Unit - 6 - ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING 6.1. PRINCIPLE of ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM) Electrical (or Electric) discharge machining, also referred as spark machining or spark erosion ‘machining is a controlled metal removal process based on the principle of erosive effects of clectrical discharges (sparks) taking place between two electrically conducting materials immersed in a dielectric fluid*. One of the conducting materials is called the tool-electrode, or simply the tool, while the other, the workpiece electrode, or simply the workpiece. The shape of the tool is similar to that desired in the workpiece. The tool and the workpiece are separated by a dielectric ‘fluid and connected to DC power supply to create a potential difference betwecn the tool and the workpiece. When the potential difference is sufficiently high, the dielectric fluid in the gap is ionized under the pulsed application of the direct current, thus enabling a spark discharge to pass between the tool and the workpiece. Metal removal from the workpiece takes place due to the erosion caused by the electric spark. The amount of material removed is very small, and is flushed away with the continuously flowing fluid. The downward movement of the tool will produce the desired shape on the workpiece. 6.2 NEED for EDM «Extremely hard materials like tungsten or tungsten carbide are difficult to machine with conventional machining methods. Further, very small workpieces may get damaged duc to the excessive cutting tool pressure. EDM overcomes these limitations and gives comparative end results, proving to be very useful in manufacturing application. 6.3 EDM OPERATION Figure. 6.1(a) shows the set-up for EDM process. In operation, the tool (shaped electrode) is < connected to the —* terminal (cathode), while the workpiece to the +* terminal (anode) of the power source. The tool and the workpiece are separated by a small gap known as spark gap, filled: by the dielectric fluid as shown in figure 6.1(b). The spark gap usually ranges from 0.01-0:05mm. When the potential difference between the tool and the workpiece is sufficiently higti, a transient spark-discharges through the fluid removing a very small amount of material from * Dielectric liquids are used as electrical insulators in high voltage applications. Deionized water, transformer oil, paraffin oil, kerosene, and lubricating oils are a few dielectric fluids used in EDM.Non Traditional Machining the workpiece. The mechanism of metal removals shown figure 6.1(b) ands explained briefly Tool (-) 56 as follows. i Servo controlled Voltmeter feed Di-electric : liquid : Workpiece (+) Reservoir (a) EDM sett-up ES. Dielectric Tank et = SS Workpiece SYS Pressure gauge Filter CO High power pump Spark gap (b] Enlarged view of metal removal mechanism, = Figure 6.1 EDM process | Mechanism of metal removal + Initially, the gap between the conductive, But, under the pul the spark to discharge or jump between + The spark impingds on the elevated around 10,000°C causing @ small porti | figure 6.1(b). 1c tool & the workpiece, which consists of thé:dielectric. flu [sed application 6fDC, the dielectric Oud jn the gap is iontzed, causing the tool & the workpiece as shown infigure6.1(b).* surface of the workpiece at a v ‘ion of the workpiece to melt and/or vapourize as shown in at a very high temperature ofElectrical Discharge i ~ ge Machining The forces of electric and magnetic fields caused by the spark produce a tensile foree resulting in earing of particles of molten and softened metal from the worksurface thereby causing metal Femoval to take place, The continuously flowing fluid flushes away the excess material removed from the machining gap. Note 4) Atany given instant, only one spark will be made between the tool and the workpiece as shown in figure 6.1(b). b) The resulting spark in EDM process causes erosion to take place on both the tool, as well as the workpiece, however the tool is eroded comparatively lesser. This is because, the tool tip is subjected to a compressive force by the spark, which helps reduce tool wear. Also, the material from which the tool is made avoids fast wear relative to the workpiece material. 64 EDM EQUIPMENT EDM equipment consists mainly of the following elements: + Power supply source (Power generators) + Dielectric medium * Tool electrode + Servo feed mechanism + Pumps and filters 6.4.1 Power Generators InEDM process, electrical energy in the form of short duration impulses are to be supplied at the machining gap between the tool and the workpiece. Direct current pulse power generators are used to achieve the purpose. The following are the different types of EDM generators: + RC (re + Rotary impulse type generator, and Controlled pulse circuit (static pulse generator) nce-capacitance) type or Relaxation generator a) RC type or Relaxation generator ‘The relaxation or RC circuit type of generator was the first to be used in EDM process. ‘The circuit as shown in figure 6.2(a) comprises a DC power source that charges a capacitor C across a resistatice R; the saw tooth wave form thus generated is shown in figure 6.2(b). When a potential difference is applied (when DC supply is switched ON), current will flow into the circuit and the capacitor gets charged to a value V, which in turn discharges its charge to the gap between the tool and the workpiece and hence relaxed to zero voltage. A spark will be established between the tool and the workpiece leading to machining. The dielectric fluid in the gap gets deionized. Once the vollage becomes too low to sustain the spark, the charging of the capacitor would continue and the cycle repeats itself.58 Non Traditional Machining 1.