to insure proper alignmnt and full contact between
the glue and wood layers.

12. Following the pressing, a series of finishingsteps are applied,

dependinigupon the plant and the final product desired. Such steps include
(a) redrying, (b) trimming, (c) sanding, (d) coating, (e) sorting, (f)
mnlding, and (g) storing.

WASTE SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS

13. Veneer and plywDod productioncperationswill produce wastes of a

gaseous, liquid, and solid nature.
 - 360 -

Gaseous Emissions

14. Formaldehydeis the principal component of concern in the glues

which are nost widely used today. There is little free formaldehydein the
resin mixtures. The high cure tem-peraturesused will generally volatilize
any residual free formfaldehyde.

15. Volatile organic comfpounds

may be emitted by evaporationof or-
ganic solvents used in conventional coatings clurrentlyapplied. Coatings
are used primarily at hardwood plywood plants but, in nvst oases, only a
small percentage of the total production is coated.

Liquid Effluents

16. The param-eters of mpajor significance in the production of veneers

and plywood are 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ) and total suspended
solids (TSS). Other pollutants may be present but are considered to be of
minor significance.- The processing method, raw materials used, and the
chemicals added are the principal considerations in identifying the imiport-
ant parameters.

17. In the log barking operation BaD5 and TSS are both of concern.
The TSS concentrations from drum barkers are slightly higher than for hy-
draulic barkers, but the BOD5 values are significantlyhigher in the drum
barker. The higher values are due to the longer contact tinm between the
bark and the water, as well as because of the grinding action which occurs
in the water. B0D5 values are also affected by the species of wood barked
and by the time of the year in which the log is cut. Drum barking waters
are often recycled. The ranges of BOD5 and TSS values in log barking
waters are as follows:
BOD5 TSS
(Mg/1) (mg/l

Hydraulic 56-250 520-2360

Drum 48-990 2020-2880

18. As previously stated, log conditioning is accocuplished either by

steam vats (or tunnel systems) or by hot water vats. The only waste water
from the steam vats is the steam condensate, which carries with it leach-
ates from the logs and wood particles. T1herrognitude of flows will vary
with the numiber and size of the vats. Typical values for wastewaters fran
si-am vats are as follaws:

Waste Volume: 1.6-3.1 L/sec. 1/

BOD5 : 470-3100mg/L-
TSS: 74-2940 mg/L
pH: 4-6 Units

1/ For a plant withi _.-iual. production of 9.31 million Sq. M. Plywood,

9.53 rm tiick.
 - 361 -

19. Hot water vats, because of the method of heating (steam,heating

coils, etc) do not have a constant discharge, and are generally emrptied
only periodically. The water and solids that build up in the closed system
are replaced with clean water. In ntany cases the wastewater is settled and
then recyled back into the vats. The characteristics of these waters vary
widely, as indicated by the following typical analysis:

BOD5 : 330-4700mg/L
TSS : 70-2500 mg/L
pH : 4.4-6.9 Units

20. Veneer dryers accunulate wood particles, which are renvved

either by flu-hingwith water or blowing out with air. Volatile hydrocar-
bons will also condense on the surface of the dryers to form an organic
deposit called "pitch". It is necessary to remove these deposits period-
ically, in order to avoid excessive buildup. A high pH detergent is ap-
plied to dissolvemost of the pitch, followedby a water rinse. The nature
and volume of the dryer wash waters depend upon the amotmt of water used,
the amount of any scraping prior to application of the detergent and the
rinse, condition and operating patterns of the dryer, and the species of
wood being dried.

21. The water releasedby the veneer in the drying process is conver-
ted to steam and vented to the atmosphere. The liquid discharge from-the
dryer includes spent wash water and the water from the deluge system when
that system is used to extinguish fires that sometitTesstart inside the
unit. Some plants take advantage of fires to clean the dryers. Water is
also used occasionallyto flood the bottom of the units in order (according
to some claims) to lessen the incidence of fires and reduce air pollution
problems. Fbr veneer dryer washing purposes a typical plant will discharge
about 17.5 liters per metric ton of production. Dryers are generally wash-
ed once in every 80 hours of operation.

22. Many plants recycle all wash, fire, and flood waters from the
dryers because the operation causes substantial evaporation of water.
Thus, fresh water can be used to clean the dryers and still operate as a
closed system.

23. Waste water in the glue operation originates from washing of the
mixers, glue hold tanks and the glue spreaders. Discharge from the glue
washing operations averages about 45 liters per metric ton of product.

24. A typical corrbined veneer and plywood mill requires a certain

aiount of cooling water to dissipate heat from the air compressors, as well
as the lathes and presses. This is normally "pass-through" water and does
not require any speciaJ. handling before discharge to tlleenvironment. The
discharge should be monitored, however, to assure that temperatures do not
reach unacceptable levels.
 - '62 -

Solid Wastes

25. Solid wastes generated in the production process include (a)

bark, (b) wood particles from the veneer dryers, (c) organic "pitch" from
cleaning of the veneer driers, (d) wood trimmings fran cutting veneers and
plywocd sheets to size and (e) wood dust from the sanding and finishingop-
erations. It is difficult to quantify these materials since they are de-
pendent on the practices and products at each particularplant.

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

Gaseous Emissions

26. Gaseous emissions are not considered significart in plywood

plants, except where coatings are applied as part of the production pro-
cess. Volatile organic compounds are discharged from the coating lines.
The nature of these emissions depends upon the organic solvent used. These
are normally multicomponentmixtureswhich may contain various combinations
of methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutylketone, toluene, xylene, butyl ace-
tates, propanol, and others.

27. Emissions levels of volatile organic compounds (VOC) should be

kept at or below the following concentrations:

Printed interior wall 2.9 kg VOC per 100 m2

panels of hardwood plywood coated surface

Natural finish 'nardwood 5.8 kg VOC per 100 m2

plywood panels coated surface

Liquid Effluents

28. Liquid effluent limitations are presented in Table 1. These

limits are considered achievable on the basis of best practicable
technology currently available.

CONTROLANDTREATMIENT
OF WASTES

Gaseous Emissions

29. Measures for reduction of volatile organic compounds from coating

operations includes the use of low solvent, ultra-violet curable coatings;
use of waterborne zDatings; and incineration.
Table 1. Effluent Linmitations for Plywood Manufaturing Plants.

3 3
BOD5 - kg/m l/ TSS - kg/m 1/

Waste Source 30-day Max. 30-day Max.

Av. Daily Av. Daily

Barking Except Hlydraulic 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/

Barking - Hydraulic 0.5 1.5 2.3 6.9

Log Conditioning - Except

Direct Steam 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/

Log Conditioning - Direct

Steam
Softwood 0.24 0.72 0 0
Hardwood 0.54 1.62 0 0

Glueing Operations 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/

1 Kg/m3 - Kilograms per cubic meter of wood barked or of

veneer produced from conditionedlogs.
2/ Zero discharge.

30. Ultraviolet curable coatings, where applicable, effect a nearly

conplete reduction of VOC emissions. In the flat wood industry,UV coat-
ings have found use as clear to semitransparentfillers and tcp coatings
for interiorprinted panelling and cabinet-makingproducts. The advantages
of UV coatings include reduced power requirements, space savings tliroug'n
reduced storage and oven size, very little V7OC emission, and essentially
100 percent utilizationof the coating mixtue. Safety precautions must be
taken to minimize personnel exposure to UV radiation and to avoid contact
with the coating, since some of the raw materials can cause chemicalburns.

31. The use of waterbornecoatings can aclhieveanywhere from 70 to 90

percent reduction of emissions. This is currently the principal measure
being followed by the flat-wood industry. The primary use of these coat-
ings is in the filler and base coat applied to printed interiorpanelling.
Waterborne coatings can reduce fire hazards, fire insurance costs, and air
pollution. Problems with these coatings include possible grain raining,
wood swelling, poor quality finish,and longer cure times.
 - ,64

32. The use of control devices such as direct-flame and catalytic

incinerators is very limited in this industry. Few data are available on
control efficiencyor fuel requirements.

Liquid Effluents
33. Where debarking is by a dry process, the bark chips are shredded
and burned as fuel. For wet drum and bag barkers, the chips are pressed to
remove the water and sent to the boiler for use as fuel. The water can be
recycled.

34. Bark from the hydraulic type of unit is separated,pressed to re-

mrrvethe water, and used as boiler fuel. The amount of water resulting
fran the process is mnre than c-anbe used in other plant unit cperations,
and hence must be otherwise handled. Treatment follows the practices wide-
ly utilized in the pulp industry, i.e. the use of circularheavy-duty type
clarifiers or thickeners. The clarifier effluent is dewatered,by vacuum
filters or other means, and then subjected to biological treatment which is
normally 85 to 95 percent effective. The filter cake, containingup to 30
percent moisture, is disposed cf on land or sold for use as a mulch.

35. The major effort in the veneer production segment of this indus-
try has been directed towards reducing waste water volumes by reuse and
conservation, and by containment of those waste waters that cannot be re-
used. Waste water fran log conditioning is probably the largest and nost
difficult source to handle in a veneer mill.

36. Hot water vats, when heated indirectly through coils, will not
have a continuousdisdcarge. Any discharge results from spillagewhen logs
are placed into or taken out of the units. The wastewater frcm these
operations can be clarified by settling in tanks or ponds and then reused
for makeup. The resulting sludge is transferred to a landfill. Some de-
creased pH in the vats may occur over time. If this happens, lime or
sodium hydroxide should be added for corrosion control.

37. Wastewater fran steam vats must be discharged because of the dif-
ficulty of reusing the contaminated condensate. In sone instances modifi-
cation can be made to allow conversion of steam vats to hot water spray
tunnels which then function in a manner similar to hot water vats.

38. Either the use of hot water sprays or tlhe use of nmodified steam-
ing would allow mills that use steam vats to operate in a manner similar to
those that use hlot water vats (in which there is no steam impingement).
All of these are closed systems, requiring only solids removal and periodic
"flush-outs". The relatively small volume of water produced fran the
"flush-outs" can be contained in evaporation ponds or used for irrigation.

39. In cases where effluents from either hot water or steam vats must
be treated then biological methods, such as ordinary or aerated lagoons,
have been both practicable and effective. It has been reported that BOD5
reductions of 85 to 90 percent are readily achievable.
 - 365

40. Waste discharges fran cleaning of veneer dryers can be reduced

through various modifications in the procedure. One mill reports a signif-
icant reduction by manually scraping the dryer and blowing it out with air
prior to the application of water. Installation of water meters or valved
hoses promotes water conservation and results in significant reductions.
The volume of wastes from this source is small enough to be handled by con-
tainment or by use for irrigationor similar purposes.

41. Technology is currently available to eliminate the discharge of

all wastes fran the glueing cperations. Recycling systems are accepted
technology in the industry, and are applicable for protein, urea, and phe-
nol types of glues. bHowever,mills that use several types of glues must
have individual recycle systems to separate the different wash waters,
since attempts at mixing the wastewater from different types of glues have
not been successful. Various inplant operational and equipment nodifica-
tions can reduce the volume of glue wash water.

42. In addition to recycling the plant may also contain and/or

evaporate the glue washwater,spray the liquid on the bark that goes into
the boiler as fuel, or use a combinationof these techniques.

Solid Wastes

43. Along with the bark chips previously mentioned, solid wastes also
include veneer dryer scrapings, unusable veneer and trimmings, and trim and
sander dusts from the finishing opertions. These wastes may be burned for
fuel, dumped on land, or sold for other uses elsewhere.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "DevelopmentDocument for

Effluent LimitationsGuidelinesand New Source PerformanceStandards
for the Plywood, Hardwood,and Wood Preserving Segment of the Timber
Products Point Source Category". Doc. EPA-440/1-74-023-a. Washington,
(April 1974).

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Guidance for Lowest Achievable

Emission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Compounds".
Doc. EPA-450/3-79-024. Washington (April 1979).

3. Nestler, F.H. and Max Nestler. "The FormaldehydeProblem in Wood-Based

Products-AnAnrotated Bibliography". U.S. Forest Service General
Technical Report FPL-8. Washington (1977).

4. Blomquist,R.F., "FormaldehydeEmissions Are No Problem With Wood

Products Bonded With Phenolic Resins". American Plywood Associa-
tion, Tacoma, Washington 98411. (August 6, 1981).

5. Baker, William A., Ed. "TechnicalLiterature Index". American Plywood

Association, Tacoma, Washington98411. (September1980).
THE WORLDBANK SEPTEMBER1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

POULTRYPROCESSINGPLANTS

INDUSTRIALWASTEDISPOSAL

1. Poultry processing operations cover young and nature chickens,

turkeys, ducks, geese, various other birds, and small gane such as rab-
bits. The final product nmay consist of whole carcasses, parts, cooked or
canned meats, and specialties such as rolls and patties. Plants may pro-
duce one or a coirbination of several of tlhese items.

2. Live birds are taken to processing plants in coops, which are

first transferred to the hanging area. The birds are removed fran tle
coops and suspended by the feet from an overhead conveyor line. This is
followed by slaughtering, most commonly done by severing the jugular vein
or by debraining. The dead bird then travels through an enclosed area,
known as the "blood tunnel", for draining and recovery of free-flowing
blood. Recoverymay be either from the floor of the tunnel or from troughs
installed for the purpose.

3. After the blood tunnel the birds are scalded and mechanicallyde-
feathered. Remaining pin feathers are next remrved, either by hand or by
wax stripping. The defeatlheredcarcass goes to the evisceration room,
where the feet are cut off, the peritoneal cavity opened, and the viscera
removed. The visceral parts are separated into edible and non-ediblepor-
tions. The non-visceral parts are added to the offal disposal system.
Next, the head and neck are removed, the carcass thorouglhly washed and then
inspected. The final step is chillingor freezing,and packing either for
marketingor for further processing.

4. Additionalprocessing can involve thawing, cutting and boning,

dicing, grinding and chopping, batter and breading, mixing and blending,
stuffing, canning, final product preparation, packaging and shipping in
various cormbinations.

5. Product flows for basic and further processingplants are s'nown

in Figures 1 and 2, respectively.

SOURCESANDCHARACTER
OF WASTES

6. Liquid wastes carrying varying amounts of solids are the major

concern in this industry. Solid wastes, resulting nainly fran housekeeping
and screening of effluents may also be of concern but this will depend upon
in-plant practices and degree of solids separation. Gaseous wastes are
generally of no significance. The purely hazardous types of waste cnmpon-
ents, such as heavy netals and pesticides are not normally found in the ef-
fluents.
 - 3*,7 -

WASTE
PROCESSES
BY-PRODUCT FLOW LIQUID SOLID
PRODUCT FLOW

AREA | -…1

i_ | | IVEEC
RECZ

I- SING
U) ~~~~~~RECOVERY

0
f -GIt
r P,c, ..
1 11 0HANDLING

_) CPROCESSIN

ALTERNATE SOLIDS fLOW

F

AS SOLIDS i iASTE
(INCLUDES DRY CLEANUP)

Ciili LING s INE I3~~LE_ |

1 | RENDERING

FE I3-&-
II

FROZE& SLUDGE
Ii -
FROZEN
_
POULTRY
rSECONDAr.Y SOLID
TREA r'ENT 2 WASTE
1-PLANT L
PLANT I ODISPOSAL
MATERIALS FLO.. , r
PROCESSWATER-.-__ t tDISCHARGE

WASTE WATER _- __

Flow and Waste Sources for Poultry Processing P!ants.

Figure 1 - Typical Process
(From Ref. 2)
 368

WASTER WATER,
PROC'iSS AND MATERIAL FLOW RELATIVE FLO'.'

'ING SM MED
AND
STORAGE

THAVING MED LGE

FCUT-UP _ _ _ _ _ _ SMœ
- PERIoDIC_
OPERATIONS r
SMA -P'IODIC
1- -m_ BONING __F -_-ICI
,
COOKIING _ T- ' ED- LGE_

-rNING, SM - MED PERIODIC

; BATTER
AN(r U | CHOPPING|
BREADING
-- 1 MIXING, S'' - N^EDPERIODIC
BLENDING
COOKING -…SM?.E - MiED
. ___ _ ___~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~____

CANNING ED -LGE _

COOKING I i'.;ED LGE

VSMO
t STORAGE V- - - -
FINAL SM
pPRODUCT____

. PREARAIQI
FREEdING & } ~~~~V
SMPERIODIC I

PACKAGING

- t OR,
llfi~~~ATERIAL
COLD PRODUCT FLOW
STORAGE WATEAE
'VSM -VERYSMALL WASTE WATER
SM -SMALL
MED NMEDIUM TREATMENT
LGE -LARGE

Figure 2. Typical Process Flow and Waste Sources for Further Processing
Poultry Plant. (From Ref. 2)
7. The nmostsignificantparameters applicable to the liquid efflu-
ents are the 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ) total suspended solids
(TSS), oils and greases (O + G), hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), and fecal
coliform organisms. AlmDnia levels may occasionallybe of concern.

8. All of the steps in the poultry plant processing contributeto

the waste loadings. These contributionsinclude blood, offal, feathers,
meat and fatty tissues, materials lost in processing, preservativesand
caustic or alkaline detergents. In most plants, raw wastes are subjected
to "primary" treatment by discharge through catch basins, skinming tanks,
air flotation systems, or other devices. The basic purpose of this proced-
ure is not waste treatment per se, but the recovery of by-products which
can be profitablyseparated and marketed.

9. The strongest single pollutant is blood, generated in the killing

area. Feathers, dirt and manure will also be added at this point. Those
materials not removed by drains or dry scraping are flushed to the sewer
during cleaning. Overflows from the scalding and defeatheringoperations
will also contributethese same materials.

10. The eviscerationprocess and subsequentwashing generat. a large

volume of waste -water. The carcass and giblet washing, worker hand wash-
ers, side-pan washers and viscera flow-away water, and clean up operations,
all contribute to this flow. Waste waters fran the evisceration procedures
will contain tissue and fat solids, gut, grease, blood and intestinal bac-
teria.

11. Anotller waste source is the carcass and gizzard chillir.g opera-
tion. This is made up of chiller overflows, dumping of chiller water at
the end of each day, and equipment clean-up. The chiller wastes contain
greases, meat and fat particles and blood.

12. Feathers and offal are discharged to flumes and recovered by

screening. The flume water and the water retainedby these materials and
draining through the equipment eventually become a part of the total plant
effluent.

13. The operations designated as "further" processing use waters to

thaw frozen materials, to cook the poultry and finished products, to cool
tlhe freshly cooked products, and to clean the equipment. The birds and
products come into direct contact in some of these processes and thus con-
tribute waste ccmponents.

14. Some plants have on-site rendering facilitiesto produce feed

grade materials from the feathers, offal, blood and other by-products.
Generally, however, these by-products are taken off-site for renderingpur-
poses. Renderingoperations are discussed in greater detail in the guide-
line titled "Meat Processingand Rendering Industry".

la
 - 370 -

15. Waste water effluent streams for typical poultry processing

plants are shown in Figures 1 and 2. Typical raw waste flows and charac-
terisiticsare shown in Table 1. These data are for effluents following
the applicationof in-plant "primary"treatmentfor by-productrecovery.

Table 1. Typical Raw Waste Flows and Characteristicsfor Poultry

IndustryPlants a/.

Type of
Plan.t
, 1Weight
i(ki
Av. L 1 Flow I BOD5
'kg)
|k TSS
(kg)
0 + G b!
(kg

Per Bird Per Mg Live Weight Killed

Chickens 1.74 34 9.9 6.9 4.2

Turkeys 8.3 118 4.9 3.2 0.89
Fowl 2.3 49 15. 10. 2.3
Ducks 2.9 75 7.1 4.4 1.9

Per megagram Final Product*

FurtherPrc- |12,500 19 I 9.11 6.

cessing c/

a/ Following applicationof in-plant "primary"treatment.

b/ 0 + G = Oils and Greases.
c/ No slaughering.
*/ 1 megragram= 1 metric ton, Mg = megagram.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

16. Fffluent limitationsfor plants which slaughter and process poul-

try products are presented in Table 2. The limitations are based on the
best practicable control technology currently available. Where further
processingor on-site rendering is carried out, it is necessary to add an
adjustment,according to the factors shown in paragraph17.

17. Adjustments to these limitationsare to be made in cases where

further processingor rendering (or both) may be carried out in conjunction
with other operations. These adjustments are to be added to the limits
shown and are as follows:
 - 371 -

riYble 2. Maxinum Daily Effluent Limitations - Poultry IndustrE Wastes.

Type of BOD5 TSS Oils &

Plant a/ & b/ (kg) (kg) Greases
_ _ _ _ (kg)

Per Mg Live Weight Killed

Chickens 0.46 0.62 0.20

Turkeys 0.39 0.57 0.14

Fowl 0.61 0.72 0.15

Ducks 0.77 0.90 i 0.26

Per megagram Final Product

FurtherPro- 0.30 0.35 0.10

cessing b/ I

a/ For all plants: Fecal coliform NPN not over 400/lOOml and
pH = 6 to 9.

b/ For off-site processing. See above for adjustments when further

processing and rendering are carried out at the same site as
other operations.
 - 372-

Further Processing: By-Product Rendei.ing:

BOD5: 0.30 X MgFP BODi 0.15 X Mg1n
MgLWK MgLWK
TSS: 0.35 X MgFP TSS 0.17 X Mg1R
MgLWK MgLWK
O + G: 0.10 X MgFP 0+ G 0.10 X mRM
mgLWK MgLWK
In conputing the above adjustments,tenns denote

M = Megagraxn
FP = Final Product
LWK = Live Weight Killed
RM = Raw Materials Rendered

CONTROL AND TREATMENT OF WASTES

18. Waste loads dischargedby the poultry industry may be reduced to

acceptable levels througlLa combinationof techniques including efficient
water management, in-plant waste controls, process control, and varying
degrees of biological treatment. Wastes may also be released to municipal
systems provided that pretreatment measures are applied.

19. In-plant measures include: (a) mrnitoring flows and waste

strengths in all irajorwater use areas; (b) control and reduction of water
flows at rm:ijor outlets through use of properly sized nozzles and pressure
regulation; (c) confining bleeding procedures and recoveringall possible
collectable blood for rendering; (d) shutting off unnecessary water flows
during work breaks; (e) reusing water for nakeup purposes whenever possi-
ble; (f) applying dry offal handling in place of fluming; (g) close moni-
toring of screening and handling systems for offal and feathers to prevent
discharge of 'hese materials; (h) using dry cleanup prior to was'ndown of
all floors ard tables; and (i) training all employees in applying good
water managementpractices.

20. By-productrecovery of offal and feathers,when fluming is uti-

lized, is acconplished by the use of screens. These may be rotary, vibra-
ting or static types. Vibrating and rotary screens are most frequently
used in the poultry industry. They can be useful not only for materials
recovery but also for providing at least primary treatment for all plant
wastes when screening openings are sufficient-y fine. Grease and solids
may also be remived by the use of catch basins or air flotation systems.
 - 72 -

21. Several biological systems may be used for treatment of these

wastes, following the application of in-plant primary treatment. Anaerobic
processes, aerobic lagoons, and activated sludge systems are commnly
used. The system used mwst be adapted to the individual plant on the basis
of waste water volume, waste loads, equipment used, required waste load re-
duction, sludge disposal, odor problems and other factors.
22. Where a maximum degree of treatment is required, chemical precip-
itation, sand filters, and microstrainers have been effective. A no dis-
charge oondition can be achieved through the use of spray or flood irriga-
tion where sufficient areas of relatively flat land are available.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Jones, Harold R. "PollutionControl in Meat, Poultry,and Seafood

Processing". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N. J. and London
(1974).

