Growth is the permanent and irreversible increase in size of an organism.

Development is the process of

change that occurs during an organism’s life, producing a more complex and efficient organism.

Plants undergo 2 types of growth: primary growth and secondary growth. Primary growth is the increase in
length of the shoots and the roots. Secondary growth is the increase in the width of shoots and roots.

In plants growth only takes place in meristems. Meristems are a group of cells that undergo cell division.
Meristems are of two types; apical meristems and cambial meristems. Apical meristems are responsible for
primary growth, they are found at the tip of shoots and roots. Cambial meristems are responsible for
secondary growth and are found between xylem and phloem.
Primary Growth
Plant growth involves 3 stages; cell division, cell elongation (cell vacuolation) and cell specialisation (cell
differentiation).
Cell division: is the formation of new cells from already existing cells.
Cell elongation (cell vacuolation): this is the process by which cells grow bigger and develop their vacuoles
by absorbing a lot of water. Vacuolation is the developing of vacuole.
Cell specialisation (cell differentiation): is a process by which cells undergo changes in structure and in
chemical composition of the cytoplasm in order to become adapted to perform specific functions.

Regions of growth at shoot tip;

Regions of growth at root tip (apex);

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After specialisation plant cells may develop into the following; vascular bundles (phloem and xylem),
collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma and cambium.
Phloem transports manufactured food throughout the plant. Xylem transports water and water and mineral
salts from the roots to other parts of the plant and supports the plant mechanically. Collenchyma provides
mechanical support and flexibility to the stem. Parenchyma stores food, carries out photosynthesis and
carries out gaseous exchange. Sclerenchyma offers support to a plant. Cambium separates vascular bundles
and carries out cell division, hence bringing about secondary growth in dicot plants.

Primary growth enables the roots to penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight. There
are 3 regions of growth at the tips of shoots and roots; region of cell division, region of elongation
(vacuolation) and region of cell specialisation (differentiation).
Secondary Growth
Secondary growth only occurs after primary growth has been completed and it only occurs in dicot plants.
Secondary growth is brought about by a secondary meristem (cambium). As cells in the cambium divide, they
make new cells which become xylem and phloem cells. As more new cells are formed, the circumference of
the stem gets larger.

Apical Dominance
A normally growing plant has 2 types of buds; apical and lateral buds. Apical dominance is the inhibition
(prevention) of the development of lateral buds by apical buds. Apical buds produce hormones (auxins)
which prevent the growth of lateral buds but promote growth of apical buds.

Germination is the process by which seedlings develop from seeds embryos. Seeds that are able to germinate
are said to be viable seeds. Viability is the ability of a seed to germinate.
Structure of a Seed
Seeds are of two types; monocotyledonous seeds and dicotyledonous seeds. Monocot seeds are seeds with
one cotyledon, for example maize seed, sorghum and millet. Dicotyledonous seeds are seeds with two
cotyledons, for example bean seed, sunflower and groundnuts. A seed contains an embryo plant (developing
but not yet complete) which consists of a radicle and a plumule.
A seed hardly contains any water, when it is formed on the plant the water in it is drawn out so that it
becomes dehydrated. Without water no metabolic reaction can take place.

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Structure of a monocot seed; Structure of a dicot seed;

Functions of seed parts:

Testa (seed coat): protects the seed from physical damage and infection. It also prevents entry of water.
Endosperm: these are food reserves in monocot seeds. They store foods such as; proteins, starch and oils.
Cotyledon: these are food reserves in dicot seeds. They also contain enzymes.
Plumule: this is the embryonic shoot, it develops into a shoot after germination.
Radicle: this is the embryonic root, it develops into roots after germination.
Coleoptile: is a sheath (covering) which protects the plumule and prevent damage during germination.
Coleorrhiza: is a sheath (covering) which protects the radicle and prevents damage during germination.
Micropyle: this is a tiny hole in the testa. It allows oxygen and water to enter the seed and carbon dioxide to
leave.
Conditions necessary for germination:
These include; water (moisture), oxygen and a suitaable temperature.
Water: it softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and the radicle. Water also activates the
enzymes and provides a medium for metabolic activities to take place.
Oxygen: it is required for respiration which provides energy for germination.
Temperature: enzymes function within temperatures ranging from 5°C - 40°C. Very low and very high
temperatures hinder germination. Seeds at very low temperatures fail to germinate because the enzymes
are inactive so they can’t catalyse metabolic reactions necessary for germination. Very high temperatures
denature enzymes and no metabolic reactions will take place.

The first step in seed germination is absorption of water by the dry seed. Absorption of water results in
sweelling of the seed as the cellular constituents get rehydrated. The swelling causes the seed coat to
rupture, enabling the radicle to come out in form of a primary root. Absorption of water activates enzymes
which catalye metabolic activities. The cells of the embryo resume metabolic activities and undergo cell
division. Stored food (starch protein and fats) need to be digested, this requires energy, so the germinating
seed absorbs oxygen from the soil, respiration starts taking place. After a few days, the plumule grows above
the surface of the ground. The first leaves open out and begin to photosynthesize.

Types of germination
There are two main types of germination; epigeal and hypogeal germination.
Epigeal Germination:
This is the type of germination where cotyledons are pushed above the ground. This is due to the elongation
of the hypocotyl. Hypocotyl is the part of the stem of an embryo plant beneath the seed leaves and directly
above the root. The cotyledons carry out photosynthesis before the leaves fully develop. This type of
germination is common in dicot seeds such as common beans, groundnuts, sunflower, mustard.

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Hypogeal Germination:
This is the type of germination where the cotyledons remain underground, due to elongation of the epicotyl.
Epicotyl is the region of an embryo or seedling stem above the cotyledon. Hypogeal germination occurs in
both monocots and dicots. This type of germination is common in monocot seeds such as maize seeds,
coconuts, rice and wheat. It also occurs in dicot seeds such as broad bean, peas and mangoes

Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is the condition during which a seed carries out minimal metabolic activity and does not
germinate. Seed dormancy is a survival mechanism as it enables seeds to survive harsh (cold, drought)
conditions which would kill a growing plant.