= charging time = discharging time 7) lo2a/ : Tool-work fab (b) Figure 6.2 RC type or Relaxation generator circuit Ina RC type generator, the spark repetition rate for a given supply voltage and capacitance, cannot be increased beyond a critical value and is determined by the speed at which the spark gap is deionized and cleared of the debris (machining products) after each discharge. A high metal removal rate can be possible in this regard, To achieve this factor, forced circulation of the dielectric fluid through the gap is necessary, however this poses several problems in this regard, leading to low metal removal rates. In spite of this, RC type of generator is preferred due to its simplicity in its design, robustness, relatively extensive range of discharge, and low cost Following are the parameters that govern the metal removal rate in RC circuit: Supply voltage and breakdown voltage, charging resistance, capacitance, and gap setting, ic., the dielectric strength of the gap between the tool and workpiece. b) Rotary impulse type generator Figure 6.3(a) shows the circuit of a rotary impulse type generator, which consists of a generator driven by a motor. In this type, the capacitor is charged through the diode (or rectifier) during the first half of the cycle as shown in figure 6.3 (b) and during the next half cycle, the sum of the 5 voltages generated by the generator and the charged capicator is applied to the tool-work gap. Av spark will be established between the tool and the workpiece leading to machining. The operating frequency is the sine wave frequency that depends on motor speed. Although the metal removal rate is higher with this type of generator, the surface finish obtained is not good. Motor { | nOn i Tocl-work Generator (a) ‘ 0) Figure 6.3 Rotary impulse type generatorElectrical Discharge Machining a ©) Controlled pulse circuit (Static pulse generator) The ability to cut-off the current in case ofa short circuit is very important during machining. The unavailability of this control task in RC and Rotary pulse type generator* led to the development of circuits with electronic tubes and transistors. These circuits are knownas controlled pulse circuits : or static pulse generator and offer the advantage of faster rate of metal removal and low-tool electrode wear. Majority of EDM machines currently available employ transistorized pulse circuits, Figure 6.4 shows the transistor circuit pulse generator system. Inthis circuit, switching is done by the oscillator at a selected imposed frequency and thus does not require the use of capacitors. The oscillator is also controlled by the gap conditions so that the transistors can be turned OFF in case of a short circuit. The transistorized pulse system provide square waveform pulses with the pulse on-time usually ranging from 1 to 2000 m-sec, peak voltage ranging from'S0 to 450 V, and peak discharge current ranging from 0.5 to 500 A. ' | Oscillator Figure 6.4 Transistor based pulse circuit generator 6.4.2. Dielectric fuid In EDM process, the tool and the workpiece are separated by'a dielectric fluid, which may be deionized water, transformer oil, paraffin oil, kerosene, lubricating oils, oe ere distillate fractions. The dielectric fluid performs the following functions: [pS Tool-work * Act as a spark conductor concentrating the heat energy to a very narrow region on the worksurface, + Actas flushing medium to carry away the tiny particles of metal removal * Actasacooling medium to quench the spark and cool the too! electrode during machining. The: dielectric fluid for EDM should have the following requirements: 1) Possess sufficiently high dielectric strength to remain: electrically non~ conductive until the required breakdown voltage is reached. 2) Deionize rapidly after the spark discharge has taken place. 3) Be chemically neutral so as not to attack the tool, workpiece, or other machine ‘equipments 4) Possess high flash point to avoid any fire hazards, 5) Possess high viscosity for easy circulation and wetting capacity, The method of breaking the short circuit in both RC and. rotary pulse generator circuits is to withdraw the tool elecirode mechanically, which consume time and also lead to intensive work surface damage.2 Non Traditional Machining 6) Should not emit any toxic vapours or have unpleasant odours. 