2. U.S. Enivironmental Protection Agency "Development D-cument for Propnosed

Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards
for the Poultry Segment of the Meat Product and Rendering Process Point
Source Category". Dbc. EPA-440/1-75/031-6,Group I, Phase II. Wash-
inc3ton (April 1975).

3. U.S. EnvirommentalProtectionAgency Upgrading Poultry Processing

Facilitiesto Reduce Pollution". EPA TechnologySeminar Publica-
tions. 3 Vols. Washington (July (1973).
 - 374 -

THE WORLDBANK OCTOBER1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

PULP ANDPAPER INDUSTRY

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Paper is produced from raw materials containing cellulose fibers,

which is the basic required c rrponent. While the createst portion of the
fibers are produced from wood, some are produced fron recycled paper and
fran non-wood sources.

2. Several methods ar- used for pulping wood. In some prccesses it

is cooked with chemicals under controlled conditions of tenperature, pres-
sure, time and liquor oomposition, with different chemicals and conbina-
tions of chemicals being utilized. In other methods wood is reduced to a
fibrous state by mechanical or by a oombination of mechanical and chemical
mn-ans.

3. To prepare the paper stock the pulp is resuspended in water, fol-

lcwed by refiners to refine the individual fibers into the state required
to produce the strength needed in the paper product. The degree of fiber
refining is governed by the type of pulp and the end paper product desired.

MANUFACTUIUNG
PROCESSES

4. Wood may be received at the pulp mill in any one of several dif-
ferent forms, including logs, chips, sawdust and other sawmill residues.

Wood Preparation

5. In the case OL logs, the bark is first remrved, and this may be
done either by friction with other logs (in barking drums), by mechanical
tools, or by water jets (hydraulic debarking). The barking drums nmy be
operated either with or without water, but better debarking is achieved and
wood losses are lawer when water is used. The clean logs are tlhen chipped
to produce wood fragments of suitable size (about 30 x 30 x 4 mm). The
chips are screened to separate those which are either too small or too
large, and transferred to storage bins or chip piles for later use.

6. Fibers constitute the basic raw material in the manufacture of

paper. These are composed mainly of cellulose, and may be derived from
either wood or non-wood sources. The fibe^s represent some 50 percent of
the dry weight of the fiber source, with the other major oonponents consis-
ting of hemi-celluloses and lignins. The last two substances serve to ce-
ment the fibers together. Fibers are separated from the wood by means of
the pulping operatiorns, using mechanical pulping, chemical pulping, or a
 - 3/5 -

corbinaticri of both. Cn a worldwide basis, approxilTately one-third of the

paper production is from mechanial pulps and two-thirds is from chemical
pulps.

7. Worldwide it is estimated that 5 percent of new pulp comes from

non-wood fibrous materials. Non-wood materials used for pulp, papers and
paper board production includes agricultural residu-s (bagasse, cereals),
natural plants (such as bamboo and esparto grass), and cultivated fiber
crops (such as jute, flax, sisal and cotton fibers). The most widely used
of these are wheat straw, rice straw, baiboo and bagasse. The processes
used for producing non-wood materials are generally similar to those used
in the wood-based segments of the industry.

Pulp Preparation

8. Mechanical pulp is also known as groundwood pulp, since mechani-

cal action, in the form of large rotating grindstones, is used to process
the whole log. ,he type of wood mDst readily or economicallyavailableus-
ually determines the groundwoodprocess to be applied. Softwood generally
does not require pretreatment and has therefore been the usual raw material
for the stone groundwoodprocess, as well as for some of the other proces-
ses. The high energy requirements for grinding untreated hardwood may be
offset by using processses which incorporate pretreatment. Sawmill resi-
dues are also a source of raw materials for processes which utilize wood
chips.

9. The principal mechanical pulping processes include stone ground-

wood, refiner groundwood, thermo-mechanical, cold soda, and chemical
groundwood. The process selected is based on the raw material supplied,
type of fiber desired,and strength of paper needed for specificuses.

10. In chemical pulping wood, the raw material is cooked in batch or

continuous digesters (large pressure vessels) with solutions of various
chemicals. Digestion (or cooking) proceeds to the point at which non-cell-
ulosic constitutents are dissolved and the fibers can be liberated by
"blowing" (i.e. ejecting the chips) from the digester.

11. The principal chemical methods include acid sulfite, kraft and
soda. Softwoods are the primary raw materials of the sulfite process,
while both soft and hardwoods are used in kraft and soda pulping.

12. While the mechanical pulps have many desirable qualities for the
manufacture of lcw cost paper (where opacity is important), they normally
do not have sufficient brightness for the better grades. Brightness will
also vary with the characteristics of the wood raw material. Bleaching is
therefore necessary to satisfy the demands of better end paper products
where mechanical pulps are used for their production.

Pulp Bleaching

13. The most conumm bleaching agents for stone and refiner ground-
woods are hydro-sulfites and peroxides, used either individually or in
 - 376 -

sequence. Zinc hydrosulfite, sodium and potassium borohydride, hydrogen

peroxide and sodium peroxide are the specific chemicals particularly used.
The same chemicals way also be used for cold soda and chemi-groundwood
pulps.

14. For chemical pulps the nost frequently employed bleaching chc Li-
cals are chlorine, calcium or sodium hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide.
Alkalies such as caustic soda and calcium hydroxide are used to extract
chlorinated reaction products.

15. Oxygen bleaching of chemical pulps is a new process developed in

recent years, and is curently used in a limited number of mills worldwide.
It is said to achieve a brightness and strength equivalent to that obtained
by nore costly methods. It has also been reported as being less suscept-
ible to brightness reversion.

16. Displacement bleaching, barely beyond the pilot plant stage, has
recently been installed in two U.S. plants. In this process, chemicals are
displaced through a pulp mat rather than being conventionally mixed into
the pulp. Very rapid bleaching occurs, due to high reaction rates.

17. A variety of waste papers are deinked to produce a variety of

pulps. Before waste paper can be used for this purpose it must be care-
fully classified into different groups, only some of which can be deinked,
since (a) not all waste papers are suiiable for deinking and (b) specific
types of waste papers are suitable only for specific types of reclaimed
pulps.

18. Where the pulp is to be used away from the productionsite it is

dried for market purposes. The pulp is reduced to a thick mLat, on either a
Fourdrinier machine or a cylinder mld, subjected to mechanical pressure in
a series of presses, and then dried to air-dry oonsistency (about 10% mois-
ture content). Wet market pulp, with a moisture content of 50 percent is
also produced in some cases. The process is the same as that for the dry
pulp, except that the final drying step is omitted.

19. Unbleached kraft and neutral sulfite semi-chemical (NSSC) pulps

are also produced in some plants. The unbleached pulps are mainly used for
linerboard (used as the smooth-surface facing in corrugated board), wrap-
ping paper, grocery bags, and shipping sacks. Semi-chemical pulps are used
nostly as the corrugating medium in corrugated board.

20. The paper mill may be close to or at a distance from the pulp
mill. An integratedpaper mill is one that is located near a pulp mill,
and the pulp is transferred as a slurry directly to the paper-making pro-
cess. The non-intergrated mill is usually located at some distance from
the pulp mill and receives the pulp in a dry or semi-dry form. The paper
stock is prepared by resuspending the dry or semi-dry pulp in water to a
consistency of 4 to 6 percent.
 - 77 -

Stock Preparation

21. The stock is mechanically treated in the refiners to "brush" or

cut the individual fibers. This step produces the properties needed to
give the required strength to the paper. In cases where good formation is
desired, suchi as for fine papers, the stock is also pumped through a jor-
dan, which further cuts the fibers to the necessary length with a minicLmun
of brushing. The amount of cutting and brushing varies with the type of
pulp used and the requirements of the end paper product.

22. Chemical additives may be used for various purposes, either

before or after stock preparation. For example, resin is used for sizing,
which prevents blotting of ink. Clay, calcium carbonate, and titanium
oxide are some of the substances added as fillers where opacity and
brightness of the papers are important. A wide variety of other additives
such as w:t strength resins, dyestuffs, and starches may be used, depending
on end use requiremtents.

Paper Production

23. The final paper or board product is formed on either a Fourdri-

nier, a cyclinder machine, or a twin-wire machine. The Fourdrinier has a
flat sheet-forming surface while the cylinder machine utilizes a cylindri-
cal-shaped mld. The Fourdrinier is mDst widely used at the present time.

24. In the Fourdrinier operation the dilute puip flows onto a wire
screen, on which the water drains off and the sheet is formed. A suction
pick-up roll transfers the sheet from the wire to presses, which enhances
the density and smoothness and removes additional water. It then passes
through a series of heated bollow metal cylinders for final drying.

25. In the cylinder cperation, revolving wire-mesh cylinders rotate

in one or more vats of dilute pulp, picking up fibers and depositing them
on a miving belt. The pressing and drying procedures are the same as for
the Fourdrinier operation. The cylinder machine has the capability of pro-
ducing heavier multi-layered sheets, and therefore its principal use is in
the manufacture of paperboard.

26. In the twin-wire operation the paper stock passes between two
wire webs. Water drains simultaneously from each side of the stock, resul-
ting in formation of the sheet.

WASTESOURCESAND CHARACTERISTICS

27. Pulp and paper production affects the environment in several

ways, since gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes are produced from various
parts of the operations. The greatest environmental impact oomes from the
bleaching and pulping cf chemical pulp. Mechanical pulping operations usu-
ally have less impact on the environment. The environmentdi impacts can be
 -7e -

greatly reduced by recycling and reusing most of the process waters and
many of the chemicals back into the process.

Air Emissions

28. The principal emissions of concern at kraft pulp mills are sulfur
dioxide, total reduced sulfur (TRS) compounds and particulatematter. Hy-
drogen sulfide, methyl nercaptans,dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide
as a group constitute the TRS compounds. The most noticeable characteris-
tics of the TRS group is its highly odorous nature.

29. The TRS qcroup originates mainly in the sulfate cooking process --
generally in the cligestersystems, the brcwn stock washers, the multiple
effect evaporators,the black liquor oxidation systems, the recovery fur-
nace, the smelt-dissolving tank, the lime kiln, and the condensate stripper
systems. Sulfur dioxide originates from the sulfite process as well as
from the neutral sulfite and bisulfite processes. Some sulfur dioxide is
formed in the rec:very boiler of the sulfate process, as well as from
burning coal or fuel oil in the pcwer plant. Principal sources are the
recovery furnace, lime kiln, smelt dissolvingtanks, and the power plant.
Principal sources of the particulate matter are the recovery furnaces, the
smelt dissolving tank, and the Lime kiln. Fly ash particles consist mainly
of carbonatesand sulfates.

30. ailorine emissions can occur, bat are mostly of the "diffuse"
type. This means that they are not located at any particular point source,
but originate as fumes from tank vents, wash filters, sewers, and other
similar sources. The gases are mainly chlorine or chlorine dioxide. Gen-
erally, concentrations are not significant, but provisions should be made
for detecting and handling lethal concentrations,should they develop. Hy-
drogen sulfide can collect in the stock chests. Good ventilationshould be
provided; work qperationsat that location sould be carried out k- at least
two persons together in case of emergency.

Liquid Effluents

31. Water is a principal raw .naterialin the manufactureof pulp and

paper, and is used extensively in each of the subprocesses. As it flows
through the various process steps it is in contact with other raw materials
and absorbs many of the substances.

32. The parameters of principal inportance for describing the degree

of contamination in liquid effluents from pulp and paper mill operations
include 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ); total suspended solids
(TSS); color (not including groundwood, deinked, and non-integrated subcat-
egories); arm-nia nitrogen (for ammonia base sulfite and ammonia base dis-
solving subcategories only). In European practice chemical oxygen demand
(COD) is also frequently used as a paramter. Typical flows, BaD5 , and TSS
for untreated wastes (the parameters of most importance in the Bank's acti-
vities) are shown in Table 1.
 - 379 -

Table 1. Typical Untreated Liquid Effluents fran Pulp and Paper

Mills (See EPA Doc. 880/1-75 7047.

Waste Source
Flow
M3 /MT Prod -L
BOD
5 T TSS
Kg/MT Prod. a

Bleached Kraft Pulp Mills b/

Dissolving Pulp 242 55 150

Market Pulp 177 41 70
Fine Paper Pulp 108 30 84
BCTc-/ Pulp 152 34 52

Sulfite Pulp Mills (Bleached)b

Papergrade Pulp 208 116 82

Dissolving Pulp 272 132 92

Soda Pulp Millsb/ 123 42 105

Groundwood Pulp Mills b/

Chemi-Mech. Pulp 83 50 28
Thermo-Mech. Pulp 62 28 25
Fine 5aper Pulp 91 17 52
CyUdai Pulp 99 18 70

Deink Paper Mills b/ 94 68 204

Non-Intergrated Paper Mills b/

Fine Paper 62 11 31
Tissue Paper , 96 12 34
Tissue Paper (FWP) - 96 14 40

a/ MT Prod. = Metric Ton produced daily.

b/ See Appendix A for descriptions of waste sources.
c/ BCT = Pulp used to manufacture paperboard, coarse papers, and tissue.
d/ CMN = Pulp used to manufacture coarse,molded fiber, and newsprint papers.
e/ FWP = From waste paper.
 - 30O -

33. In the various chemical pulping procedures lignin and lignin de-
rivatives enter into solutions fron the wood during the cooking process.
The spent cooking liquors containing these highly colored comounds are re-
moved fron the pulp in a washing sequence follawing the cooking process.
The wseh water is highly colored. In spite of recovery procedures many
mills continue to discharge wastes having a high degree of oolor.

34. Pulp and papermaking liquid wastes normally contain minor ooncen-
trations of ammonia nitrogen, and nitrogen curpounds are often added to
provide necessary biological treatment efficiencies in the plant waste
treatment systems. In the same way, zinc conpounds also normally occur in
sub-lethal concentrations and hence are of minor concern in pulp mill waste
discharges. Zinc concentrations in excess of 5 mg/L in waters used for
public supply can cause undesirable tastes which persist tirough conven-
tional water treatment systems.

Solid Wastes

35. The characteristics of solid wastes fran pulp and paper mill op-
erations will vary considerably fran one mill to another. For the average
mill the distributicn of total solid wastes will be as follows:

Wastewater sludges 45 percent

Ash 25 percent
Bark, wood waste 15 percent
Paper, trash 10 percent
Miscellaneous 5 percent

Approximately 75 percent of the solid wastes will be organic in nature.

Tbtal solid waste generationfor a typical kraft mill producing 200 tons of
pulp per day, and typical paper mnillproducing 100 tons/day, are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2. Solid Wastes Generated in Typical Pulp and Paper Mill Cperations

a/.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Bleached
Waste Principal Kraft Pulp Newsprint *
Source Constitutents Mill b/ * Paper Mill c/

Log pond, wood stones, mud, 500

room bark

Boiler ash Ash, sand 1200

Knots, screen Wood slivers, 300

rejects pulping chem.

Recausticizing Lime, metals, 1300 -_

rejects carbon

Waste-water Fibc.r, sand, 1400 1200

sludges fine clays

Paper, trash Varied 100 50

a/ From Reference No. 4 * Dry Tons/Year

b7 Producing 200 tons/day
c7 Producing 100 tons/day

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

36. Limitations for air enis;Aons discharged fram pulp and paper mill
operations are shown in Table 3.

37. Liquid effluent guidelines for bleached kraft, groundwood sul-

fite, soda, deink and non-integrated paper mills, unbleached kraft and
semichemical pulp mills are presented in Table 4. In all cases, the
limitations are based on the best practicable control technology aonsidered
to be widely available.

CONTROLAND TREATMENTOF WASTES

38. Although there are variations in equipment and technology be-

tween irndividual mills manufacturing the sane types of products, such dif-
ferences do not significantly change the dcaracteristics of the wastes pro-
duced in each situation. Currently available control technology will not
usually require major changes in production processes. Changes in piping,
modificaticn of existing equipment, and other relatively minor changes will
generally permit application of existing control technology.
 -* )82 -

Table 3. Gaseous Eknission Linitations - Pulp and Paper Mills

Source a/ Particulate Sullfur

TRSSoe Matter3 Dioxide
p/kg
./ k
b/
A,-_ jAg/Nm
_ _ _ _
(AmAbient)
_ _ _ _ _

Recovery Furnace System 0.075 - _

Lime Kiln 0.0125 _

Smelt Tank 0.0125 _

Brown Stock Washer 0.005 _

Black Liquor Oxid. 0.005 _ _

Condensate Stripper 0.005 _ _

Digester System 0.005 _ _

Mult. Eff. Evaporator 0.005 _ _

All Sources _ 100 c/ 1 O d/

a/ TRS - Total Reduced Sulfur Compounds, measured as H2S

b/ ADP - nir Dried Pulp 3
c/ Aniual Arith. ear.,max. 24-hours = 1000 rg/Nm
d/ Ainnual Geom. 1ean, Max. 24-hours = 500119!hm&
 - u3 -

Table 4. Liquid Effluent Limitations- Pulp and Paper Mills

(see AppendixA for description

Waste Source a, BD L _Z
Kg/MT produced/Day -'

Bleached Kraft_?lp .ills

Dissolving Pulp 13.0 15.6 _

Market Pulp 7.1 10.3 _
Fine yaper Pulp 4.7 7.4 _
BCT - Pulp 6.4 10.3 _

Sulfite Pulp Mills

Papergrade Pulp 15.2 21.2 _

Dissolving Pulp 22.7 26.2 _

Soda _Plp Mills 5.8 8.3 _

Groundvcod Pul_ Mi]l.s

Chami-Mec!. Pulp 3.5 5.9 0.13

TherTo-!'ech. Iulp 2.6 4.4 0.10
Finoe.Eper Pull) 3.8 6.4 0.14
CN0-/ Pulp 4.2 7.0 0.15

Deink 2 per "ilis 7.0 12.6 -

Non-Inte-,rated Paper Yills

Fine Paper I 4.2 4.2 -

Tissue Paper 4.7 4.7 -
Tissue Paper (n.?)- 4.7 4.7 -

Unbleached Kraft Pulp Mills 2.8 6.0 -

NSSC - Arc:onia Pulps f/ 4.0 5.0 -

NSSC - Sodiu'm PilDS 4.4 5.5 -

Unbleached Kraft - .;SSCPUlDs 4.0 6.2 -

a/ Ir. all cases pH1 - 6.0 to 9.0

b/ Maxirum of averace daily values in any 30-day period. Mlaximum daily
value not to exceed 2 times 3D-day average.
c/ BCT = Pulp used to manuLacLur.e paperboard, coarse papers, and tissue
papers.
d/ CHN. = Fulp used to manufacture, coarse, molded fiber and newsprint
papers.
e/ F%P = From waste paper.
f/ N;SC Neut-ral 6ulfite semi-chemical process.
 - 3P4 --

Gaseous Wastes

39. Except in an occasional situation (such as unfavorable topography

or adverse climatological conditions) sulfur dioxide is not a problem for
kraft mills. Adequate control is possible by proper operations, especially
of the liquor recovery furnace. Appropriate selection auxiliary fuels will
also be a major factor in resolving discharges of the pollutant. Where
discharge concentrations are too high, fuel desulfurization, flue gas re-
woval, process mrodification, or some combination of these may be required.

40. The TRS gases can cause unpleasant odors from kraft mill opera-
tions. These gases (also referred to as non-condensible) originate in var-
ious parts of the mill, especially fram the digestor evaporators and the
foul condensate stripping. These are commnnly oollected in headers, scrub-
bed with an alkali solution to renove a portion of the sulfur, and then
burned. Incineration nost frequently takes place in the lime kiln, where
the TRS is converted to sulfur dioxide which, in turn, is largely recovered
by adsorption on the lime dust and in the liquid in the kiln exhaust scrub-
ber.

41. Particulatesoriginate in various elements of the mill operation,

such as the recovery furnace,p:wer boilers, lime kiln, exhaust, and
others. Control and remrval is best achieved by the use of scrubbers,
electrostatic precipitation and otlher similar means.

Liquid Wastes

42. Liquid wastes can be reduced in both wlume and concentrations by

a combination of in-plant control measures and end-of-the-pipe treatment.

43. In-plant measures include effective pulp washing, chemical and

fiber recovery, treatment and reuse of selected waste streams, collection
of spills, and prevention of accidental discharges. Continuous monitoring
of mill sewers should be conducted,including the outfall, in order to re-
ceive rapid warning of accidental spills. Storagebasins prior to treat-
ment, will serve to absorb shock dischargesand provide a nDre constant
loading on the treatment facilities. Waste loadings from wet barking can
be materiallyreduced by recycling the barking water. These and other
similar operating and housekeeping measures are very effective.

44. External effluent treatment includes neutralization, primary

treatment to remove the settleable solids, and biological (or secondary)
treatment to reduce the effluent BOD5.

45. Large pieces of assorted materials, such as knots and rocks, are
discharged into the sewers from process (perations. Large items such as
tools and hard hats may also occasionally be dischiarged to the sewers by
accident. Screens are required at strategic locations within the mill to
renove these materials. Screens may utilize mechanical or manual cleaning,
depending upon the loadings expected.
46. Bleached kraft pulp mill effluents are highly acidic, while ef-
fluents from mechanical pulp mills and mDst paper mills are mildly acidic.
Where the pH in the effluent requires only a small adjustment then a liquid
alkali such as caustic soda, or an acid, such as hydrochloric,can be used
for neutralization. Where wastes are highly acidic some form of lime is
used for this purpose.

47. Settleablesolids are removed in a clarifier,usually a circular

tank in which the particlesare allcwed to settle to the bottom. In some
cases slow stirring is used to cause an agglcmerationof particles. Con-
ditioning chemicals are sometimes added to enhance flocculation. At some
mills settling basins, either following or in place of clarifiers, are
used. These function entirely by gravity, and have a detention time of up
to 8 hours. The sludges collected at the bottom of these units is with-
drawn at regular intervals and handled by various disposal methods.

48. Biological treatment is naw required for effluents from new mills
in many industrialized countries. Such treatment facilities are also being
installed at many older mills. This type of treatment accomplishes several
purposes: it reduces the acute toxicity of the effluent and usually renders
it non-toxic to fish; it reduces the potential of the wastes to cause
taste, foaming,odors, and tainting of fish flesh; and generallycreates an
effluent suitable for discharge to most surface waters.

49. Where sufficientland is available for the purpose, aerated la-

goons are most often used to provide extended detentionof pulp and paper
mill effluents. This system will consist of one or more lagoons equipped
with aeratingdevices and providing a detentionperiod of several days. As
a rough guide, one cubic meter of lagoon capacitywill be required for each
30 grams of BOD5 in the influent. As an average, the system will provide a
90% reduction in BOD5 , with a total detention period of about 10 days. The
activated sludge process is also effective but because of the higher capi-
tal and operating costs, its use is usually limited to situations where
sufficientland is not available.The activated sludge process also re-
quires a high degree of operator attentionand skills. Other methods, such
as oxidation ditches and trickling filters,have also been effective.

Solid Wastes

50. The largest volume of solid wastes is generated by the wastewater

treatment process. Land disposal, by lagooning or dumping, has been used
extensively in the past. This method is being used less and less because
of odors from decomposition of the materials, potential pollution of both
surface and ground waters, and the elimination of affected lands from fu-
ture use. However, with the application of proper sanitary landfill meas-
ures this method should create few or no environmental problems.

51. Dewatering and incineration of sludges are now receiving wider

usage. Vacuum filtrationproduces a filter cake containing 20 to 30 per-
cent solids. Chemical conditioning with ferric chloride, alum, or poly-
electrolytes will greatly aid poorly filterable sludges. Although costs
 36 6 --

are high, three types of incineration are being practiced: burning in a

specially designed incinerator, burning in the bark boiler, and burning in
a power boiler utilizing fossil fuels.

52. Many of the solid wastes can be utilized for useful purposes.
Because they are organic in nature they can be used as a fuel, for
agricultural, or other purposes. Fibrous sludges and barks are suitable
for manufacturing wallboard and roofing papers. It has been demonstrated
that crcp yields have signifiantly improved when fibrous sludg!s have been
applied as a mulch. Ash from bark burning boilers is rich in plant
nutrients, particularlypotash. It can be used as a soil conditioner,
particularly for acid soils. There are several other ways in which solid
wastes can serve a useful purpose. It is often advantageous to enlist the
cooperation of various government agencies, local industries, and others in
developing by-product recovery and utilization measures.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. United Nations EnvironmentalProgram. "Effluentand EmissionControl

in the Pulp and Paper Industry". 2 Parts. Paris (1979).

2. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "DevelopmentDocument for

AdvancedNotice of Proposedor PromulgatedRule Making for Effluent
LimitationsGuidelines and New Source PerformanceStandards for the
Bleached Kraft, Groundwood, Sulfite, Soda, Deink, and Non-Intergrated
Paper Mils Segements of the Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard Mills Point
Source Category". Doc. EPA 440/1-75/047, Group I, Phase II.
WJashington(August 1975).

3. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "Standards Support and

EnvironmentalImpact Statement - Vol. I: Proposed Standards of
Performancefor Kraft Pulp Mills". Doc. EPA 450/2-76-014-a.

4. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "StandardsSupport and

EnvironmentalImpact Statement - Vol. II: PromulgatedStandardsof
Performance for Kraft Pulp Mills". Doc. EPA 450/2-76-014-6.
Washington (December 1977).

5. Beak Consultants Limited "Environmental Considerations for the Pulp and

Paper Industry". File K4386 (Draft). Vancouver, B.C. (September
1979).

6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Development Document for

Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards
for the Unbleached Kraft and Semichemical Pulp Segment of the Pulp,
Paper, and Paper Board Mills Point Source Category". Doc.
EPA-440/1-74-025-a. Washington (May 1974).

7. APHA, AWWA,WPCF "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and

Wastewater". 14tn Edition. American Public Health Association. New
York (1975).
 - 3 n7 -

8. U. S. Ehvironmental Protection Agency "Guidelines for Lowest Achievable

Emission Rates from 18 Major Stationary Sources of Particulate,
Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide, or Volatile Organic Cbnpounds." Doc.
EPA 450/3-79-024. Washingtcn (April 1979).

9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 'Water Quality Criteria". Doc.

EPA 23-73-033. Washington (March 1973).

10. Powers, Philip W. "How to Dispose of Toxic Substances and Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J. and London (1976).

11. Wasser, Abwasser, Abwassereinigung in der Papier industrie, em. Prof.

Dr.-Inq. W. Brecht und Dr.-Ing H.L. Dalpke, Guntter-Staib Verlag,
Postfach 180, D-7950 Biberach/RiB 1, West Germany. (December 1980).
 - 38q -

APPENDIXA

PRINCIPALS GRADESOF PULP AND PAPER PRODUCrION

FROM WOODCELLULOSEFIBERS (*)

1. BLEACHEDKRAFT: DISSOLVINGPULP means the production of a highly

bleached pulp by a process utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide and
sodium sulfide cooking liquor. Included in the manufacturing process is a
"pre-cook" cperatir.n termed prehydrolysis. The highly bleached and puri-
fied dissolving pu. -s used principally for the nanufacture of rayon and
other products requiring the virtual absence of lignin and a very high
alpha cellulose cor.tent.

2. BLEACHED KRAFT: MARKET PULP means the production of bleached

pulp by a "full-cook" processs utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide cooking liquor. Included in this subcategory are mills
producing papergrade market pulp as the only product.

3. BLEACHED KRAFT: FINE PAPERS means the production of bleached

pulp by a "full-cook"process utlizinga highly alkalinesodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide cooking liquor. This pulp is used to nreuufactuere fine
papers.

4. BLEACHED KRAET: B.C.T. PAPERS means the productionof bleached

pulp by a "full-cook"process utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide cooking liquor. This pulp is used to manufacturea va-
riety of papers with clays and fillers contents less than eight percent.
Included in this subcategoryare mills producingpaperboard (B), coarse (C)
papers, and tissue (T) papers.

5. PAPERGRADESULFITE means the productionof highly bleached and

purified pulp by a "full-cook"process using very strong solutionsof bi-
sulfites of calcium,mragnesium,ammonia,or sodium containingan excess of
free sulphur dixoide. This pulp is used principallyfor the manufactureof
rayon and other products requiringthe virtual absence of lignin and a very
high alpha cellulose content.

6. DISSOLVINGSULFITE means the productionof highly bleached and

purified pulp by a "full-cook"process using very strong solutionsof bi-
sulfitesof calcium, magnesium,ammonia, or sodium containingan excess of
free sulphur dioxide. This pulp is used principally for the manufactureof
rayon and other products requiring the virtual absence of lignin and a very
high alpha cellulosecontent.

7. SODA means the productionof bleached pulp by a "full-cook"pro-

cess utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide cooking liquor. This
pulp is used principallyto nanufacturea wide variety of papers such as
printing ard writing papers.

(*) Adapted from References (1) and (5) of Bibliography.

 - 389 -

8. GROUNDWOOD: CHEMI-MECHANICAL mreans the production of pulp, with

or without brightening, utilizing a chemical cooking liquor to partially
cook the wood follcwed bv mechanical defibration by refining at atmospheric
pressure. This pulp is used to produce a variety of products including
fine papers, newsprint, and mlded fiber products.

9. GROUNDWOOD: THERMO-MECHANICAL means the production of pulp, with

or without brightening, by a brief cook utlizing steam, with or without the
addition of oooking hemicals such as sodium sulfite, follcwed by mechani-
cal defibraticn by reiiners which are under pressure. This pulp is used in
a variety of products such as newsprint and tissue products.

10. GRDUNDWOOD: FINE PAPERS means the production of pulp, with or

without brightening, utilizing only mechanical defibraticn by either stone
grinders or refiners. This pulp is used to manufacture coarse (C) papers,
milded (M) fiber products, and newsprint (N).

11. GROUNDWOOD: C.M.N. PAPERS means the producticn of pulp, with or

without brightening, utilizing cnly mechanical defibration by either stone
grinders or refiners. This pulp is used to manufacture coarse (C) papers,
flDlded (M) fiber products, and newsprint (N).

12. DEINK means the production of seconiLry pulp, sometimes brighten-

ed or bleached fran recycled waste papeors in which an alkaline treatment
may be utilized to remove contaminants such as ink and coating pigments.
The pulp is used, frequently in cormbination with chemical pulp, to manufac-
ture a wide variety of papers such as printing, tissue, and newsprint.

13. NON-INTEGRATED FINE PAPER means the manufacture of fine papers

from wood pulp or deinked pulp prepared at another site. Fine papers are
relativelyhigh in price, and include grades such as printing, writing, and
technical.

14. NON-INTEGRATEDTISSUE PAPER means the manufactureof tissue pa-

pers from wood pulp or deinked pulp prepared at another site. Tissue pa-
pers include grades such as facial and toilet papers, paper diapers, and
paper towels.

15. NON-INTEGRATED TISSUE PAPERS (FROMWASTEPAPER) means the manu-

facture of tissue papers from recycled waste papers. Tissue papers include
grades such as facial and toilet papers, paper diapers, and paper towels.

16. UNBLEACHED KRAFT means the production of pulp without bleaching

by a "full-cook" process, utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide and
sodium sulfide cooking liquor. This pulp is used principally to manufac-
ture linerboard, the smooth facing of "corrugated boxes", but it is also
utilized for other products such as grocery bags and cement sacks.
 - 390 -

17. SODIUMBASE NEUTRALSULFITE SEMI-CHEMICALneans the production of

pulp without bleaching utilizing a neutral sulfite cooking liquor having
sodium base. t0echanical fiberizi jg a neutral sulfite cooking liquor having
a sodium base. Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage, and the
principal product mede from this pulp is the corrugating medium or inner
layer in the corrugated box "sandwich".

18. AMMONIA BASE NEUTRALSULFITE SEMI-CHEMICALmeans the production

of pulp without bleaching, using a neutral sulfite cooking liquor having an
anmmnia base. Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage, and the
pulp is used to manufacture essentially the same products as is sodium base
NSSC.

19. UNBLEACHED KRAFT-NSSC (CROSS RECOVERY)means the producticn of

unbleached kraft and sodium base NSSC pulps in the same mill wherein the
spent NSSC liquor is recovered within the unbleached kraft recovery pro-
cess. The products made are the same as outlined above for the unbleached
kraft and NSSC subcategories.
 - 391 -

TfE WORLDBANK OCTBER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIROINMENTAL
AFFAIRS

RODENTICIDES

GUIDELINES FOR USE

1. Several World Bank projects include transporting, storing and

processing food grain. Minimizing losses due to pests, mainly rodents, is
a major consideration.

2. Rodenticidesare being used whose toxicity to mammals, including

man, varies widely. This guideline describes the main rodenticidesbeing
used and gives the inportant characterisiticsof each product.

Choice of Rodenticide

3. The basis of choice for pesticide use should also be applied

here. Biodegradability and toxicity are the two most inportant criteria.

4. The rodenticides have been separated into three different

classes.

In Class I the product, wbose use require only normal

precautions.

In Class II the products whose use should be discouraged

or severely controlled.

In Class III the products whose use should be banned.

Class I - Normal Precautions

5. This class includes the anticoagulants, and the following rodent-

icides: Red Squill; Norbormide and Zinc Phosphide.

6. The anticoagulants are the safest of all rodenticides. Unfortu-

nately, the rapid spread of resistance to them among rats and mice has made
necessary the use of other types. The anticoagulants should be the first
choice in areas where rodents are not yet resistant to them.

7. Red Squill, kncm-q also as Dethdiet (pcwder) or Rodine (liquid ex-

tract), is the powdered bulb of Urginea Maritina, a perennial, grcwing in
the Mediterranean area. It is extremely irritating to the skin and causes
vomiting in most mmnTmals(but not rats). Despite reported cases of cattle,
sheep a-id chicken poisoning, the possible hazards to man are quite remote.
Red Squ11 being a natural product, its potency is not uniform.
 3r 2 -

8. Norbormide has a good efficacy against rats with a low toxicity

to other mammals. The otlher name is Raticate.

9. Zinc Phosphide (Zn 3 P 2 ). This gray powder with high melting point
is widely used. It is stable when dry, but decomposes slowly in moist
air. It reacts violently with acids to form inflamnable phosphine gas
(PH3 ) giving off the characteristic garlic-like odor. While highly toxic to
domestic fowl, this product has a good safety record.

Class II - Severe Control

10. These products should only be applied by trained operators under

the conditions specified by the manufacturer. This class includes the fol-
lowing products: sodium fluoroacetate; fluoroacetamide and strychnine.

11. Sodium fluoroacetate (CH2 FCOONa). Odorless, tasteless and fast

acting, this chemical is extremely toxic to warm-bloodedanimals. It acts
chiefly on the heart with secondary effect on the central nervous system.
The possession, transport and sale of this conpound are strictly regulated
in the US. Its use should be restricted to areas (i.e. locked warehouses
and sewers) to which access by unauthorized persons or by animals can be
prevented conmpletely. The acute oral LD50 (rat) is 0.22 mg/kg. One trade
name is 1080.

12. Fluoroacetamide (FH2C - CO - tI2). It is a highly toxic material

and all precautions that apply to sodiuum fluoroacetate should also apply
to it. Its acute oral LD50 (rat) is 15.0 mg/kg. Trade names are:

1081
Fussol
Fluorakil 100

13. Strychnine. This alkaloid is extracted fran seeds of nux vom-

ica. Mainly used as strychnine sulfate in poison baits for jackrabbits,
coyotes and wolves. It is only moderately successfulin rodent control but
can be quite hazardous to human beings and domestic animals. The LD50 for
man is 30 - 60 mg/kg.

Class III - Banned Usage

14. The products in this class should be banned because they are too
dangerous for man and/or the environment. They include arsenic trioxide,
phosphorous,thallium sulfate, naphthylthiourea(ANTU) and gophacide.

15. Arsenic trioxide. This chemicalhas been used for many centuries
and is very effective against rodents. It is also dangerous to 'an as a
toxicant and a carcinogen.

16. Phosphorous. White phosphorous is sold in many LDCs in a 1 - 2%

paste forrulationas a cockroach poison and a rodenticide. This has led to
poisoning, especiallyin children eating the fornulation. A dose of 15 mg
is highly toxic and one of 50 mg is nearly always fatal.
 - 393 -

17. Thallium sulfate. It is highly toxic to rodents but also to man

and useful animals that can be poisoned if they eat other animals already
poisoned by thallium. It is rapidly absorbed through the skin and the gas-
trointestinal tract and its elimination from the system is very slow.
There have been a grcwing number of accidental poisonings coming from its
use in householdpesticidalbaits. In the US, only gczernmentagencies can
use it.

18. Naphthylthiourea (ANTU). A 2% impurity of this product is

2-naphthylamine,itself a known carcinogen.

19. Gophacide. This organic phosphate is highly toxic to rats and

other mrnmals with ready absorptionthrough the skin as an increasedhaz-
ard. Toxicologicalstudies have also shown that gophacidemay have delayed
neurotoxiceffects.

New Anti-Coagulant

20. On December 5, 1979, the US EPA announced that it had approved a

new poison that kills rats immune to the lethal effects of WARFARIN or
other anticoagulants. The new toxin made by ICI America, Wilmington,Del-
aware is used in 4 different baits to control rats and mice and is called
"TALON". This product should be kept away from children.
 - 394 -

THE WORLDBANK OCrOEER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

CRUMBRUBBERPRODUCTION

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES

1. Solid rubber, for the fabrication of varicus Eroducts, is pro-

duced both as a natural material extracted fran plant life, and syntheti-
cally from the chemical reacticOn of specific materials. This docuTent will
confine itself to natural rut ar only, since this is the type usually pro-
duced in countries to which Bank projects are directed.
2. Although many varieties of plants are known to contain natural
rubber, only a few of these are considered to be of camTerical signifi-
cance. Today, the major portion of the worlds supply cf natural rubber
cams fran a single species of tree -- the Heves brasiliensis. Although
native to the Anazon Basin, it is now cultivated in trcpical regions
throughout the world.

3. The most favorable rubber growing areas are located within a

range of 100 to 15' latitude on either side of the equator, Where rainfall
is heavy ani evenlfy distributed, and the tenperatures range fran 20° to 320
C. The largest producers of natural rubber, as of 1976, were Malaysia, In-
donesia and Thailand. Other significant producers include Sri Lanka, In-
dia, Liberia, Nigeria, Brazil, Cameroon, I\ory Coast, Canbodia and Burma.
These countries were producing about 95% of the world supply.

PRODUCTIONPROCESSES
4. Natural rubber is marketed in a variety of fonrs and grades, of
which the chief forma are categorized as latex, crude dry rubber, and
crepe. The major share of prcduction is for crude dry rubber.

5. Latex is obtained fran thre tree by cutting into the latex vessels
in the bark, using a procedure called "tapping". A spout is inserted at
the end of the cut (which slcpes downward), and the latex flows through the
spout and into a cup attached to the tree. A small amou-it of preservative
(sodium sulfite) is usually placed in the cup to prevent coagulation.
Three to four hours after tapping, the latex is collected in buck-Wo and
carried to a receiving station.

6. At the receiving station the latex is strained to remove partic-

les of bark, dirt and other foreign natter and then transferred to the fac-
tory by tank trucks or other means. More preservative is added to assure
that the material will arrive at the factory in a well-preserved liquid
condition. Sodium sulfite is generally used to preserve latex destined for
dry rubber production.
 - 2 '5 -

7. In recent years new develcpments have been made in preparing,

packing, and grading natural rubber. The tendency has been towards small
ccmpressed, neatly wrapped bales marketed on the basis of tedinical
specifications in only a few grades.

8. The material received at the factory is treated by coagulation in

order to separate the rubber. Acetic and formic acids are the reagents
mrst commDnly used for this purpose. The latex coagulates into thick curds
at this point. The solid f-orms of rubber are produced by varicus processes
in which the rubber coagulum is reduced to small particles, washed ti-or-
oughly and dried as a crumb, either in hot air tunnels or extrusion driers.

9. In many of the plants the coagulum is mechanically reduced to

small particles by a rotary knife cutter or similar chcpping or shredding
device. The chcpped granules are dried in deep bed trays by a firced air
draft, at fairly high temperatures. Follcwing drying the grarules are
compressed into bales and wrapped in plastic fizr marketing.

10. The Rubber Research Irstitute of Malaysia has developed a median-

o-chemical granulation process for the production of crurrb rubber. The
process uses conventional equipment but combines this with the application
of a very small amount of castor oil (0.4 to 0.7 percent) as a crumbing
agent. The resulting crumb is easily dried in hot air circulating driers.
The product is marketed as "Heveacrunb".

11. Cnmb rubber is generally marketed in bales weighing about 35 ki-

lograms. Crumb rubber is also frequently referred to as "tedhnically spec-
ified rubber" and as block rubber.

WASTESOURCESANDCHARACTERISTICS

12. Large quantities of water are used for washing, cleaning, and di-
lution purposes in ruboer processing cperations. Scme H2 S odors nay be
emitted fram stabilization ponds used to treat the effluent, but under nor-
mal conditions there are no gaseous emissions of any significance.

13. Liquid effluents constitute the nDst inmportant source of pollu-

tion frcm natural block (crumb) rubber production. The nrst important par-
ameters are biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
total suspended solids (TSS), total solids (TS), aummnia nitrogen (NH3 -
N), and hydrogen-ion concentration (pH). The quality of effluent from a
typical plart is given in Table 1.
 - -a0( C

Table 1. Characteristics of a Typical Waste frcm Natural

Block (Crumb) Rubber Production.

Parameter Concentration in
Effluent

BOD (a) 1,140 mg/L

COD 1,620 mg/L

Total Susp. Solids 230 mg/L

Total Solids 995 mg/L

NH 3 -N 55 mg/L

.pH 6.3

Flow (b) 54 L/MT Produced

(a) 3 day - 30°

(b) Estimate based on Malaysia experience, covering 86%
block rubber and 14% latex concentrate production.

EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS

14. Liquid effluents discharged fram block rubber plants should con-
form to the limitations given in Table 2.

Table 2. Effluent Limitations for Natural Block (Crumb) Rubber Plants

Parameter Limxitation

BOD (5-day, 20°C) 100 mg/L

COD 225 MmgL
Total Susp. Solids 100 mg/L
NH3 -N 15-20 mg/L
p-H 6 - 9
 397 -

CONTROL ANDTREATENATOF WASTES

15. As shywn above, wastewater fran rubber processing contains organ-

ic matter and nitrogenous materials at sufficiently high levels to cause
pollution if discharged to receiving waters without prior treatment. Meas-
ures to reduce effluent concentration include a combination of internal
measures before treatment, follcwed by treatment systems.

16. Internal measures prior to treatment cculd include, but not be

limited to:

a) Application of gpod housekeeping practices.

b) Use of rubber and/or settling trays to recover

lost rubber particles and reduce solid matter
in the effluent.

c) Proper mixing and combining of all effluents

to assure maximum dilution prior to treatment.

17. Sirnple biological treatment, such as aerobic-anaerobic pond sys-

tems have been found effective in treating these effluents. Such systems
have been found to remrve 80 to 95% of the ROD, 80 to 85% of the COD, 80 to
95% of the suspended solids, and 40 to 50% of the ammonia nitrogen. Such a
system requires a large land space and hence nay not be practical for fac-
tories situated in urban areas.

18. Land disposal of effluent has also been used successfully, espec-
ially where the land is planted with mrature rubber or oil palm trees.
While this technique has not been extensively used thus far it has been
found to have the following advantages:

a) Increases the yield of both rubber and oil palm

in the range of 11 to 19%.

b) Results in cQst savings for fertilizers which

might otherwise be required.

c) Supplies noisture to the land, fran the water in

the efflient, during periods of lcw precipitation.

d) Eliminates direct disdharge of effluents into water-

ways.

19. Rotating bio-disc systems have also been used successfully for
this purpose. Average reductions of 78% in BOD, 67% in COD, 93% in anTonia
nitrogen, and 75% in total nitrogen have been achieved 'bythis methDd.

20. Experimental work is now underway on the use of water hyacinth

(Eichhornia crassipes) to remnve ea major part of the pollutant in block
rubber/concentrate effluents.
21. Other experimntal wDr-k is underway to rxoduce nethane from
anaerobic treatment of the effluent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "Summary of Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Assembly". Interna-

tional Rubber Study Group. Jakarta, 28-31 October 1975. (Printed
by Bell, Logan & Carswell, Ltd., Belfast).

2. Polhamus, Loren G. "Rubber-Botany, Production and Utilization".

Leonard Hill (Books) Ltd., London and Interscience Publishers, Inc.
New York (1961).

3. "Rubber and Energy Crisis". The Econanist Intelligence Unit, Ltd.

London (1974).

4. "The Vanderbilt Rubber Handbook". G.G. Winspear, ed. R.T. Vanderbilt

Co., Inc. New York (1968).

5. "Rubber Technology". M. Morton, ed. Second Edition. Van Nostrand

Reinbold Campany. New York (1973).

6. Sittig, Marshall. "Pollution Control in the Plastics and Rubber In-

dustry". Noyes Data Corporation. London and Park Ridge, New Jersey.
(1975).

7. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia. "Annual Report - 1978" pp. 201-

203. Kuala LumTpur (1975).

8. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia. "Anrual Report - 1975" pp. 158-

159. Kuala Lurrpur (1976).

9. "Treatnent of Effluents from Rubber Processing Factories". Inter-

national Rubber Conference. Kuala Lurrpar (1975).

10. "Land-Disposal of Rubber Factory Effluent: Its Effects on Soil Prcp-

erties and Perfornance of Rubber and Oil Palm". Prooeedings of the
Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Planters' Conference, 15-17
October 1979. pp 436-457. Kuala Lumipur (1979).

11. "Technology and Stan&rds for Treatment of SMR Block Rubber Ef flu-
ent". Proceedings of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia
Planters Conference, 17-19 October 1977. pp. 201-214. Kuala LLurpur
(1977).
 Annex T
3 - Pag 1

AN ASSESSMENTOF APPRL-RIATEPOLLUTIONCONTROT
TECHNOLOGIESFOR RUBBERFACTORIES

MalaysianPractice

1. In the contextof pollutioncontrolin the rubber industrythe

principalmanufacturingprocesscan be groupedas follows:

(a) Crumb Rubber and Sheet Rubber Factories

(b) Latex ConcentrateFactories

(c) Remillers

Raw materialsfor the first group includelatexand cup lumps in various

proportions,dependingon the qualityof the final prodact. Latex concentrate
is producedsolely from latex and remillersgenerallytreat cup lumps,
naturallycoagulatedlatex in blocks and tree lays to producecrumb rubber.
Organicpollutionloads in terms of BOD can normallybe rankedas follows:

Latex ConcentrateFactory> Crumb Rubber and

Sheet Rubber Factories> Remillers.

However,as discussedbelow, FELDA has developeda profitablecrumb rubber

recoveryprocessfor treatingthe skim rubber producedin their latex
concentratefactories,which reducespollutionloads to the e- ivalentof
crumb and sheet rubber factories.

2. Liquid latex coagulatesnaturallyor with the use of acid to a solid

coagulum(20%),which is furtherprocessedto crumb or sheet rubber and a
liquidserum (80%)which is the sourceof BOD dischargedas effluentwith the
process,tank and floorwas-hing waters. Latex receivedas liquid in the
factorycontainsall of the serum in the originalmaterial. However,a large
proportionof the serum is removedin the field in the case of naturally
coagulatedcup lumps, tree lays and latex blocks,which greatlyreducesthe
BOD pollutionload where these materialsare processedin the factory. Hence,
in the crumb and sheet rubber factoriesthe pollutionloads vary dependingon
the proportionof liquid latex and naturallycoagulatedlatex processed.
Latex concentrateeffluentsarp iurthercontaminatedwith ammoniawhich is
used as a preservativein the process.

3. The in-factorysourcesof liquideffluentgenerationfor the three

types of processesare identifiedin Table 1.
 Annex I
Page 2

400 -

Table 1

Main Sources of Pollution in a Rubber Factory

Approx. BOD
Concentration
(mg/il)
Product Sources Raw Effluent

Crumb and Sheet Rubber - Washings from reception 1,300

from Field Latex and receptacles to
- Serum in coagulation 1,800
receptacles
- Wash water from wet coagula

Crumb Rubber from Field - Water from soaking raw materials

Coagula (Remillers) in tanks 300
- Lorry washings
- Serum in coagula material

Latex Concentrate from - Washings from :eception, 3,500

Field Latex (without centrifuges and receptacles
skim trea ment) - Serum in skim latex coagulation
receptacles
- Bowl washings and centrifuge
sludge

4. In general, the effluent is acidic with pH values ranging from 3.5

to 6.0. This is attributed to the use of formic or sulphuric acid for the
coagulation of field latex and skim, respectively. In the case of brown
crepes which are processed without the addition of an acid, the acidic nature
of the effluent is often due to volatile fatty acids (acetic, formic, etc.)
developed bacteriologically during storage of field coagula and sometimes to
the use of phosphoric acid in the factory for improving rubber properties.

5. The total and suspended solids concentrations are high; the major
r.oportionof these are in the form of dissolved solids except in the case of
the remillers where there is a greater proportion of suspended matter. The
BOD values are high indicating Gte dissolved solids are mainly organic with
high oxygen requirements ior their breakdown into non-polluting products.
Ammoniacal nitrogen arises from the use of ammonia for preserving latex,
particularly in the case of processing latex concentrate and skim latex.
Apart from these physical and chemical properties, the effluent also contains
population of pathogenic bacteria such as Coliform and E. coli. In preparing
the factories to adopt a treatment system, the Rubber Research Institute of
Malaysia (RRIM) has advised then to maintain good housekeeping in and around
the premises to reduce the pollution load and, thus, the cost of subsequent
treatment. These measures include:
 Annex I
Page 3
- 401 -

(a) The use of minimum amount of water without sacrifice to factory

hygiene and quality of the products produced. Water should be
metered by a flow device and should be maintained at a
consistent level.

(b) The provision of adequate drainage for removing spillages and

effluent from all areas of the factory. These drains should be
cleared regularly to prevent stagnation of washings and
accumulation of solid materials. The factory drains should be
separated from the domestic lines and that for surface (roof)
water.

(c) The installation of a rubber trap with a retention period of

not less than 12 hrs. for the total daily output. This allows
recovery of rubber, reduction of total suspended solids, and
mixing of the effluent. The rubber collected should be
segregated from the normal crop and processed as "factory
scrap", whilst the suspended matter collected should be
disposed of in accordance with sanitary regulations of 1 'al
authorities or used as land-fill material.

A. Crumb and Sheet Rubber Factories

6. The rubber processing factories which currently have the most

advanced stage of technology in effluent treatment are those producing crumb
and sheet rubber. This is because RRIM, through its research and development
activities have shown the effectiveness of the biological method incorpo-ating
an anaerobic and facultative ponding system in treating such effluent. An
example of a commercial plant established on the recommendation of RRIM is
given as follows:
 Annex I
Page 4

- 402 -

Figure 1

Plan Views of the Effluent Treatment Plant for

Crumb and Sheet Rubber Factories

AERK II5m
MOMu 7,

RMME
POD
aydepthi

-~~~& ,G ,r
WER
RAN AAEC PMl 35m
d
01T__ aimsage
EFFI 1-86m

75m Y
 Annex I
Page 5
- 403 -

Figure 2

Sectional Views of the Effluent Treatment Plant

INDO

XX'
SEClON '

$m W' 1.5

r-a
 Annex I
Page 6
- 404 -

7. The plant was designedto treat the effluentfrom a maximumoutput

of 20 tonnesof dry rubberper day (16 tonues of latex and 4 tonnesof field
grade rubber)with an averageconsumptionof water at 20 1/kg dry rubber. The
treatmentplant occupies0.52 ha and consistsof 2 rectangularponds connected
in series. The first anaerobicpond has a surfacedimensionof 75 m x 35 m
and an averagedepth of 1.86 m. The seconc facultativepond is 101 m x 33 m
with an averagedepth of 1.65 m. The pondsare designedto give a retention
period of 10 days and 12 days respectively.DischargeBOD levels below 100
mg/l can be achievedwith this method of treatment. The design of the ponds
is given in Figures la and lb.

8. The dischargeof effluentfrom the factoryflows along an open drain

througha 0.45 m diameterconcretepipe into a weir. The openinrg of the pipe
is severalcm above the surfaceof the efflu!entin the pond. The incomingraw
efflu.ntis directedto the bottom of the pond by the weir. The effluent
leaves the anaerobicpond throughanotherweir about 0.15 m below the surface
into a 0.45 m diameterconcretepipe which leads to the facultativepond where
it dischargesat about 0.15 m below the surface. The weir serves to prevent
any floatingparticlesin the first pond from enteringinto the facultative
pond. It also preventsany floatingmaterialfrom obstructingthe flow
between the two ponds. The final treatedeffluentleaves the aerobicpond
througha T-junctionpond pipe about 0.15 m below the surfaceinto a small
drain which links up with a nearby stream.

DesignCriteriafor Crumb and Sheet Rubber FactoryEffluentTreatmentPlant

9. For Malaysianconditionsdesign formulaeand parameterhave been

derivedfor the anaerobicand facultativepondsused to treatwastes from
crumb and sheetrubber factories. The method is summarizedbelow along with
an example.
Effluentdischargerate (estimated)
- 22 litres/kg.dry rubber content
I. Anaerobicpond

EstimatedInfluentB.O.D. - 1500 mg/litre- Li

OptimumB.O.D. volumetricloadingrate - - 150 gm B.OD./l3 /day

Relationshipbetweenthe loadingrate and the influentB.O.D. (Li)

- \ v - Li

where R - Retentiontime

B.O.D. Removalrate ( = 150) = 84% (See attachedRef. 1)

Le = 50 mg/l (Present GOM standard requirement)

 Annex I
-405- Page 7

Estimation of Retention Time for Anaerobic Pond:

X - Li
R - 1500 - 10 days
150

Factor of safety allowed

- 20% - 2 days

Total: 12 days

II. Aerobic (Facultative)Ponds

Influent to the aerobic pond - Effluent from the anaerobic pond

- (100 - 84) - 16% of 1500 mg/l

- 240 mg/l

R - 1 x 2.303 x Log (240) - 13.4 days

0.117 (50)

Factor of safety allowed - 2.6 days (Approx. 20%)

Total - 16 days

or - 2 x 8 day" Ponds

Estimation of the final discharge B.O.D., based on the actual

retention time

I. Anaerobic pond

Actual B.O.D. loading - Influent B.O.D. - 1500

R 12

- 125 g. B.O.D./m3 /day

B.O.D. Removal rate - 125 - 104g/m3 /day (see attached Ref. 1)

Total B.O.D. removal - 12 x 104 - 1248 g/m3

Effluent from Anaerobic Pond - (1500 - 1248) = 252 mg/l

 Annex I

- 406.-- Page 8

II. Aerobic Pond (1)

Using the formula:

R -1 In (Li)
K (Le)

8- 1 x 2.303 x Log (252)

0.117 Le

Le - 95.4 mg/l

III. Aerobic Find (2)

R - 1 ln (Li)
K (Le)

8 1 x 2.303 x Log (95.4)

0.117 (Le)

Le - 37.5 mg/l

Estimated final discharge B.O.D. of the effluent into the factory

stream - 37.5 mg/l

B. Remilling Factories

10. Since the BOD's of these effluents are of the order of 300 mg/l a
simple facultative pond system can be used to treat these effluents. However,
since suspended solids concentrations tend to be high, presedimentation basins
are required to trap suspended and floating solids before passing to the
facultative ponds. These ponds can be designed according to the formula and
parameter values in the preceding section. Waste water flows and BOD and
suspended solids loads must be determined for each operation. Discharge BOD's
of less than 50 mg/l can readily be obtained with this type of pond treatment,
for which operation and maintenance costs are minimal. If land area is
limited a mechanically aere d pond can be used, but this increases power and
maintenance costs.

C. Latex Concentrate Factories

11. Since pretreatment of skim rubber to recover a valuable low quality

sole crumb rubber is a highly profitable oneration the dilemma of treating
this difficult effluent has been resolved -3t expeditiously. The payback
period for this installation is less than a year The FELDA latex concentrate
(30-60Z drc) plant at Trolak has proven this tec. -ology and have installed an
anaerobic/facultativepond system which achieves very high BOD and suspended
solids removals to treat residual pollution loads from the latex concentrate
and associated crumb rubber factory.
 Annex I
Page 9
-- 407 -

12. The skim rubber and washingsfrom the centrifugeare first of all
strippedof ammoniain a cascadeof gently slopingtraysbefore neutralization
with sulfuricacid. A coagulatingagent (Busanor Naltex 7132 (at 10 ppm]) is
added to the neutralizedskim rubber and the mixturepasses throughthree
stages of coagulationand separationof latex in concretetanks before
dischargeto the drain and a finalrubber trap,where wastes from the sole
crumb rubber factoryjoins it before enteringthe effluenttreatmentplant.
Cup lumps are also processedalong with the recoveredskim rubber to produce
sole crumb rubber. The factoryproduces500 ton/monthdrc latex concentrate
and 400 ton/monthdrc crumb rubber. Effluentis generatedat the rate of 5000
Imp gallon/hrat a combinedBOD of 300-400mg/l.
13. The effluenttreatmentsystem consistse' two anaerobicponds (3 m
depth),a facultativepond (2m depth),and an algae pond (1-1.3depth)with
residencetimes of 20 days, 30 days, 20 days and 20 days, respectively.
DlschargeBOD is usuallyin the range of 30 ppm and cost of constructionwas
M$500,000.
 Annex i
Page 10
Reference 1

JuWSagaunawkPvwya&kAx G,aA M%Ak&S&

41). 20-25l9J)

Kadar Bebanan Optimum Sistem Kolam

Anaerob-Fakultatif untuk Pengolahan
Effluen GetahBungkah SMR
AiAD bb IBUM

Makala ini membentangkan sutu penilaiansemulahasil*hast kunianyang dipeolehi dari

kajian-kajian lofi penngkat percubaan untuk mengolahefluen da kldangklang getak
bungkah dengan menggunakansistem kolamsancerob-fiakutiaf. Anala menunjukkan
bahawa kritenium-kritenum rekabentuk berikut boleb digunakwa,bebanan optimum 150 g
KOB tiap m ' hani untuk peringkat anawrob;koeien pembuanganKOlB k = 0.117 hai '
uneukperingkatfakultatif Denganpendekata ini. rekabenguksinem bu akan lbib mudak
dipindadan diubahjuaikan

AbsnMt
A reeiuation of rcsults, obtained from pilot plant studies for teatment of block rubber
pondingsystem.is prvsentetd Analsis indicates that
effluentusingthe anaerobic-facultative
thefolowing deign critena maybeadoptedcoptimum loadingof 150g BOD per mJ day fo
the anaerobicstage:theBOD removalcoefflciea k = 0.117 7r for thefacukatv stag.
Thisapprwchprovidesmoreflexibility to the deign

Sebagai hasil daui kajian-kajian mendalam Satu peoilaho semula haUl-hasil kajianI 2
pada peringkatmakmal. loji percubaan dan loji percubaan tclah dibuat Makalah ini
peringkat perdagangan. sistem kolam anae- mcmbentangkS analisa p uanpenemu-
robfakultatif telah disyorkan untuk mengolab an kajian ini dan satu pendekatan rekabentuk
efluen dari kilang getah bungkah SMR". yang ebi mudab diubabsuaikan untuk sistem
Garis panduan rekabentuk yang ada sekarang pengolahan efluen dari kilang getah bungkah
(sepuluh hari anaerob - dua belas haA SMR telah diformulasikaf
fakultatil) dibuat dengan anggapan keperluan
oksigenbiokimia (KOB) yang mengalir masulk
alah 100 Mmg tiap liter dan KOB yang
mengalirkeluar ialah kira-kira 100 mg tiap Kolam
RekabentukSisem
liter. Memandangkan perbezaan yang luas
dalam KOB yang mengalir masuk 4dan juga
keperluan-keperluan alam sekitar yang ber- Gans kasar rnengenai keperiuan-kepeduan
ubahbubah. garis-garis panduan yang dikle- asas untuk rekabentuk yang berkesan bagi
luaskan perlulah diatur supaya mudah di- sistem kolam telah diberi oleb beberapa orang
pinda dan diubahsuaikan. ahli penyelidik%.

37
MAKALAH
20
 Annex I
Page
-1

- 409 -

AHMAD bin IBRAHIM:KadarBebananOptimumSistem

KolamAnaerob-Fakultat&l

Dalam sistem kolam anacrob. bebanan di mana

organik dian8gap sebagu kriterium yang
paling penting dalam membust rekabentukL
Bebanan diperturunkan dalamnbentuk berat Le = KOBefluen(mng/1)
KOB tiap unit penmukasan atau tiap unit Li = KOBaliran masuk (mg/)
isipadu. OIeh kerana dalam sistem kolam k = Turutan pertama koefisien iembuangan
anaerob mass penahanan memainkan pern. KOB (hari)
nan penting dalam kejayaan perpecahan. t = Purata mass penahanan hidraulik (hari)
bebanan yang didasarkan pada unit isipadu
adalah lebih sesuai. Kajian.kajian I telah Oleh itu pendekatan standard ialah menen.
menunjukkan bahawa bebanan yang melebihi lukan nilai. k (koefisien pembuangan KOB)
'0 B KOB tiap m ' hari pernah terdapat dalam pertakuan-perlakuan eksperimen dan
dalam beberapa air buangan. Dalam efluen menggpnakan oilai ini untuk mendapat masa
lateks pekat didapati bahawa bebanan penahanan rekabentuk mengikut dauiah peng-
optimum ialah kira-kira 120 g KOB tiap m5 olahan yang dipertukan. Perlu juga diambit
hari. Bebananyang beriebihan boteh menye. perhatian bahawa untuk mengelakkan anac-
babkan pengumpulan konsentrasi as,' meru. robiosis. bebanan KOB malsimum (aea
ap yang seterusnya mungkin akan menyekat isipadu) yang boleh dimasukkan kgedala
pembiakanbakteria metana dan dengan itu sistem fakultatif adal i terhad. Had ailui
menejaskan perpecahan anacrob. Bagaima- bebanan 30 g KOO dap m' hari didapati botch
napun. bebanan optimum ini berbeza mengi. digunakan'.
kutjenis air buangan. BAHAN DANKAEDAH
Dalamrekabentuk kolam fakultatif. sistem
aliran palam memberi taksiran yang memuas-
kan. Taksiran ini boteh ditunjukkan dengan Gambarajk I menunjukkan rajah aliru loji
pasama n percubaan yang digunakan dalam penyclidi.
> ntt (I) ~~~~~~~~~~kan
ini. Satu. huraian teliti mengenai kaedah-
L. . . . kaedah dan operasinya telah t

A Pam E Rotameter
B Tangkttakungan F Ir1ap
C Injapsaluran G Tangkianaerob
D Tangkipras air tetap H Tangkipenstabilan

Gambarajah 1. Aliran loji efluenpenngkateksperimen.

21
 Annex I
Page 12
- 410 -

luraSl l ntitut Pawiyuda Cit Malasa. JUld4. SUaDpa

1. 1960

DAFTAR1. BUTIR-DUTIR
EKSPERIMEN

Mu penau
aas hidr4ulib(MwA) Kedal kolam(m)
AsUIm Fakut Ananb Fakultat
1 685 2.4 1.2
2 11 13 2.4 1.2
3 l2.S 5 2.4 1.2
4 7 9 2.4 1.2
5 9. 10 L27 i.2
6 5 9 1.0 1.2
7 6.5 11.5 1.8 1.2
S 2.7 4.8 . 1.2
9 3.4 5.9 1.& 1.2

S5mbian percubaantelah dilakukan den. kan dalam eksperimen ni. Gambaojaha.

gan menggunakan garisganis penentuan ope. menunjukkan bebanno KOB bertentangi
rasi yang beraiana tennasuk mama usm dengan kadar pemnbuangandalam pemcubana
penahanan hidraulik dan k edilaman kolam pertana hingga yang kelims untuk peringkat
(Defta I. anacrob. Gambajeak 3 meounjukkaa peobe-
zaan kecekapanukecekapan pembuangan ber.
tentanpn dengan bebanan KOB dalam
HASILKAJIAN peringiat anemb. Daftar 3 menunjukkan
penilainkoefisienpembuanganKOB di dalam
Defter2 memunjukkanhasil-hul yangdiper- kolam penstabilan.k, untuk percubaauo-per.
okbi dari percubn-pecuban yang dilakvu cubaanyangdilakukan.

0 so , .

' i40 >

O 100 200 too100 200 3,m

Gembavjah I Plot kadar pembwteg6m Gembamph 3. Plot kecekpan pwmbueaqan

KOO b.rentsangeabe bana KOB unt*uk betentanganbebaneaKOB untukpenngkat
penngkatanemb (dale, 2 4m). anae,ob(delem 2.4m

22
 Annex I
Page 13
- 411e -

DAFrAR2. PARASKEPERLUANOKSIGENBIOKIMIADAN
PERATUSPENGURANGAN

KOB(mg/I) Pmgwanga(%)
Percubaaa AIira PenIuaru Ellum Pwiagkat Perlqka*
maauk artob &kw ansob iakt
I 1426 662 40W 53.S 39.1
2 157S 256 78 83.6 69.5
3 1543 156 S0 89.95 67.9
4 1259 335 108 73.4 67.8
5 1742 37' 125 78.6 66.4
6 IS50 394 151 74.6 61.7
7 80 18S 70 77.t 6W'
S 1040 350 180 66.4 46.6
9 1520 380 200 75.0 47.4

DAFTAR3.PENILAIAN
KOEFISIENPEMSUANGANKEPERLUAN
OKSIGENBIOKIMIAMK UNTUKPERINGKATFAKULTATIF

Percubaa Le/L; penahaa

Maa (hari) K K

i 0.61 8 0.062 0.08

2 0.31 13 0.091 0.176
3 0.32 S 0.2 0.424
4 0.32 9 0.126 0.234
S 0.34 10 0.109 0.198
6 0.38 9 0.107 0.180
7 0.38 11.5 0.085 0.143
8 0.51 4.6 0.139 0.197
9 0.53 5.9 0.109 0.1S3

L -Ko KOBdlm dun dAuipcgka fault

_awas
L4 KOOdala. alots masukkeperingk*fOkultatif
Koasmmas
Kpp - Kogflsien
pembuangan
mair.pakm
KCM - Kouelem
pembuangan
campuraamepurm
 Annex I
Page I 4
- 412 -

JurnalSainsInsuiut Pen)efidikanGetahMailaysia.Jilid4. Bilangan1. 1980

- ' .) hs

PERSINCANGAN b)Peringkatfakultatif:
Dalam menilal prestasi peringkat anacrob. MenggunakanP (1)4
rsamaan
hanyakeputusandari lima percubaaa dengan
kedalaman kolamr>2.4 m. telah digunakan. t = 1 jam 0.4 had d k
Ini adalah kerana dalamkolam sedalam< 2.4 k k6
m,faktor.faktorlain seperti kemasukansemur 0.117hari
Ia udara pada permukaandapat mempenga.
ruhi prestai sistem ini. Gambarajah 2 &ebananKOB = 17.9 g KO(/m' han '
menunjukkan bahawa kadar pembuangan iaitu kurang dari 30 g ! .,'

meningkatdengan peningkatanbebanan ke- KO8 mr' han dan oleh

perluan oksigen biokimia. Graf kecekapan itu dapat ditenma.
pembuangan (Gambarqiaj 3) menunjukkan
kecekapan pembuangan yang menurun de-
ngan peningkatankadar bebanan. Kecekapan KESIMPULAN
pembuangan dijangka akan menjadi agak
mantap pada bebanan opdmum 150g KOS Satu penilaian semula hasil-hasilkajian loji
tiap m ' hari. Memandangkanfaktor-faktor percubaantelah menunjukkanbahawa kriteri.
mini bebananoptimum150gKOBtiap mr'hari um rekabentuk beriut boleh digunakan
mungkin akan digunakan untuk peringkat dalam merebentuk sistemkolam anaemob/
anaerobyang akan memberi kecekapan fakultatifuntuk mengoah efluen dai kilang.
pembuangan kira-kira84% Daftar3 menun- kilanggetahbungkahSMR:
jukkan nilai-nilai koefisien pembuangan O.ebananoptimum150g 013 tiap mn
KOO. k untuk percubaan-percubaanyang ha*i dalamperingkatanaerob
berlainandalam eksperimenpenngkatfakul- ban 30 g KO08 tiap 'b dalam
tatif. Nilai-nilai aliran palam mempunyai
purata 0.117har' (SS = 0.447,KV= 40%) peringkatfakultatif dengan mengguna-
sementara campuran sempurna mempunyaa kan koegisien p.r.tbuangan KOB k
nilai purata 0.198harin (SS = 0.095. KV = (aliranpalam),0.117bari-'.
47.9%e).Untuk maksud ftkabentuk. nilai
aliran palamdisyorkan. Dianggarkanbahawa untuk KOS alian
masuk 1500mg tisp liter, sistem ini akao
SampelPerkiram terdiri dan 10 hari kolam anaerob dan 13.4
harIkolamfakultatifuntuk memenuhikeper-
AnggapkanKO8 aliran masulk1S00mg luan kits-kin 50 mg tiap liter KO dlaI
tiap liter dan KOB efluenyang diperlukan50 aliran kIcuaryang akhir. Untuk rekabentuk
mgtiap liter. peringkat komersial,satu faktor 10% - 20%
a) Peringkatanacrob: biasanyadimasukkan.
Menggunakanbebanan,A. 150KO/mn PENGHARGAAN
hart
,I= KOB aliran masuk di manas ia- Dalam unuse menyediakan mnaklah ini
Or lah mass pe- penulis berbanyaktgrirnaoegucapksn
Watill
nahan hidrau- kepad Ketus BahagianPesneliharaanTum-
lik h buhan dan Mikrobiologidan pepwai yang
Masapenahanan 10 mhenagaUnit PenyelidikanPenceuaran dan
Pengeluarananacrob = 240mg/l atas galakandan kerjssamayang
Mikrobiologi
KOB........ dibenkan.
denganangga
pan 84% petn-
buangan Institut Penyeidika Getah Malaysia
(Gambarajah3) Kuala Lumpur Januan1980

24
 Annex I
- 413 - Page 15e

AHMADbinIBRAHIM:KadarBebanan
Optimum
Sistem
Kobam
Anaerob-Fakultatif

RUJUICN 4. NORDIN ADD. KADIR BAKTI (1978)

perxndirian. I=twat Penyclidikan
Komunikasa
1. MUVrURAJAH. R.N., JOHN, C.K. DAN GctabMalayu
HENRY LEE (1973) D,ekeprnenu on U S. PESCOD. M.S. (1978). Design Oprtion and
Treatment of Effluent Ftom NewPtoeS SMR mantennceof Aerobic.Aerated.Fauhative
and
FactanesProc. Rabb Rtes.Inst. MalaysiaPrs'P Antetobic LagoonSysms. Kusu pendekpta
Cool.KualaLumpVw 193. 402 penidanpa. Coaf. Wag.PollUt.CeontraDewe.
loping Countries.Bengk 1978.
2. JOHN.C.K.. PONNIAH. C.D., HENRY LEE 6. AHMAD IBRAHIM SETHU.S.. MOHD. ZAIN
DAN AHMAD IRAHIM(1974)Treatment of KARIM DAN ZAID ISA (1979)Anarbic.
Efflut from Block Rubber Faoer. PRroe. FacultatifPondingSystem(orTraunent of Latex
Rubb. Res. Iot. MalaysiaPfrs Coaf. jaul. Concentrate Effluent. Pr"o. Ruhb. Rca. IMst.
LDmp" 1974.ZS. Malaysian Prs Coal.KualaLumpur1979.419.

3. AHMADI kAHIM(1978)Treatment
of Effluent 7. THIRUMURTHI.
D. (1974).DesignCuiteriafor
frona SMR Block Rubber Faaori. Prst 1ull. Was StabilisationPonds.J. Wat.Pollat.Conrtru
Rubb.Res. lilU. MalaysiaNo. 157.133. Fed.. ,a). 2074.

25
 41
+lZ . -

THE WORLDBANK OCTCBER1983

OFFICE OF ENVIROMTAL AFFAIRS

ENVIROMENTALEFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALPROJECTS
SECONDARY

1. When the Bank is financing a project in tlLe heavy industry or in

a labor intensive in-dustry, secondary effects on thne environnent will be
important and must be takeen into account.

2. These effects are the consequences of a population influx in the

town or region, and they include water and poer distribution, sewage col-
lection and treatment, housing, schools and roads.

3. In develcped countries, the ratio between enplqyment in the new

plant and new emrployrrent in the region is usually one to seven, or one to
eight. Although the conditions are different in LDC's, the same ratio can
be applied. If satellite industries, like mechanical repair shcps, for in-
staace, are less likely to be created, while the necessity of additional
services like bnrikirng or scbols is apparent.

4. As an example, a steel plant employing less than 1000 people %as

b'uilt close to a town of 6000. Five years after start-up, the town popula-
tion had jumped to 42,000 with appalling results fBr the enviromrent and
the quality of life.

5. Urbarn Develcpment Planning or Financing is the field of special-

ized departmrixts in the Bank. They should be consulted on Eroblems likely
to arise. The goal of this guideline is only to drai attention to the po-
tential trouble andl to suggest economical solutions in certain areas, thus
preventing the expansion of urban slums.

6. In the forecasts for water and power consunptions, not only the
plant requirements but also the town's future uses should be taken into
consideration. A cerumn water intake and pumping station or a coanmn power
line whenever possible, will usually prove ffore economical for both par-
ties.

7. Sewage collection and treatment should receive special atten-

tion. In the case of the steel plant mentioned above, the town had no
treatment whatsoever, with direct discharge into a river estuary. The as-
similative capacity of the estuary was sufficient at the time, but totally
inadequate for a tcwn of 42,000. The steel plant did not help by discharg-
ing untreated industrial sewage into the same river. After a few ronths
the river was dead, the beaches closed to the estuary became unhealthy and
their access had to be forbidden. Finally, commerical fishing in the bay
stopped for lack of fish.
 - 't15 -

8. A pretreatment of the industrial ef iuent fbllowed by treatnent

in a sewage plant commn to both the town and the plant has advantages for
both parties. Usually both the costs for industrial wastes control and fior
municipal sewage treatment are decreased when this solution is adcpted.

9. Domestic and industrial garbage disposal has created problems in

the steel plant project. The dispcsal should be addressed in the planning
stages and a suitable dump area identified.

10. Finally, adequate housing, schools, as well as road and transpor-

tation slhould be provided.

11. Financing of these additional expenses nay again ccmplicate the

situation. The industrial project cannot always be saddled ,.ith costs for
improving the general infrastucture of the town or che region. On the
otlher lhad, the town way not have tlhe necessary resources to face important
expenditures.
 - 416 -

THE WORLD BANK OCTQBER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

SLAUGHTERHOUSES

PART I -- INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL

1. Slauglterhousesgenerally limit their cperations to killing of

cattle and hogs, and processing of carcasses for consurer markets or prepa-
ration of a variety of products. Sheep, lamb and calves are generally han-
dled in the same manner. Such a facility may be a simple installation lim-
ited to killUng and narketing of carcasses only, or it nay be a part of a
large neat processing installation.

2. This guideline will be confined to slaughtering operations for

large aninials only. Separate guidelines have been prepared to cover neat
processing and rendering and to cover the poultry industry.

INIDJSTRPAL PRCXESS

3. For a simple slaugjterhouse oj ration, the steps generally inNo'l-

ved include holding in stockyards or pemn diLLing, blood remDval, hide re-
moval or hog dehairing, evisceration, trirmding, and cutting Eor market.
Simple slaughteehouses are srall to mrediur.. in size, with small installa-
tions having a live weight kill (LWIQ) of Lad1er 45 megagrams per day -4ile
medium installations -ay range as high as 3:() megagrams LWKper day.;~

4. A conplex slaughterhouse is one %h-.ch carries out at least three

byproduct operdtions su h as paunch and viscl. a handling, blood processing,
hide or hair processing and rendering. MOF,
v corplex slaughterhouses are
mediun to large in size, and will normally b---t a LWKabove 350 megagrams
per day. A process flow diagramn is shown in Tigure 1.

SOURCESANDCHARACTER
OF WASTES

5. Liquid wastes, carrying varying amount., of solids, are the major

concern in this industry. Volumes of solid wastes, produced rainly from
screening and housekeeping, will depend upon the degree of separationand
by-product recovery practiced at each individual plant. Other than odor
problerm, gaseous wastes are not significant. The purely hazardous types
of waste compor.ents, such as heavy metals and pesticides, are not normally
found in the effluents.

* 1 Mg = 1 megagram = 1 metric ton

 - 417 -

Figure 1. Operating and Wastewater Flow Ch.art for Simple and

Ccoplex Slaughterhouses. (From Ref. 4)

hWate >
Ani:-: ,7 1'i:n

Manurpe
| S al.g: r n., Trai

\ ' -V _.___
_. . 'i

fl.!IX r li- _~ t.e..tcr

.- I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~> c
I --- i1I
iCj
vt rRecove r%t

j 1F
By-lPrc.;Aauct
i a r ____ ___ ___ __

(eXCepL.-
!alr & nLut'S)

S vin _ Faciliz,iV.

|< By-l'rc;_K.$
t ~~~~~~~~~Boiler
e rBlowdcgn

Sanitary Facilities
 - / 8 -

6. The nmot significant pollution parameters are the 5-day biodiem-

ical oxygen demand (BOD5 ) total suspended solids (TSS), oils and greases (O
+ G), hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), and fecal coliform organisms.

7. Odors originate fram various sources, and generally result from

bacterial activity on organic matter. Putrescible substances result fran
unloading and stockpen operations, manure handling and storage, blood
collectionand storage,and storage piles of solid trash or garbage.

8. The slaughltering operation is the largest single liquid waste

source in the neat industry, and blood is the major contribution. Cattle,
for example contain up to 23 kg of blood per animal, and only 70 percent is
typically recovered for further processing. The stomach contents, when
washed out, constitute another source. However, this material is often
isolatedand eitlherprocessedor hauled to landfill,and thus does not con-
tribute to the waste effluent. Other pollution souces frcn slaughtering
operations include carcass washing, along with viscera and offal proces-
sing. In some plants hi(les are treated by arsenic dipping,producing spent
arsenic solutions vhich can present a special disposal problem.

9. Raw waste diaracteristics for a typical slaughterhouse operation

are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Typical Raw Waste Characteristics- SlaughterhouseOperations.

Type of Flow BOD5 TSS O+G a/

plant (Liters) (kg) (kg) (kg)

Simple Plant 5,330 6.0 5.6 2.1

Complex Plant 7,380 1 9.6 5.9

I___1 ______~~.j~~ 1 _I
a/ 0 + G = Oils and Greases

EFFLUENTLIMITATICNS

10. Effluent limitationsfor slaughterhousewastes, based or tech-

nology currently known to be available,are presented in Table 2.
 41G -

Table 2. Maximum Daily Liquid Effluent Limitations - Slaughterhouse

Cperations.

Type of BOD5 TSS oQG a/ pH

Plant (kg) b/ (Kg) c/ (kg)

Simple Plant c/ 0.12 0.20 0.06 6 - 9

Complex Plant c/ 0.21 0.25 0.08 6 - 9

a/ 0 + G = Oils and Greases

7 Per megagram Live Weight Killed
7 MPNLFecal Coliform count less than 400 per 100 mL. (milliliters)

11. For installations Where the kill is less than 50 head of cattle
(or th-e equivalent weight in other animals) then these limitations need not
be applied. The appraisal or supervision mission should, however, be cer-
tain that adequate precautions are taken to avoid irreversible dmage to
the environment and the creation of any occupational health problems.

CONTROLAND TREATMENT
OF WASF.3ES

12. Ordrs are the only significantair pollution problen connected

with this industry,and these can be controlledby air scrubbers. Scrubber
waters may be recycled in most cases.

13. Liquid waste discharges can be rediuced in volume and concentra-

tion tlhrougl effective water nanage-ment, in-plant waste controls, process
nodifications, and by the use of treatment systems. The wastes may also be
released to municipal sewers provided that certain pretreatment measures
are taken prior to disdiarge. These measures will depend upon local regu-
lations ard the degree of treatxent provided by local facilities.

14. In-plant control tedhniques include the use of screening, skim-

ming, or settling (alone or in combination) to reduce the disdharge of sol-
ids. Because these solids, to a large degree, can be processed into sale-
able by-products, this primnry treatrient is routinely employed in nmst
plants. Excess solids can be haulE-d to a lardfill. Where possible,
measures slhouldbe taken to prevent usBful naterials (such as blood, paunch
manure, pieces of tissue, etc.) from reaching the floor, in order to reduce
general cleanup operations. This conser-;-s water and reduces effluent vA1-
ures. Catch basins sholild be used for separation of greases and other sol-
ids.
 - 42C -

15. Biological systems cn generally be used to treat slaughterhcuse

wastes, particularly where in-plant primary treatment for recovery of use-
ful solids is being applied. Secondary treatmrent, sudi as anaerobic pro-
cesses, aerobic lagoons, activated sludge and high-rate trickling filtra-
tion are the techniques most frequently used. If additional treatment is
required, the effluent nay be subjected to slcw sand filtration, micro-
straining, spray irrigation, ion-exchange or other tertiary treatm.ent
systems.

16. Where arsenic dipping is used for treating hides, then measures
will be required to protect the health of wiorklers and to prevent spills
outside the plant. Special measures nust be taken for the safe dispDsal of
spent arsenic solutions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 "Informtion Sources on the Meat Processing Industry". UN Industrial

Develcpment Organization. Doc. UNIDO/LIB/SFER.D.1/Rev. 1. New York
(1976).

2. Jones, Hlarold R. "Pollution Control in Meat, Poultry and Seafood Proces-

sing". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J., and London (1974).
3. Levie, Albert. "The Meat Handbook". AVI Publishing Co., Westpnrt,
Conn. (1963).

4. U.S. Environmiental Protection Agency - "Develcpm-ent Document for

Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Perfornmance Stanirds for
the Red Meat Processing Segment of the Meat Product ar] Rendering
Processing Point Source Category". Doc. EPA-440/1-74-012-a. Washington
(February 1974).

5. IJ.S. Environmental Protection Agency - "Upgrading Meat Packing

Facilities to Reduce Pollution". EPA Tedinology Transfer Seminar
Publication. (3 Vols.) WYashington (October 1973).

6. Moodie, S.P. and P.F. Greenfield - "Treatment of Abattoir Effluent by

Trickling Filtration". J. Water Porllution Control Federation. V.50, pp
2741-2751. Washington (Deceriber 1978).
 - 1 -

THE WORLDBANK OCTOBER L983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

SLAUGHTERHOUSES

PART II -- PLANT DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

1. Most slauchterhcuses confonm to certain basic design principles,

irrespective of minor variations in layout and equipment. The modest
throughput of somre slaughterhouses calls for a simple structure, but re-
gardless of size it must be suitably equipped to function efficiently and
economically under gpod sanitary conditions. Knowledge of Local con-
ditions, consurmr habits and butchers' interests must all be considered in
the final planning. Operational problems can be avoided if basic require-
ments are considered eqzually applicable to both small and large installa-
tion.

2. A firm specializing in slaugnterhcuse design, construction and

operation should be engaged to prepare necessary layouts and drawings, to-
gether with the construction an1 engineering specifications required for
tender documents. The designs should be prepared in close collaboration
with the National and local health authorities. Following comapetitive bid-
ding, a contract for the construction of the slaughterhouses can be award-
ed. The aaird may be as a turnkcy if this is chemed to be most advanta-
geous for tle client. The contract sbould include not only tlhe construc-
tion of buildings but also the supply of all plant and madhinery, and the
engineering supervision required to initiate cperations. Ancillary facil-
ities, utility services, administration offices and staff anmenities should
also be included in the design and construction.

3. A contract for thie construction of one small slaughterhouse unit

would probably be of interest to local contractors only, as would the sup-
plying of the necessary equipment and materials. However, a contract for
several units would be of international interest anid would receive much
wider attention. Many large finms manufacturing slaughterhouse equiprent
and machinery can provide a wide range of services throagh design offices
staffed by specialists to cover all phases of the planning. Competitive
proposals should be obtained from such firms.

LOCATIONAND SITING

4. A slaughterhcuse should be sited in a strategic location for

livestock procurement either fran the local market or fram supplies deli-
vered by transport. The availability of gNod communications and transpDr-
tation is also essential for prouiding easy access to consumer markets.
 - 422 -

The location should be away fran built-up areas or those zoned for future
residential developn.ent. Labor and technical services, adequate power and
water supplies, and easy means of effluent disposal should also be readily

5. The site area for a srmll slaughterhouse should be not less than
3 hectares for any size plant, however, it is desirable to appropriate as
much land as possible in the beginning to provide for (a) possible future
expansion, (b) the holding of excess livestock in an eiergency and (c)
ready means for disposal of effluent, particularly paunch contents and
other solid wastes. There is little disadvantage to locating an
installation adjacent to a receiving body of water form the standpoint of
waste disposal. Waste effluents are subject to specified limitations, as
discussed in Part I of this Guideline, in order to protect receiving water
quality.

PLANT BUILDINGS

6. The slaughterhouse should be designed and constructed to meet the

sanitary standards established by the National and local Public Health,
Veterinary, and other authorities in-volved. The nain building should be a
single story structure of simple design to contain separate slaughter sec-
tions for cattle and for hogs, including provisions for an efficient neat
inspection service. CarcaQses from slaughter floors are to be carried on
rails to a hanging hall which is also part of the nain building. A snmal
partitioned area is to be provided to serve as a detention bay for holding
doubtful carcasses awaiting futher examination by neat inspectors.

7. If the receiving market is limited to purchasing fresh neat only,

and shipment is made on an "as killed" basis, then chill roars and refri-
geration plants need not be included in the investment cost. However, it
is desireable that provision be made for chilling carcassses, in case of
marketing or other cianges in the future. Therefore, space should be pro-
vided in the hanging rom. area to install a chill roan unit. Loading faci-
lities for carcasses and one for offal and other "dry" wastes should adjoin
the carcass hanging hall. A section of the nain building, next to the
slaughter floors, is to be partitioned off for cleaning and washing the
hides.

8. Al1 slaughterhouse building walls are to be finished on the

inside with a flat, washable surface. Floors should be of concrete with a
minimum slcpe of 1.5% to standard drains and should be surfaced with non-
slip, impact-resistant naterials. Ample ventilation is required throughout
the building and all cpenings to the outside must be screened. Working and
inspection areas must be provided with adequate illumination.

9. If all intestines, lungs, blood and rermins are sold for cff-site
use and consumption, very little remains for conversion as by-products
apart fran any condemned carcasses. Howexer, it is necessary to provide
for whatever must be stored or otherwise handled and a separate building is
considered best for this purpose. A structure having high walls, a snDoth
impervious interior finish, and a solid concrete floor with suitable drain-
age leading to the catch basin should be provided. The same building can
 - 423 -

also accoiodate a small maintenance workshop, the boiler, and laundering

Eacilities for tlhe industrial clothing. A well ventilated building will be
required for the salting and storage of hides. The adndnistrationoffices,
chlange rooxms,showers and toilets require separate buildings suitably
finished and equipped. Th-is buildingshouLd be simple and utilitarian.

10. 'Ib minimize fly nuisance and insect infestation, animal receiving
and holding areas for livestock awaiting slaughter should be located well
away fram the slaughterhcuse. The tWD are to be connected by a race or
crush. The livestock pens will have a roof for shade, and concrete floors
witlhi drains located outside the enclosures. The pens should be surrounded
by curbs to prevetnt the spread of manure and liquids beyond the holding
area. If the nens are to be washed dlown, a manure trap will be required to
recover solids. A drinking trough with a piped supply of water shoul(d be
placed in each holding pen. A small quarantine enclosure is required for
isolating sick animals.

PLANT OPERATIONSANDEQUIPMENT

11. Complex and costly machinery is not required to process the

mrodest tlhrouclpput of small plants, and significant savings can be ach'neved
by local procirerent of many equipmrent items. For example, hanging saLls
a,.d supporting steelwork can be fabricated witDout difficulty. Guillotine
doors, morking platformus, paundi-ing tables, offal tanks, paLrdi and hide
tarks can all be constcucted locally.

12. All equipTrentin contact with edible products should be stainless

steel, vhile w%ridng platfora3 and other heavy egquip-rent should be galvan-
ize(d. Tubularlegs are considered'bestfor all tables, platfonns,and tank
stands. Angle irons vhid-i collect dirt are to be avoided and w,od shoald
not be used for any purp)ose in the production areas. Wash basins and knife
sterilize-rs nust be strategicallylocated in the slauchter and dressing
sections.

13. A strict routine of preventive maintenance must be established

and followed. Equipment manufacturers are to supply details on the routine
maintenance require;d for tlhe items vhich they furnish, including a list of
recormended s,Are units and parts to be aoquired VWnere several
slauglterlouses are to be constructed in a region, consideration should be
given to standardizing pat-ts and equiprrent, and to the establishient of a
central workshop and spare parts inventory for replacing or repairing large
itemrs such as hoists, electric saws, and motors. In case of a mechanical
breakdown at any of tlhe regional installations, the spare item ccildl be
ily supplied Ercmthe central stores and installed. At t'nesame tine
 - 424 -

14. For the cattle slaughter floor, a simple bed system of flaying
(skin removal) is desirable,using nobile dressing trolleys. Back flaying
will be fran an elevated pcsition using a manual hoist. A snall cdily
slaughter of less than 20 animals does not justify electric stunning
equipment, electric hoists or mechanical flaying machines. The hog section
usually has a larger tnroughput and will be equipped with electric stunning
apparatus, mechanical scalding and de-hairing machines.

15. Where only small amounts of inedible materials are available for
processing, the high cost of purchasing or cperating pressure cockers,
centrifuges, or expellers is not warranted. Instead, any necessary
rendering can be carried out by cooking in locally made tanks fitted with
open and closed steam coils. A small grinding machine should be included
in the equipment initially provided.

16. A conical tripe washer, tables, and washing tarks should be pro-
vided for cleaning intestinesand tripe vhere the quantities of these by-
products are too small to justify the cost of a mechanized plant. In addi-
tion, Cor small plants, all animals passing through the slaughtering will
be numbered so that the viscera will reach the offal cleaning roan in the
sarie sequence as the slaug'htering. In small plants, viscera cleanitng will
be carried out by the butchers and their crews until such time as othier
wrovisions can be made. To maintain god sanitary conditions in the plaunt
and in the rreat delivery vans, as well as for identification purposes, the
butdiers are to be provided with plastic bags to hold the cleaned intes-
tines.

17. Steam will be required to heat water for the de-hairing of pigs,
to clean the slaughterhouse and plant, to render inedible products, and to
sterilize utensils such as knives and cleavers. For these purposes, an
oil-fired boiler using diesel fuel oil should be installed. The boiler
would be supplied with all necessary valves, gauges, pump and electrical
connections for autonatic operation ard control.

18. The slaughterhouse production crews should be provided with

protective clothing. To maintain the gantents in a clean condition, a
wrishing tTad-iine
and dryer are to be included in the initial equipiTent
installation.

WATER SUPPLY

19. A slaughterhiousermst have an adequate supply of water available

at a suitable pressure throughoutthe plant and, in addition,a sufficient
supply of hot water during working hours. If a constantard anple munici-
pal supply is not available then a study of water supply sources must be
included as part of the site selection and approval process. Prcvi-sions
should be made in the investment cost estimates fDr a ground supply, with
thle required pumps and piping. For estimating purposes, water usage will
amount to 1,200 liters per animal mnit, as a minimum. A head tank, with a
capacity of at least 25,000 liters snoul(d also be provided.
 - 425 -

20. Only supplies which meet the bacterial standards for drinking
water should be used. The supply should show no coliform bacteria in 100
ml of sample. Natural waters will often meet this standard, depending upon
the source. Since such quality is readily attainable by effective
treatment, a chlorinated supply will be suitable. Surface water is likely
to be heavily polluted arid contain high amnunts of organic matter. Full
treatment, (including sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination) is
necessary before use. 1iowever, it is unlikely that supplies frcm deep
wells would require this degree of treatment.

21. The plant water supply should be chlorinated, as a ninimum of

treatment, regardless of source. Chlorine dosage sbould be sufficient to
provide a residual of at least 0.5 mg/L after a 20-minute contact period.
Automatic chlorine dosing facilities should be included in the list of
equipnent to be installed if the supply is not ctherwise treated.

EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

22. For waste disposal purposes, traps should be located at strategic

points in the drainage system to separate large solids fran the effluent.
Ideally, the site plan should be arranged so that the land falls away frcm
the "dirty" side of the buidlings, (the stock pens, slaughter floor and of-
fal cleaning sections) to cpen land below. For a small plant, such a situ-
ation lends itself to a simple gravity systen of effluent disposal-first
tlhrough a catch basin to trap fats and solids, then thrcugh filter beds and
finally to irrigation of crcps.

23. Slaughterhcuse dhrains should lead directly to one or nore octch

basins suitably locited away fron the premises. A conventional over/under
gravity flow type basin, with four or five chambers is suitable. Pumps and
piping or other means will be required for periodic draining of the
basins. Since most of the offal, organs, and other remains are converted
to useful byproducts, there should be little material present in the efflu-
ent which might create difficulties with an excess of fatty materials.

24. Effluent characteristics, discharge limitations, and currently

available treatment technology are discussed in Part I, of this guideline.

FACILITIES
PERSONALHYGIENEANDWASHDOWN

25. In order to determine vinat facilities need to be provided to as-

sure acceptable personal hygiene and plant washdown procedures, it is
essential that such procedures be established during the planning stages.
Suggested measures for avoiding contamination of the plant's output are
presented below to identify the provisions Which should be made for this
purpose.

26. Each slaughterhouse unit should be provided with a separate near-

by building, housing personnel hygiene facilities such as showers, wash ba-
sins, clothes lockers, toilets and first-aid facilities. Each person
reporting for duty should be required to wash hands, preferably in a sodiurm
hypochlorite solution. The individual would then be issued clean co'ver-
alls, apron and cap and leave whatever personal clothing that is not neces-
sary for %urk in the lockers situated in the locker roan. Provisio-is
should be made for all personnel to wash hards after using the toilets arn
before returning to the work area. Before entering the slaughterhcuse,it
is desirable that each person walk thirough a shallaw bath containinga dis-
infectant solution. Hand washing should be required again after entering
the slaughter roam.

27. Prior to camxencement of the day's cperations, each section of

the slaugiterhauseis to be washed down with 'hotwater. During each shift,
floors should be frequently cleared of waste and washemd down tnorcughly
with 'notwater, followed by spraying with a bactericidal solution. Parti-
cular attention should be given to drains.

28. Any trays or containers used in processing slhouLd be left in an

inverted position after waslhing. All knives, sharpeningsteels, clea-vers,
and other utensils should be sterilized in boiling water at the end of the
day's work and again before resuming vwrk the next day. All waste traps
should be cleaned daily. At least twice each weEk catch basins shoulldbe
corpletelyenptied of both liquid and solid contents, and thoroughly clean-
ed. Livestock pens and slaughterhouse surrwundings must be cleanel daily
and sprayed with insecticides. A constant watch should be kept fror pos-
sible breeding places for flies or other insects.
 - 427

THE WORLD BANK APRIL 1984

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

SULFUR DIOXIDE AMBIENT LEVELS

GUIDELINES

1. Man-made emissions of sulfur dioxide originate from a variety of

sources discharging to the atmosphere. The major source is from the
combustionof fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Some 90 to 95 percent of
pollution-relatedsulfur oxide emissions are in the form of sulfur diox-
ide. Another source of sulfur dioxide is auto exhaust gases, although it
accounts for a relatively small portion of such discharges to the at-
mosphere. This guideline will concern itself with stationary sources only,
particularly those resulting from comrbustion of fuels containingsulfur.

2. Sulfur dioxide oxidizes in the atmosphere to form sulfates, a

particulate form of sulfur conpounds. These compounds may have adverse ef-
fects on human health and property, depending upon particle sizes, the par-
ticulate form of sulfur present, dispersion as affected by weather condit-
ions, and the presence of other pollutantswhich may magnify the effects.

SOURCES AND EFFECTS

3. Sulfur dioxide, has a sharp and choking odor, and is considered

to be one of the most dangerous gases to man. It is one of several forns
in which sulfur circulates globally. The sulfur cycle also includes
hydrogen sulfide gas, sulfuric acid aerosol, and several sulfate salts in
aerosol form. For purposes of this discussion, an aerosol is defined as a
suspension of liquid droplets or solid particles in a gas.

4. The concentration of populations into large metropolitan areas,

with the resulting energy needs and industrialactivity, causes the emiss-
ions to accurulateover these areas and disperse slowly. A US study, made
in 1968, showed nationwidedistributionof sulfur oxide emission sources to
be as follows:

Fuel combustion 73.5%

Coal 60.5%
Residual fuel oil 11.8%
Distillate fuel oil 1.2%

IndustrialProcesses 22.0%
Transportation 2.4%
Coal Refuse 1.8%
Solid Waste Disposal 0.3%
 420' -

5. Electric power plants, the bulk of which utilize coal and oils as
fuel, are the leading sources of sulfur dioxide emissions, as shown above.
Except for transportation sources (which include motor vehicles, vessels,
and railroads), over 97% of the nan-made sources are stationary. The de-
gree of sulfur dioxide production from any individual source depends not
oaly on the amount, but also on the type of fuel burned.

6. Sulfur, in a free or combined state, occurs in practically all

fossil fuels. When freed to the atmosphere, usually by combustion, the
sulfur or its corpounds react with the oxygen present in the air to form
oxides. These can combine with noisture to fonrn sulfurous acid, followed
by formation of sulfuric acid, as follows:

S0 2 + H 2 0 - H 2 S0 3

S02 + 1/202--m S03

S0 3 + H20 H2 S0 4

7. Acids forned in the atrsphlere fall with rain and can affect
crops and plants, and surface waters (particularly lakes). Some lichens,
for example, s-tore acid in their roots then die, and they are sometimes
used as indicators of sulfur dioxide fallout.

8. Sulfur dioxile emissions, through the formation of acids and

other salts in the atmosphere, can cause danrages to human health and prop-
erty. High levels of sulfate concentrations will aggravate asthma, lung
and heart disease. Sulfur dioxide in the presence of photochemical oxi-
dants and by-products such as sulfuric acid and hydrogen sulfide has been
shown to af fect the respiratory tract . It is also widely believed that
long term exposure to sulfates may increase the likelihood of respiratory
illness such as bronchitis, emphysema and asthma. This effect is more pro-
bable when high concentrations of particulates are present.

9. Sensitive vegetation can be severely damaged by low levels of

sulfur dioxide, levels even lower than those said to cause distress to lung
diseased patients. Such effects result from the synergistic action of
sulfur dioxi.de with low levels of ozone or nitrogen oxide which may be
present. Wheat, barley, oats, white pine, cotton, alfalfa, buckwheat,
sugar beets, and other crop plants have been reported killed by relatively
low levels of sulfur dioxide fallout. Studies made in the USSR during the
past decade showed that pine trees growing in an atrosphere having S0 2 con-
centrat-ions of 500 ug/m 3 had a growthi loss of 48 percent in comparison with
pine trees growing in an atxrosphere free of SO2 .

10. Sulfur oxides and their acid by-products will attack any exposed
metal surface, including steel rail tracks. Reactions will also occur on
other substances such as brick, stonework and even granite, (such as
statues and mnnunents). Plastics, rubber, paper, and many other similar
materials will become discolored and brittle when exposed. Buildings,
bridges, steel girders, autoTobiles and highways are all affected by
excessive emissions.
 - 429 -

EMISSION SAMPLINGAND MEASUREMENT

11. Altliough several units have been used in the past to express the
concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the air, the unit in mosc cormmn use
today is in term of weight per unit volunre of air-microgranms of S per
cubic meter of air (pg/mrn). This unit should be used by the Bank's staff
in their reports dealing with this pollutant. Where analytical resulcs are
giverl in parts per million (ppm) of S02, the data can be oonverted to
Pg/ni 3 as follows:

1 ppm SO2 = 2620 pg/m3

It is important to note that this conversion factor applies to SO2 only,

and will not apply to any otLer substance having a different molecular
weight.

12. Because industrial operations may involve frequent cyclic

clianges, the timing of testing or nmnitoring must be properly coordinated.
Individual polluting substances sliould be identified and fluctuations of
peak loadings determined in advance. All the variables associated with
source testing slhould be considered so that the sampling and analytical re-
sults will be representativeof thleentire source process.
13. Proceduresfor the collectionand analysisof both stationary and
aTbient source samples, for .letermining sulfur dioxide levels, are contain-
ed in the guideline titled "Sulfur Dioxide Sampling and Analyses",avail-
ble from the Bank's Office of EnvironmentalAffairs.

ACCEPTABLESTANDARDS

14. Stan(dards are generally of two types -- emission and ambient.

T,nission standards apply to allowable cDncentrations at the source, such as
stacks, ventilating systers and otlei discliarge points. Ambient standards
apply to the allowable concentrations of a contaminant in the air surround-
ing an industrial area or community. Emission levels are necessary for
identification of specific pollution sources and design of remedial works.
Ambient levels are essential for determining possible environmental damages
and for avoiding adverse physical, health and otLer effects upon the sur-
roundingarea and its inhabitants. The standardspresented below represent
the ozncentrations of SO2 which may be permitted in the area surrounding
the emission source.
 - 430 -
15. For all Bank projects ambient air concentrationsof sulfur oxides
should not exceed the fo]lowing for new plants:

Inside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 pg/m3

Max. 24-hr. peak 1000 ug/&n3

Outside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 pg/m 3

Max. 24-hr. peak 500 ug/m3

16. In special situations strict adherence to these standards may be

difficult. All such cases are to be carefully documented by the Bank miss-
ions. Factors which may affect the ability to meet these standards in-
clude:

-- Expansion of existing plant - The annual arith-

metic mean and the Max. 24-hr peak resulting from
the oxmbinationof the old units with the new ones
slLouldbe no greater than tle values obtained for
the old units alone.

More simply, emission plumes fromxnew and existing

sources should not mix to the extent that combined
ambient concentrations exceed maximum ambient concen-
tratiorns obtained fran the existing source alone. Tnis
may be accomplished 'ry (a) increasing the stack height
of the new source, (b) changing the stac]c location of
tne new source, or (c) reducing new source emission
levels. Furthernore, if p] ie rnixing is not a problern,
the new source units should by themselves meet the albve
standards.

= Revamping of existing plants - Every effort should

be made to decrease existing pollution levels and
provide measures wlhich will minimize concentrations
without placing unreasonable economic bur.lens on the
industry.

- Inversions - When the S02 source location

i3 in a valley or surrounded by mountains,
inversion layers which may occur during certain
seasons of the year, could trap the stack
emnissions. These emissions can drcp back to
ground level, stagnate there, and damage
crops sensitive to SO2 and NOx. In some pro-
jects, it may be impossible to change the site
location (i.e. in case of an expansion of an
existing plant). In this case, to protect crops,
the peak concentration will be lecreased fron
500 ug/m 3 during 24 hours down to 350 uig/rn3 during
4 hours, unless it can be shown that the effluent
will not be trapped by tle inversion layer.
 - 431 -

Non-ferrous metal smelters - Substitutions of

flash or electric furnacesmay be necessary to
meet guideline requirements.

17. The existing US national ambient air quality standards are given
below for conparisonwith the above figures.

-- Primary - based on health effects on humans

Annual arith. mean: 80 pg/rn 3

Max. 24-hir. - once yearly: 365 pg/rn'3

- Secondary - based on environmental effects

Annual arith. mean: 60 ug/m 3

Max. 24-hr. - once yearly: 260 pg/m 3
Max. 3-hr. - once yearly: 1300 ug/m3

CONTROLTECHNOLOGY

18. Technology to be applied for control of emissions must be

designed for each individuial case since, in rnst instances, the system used
must be capable of reuaoving or reducing more than one pollutant at the same
time.

19. Since SO2 emissions are due principallyto the content of sulfur
and its compounds in the coal and oil used for fuel, the first measure to
be considered is the substitution of low sulfur fuels or natural gas. Any
increase in fuel costs slhould be balanced1 against the cost of treating the
gaseous wastes.

20. Emissions may be reduced through process changes. In-plant meas-

ures oould include changing raw materials, modifying process operations, or
recovering and reusing materials otherwise being wasted through the stack.
Raising the point of discharge above the ground, by increasing the stack
height, will reduce contaminant concentrations at ground level.

21. When measures such as those outlined above cannot be applied,

chemical or physical processes should be utilized. Sulfur dioxide may be
removed by adsorption, absorption, or a chemical process such as catalytic
conversion. In sane of these processes, the S02 can be renoved and serve
as the raw material for sulfuric acid production.

22. One of the promising methods for flue gas desulfurization utiliz-
es the reaction of magnesium oxide with S02 to form magnesium sulfite. The
magnesium sulfite solids are separated by centrifuging, dried to rernove the
mvoisture, and then calcined to regenerate the magnesium oxide for recy-
cling, and generate concentrated SO2 to be used for sulfuric acid produc-
tion.
 - Z432 -

23. Limestone scrubbershave been used successfullyfor ciesulfuriza-

tion of flue gases. Injectionof lime or magnesium into the fuel comibust-
ion chamber has also been effective in reducingsulfur dioxide emissions.
However, it slhould be noted that these processes produce calcium sulfate
wastes, which can present a disposal problem. They are therefore recom-
mended in areas wlhere lard is both available and inexpensive.

24. Ammonia scrubbing systems have been in successful operation in

sulfaricacid plants since the mid 1930's. The main drawbaclk has been the
disposalof the amnonium sulfate by-product. Any World Bank financedsul-
furic acid plant where the sponsor insists on a single absorption design
slhould be equipped with ammonia scrubibing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency. "HealthEffects of Air Pollu--

tion". Washington (June 1976).

2. "EnvironmentalConsiclerationsfor the IndustrialDevelopmentSector".

The Vorld Bank. Washiington(August 1978).

3. Pasztor, L., Selmeczi,J. G., and Labovitz. C. "Stack Gas Desulfuri-

zation Residue Management". Presentedat NationalConferenceon Man-
ageinentand Disposal of Residues fromnTreatment of IndustrialWaste-
waters. Washinqton (February3-5, 1975).

4. U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. "CapsuleReport-FlueGas Desul-

furizationand SulfuricAcid ProductionVia MagnesiaScrubbing". Doc.
EPA-625/2-75-007. Washington, (1975).

5. "Air Quality Criteriaand Guides for Urban Air Pollutants". Report of

a IHO Expert Comnittee. WHO TechnicalReport Series No. 506. World
Health Organization.Geneva (1972).
6. Andrews,W.A. Moore, D.K., and LeRoy, A.C. "A Guide to the Study of
EnvironmentalPollution". Prentice-Hall,Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey (1971).

7. "Manual on Urban Air Quality Management". EuropeanSeries No. 1 World

Health Organization,RegionalOffice for Europe. Copenhagen (1976).

8. Ismerov,N.F. "Controlof Air Pollutionin the USSR". Public Health

Paper No. 54. World HIealthOrganization. Geneva (1973).

9. Proceedings- "Seminar on Desulfurizationof Fuels and Combustion

Gases". UN Econonic Conrission for Europe, Held in Geneva, 16-20
November 1970. Doc. ST/ECE/AIR POLL/1. United Nations, New York.
(1971).
 - 42)3 -

10. Proceedings - "Seminar on Control of 1Emissions from the Non-Ferrous

Metallurgical Industries". UN Economic Commission for Europe. Held in
Dubrovnik, 19-24 Novernber 1973. IDc. 1ELE/ENV/5. United Nations, New
York (1974).

11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Performance Test Methods".

Doc. EPA 340/2-78-011. Washington,D. C. (1978).
 - /r 0 -

THE WORLD BANK APRIL 1984

OETICE OF ENVIRONMENTALAFFAIRS

SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION STANDARDS

GUIDELINES

1. Emission standards specify the maximum amount of a given pollu-

tant which can be released into the atmosphere from a given source. Stand-
ards may be expressed in mass released per unit time, or per unit of pro-
duct, or sometimes per unit of feed. Emission standards are set in most
countries on an industry by industry or plant-by-plant basis. Some coun-
tries have established nationwide "emission guidelines" which serve as a
reference point for discussionsbetween regulatory authorities and the in-
dustry/plant concerned.

2. Sulfur dioxide presents some unusual problems. It is a cormrn

gaseous pollutant from niany fossil fuel burning sources as well as ferrous
and non-ferrous smelting operations. As a consequence, it is virtually
ubiquitous and presents a background value practically everywhere. In ad-
dition sulfur dioxide emissions present a double environmental hazard: in
its original form it is a threat to human health and the environment, and
given sufficient time in the atmosphere it slcwly converts into sulfates
which are a serious health hazard as well as a prime conponent of acid
rain. Environmental problems from "acid rain" may occur hundreds of kilo-
meters from the emission source. It has been identified as a major factor
in acidifying lakes and destroyingforests.

3. Acid rain mechanisms are not well understood, but the pollution
control philosophy of building higher stacks for reducingambient pollutant
levels cannot be wholly relied on for sulfur dioxide. This technique is
i,Lore likely to cause acid rain problems at great distances from the source
and does not reduce the net amount of sulfur dioxide released to the atmos-
phlere.

4. Thus, for the two reasons presented above (the widespread inci-
dence of sulfur dioxide, and the acid rain potential) World Bank emission
standards are established with due regard to (1) background levels of sul-
fur dioxide, and (2) placing a reasonable limit on absolute emissions.
These guidelines are presented in Table 1.

5. r'romthe Table it is seen that two independent criteria must be

met. Criterion I is primarily a function of background conditions and sul-
fur content of feedstock. Criterion II is a function of background con-
ditions, local meteorology and terrain, and stack height. Each criterion,
when applied results in a certain sulfur removal requirement (SRR). When
 - .35 -

deternmining allcwable emissions, the highest SRR calculated should be ap-

plied. Criterion II requires an appropriate mathematical dispersicn model
to determine actual concentrations.

Table 1.

Sulfur Emission Guidelines

Sulfur Background
Levels (jg/rn 3 ) Criterion II
Max. allowable
ground level
Background Air Criterion I increment to
Quality (SO2 Annual Max. 24-hour Max. SO2 ambient (ug/m3
Basis) Average Interval Emission One Year Average)
_(TDP)

Unpolluted <50 <200 500 50

Moderately
Polluted*
Lcw 50 200 500 50

High 100 400 100 10

Very Polluted** >100 >400 100 10

* For intermediatevalues between 50 and 100,g/m 3 linear interpolations

should be used.

** No projects with sulfur dioxide emissions are recommended in these

areas.

6. Consider the following examples for two coal fired power plants:

Plant Size: 1000 MW

100 MWi

Heat Rate: 9760 BTU/Kwhr. (35 percent overall efficiency)

Annual Capacity Factor: 80 percent

Fuel: Lignite 6000 BTU/lb
4 percent sulfur

7. For these plants, a mathematical model determined the follawing

maximum ground level concentrations contribution for sulfur dioxide (annual
average):
 - 436 --

Plant S02 Ground Level Contribution

1000 MW 30 pg/m3
100 MW 3vug/m3

8. Based upon these data the following results are obtained for
locating each plant in an area that is considered either currently polluted
or currently unpolluted.

Uncontrolled
Uncontrolled Ambient
Sulfur Dioxide Concentration
Plant Size/Location Emissions (TPD) Criterion I SRRI Increment Criterion IT SRRII

1000 HW
3
Polluted Area 1250 100 92% 30pig/m 10 67%
3
Unpolluted Area 1250 500 60% 30)ug/m 50 OX

100 HW
3
Polluted Area 125 100 20% 3 jg/m 10 0%

Unpolluted Area 125 500 0% 3/ug/m3 50 0%

9. Thus in all cases SRRI (the sulfur reroval requirement under

Criterion I) dominates: for a 1000 MWplant in a polluted area 92% removal
of sulfur is required and the same plant in an unpolluted area only 60%
removal is needed. For a 100 MWplant in a polluted area 20% sulfur
removal is required and in an unpolluted area, no sulfur removal is
necessary.

CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

10. The emission criteria are applicable to all fixed point indus-
trial sources of sulfur dioxide. However, the control technology discus-
sion presented belcw is primarily for fossil fuel burning facilities:coal
or oil fired pcwer plants and steam boilers unless otherwise stated.

11. It is expected that desulfurization technologies will play an in-

creasing role in sulfur dioxide control standards and strategies in the
future. The mtst conmDnly used methods for sulfur control are grouped as
follows:

(a) Fuel desulfurization processes--which consist

of coal, oil, and gas cleaning. With coal, de-
sulfurization of pyritic sulfur is acconplished
with heavy media flotation. Unfortunately, if
the sulfur is not present in pyritic form this
 - 437 -

technique is not effective. Oil and gas desul-

furization is effected with catalytic hydrogena-
tion to hydrogen sulfide and subsequent removal
by any number of removal processes.

(b) Fuel conversion--any number of processes which

convert the entire feedstock to a lighter form;
oil to gas, coal to liquid fuel, coal to gas
with subsequent hydrogen sulfide removal by pro-
cesses referred to above.

(c) Process mrodifications and especiallyrodification

of conmtstion techniques--in som countries sulfur
is effectively recovered and either recycled in the
operation or sold as a byproduct. This situation
arises in chemical wood-processing, pulp and paper,
non-ferrous smelting, foundries, oil refining and
sulfuric acid manufacturing plants.

Fluidized bed combustion with lime or limestone

injection and recirculaton of combustion gases
offers a significant reduction of sulfur dioxide
emissions. This process is new, but vendors are
willing to provide performance guarantees. As long
as the purchaser recognizes he will be operating
more of a chemical process unit rather than a con-
ventional boiler, this can be an attractive possi-
bility.

(d) Flue gas desulfurization--consists of processes

which scrub sulfur dioxide from the flue gas into
a liquid. Scrubbing liquids can remove the sulfur
dioxide permanently (non-regenerable processes such
as lime-limestone slurry) or tenporarily (regener-
able processes such as magnesium slurry or sodium so-
lution). Regenerable systems release concentrated
sulfur dioxide for further use or sale (as sulfur,
sulfuric acid, etc.) and allow the scrubbing liquid
to be recycled. Nonregenerable systems have enjoyed
the greatest level of conmercial success. Regener-
able systems are not as developed commrcially.

These systems are cumbersome and expensive, and the

nonregenerable systems require large amounts of water
and create a sludge whose disposal requires careful
environmental considerations and large land areas.
 -_.3P -.

(e) Fuel substitution and energy conservation-fuel

substitution includes alternate pcwer forms such
as nuclear, solar or hydropower. Alternatively,
it can includeblending high sulfur coals or oi,v
with lcwer sulfur materials to achieve a net lawer
effective sulfur input. It can also include slurry-
ing, powdered coal with lower sulfur oil to achieve
this net sulfur reduction.

(f) Intermittent control strategy--is a technique wherein

a higher sulfur fuel is used during times when wind
conditions are favorable (prevailing wind blows out to
sea, for example). When wind conditions shift, (wind now
blowing over a small village) a switch is made to a
lower sulfur alternate fuel. This control technique,
while effective, requires an accurate model of the
stack plume, constant monitoring of wind and sulfur
dioxide levels, and an amtplesupply of low sulfur fuel
on standby.

(g) High stacks--sinplycause greater dilution of sulfur

dioxide in the atmosphere. This technique offers no pro-
tection fron the acid rain problem, but provides a stop-
gap measure to protect an Tmmediateenvironmentfrom ex-
cessive levels of sulfur dioxide. It is not recommended
as a regular means of control, and will be accepted in
only most unusual circumstances.

12. The variety of techniquesavailable can be expanded in a further

dimension by considering combinationsof techniques, such as coal cleaning
(for pyritic sulfur) and fluidized bed canbustion (for organically bound
sulfur).

13. To properly determine an appropriate strategy, it is recomnended

that an experienced consultant be retained to examine the most reasonable
alternative for a given requirement.
 - 43 -

THE WORLDBANK DECEMBER1982

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

SULFURDIOXIDE SAMPLINGANDANALYSES

1. This document supplements an earlier Bank document, titled "Sul-

fur Dioxide Enissions",by providing specificdetails ornthe collectionand
analysis of samples. Both documents should be reviewed and the guidelines
app7iied as required in situations involving sulfur dioxide emissions, and
rela.ed oxides.

2. When releasedto the atmosphere,sulfur or its compoundswill re-

act with the oxygen in the air to fonn mainly sulfur dioxide. When exposed
to moisture the dioxide can undergo the following reactions:
S02 + H 2 0 H2 S03

S02 + 1/202. SO3

S03 + H2 0 -_4_H2 S04

3. Two types of monitoring will be require-d in connection with in-

dustrial operations: The first is stationary source or stack emission
testing, to determine emission concentrationsat the source. The second
type is arrbient monitoring, Which measures tlhe pollutant concentrations in
the areas surrounding a plant.

STATIONARYSOURCEMONITORING

Sampling

4. Stack sampling ports should be provided, and located at least

eight stack diameters "downstream"of any bends, constrictions, abatement
equipment, or other flow disturbances. If this is not possible then the
sampling location should be at least two stack diameters "upstream"of the
stack exit or other flow disturbance. Where these criteria oamnot be rmet a
stack extension may be required. Ports should be installed flush with the
interior stack wall, and extend outward from the exterior stack wall for
between 5 and 20 centimeters, unless additional length is needed for
installationof gate valves or other appurtenances.

5. If the sumnof the stack inside diameter plus one port length is
less than 3 meters, two ports should be installedon diameters, 90 degrees
apart. If this sum is greater than 3 meters, then four ports should be in-
stalled on diameters 90 degrees apart.
 -'40-

6. For S02 , a gas sample is taken at a single samplingpoint located

at the center of the stack, or no closer to the inside wall than 1 meter,
for large-diameter stacks. The gas sample must be drawn at a continuous
rate through a sampling train 3imrnmlarto that shown in Figure 1. It may be
advisable to conduct a series of exploratory tests across a stack to deter-
mine whether the gas which is being measured is uniform in concentraticn or
stratified.

7. As the gas passes through the sampling apparatus, the sulfuric

acid mist and sulfur trioxide are separated and the sulfur dioxide is re-
noved by a chemical reaction with a hydrogen peroxide solution. Upon Com-
pletion of the sample the H2 S04 mist awd the S0 3 are discarded. The col-
lected material, containing the S02, is recovered for analysis at the lab-
oratory.

8. The minimum sampling time is 20 minutes per sample. Two separate

samples constitute a "run". Three runs are normally taken, giving six sep-
arate portions. An interval of at least 30 minutes should elapse between
each sample. Longer sampling times may be required if larger samples are
needed. It is important that constant process operations, preferably at
maximum levels, be maintained during the duration of the sampling periods.

9. Current technology for continuous monitoring of stack gases is in

a state of flux. Most units are subject to interference from pollutants
other than that being analyzed. The units are also subject to electronic
instability.

Analyses

10. Sulfur dioxide concentrationin stack samples may be measured by

the barium-thorin (x) titration method, currently designated as a reference
method by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The minimum detectable
limit by this method has been determined to be 3.4 milligrams of S02 Per
3 ).
cubic meter (mg/m

11. Tests have shown that S02 concentrations as high as 80 mg/m3 can
be efficiently collected in two midget impingers, each containing 15 milli-
liters of 32 percent hydrogen perioxide, at a rate of one liter per minute
for 20 minutes. Based on theoretical calculations, the upper concentration
limit in a 20-liter sample would be about 93,300 mg/m3 . The barium-thorin
method is also applicable in these ranges.

12. *Scme laboratories specify a sampling method that collects sulfu-

ric acid, sulfur trioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The analysis then gives
total sulfur oxides. This methiod usually yields values from one to five
percent higher than those obtained by the barium-thorin method, in which
the sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid are discarded.

(x) The Thorin indicator is 1 - (o - arsenophenylazo)

- 2 naphtol 3, 6 disulfonicacid, disodiun salt.
 1.0 CM
(0.75 IN.) PROBE

PITOT TUBE
THERMOMETER
STACK WALL
PROBE (ENO PACKED l l MIIDGETBUBBLER SILICA GEL
WROBE
WITH (ENDTZO
P
QUARTZO ED~NE Gl.ASSWOOL
G DRYINGTUBE
liP
I/ ING ERS
PYf'EX WISOOL) \ I/

TYPE-SPITOTTUBE n 1 ,

0 1 ~~ ~ ~ ~ I

tV Xi
PITOT MANOMETER ..

ICE BATH-_
THERMOMETERl
r , NEEDLE VALVE

PUMP
SUfIGE TANIK

Figure 1. Sulfur Dioxide Sampling Train (From ReferenceEPA-625/6-78-004).

 -- 442 -

AMBIENTAIR MONITORING

Sampling Site Selection

13. The number of points to be included in an ambient air mDnitoring

networkwill dependilargely on the data required to meet the stated program
objectives. For a small source, where one wind direction predominates,
monitors are usually operated at two sites: one to monitor the effects of
the source and the other to provide unwind or background cxncentrations.
Where wind directions are variable or other similar emission sources are
operating nearby, additional sampling points will be required to identify
the concentrations that are attributable to specific sources.

14. The principal factors in setting up the sampling locations are

topographyand meteorology. Other oonsiderationsinclude:

(a) Location of the sampling site, in terms of

the pollutant source, accessibility,and opera-
tion.

(b) Delivery of samples to the location of labora-

tory facilities.

(c) Handling of sample to prevent deteriorationor

conversion of pollutant to a form that would
produce an inaccurate result. Sample tempxera-
tures, between the collection point and the lab-
oratory, should be kept under 290 C.

(d) Availability of suitable analytical procedures

and instrumentation for generating acceptable
quantitative and qualitative data.

(e) Legal restrictions(such as effluent limitations)

affecting the discharges from existing sources.

15. It is desirable to place the collection devices in the areas mDst

likely to receive the highest ground-level concentrations of pollutants.
The path of pollution from the enission source to the point of ground-level
impact may be predicted roughly from a knowledge of predominant wind di-
rections. A convenient tool for performing such an analysis is the "wind
rose", a chart which plots the wind directions and the percentage of the
time, annually, that the wind is blowing from that direction. Where mrcre
precise information is required for site selection, computerizedatmosphe-
ric dispersion mDdels may be necessary.

Sample Collection

16. AxrDientsulfur dioxide levels may be rDnitored by two principal

techniques: (a) the dynamic sampler, which utilizes a bubbler train and
provides 24-hour analyses and (b) the continuoussampler which utilizes va-
rious instrument techniques and provides variable tine averages. Static
samplers, such as the sulfation plates, are very crude and imprecise, and
are no longer considered useful for this purpose.
 - 443 -

17. The dynaric and continuous sarpling units usually consist of a

system incorporating several couponents, as shown in Figure 2. A typical
dyn-aic collection systeuz would include an inlet section, absorption sec-
tion, flow regulation device, and a pump, as the prime mover.

18. A typical continuous monitoring device woul(d consist of an inlet

section, gas pretreatment section, detector, photonultiplier, spectrometer,
and readout device. Depending upon the corditions of the gas to be ooni-
tored, the pretreatment section could include pressure adjustment, reroval
of particulates (usually a filter), rernoval of moisture (usually a silica
gel col%utn) and teirperature adjustment (usuallya condenser).

Analyses

19. The UJ.S.EnvironmentalProtection Agency, after examination of

the various mtalodsusediworld-wide, has adopted the pararosanilinemethod
for detenrination of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphlere. In this method the
sulfur dioxide is absorbed in a solution of potassium tetrachloromercu-
rate. A complex is then formed, which is stable to strong oxidants. The
Domplex is reacted with pararosaniline and fonraldehyde to form paraosani-
lille;nethyl sulfonic acid. The absorbance of the solution is thnen measur-
ed spectrophotometrically. This is the met]od to be used in connection
with Wkorld Hank projects. TMe method is applicable to the measurement of
sulfar dioxide in airbient air, using saTpling periods of up to 24 lhours.

20. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide in tJle range of 25 to 1050 mic-

rograns per cubic meter (ug/m3) can be measured k th-is method. Concentra-
tions belovj 25 1ug/m3 can be reasured by sanpling larger volumes of air, but
only if t'he absorption efficiency of the particular system is first deter-
mzined. I-ugh concenitrations iaay be analyzed by using sraller gas samples, a
larger collection volume, or a suitable aliquot of tlhe collected sam-
ple.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. UN Economicand Social Council, EXE. "Draft Report on Effects of Sul-

on Soil, Groundwater, and Vegetation".
fur Cor.pounrls Doc. ENV/IEB/WG.
1/R.5. New York (28 June 1982).

2. "PollutionEngineering Practicellandbook". Edited by P.N. Cheremini-

soff and R.A. Young. Ann Arbor Science Publishers,Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan (1976).

3. UJNEconomicand Social Council, ECE, :CooperativeProgramie for Moni-

t3ring and Evaluation of Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutantsin
Europe (0vF.P)". Doc. FNV/IEB/R.12. New York (5 August 1981).

4. IJ.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency . "Handbook-Industrial
Guide for
Air PollutionControl". Document EPA-625/6-78-004.Washington (June
1978).
 CAPSON UNUSEDNIPPLES

INLET 14NIFOLD _CAPS

GLASS CN UNUSEDNIPPLES C9/trcl

MEBRANE
/ FILTlE
l -,

PPOR
TEFLON -. MANIFOLD
BRASSEXHAUST
POLY?PPOPYLENE / < / \\ SEPTUM.t i 2-
SAMPLING rt s OUTLET
LINE >a X =t /~~~~~~~~~I MUFFLER

X / ~CODcO,J>UlU

UNNEL VACUUM
GAUGE
INCHESOF MERCURY

8UBBLcR TRAP

Figure 2. Dynamic (BubblerTrain SamplingUnit (From ReferenceEPA-625/6-78-004).

 --445 -

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Handbook-Continuous Air Pollu-

tion Source Monitoring Systems". Document EPA 625/6-79-005. Washing-
ton, D. C. (June 1979).

6. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Subchapter C, Part 50, Ap-
pendix A. "Reference Method for Determinaticn of Sulfur Dioxide in the
Atmosphere (Pararosaniline Method)". Office of the Federal Register,
GSA. 'Washington. (July 2, 1981).
7. Ball, R.J. and Anderson, G.E. "Cptimuim Site Exposure Criteria for S02
Monitoring". USEPA PublicationNo. EPA-470/3-77-013. Research Tri-
angle Park, N. C. (April 1977).
 -- 446 -

THE WORLD)
8ANK OCrOE:R 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

TEA AND COFFEE PRODUCrION

GUIDELINES

1. Tea can be gron under a wide range of climatic conditions, frcn

Mediterranean to trcpical. Develcping countries in South Asia and East
Africa account for approximately 97% of world tea Eroduction and exports.
During the period 1971-1973, India accounted for 39.2%, Sri Lanka 18.6%,
Japan 8.2%, and other Asian countries for 18.9% of world production. In
the same period Kenya accounted for 4.3%, Malawi and Uganda for 1.8% each,
and other African countries for 4.2% of the total world production. Latin
America accounted for 3% of the total, of which Argentina was responsible
for 2.4%. Total world production during this period was over 3.5 million
i,Letric tons.

2. Latin America has been the dominant world cof fee producer durirg
the last 100 years. During the period 1968-1972 Soath America accounted
for 43.3% with Brazil in the lead at 26.4% and Colombia next at 12.1%.
North and Central America and the Caribbean area accounted for 18.5% of
world production, with Mexico, Guatemala and El Salvador being the leading
producers. During this same period 30.2% of the world production came from
Africa, with Ethiopia, Angola and Uganda in the lead. The remaining pro-
duction of about 8% came from Asia, with the major portion coaing frcm In-
donesia. Over 65 million bags rwoereproduced.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

Tea Production

3. Tea is processed by two principal metinds, to yield either green

or black tea. Of these, black tea is the nDre important in the world nar-
ket. Because tea is hygrosccpic--readily absorbing mnisture from the air
-- it cannot be stored for any extended periods in nmot of the producing
countries.

4. The first stage in black tea rreufacturing is called "wither-

ing". This consists of spreading the tea leaves in thin layers on trays or
"tats", made of tightly stretched jute or wire netting. The density of
spreads is usually one kilogram of tea per 2 to 3m2 of tray area. Banks of
tats are arranged in layers, 12 to 15 cm apart, to allcw for free access of
air. Withering takes 18 to 24 hours.

5. In place of the withering tats scae factories are using perfDra-

ted revolving drums, through which hot air is blown to dry the tea
leaves. Each drum can hold up to nearly 700 kg of leaf. Both space and
tine required to achieve the proper wither are reduced by this met)id.
 - 447 -

6. Withering is followedby rolling, vhici twists the leaf, breaks

it up, and presses out the juices. A batch of withered tea may be rolled
frcm three to six times in half 'nourperiods, depending upon the type of
tea to be produced, the degree of wither of the leaf and the kind of roller
used. The tea from the rollers is fed into a hcpper, in Which masses are
broken up by beaters, and then fed onto the sifter to separate the small
size particles.

7. The portions passing the sifters are spread into thin layers to
continue the fermentation process started in the rollers. The fermenta-
tion, including that occuring in the rollers, takes 3 to 4 hours. The tea
changes into a dark ccpper color and develcps its typical arana. Time of
fermentation is critical to the quality of the final Eroduct and the solu-
ble content capable of extraction. The coarse leaves not passing the sift-
ers are passed again through the rollers.

8. Fermentation is followed ty firing (or drying), grading and sort-

ing. Firing takes 20 to 40 minLtes, at an initial temperature of about 93°
C. Worldwide, the grades in general production include Brolen Orange
Pekoe, Broken Pekoe, Orange Pekoe, Pekoe, Souchong, Broken Orange Pekoe
Fannings, Fannings, and Dust. The sieve standards adcpted for regulating
grades differ axDng the various countries.

9. Green tea is produced and consumed mainly in China, Japan and

Forvosa. tMorocco and Afghanistan are principal importers of this product.
Preparation of the tea involves heating of the plucked leaf, either by pla-
cing into hot iron pans or by steam. It is next rolled and then subjected
to subsequent firing and further rolling, during which it turns a dark
olive green and finally assumes a bluis; tint.

Coffee Production

10. There are two main types of coffee grcwn currently: arabicas and
robustas. Arabicas require lower temperatures and can be grown either at
higher altitudes or farther fran the equator than the robustas. The robus-
tas are grown in hot and humid climates. Arabica coffees are generally
preferred by consumers, since they have a .milderflavwr and contain less
caffeine than the robustas. In the 1968-1972 period, robustas constituted
about 30 percent of world production, and arabicas accounted for the re-
maining 70 percent.

11. When ripe, the coffee berry changes color from green to red, and
is ccmrronly referred to as the "cherry". In rrcst countries, the crop
ripens gradually on the trees, and the cherries are picked individually,
since the quality of the coffee depends upon picking ripe cherries only.
Two coffee beans, face to face, are contained in each cherry. The excep-
tion is the dherry at the end of each branch, Wich contains only one
bean. Coffee preparation nay utilize either the dry prooess or the wet
process.
 -- 44, -

12. The dry process is generally used in Brazil and in robusta-pro-

ducting countries in Africa. The dherry is first sun-dried. It is then
"hulled" in machines which remove the dried husk of the cherty, tlhe "silver
skin" and the "parchrient" covering over the beans, thus producing the
"green coffee", which is the unroasted coffee of cammerce. Where the cof-
fee farns are large, as in Brazil, hulling and subsequent grading by size
and remDval of defective beans takes place on the fanms. In other areas,
as in Africa, this is cammnnly done in central plants to %hich the fanrers
sell the dried c}erries.

13. The wet process is used in the countries with mild climates and,
although more comlicated, yields a rauchbetter quality product. The
cherry is first washed to float off any stalks and "light" cherries, and
then pulped to remove the fleslh of the cherry. The beans are then fernent-
ed and washed to remve the silver skin. They are then thoroighly dried
while still in their parchment covering, usually by sun, but sorretimes by
hot air. Finally, the parchment. is removed 'bymachines, and the green cof-
fee graded and picked over for defects. The arrangerrents for these proces-
ses vary in diEferent ccuntries, but the steps are essentially the same
everywiere.

14. Green coffee beans are normally roasted in revolving metal cylin-
ders, directly or indirectly heated by gas or fuel oil. The more ccmnon
method is batdc roasting, in lots of 230 to 635 kg, at tenperatures in-
creased fran 2000 C to 220° C over a cycle lasting fran 8 to 18 mirutes.
T'Pe continuous roasting metloxl utilizes a temperature of 2600 C, with a
contact time of about 5 minutes.

WASTESOURCEANDCHARACTERISTICS

16. Under efficient operating conditions relatively small volumes of

wastes originate fran the production of tea and coffee. Purely hazardous
pollutants are not normally fotnd in these wastes. Provisions rust be made
for disposal of human wastes originating at the plant, for which thie 5-day
biociemical oxygen demand (BOD)5 total suspended solids (TSS), and coliforn
organisms would be of significance. Acceptable rrethDds, using biological
systens, are readily available for this purpoase. The human wastes can also
be discharged to a municipal treatment system without any pretreatment, if
isolated and kept separate fran any otler plant wqastes. Wastes may also
originate fran plant cleanup cperations.

Tea Production

17. Scme gaseous wastes may result fran tea production. Hot air fran
the drying operation is generally eihamsted to the atmosphere, at a temper-
ature of 50' C. as it leaves the dryers. It may also contain some leaf
particles, but this should be relatively minior, since it represents a loss
of product and hence a loss of profit for the plant. Atmospheric discharge
of combustion products may be significant whiere coal or oil fired boilers
are used as sources of heat. Sulfur dioxide and particle emissions may be
of concern.
 - 4 49 -

18. There are essentially no liquid wastes fran the processing of

tea. Some liquid wastes will result fran cleaning cperations. Daily wash-
ing of fermentation surfaces, once or rDre daily, is essential to avoid
bacterial contamination Which can cause tainted and soft teas. Rollers al-
so require frequent cleaning. Plain water is generally adequate fDr wash-
inig purposes, but disinfectants are used in some plants. Wash-up wastes
may contain suspended solids.

Coffee Production

19. Wastes fran the wet processing of cherries is generally the major
process liquid flaw fran coffee production. This will contain pieces of
stalks and other trash. Although cooling of the beans fbllowing the roast-
ing operation does not normally produce arTy wastes, a few plants are re-
ported to have wet stack scrubbers whidi generate small quantities of waste
water. Saom housekeeping operations may also generate liquid wastes.

20. Solid wastes are generated fran a nunter of sources. Skins,

hulls and other trash result fran separation of the beans from the dherries
in tlhe dry process. Pardmnent reoval, follcwing fermentation, will pro-
duce scae wastes. Cleaning of roasting equipment is normally a dry opera-
tion and can produce some waste residues.

090 at Ground Level

Inside plant fence Annual Arith. mean: 100 Fg/m3

Max. 24-hr peak 1000 fIg/m3

Outside plant fence Annual ALrith. mean: 100 pg/m3

Max. 24-hr peak 500 pg/m3

Particulates at Ground Level

Ann. Gecm. Mean: 75 pg/m3

Max. 2r-hr. 260 pg/m3

22. It is feasible to adiieve essentially total elimination of liquid

waste discharges to surface waters through such means as land application,
pon(iing and lagponing, disdharge to municipal treatment, or sore combina-
tion of tlhese.

23. Solid -waste materials may be deposited on controlled landfills,

either within or outside the plant grounds.

CONTROL AND TREAIMENTOF WASTES

24. Gaseous emissions may be controlled by neans of prcper stack de-

sign, wet stack scrubbers, or a combination of tlLetwo. Substitution of
other fuels for coal or oils, vkiere pcssible, will also reduce these eniss-
ions.
 - 45 0 -

25. Liquid wastes fran the wet processing of dierries to separate the
coffee beans contain broken stalks and other trash. This effluent may be
screened to separate the solids. General hcusekeeping wastes will originate
fran both tea and coffee processing. A third possible source may be the
effluent fran the wet stack scrubbers, where these are used. These
effluents may all be ccuibined and disposed of by spray irrigation, lagoons,
or evaporation ponds. Disdiarge to a municipal treatnent system may be
possible, either with or without pretreatment. Human wastes should be kept
separate from process wastes, and disposal made to either municipal or
private on-plant facilities.

26. Solid materials are best disposed of by depositingon land, in

controlled areas either within or outside the plant ground. Where
necessary, suspended materials should be separated fron the liquid carrier
by screening, settling, or other rrans. Selection of a land site for
disposal of solid wastes should consider such factors as sufficient area;
reasonablehaul distances; distance from existing or planned residential,
cornmercial and recreational area; natural drainage and runoff patterns; and
soil conditons.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Singh, S., deVries, J., Hulley, J.C.L., and Yeung, P. "Coffee,Tea, ard
Cocoa - M4arket Prospectsand Development Lending". World Bank
Occasional Papers, No. 22. The 'World Bank. Washington (1977).

2. Eden, T. "Tea". 2nd Ed. Longman, Green and Co. Ltd. London (1965).

3. Hlarler, C.R. "Tea Manufactujre". Oxford University Press. London

(1963).

4. Rowe, J.W.F. 'Ihe 'World's Coffee". H.M.S. Office. Lorxbn (1963).

5. lHaarer, A.E. "Modern Coffee Production". Leonard Hill Books Ltd.,

London (1962).

6. U.S. Environ-aental Protection Agency. "Draft Develcpment Documnentfor

Effluent Limitation Guidelines and New Source Performance Stanclrds for
the Miscellanecus Foods and Beverages Point Source Categories".
Prepared by Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc., Gainesville,
Florida (February1975).
 - 41 -

THE WORLD BANK NOVEMBER 1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

TEXTILE AND SYNTHETICFIBER INDUSTRIES

1. The basic raw materials in the textile industry are wool, cotton
and man-made fibers, with the most important man-made fibers being rayon,
acetate, nylon, acrylic, polyester, polypropylene and glass fiber.

2. With the exception of silk, the natural fibers are available in

staple (or short fiber) form. The man-made fibers are available as either
staple or continuous filament forms. In the staple form, the elements are
spun into yarn. Both forms, in turn are woven or knitted into fabrics. In
most cases fabrics are dyed and treated to inpart shrink resistance, crease
resistance, and other characteristics,and then delivered to manufacturers
for production of textile conmmodities. Fabrics may also be sold as grey,
bleached or printed goods.

3. Both dry and wet processes are used to transform fibers into fab-
rics and thence into final products. Dry processing includes spinning,
weaving, knitting, bonding and laminating. The major wet processes--from
which effluent disposal problems arise--include scouring, desizing, mercer-
izing, bleaching, dyeing and finishing.

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

Wool Fibers and Fabrics

4. The initial treatment given to raw wool after shearing is a

scouring or washing in order to free it from natural grease, soluble salts
(from the perspirationof sheep), and sand and dirt which are always pre-
sent. Scouring may be accomplished either with detergents or solvents,
with the detergents being most ccmmonly used. The process is carried out
(usually) in a series of open bowls (or baths). The first ones contain
sodium carbonate and a little soap or ionic detergent. The next bowls con-
tain a small quantity of ionic detergent, and the final bowl contains only
water. Essentially, the first bowls provide the detergent or alkali sol-
vent and accoplish the scouring, while the last bowls perform the rins-
ing. Solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, petroleum ether, or kerosene
are also sometimes used to remove the grease and other irpurities.

5. The next step is the carbonizing, to remove cellulosic impurities

present as vegetable burrs and seeds or as vegetable fibers in the fonm of
loose wool. The process consists of inpregnating the material with a di-
lute solution of a mineral acid (generally sulfuric), drying, baking, and
subjecting the wool to mechanical action to remove the degraded cellulose
as dust.
 - 4'2 -

After carbonization, the wool is thoroughly rinsed and neutralized with so-
dium carbonate, and the materials rinsed again before the fueling and dye-
ing operations.

6. The fulling process shrinks and thickens the goods, as required

by the final use to be made of the material. Either alkali or acid fulling
are cammnly enployed. The alkali method utilizes soap or detergent, so-
dium carbonate, and sequestering agents. In the acid process the wool is
impregnated with an aqueous sulfuric acid solution. After either method
the goods are washed to remove the fulling chemicals. Wool is dyed either
as yarn or as woven piece goods, with dye fornulations varying according to
the final use of the goods. One of three classes of dyes are generally
used: acid, metallic, or mordant (chrome) dyes. The use of mordant dyes
is diminishing.

Cotton Fibers and Fabrics

7. Raw cotton is received in bales, opened, cleaned, mixed and

thoroughly separated. It is next carded, a process in which the fibers are
separated and aligned in a thin web, and then converted into a continous
untwisted strand called a "sliver". In some cases it is necessary to comb
the sliver to remove short fibers and tangles, and to place the fibers in
parallel to each other. Several strands of sliver are then combined into a
single strand and drawn in order to inprove sliver uniformity. The sliver
is then further reduced in size anedwound around a bobbin to form a "rov-
ing". The roving is transferred to a spinning frame to produce a yarn of
specified twist and strength. The yarn from several bobbins is wound onto
a large spool and fed to a '"wrper". Several warper beams are wound to-
gether, fed through sizing machines, and then wound on a loom beam for use
in the weaving operation.

8. Prior to weaving, the finished yarn is strengthenedby "slash-

ing". This requires coating to warp yarns with "sizing" to stiffen or
strengthen them to minimize yarn abrasions during the weaving operation.
Starch, starch substitutes, polyvinyl alcohol, carboxymethyl cellulose,
gelatin glue, and gums are among the sizing agents generally used. After
slashing, the yarns are woven into fabrics. Excess sizing is removed from
the woven fabrics, and the fabric rinsed clean. Desizing is followed by
scouring or "kiering" (boil out), using hot alkaline detergents or soap so-
lutions to remove cotton wax and other non-cellulosic components. The
scoured goods receive a final rinse to remove residual detergents or soaps.

9. After scouring, the material is bleached to remove the natural

yellowish color of the cotton fiber and to render it white. Sodium hypo-
czhlorite and hydrogen peroxide are the two most commnly used bleaching
agents. In some instances, the bleaching is done after desizing. Fabrics
in the unbleached and undyed state are sometimes referred to as "griege" or
"gray goods".
 - 453 -

10. Bleaching is follcwed by nercerizing, which gives a brighter lus-

ter, increases dye affinity, and improves the tensile strength of the fab-
ric. With the increasing use of cotton-polyester blends, fewer cotton fab-
rics are being mercerized. The dyeing or printing process follcws the iTer-
cerizing, either in batch process mahcines, for small voLrres, or by con-
tinuous dyers for large vwlumes.

Synthetic Fibers and Fabrics

11. Synthetic textile fibers may be grouped under two broad cate-
gories: cellulosic and non-cellulosic. Rayon and cellulcse acetate are
the two major cellulosic fibers; nylon, polyester, acrylics and nunacrylics
are the major non-cellulosic fibers. The syntlhetics are produced entirely
by chemical treatment and processing of raw materials such as wood pulp,
cotton fibers, petroleum derivatives, and other substances. The fibers so
produced have an alnrst unlimited range of uses.

12. Synthetic fibers are produced as continuous filaments or in sta-

ple form. The filament yarns are generally used to produce 100 percent
synthetic goods, While the staple forn's are used to produce blends of syn-
thetics or canbinations of man-made and natural fibers. Since the manufac-
turing process can be closedly controlled, synthetic materials are essen-
tially free of chemical impurities. Therefore, only light sccuring and
little or no bleadhing is required prior to dyeing. The yarns are saTe-
times dyed before use in a final product, unless the material is to be
piece dyed, printed, or used as produced.

S0URCES ANDCHARACrERISTICSOF WASTES

13. Many of the operations for producing yarns and fabrics are commn
to the industry as a 'diole and the characteristics of th-e wastes are simi-
lar. Basically, the fibers are converted to yarns, the yarns are converted
to fabrics and eventually to final products. The fabrics, after manufac-
turing, are subjected to several wet processes known as finishing. Waste
effluents are produced in varying degrees frcm the bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing, printing and finishing operations.

14. Normally, air-borne wastes do not present problems in the produc-

tion of textiles and synthetic fibers. Air contamination may result frcm
cctibustion of fuels used for steam generation. Flue gas discharges contain
carbon nonoxide and sulfur dioxide, depending upon the type and quality of
fuel used. Environmental contamination can usually be controlled by dis-
charging thrcugh a stack of adequate height. Data on the concentrations of
possible air-borne contaminants existing at ground level should be deter-
mined in the general plant area prior to the start of industrial cperation.

15. Fibers and dusts may originate fran various in-plant sources,
particularly the spinning and weaving operations. The sources of such sub-
tances sbould be equipped with filters or other devices to prevent their
discharge to the atmosphere, both within and outside the plant.
 -- 454

16. Linmany textile production cperations, particularly for synthetic

fibers, a finish is applied to improve the running characteristics during
the processing. Synthetic fibers are frequently subjected to heat treat-
ment in order to improve certain desirable properties. Such treatment vol-
atizes the finish into a mixture of volatile oils and waxes. The mixture
escapes as a gas and this effect is camTronly referred to as "smoking". If
discharged to the atnosphere the fures nay be irritating to workers and nay
condense on machinery. The condensation causes hcasekeeping problems, po-
tential flammable conditions and soietimes degradation of the quality of
the product.

17. The principal parameters used to characterize liquid textile in-

dustry wastes are the flcw, 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ), chemi-
cal oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), oils and greases (O
+ G), chramium, phenols and sulfides.

18. In order to facilitate definition of effluent characteristics and

limitations, manufacturing operations can be categorized according to the
process being utilized as part of the production of a textile and its final
consumer product. An individual plant will carry out one or mnre of these
operations concurrently, but only in rare cases will all of these cpera-
tions be carried out at one plant at the same tine. TherefDre, total ef-
fluent discharge allcwances nay be determined by taking the sum of the per-
missible effluent loadings applicable to the indvidual process categories
which are being carried out at the individual plant.

19. Hence, the liquid wastes fran this industry nay be categorized as
follcws:

-- Raw wool scouring -- Knit fabric finishing

-- Wool finishing -- Carpet mills
-- Dry processing -- Stock and yern dyeing and finishing
-4-oven fabric finishing -- Ccmmission finishing

Raw Wool Scouring

20. Liquid wastes fran raw wool sccuring differ fran all other cate-
gories of wastes in that they contain significant qumitities of oil and
grease, even after in-process reccoery. Sulfur, phenols, and other organic
substances appear intermittently in the effluents, and originate fran the
sheep urine, feces, blood, tars, branding fluids and insecticides used in
sheep dips. The scouring bowls separate the heavier dirt and grit fran the
wool, and this residue settles to the bottom, frcm which it can be reMDved
for disposal.

21. Wool finishing wastes are distinguished frcm other textile fin-
ishing effluents because of the wide variety of process chemicals used, the
BOD5 loading, and the higher water usage per unit of product. The heaviest
flcws appear in the rinsing applied after fulling. Ortlophenols, phenols,
diphenols or benzoic acid derivitives will be present in significant quan-
tities in the wastes fran mills working on polyesters and other blends.
The finished fabric receives a wash (or "heavy scour") prior to the dyeing,
to remove all foreign materials either introduced by or remaining frcm
 - 45S -

previous processing procedures. Other finishing stages contributing liquid

wastes in varying degrees include the carbonizing, fulling, crabbing (ap-
plied to give rectilinear aligrnent to the fabric), final cleaning and
dyeing.

Dry Processing

22. These wastes originate at mills producing greige goods fram cot-
ton stocks, and consist principally of the residues in sizing boxes and
water used for cleanrp. Starches and polyvinyl alcobols are the nmst com-
monly used sizing nsterials. Cooling waters are generally separated and
are not included in the flows fran this source. Typically, over 90% of the
effluent fran a dry processing mill is sanitary waste.

23. The carpet backing industry produces an unusual waste, because of

the use of foanmd and unfoaned latex backing. The latex, which is not sol-
uble in water, is used in a highly dispersed form and may cause suspended
solids ai.d COD problems fran equipnent washdowns.

Woven Fabric Finishing

24. The wastes resulting fran the finishing of woven gpods originate
fran remtval of foreign materials during the finishing process and fran the
various chemicals used for this purpose. Enzymatic removal of starches in
desizing produces an effluent containing dissolved and suspended solids,
fats and waxes, at a pH of 6 to 8. Effluents fran sulfuric acid removal of
starches contain dissolved and suspended solids, oils, and greases at a pH
of 1 to 2. Mercerizing, bleaching, dyeing, and printing--Vhich also con-
stitute a part of the finishing process--contribute minor to significant
waste loads. Such wastes nay contain NaOH, HC10, HC102 , Na 2 SO3 , and other
constituents, depending upon the process chemicals used.

Knit Fabric Finishing

25. The principal differences in wet process operations between knit

and woven fabrics are that knit yarns are treated with lubricants rather
than starches or polymer sizes, and that mercerizing is not applied to knit
goods. Otherwise, the wastes generated fram canparable unit operations
perfonmed on cottons, synthetics and blends are similar to those resulting
from woven fabric finishing. Lubricating finishes applied to knitting
yarns generally contain a base of mineral oil, vegetable oil, synthetic
ester type oil or wax. The finishes may also contain antistatic agents,
antioxidants, bacteriostats and corrosion inhibitors. Knitting oils are
readily soluble in water and are removed frcm the g:ods by washing prior to
dyeing.

Carpet Mills

26. Carpet industry wastes are similar in character to those frcm

knit fabric finishing operations. When polyester is dyed disposal of the
carriers (auxiliary chemicals) presents a problem. Most wool used for car-
pets is dyed in the yarn form, thus minimizing chromium use. Wnere carpets
are printed or dyed continuously, the thickeners (used to give the
 - 456 -

print paste the viscosity rerquiredfor tlhe method of printing and the pat-
tern to be printed) contribute to a high BODs load.

Yarn Dyeing and Finishing

27. Wastes frcan yarn processing will depend principally on whether

natural fibers, blends or synthetics are processed. When only synthetics
are being handled, lcw levels of deterrents, soda ash, sodium phcsphate,
and bleaches are discharged, and these will have a lcw BOD5. Scouring,
bleaching and imercerizing of cotton generate BC05 and color because of
fiber impurities, and high dissolved solids because of the mercerizing.

CcmiissionFinishing

28. This type of plant will frequentlyhave a high hydraulic loading

and a less treatable waste than encountered in the other operations.
"Problem" type materials, generally in batches, are processsed and several
processes may be carried out in sequence or simultaneously. Operations do
not readily penmit water recycling and reuse. The characteristics of the
effluents are subject to wide fluctuations because of the constantly dhang-
ing mix of processes and products.

EFFLUENTLIMITATIONS

29. Effluent limitations for various textile process cperations,

based on the best treatnent technology currently available, are presented
in Table 1. These are for plants carrying out the indicated processing on
a continuous basis. Fbr plants carrying out ccnmmission finishing the limi-
tations are dcuble tliose shcwn.

Table 1. Daily Maximum Effluent Limitations - Textile Plants.

EOD5 | TSS I COD CHLRO|- PINOL SULFIDE

PROCESS a! BOD ___T__ M l lUUM

Kg/Megagram Final Product

Wool Scouring b/c/ 10 32 138 | 0.10 0.20

Wool F,nishing 22 35 163 0.14 I 0.14 0.28

Dry Processing d/ 1.4 1.4 2.8 __ __

Fabric
Wlover. 6.6 18 60 0.10 0.10 0.20
Fi.niSh.tng

Knit Fabric
Finishing 5.02 22 or) 0.10 0.10 0.20

Carpet Mills e/ 7.8 11 70 0.04 0.04 0.08

Stock & Yarn
Dyeing-Fin. 6.8 17 85 0.12 0.12 0.24
i ________________________ _ ______________ . ___________ ______________________ __________________
 -- 457 -

a/ For those plants identified as "Coimnssion Finishing" multiply

effluent limitation by 2.

b/ Limitations expressed as kg/Mg* raw wool.

c/ Oil and Grease limitation is 7.2 kg/Mg raw wool.

d/ Fecal coliform MPN Limitations = 400 per 100 mL. (For all purposes).

e/ Limitations expressed as kg/Mg primhry backed carpet.

Note: pH limitation for all efflients is 6 to 9.

CONTROLAND TREATMENT
OF WASTES

30. Wastes fran textile production may be reduced in both %olume and
strength thrcugh in-plant measures, thrcugh the application of end-of-pipe-
technology, or through a ccmbination of the two. In process control re-
cuires altering the process requirements that generate contaminants and
controlling water use in both process and non-process operations.

31. An effective water managenent program is a major factor in re-

ducing waterborne pollutants. Measures wuld include the use of liquid
level controls, flow meters and regulators, adequate hot water capacity, an
effective leak and spill prevention program, strict attention to housekeep-
ing procedures, and use of better hand and machine working methods. The
more extensive use of soluble sizers arnd desizers has been suggested as a
mreans of reducing liquid BOD5 and COD waste loads, though their feasibility
has not been fully demonstrated. Reducing water consunption for individual
processes, strict control of dyeing operations, and selective process auto-
mation and instrumentation will all contribute to in-plant waste reduc-
tion. Chrcmium wastes, originating fran the dyeing and finishing opera-
tions, may be eliminated by substituting for the chranium dyes. If treat-
ment is necessary the chranium may be remnved by coagulation with alum.

32. Since a large prcportion of the biodegradable material in textile

wastes is in the soluble fonm the effluents are readily susceptible to bio-
logical treatment. Activated sludge systems (including extended aeration),
trickling filters, anaerobic lagoons, anaerobic contact systems, aerobic
lagx-)ns, and rotating bioloqgical contractors have all been successfully ap-
plied to the treatment of these effluents.

33. Where very high remDvals are required to meet effluent standards,
one of the advance treatment technologies may be applied. These have
achieved varying degrees of success. Processes which have been used or
considered for this purpose include phase change (distillation, freezing),
physical separation (filtration, reverse osmDsis, ultrafiltration, electro-
dialysis), sorption systems, (activated carbon, ion exchange, adsorption
resins), and chemical clarification. Each situation nust be carefully ana-
lyzed and evaluated on its cwn merits before applying any specific advance
waste treatment technique.

* 1 Mg = 1 Megagram = 1 metric ton

 - 15~ --

BIBLIOGRPAHY

1. Powers, Philip W. "How to Dispose of Toxic Substances and Industrial

Wastes". Noyes Data Corporation. Park Ridge, N.J. and London (1976).

2. U.S. Environental Protection Agency -- "Developrmnt Document for

Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performrance Standards
for the Textile Mills Point Source Category". Ibc. EPA-440/1-74-022a.
Washington (1974).

3. U.S. Enviromnental Protection Agency -- "Econanic Analysis of Pretreat-

ment Standards for the Textile Industry". Ibc. EPA-440/1-77-009.
Washington (July 1977).

4. Bhaskaran, T.R. "Guidelines for the Control of Industrial 'vastes -

Cotton Textile Wastes". Dbc. UHO/WD/73.16. World Health Organization.
Geneva (1973).

5. Isaac, P.C.G. and Rusccmbe-King, N.J. "Guidelines for Control of Indus-

trial Wastes -- Woollen Textile Wastes". Doc. I\HO/WD/75.17. World
Health Organization. Geneva (1975).

6. Linton, George E. "Natural and Manyrade Fibers:". Diell, Sloan and

Pearce, New York (1966).

7. Karstens, Anita S. "Synthetic Fiber Markets to 1970". tNoyes

Develcprmnt Corporation, Pearl River, N. Y.

8. "Fairchild's Dictionary of 'rextiles". Ed. by Isabel B. Wingate.

Fiarchild Publications, Inc. N4ewYork (1976).
 - 45e -

THE WORLDBANK DECEMBER

1983

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFAIRS

WOOLSCOURING

EFFLUENTGUIDELINES ANDPROCESS

1. Wool scouring is the first wet process that the raw fibers re-
ceive. It removes all the natural and acquired impurities form the fi-
bers. Two nethods exist; detergent scouring and solvent scouring. The
first process is used almost exclusively because solvent scouring is too
costly.

2. Two types of detergent scouring are used; ttLesoap alkali pro-

cess and the neutral detergent process. In the soap alkali, a soap or a
detergent is added to a milk alkali such as sodium carbonateat a pH 9.5 to
10.5. The bath is heated to 550 C and requires an average of 80 liters of
water per megagram of wool fiber.* Part of that water is recycled. In the
neutral detergent process, nonionic detergents are added to water at a pH
6.5 to 7.5 and at a temperature from 550 to 7 0° C.

3. The process is carried out in a series of 4 open bowls called a

"scouringtrain". The first two bcwls contain the detergentor soap alkali
and perform the "scoLr". The last two rinse the fibers clean; then the
wool is dried.

4. For every kilo of 'scoured

woolen fiber, one to 1.5 kilos of waste
impuritiesare produced. TIerefore,wool Pcouring is one of the strongest
industrialwastes in terms o-.'
BOD.

5. A general flow sheet is given in ANNEX.

6. The grease wool contains 25 to 75% non-woolmaterials consisting

of wool grease and other excretions and secretions of the sheep, such as
urine, feces, sweat and blood, as well as dirt Additionalproducts such
as pesticides and dyes may be present. This irpurity variability causes
t'hesame variabilityin raw waste loads.

Waste Characteristics

7. The raw waste contains significant quantities of oil and grease

whose difficultbiodegradabilityconstitutesa special problem. Therefore,
a grease recovery step is imiportant to decrease pollution.

8. Sulfur is brought in with the wool as well as phenolic and other

organic materials.

* 1 Mg = 1 megagran = 1 metric ton

 - (: r-

9. In centrifuging, the top low density stream contains concentrated

grease, the medium density stream is recyc'ed upstream, and the heavy den-
sity bottom (dirt and grit) is sent to the treatment plant. 60% of the
grease is recovered;the rest goes with the dirt and grime.

10. In acid cracking,sulfuric acid breaks the grease water emulsion;

after the grease separation, the liquor is neutralized with lime. 90-95%
of grease recovery is pcssible.

11. 1-3% of the -ool grease renains in the wool as a conditioner.

Water Treatment and Cost

12. If, when recirculating some of the water at diffxcent stages,

ponding the waste after a rcugh filtration and letting the water evaporate
without any overspill in waterways is possible, then this treatnent can be
considered. This is, of course, the mnst sinple and for a 6Mg/D sccured
wool plant in the U.S. the investment has been estinated at $15,000 in
1974. The smell frcm the pond can create problems.

13. If sane of the waste discharges in a waterway, then primary

screening follcwed by primary clarificationand biologicaltreatnentshould
be recommended. A reduction of 95% in BOD5 can be achieved. The invest-
n-ent for the same 6Mg/D plant has been estinated at $41,000. The addition-
al cost is $0.002/kgprcduct.(*)

Results of Treatment

14. The average raw waste B3D5 load resulting fram wool sccuring is
around 50 kg per megagram of grease wool as received in the plant. The
treatment described in the preceeding paragraph sbould remove 95% of that
BOD.

15. If any liquid efflient reaches the waterways, the frllowing

guideline should apply:

BOD5 5 kg/Mg prcduct

TSS (total suspended 4 kg/Mg product
solids)
COD 20 kg/Mg product
Oil and Grease 7.2
Chromium (total) 0.1
Phenol 0.1
Sulfide 0.2
Pesticides 0.01

For mrre infornation, consult EPA 440/1 - 74/002

"Textile Mills" - Point Source Category
Publisher: United States Environment Protection Agency, January 1974

(*) All $ figures are in 1973 US$

 [no aito
toda s:g (i el{
Waterleuse

*ater(flcuse

HS

Icluki
Waste > fease od

solid
Waste [$(> _;if_

Souice. "Chenmicat.1hysicai
and Bioklilcal Tteaazmeot Wdstes."by Hatch.of at. 28th Annual Purdueindusttiati
ot woo>lProcessing
WastaConference.
WestL-Afavatte.tttdiana, I May 1973.

.>igure 1. Subcategory 1: Wlool Scouring