7) Provide an effective cooling medium to the tool, 8) Be cheap and easily available, Apart from selecting the right dielectric fluid, there should also be an effective method for circulation of the dielectric uid, Further, the wear debris (machining products) in the spark gap must be removed continuously or efficient machining. This is achieved by a technique known as flushing. Flushing is the process of circulating the dielectric fluid between the tool electrode and the workpiece ma proper way so as to maintain a clean environment for efficient machining of the workpiece. Described below are a few methods of flushing. a) Injection or Pressure flushing The dielectric fluid is injected continuously into the spark gap (gap between tool and work) either through the hole drilled in the workpiece or tool. Illustrated in figure 6.5(a), is the circulation of the fluid through the workpiece. The ‘workpiece is predrilled and mounted ona chamber connected to the flushing supply. Alternately, the tool can also be drilled through which the dielectric fluid is made to flow directly into the spark gap as shown in figure 6.5(b). \ 7 Dielectric flow out * i Dielectric flow inlet Cielectric Tool Workpiece — frow gu Dielectric flow inlet Workpic Chamber eee {a) Through workpiece (b) Through too! + Figure 6.5 _ Injection flushing With the injection method, components machined get slightly tapered as shown in the figure. This is dueto the flushing of the fluid on the sides ofthe tool also, resulting in sparking action between machining debris and the side walls of the tool. 3 b) Suction flushing “7 i ing from injection flushing, suction flushing is To overcome the tapering effect on components resulting < i 2 employed. The iclectrc fluid is sucked either through the pre-drilled toot or.workpiece, however flushing through the tool has comparatively proved to be more efficient. Refer figure 6.6. ‘The vacuum required for suction is provided by the same pump unit by changing the pump and the filter output connections.Electrical Discharge Machining 61 Dielectric flow inlet” Dielectric tlow outlet by suction Tool Workpiece Dielectric flow inlet Suction flow outlet Workpiece WIM (a) Through workpiece {b) Through tool Figure 6.6 Suction flushing ©) Side Nushing Side flushing method is adopted when it is impossible to drill flushing holes either in the tool or in the workpiece. This method makes use’of nozzles which are caréfully adjusted to force the fluid evenly around the periphery of the tool electrode, Refer figure 6.7. It is very important to adjust the direction of flushing so that the flow is parallel to the tool surface, otherwise which, due to turbulence, only a smal proportion of the dielectric fluid enters the gap leading to inadequate flushing and inefficient machining. Further, with side flushing, the wear on the side of the tool electrode where flushing is provided will be higher, which are the disadvantages of this method. Wik? Gerrcrne tow WY Figure 6.7 Side flushing 6.4.3 Tool electrode In EDM process, the shape ofthe tools similar to that desired in the workpiece. During machining, "both the workpiece as well as the tool get eroded. Although comparatively less metal is eroded for from the tool, the factor must be considered for efficient machining. The matcrial selected for manufacturing EDM tools is based on the following factors: * Should be good conductor of heat and electricity * Possess maximum possible metal removal rate + Easily machinable to the desired shape and size + Resist its erosion during the machining process, and + Lowcost.62 Non Traditional Machining Various materials like copper, zinc alloys, brass, graphite : Tungsten, copper-tungsten, silver-tungsten alloy, etc., are used for: manufacturing EDM tools, Table 6.1 shows the factors for tool selection SI. Tool Wear No.{ Material | renee MRR Fabrication | Cost | Application 1 Copper Low High on rough Easy High | Can be used on : ranges all metals. 2 Brass High High on Easy Low | Onall metals finishing ranges 3 Steel High Low Easy Low | For finishing work only 4 | Zinc based | High |” High on rough Easily die [| Low | Onall metals alloys ranges casted 5 | Tungsten [Lowest Low Difficult [High |~ Only where small holes are to be drilled. 6 | Tungsten- |" High High Difficult | High |” Used for high silver alloy accuracy work 7 | Tungsten- | Low Low Difficult” [Tigh | Used for high copper alloy accuracy work, machining, carbides, & sinall holes. Table 6.1 Tool material characteristics 6.4.4 Servo feed mechanism, EDM machines are equipped with servo control mechanism that ‘automatically moves the tool ata Proper rate thereby maintaining a constant gap between the tool and the workpiece, which is one of the most important parameter in the process. Servo-mechanisms may be either of the form electric- motor-driven, solenoid operated, or hydraulically operated, ora combination of these. Figure 6.8 shows the schematic of an electric-motor-driven type of gap control mechanism. In this type of mechanism, the tool held in a chuck is fitted to a spindle, to which a rack is attached. The axial movement of the spindle is by means of a rack and a pinion arrangement controlled through a reduction gear box driven bya DC shunt motor. ‘The shunt motor is reversible so that the tool can be withdrawn in case when the spark gap is flooded with wear debris, or the tool oversboots (advances rapidly) closing the spark gap that leads to short circuiting. The armature of the motor is connected across a bridge network, the arms of which consist of a potential divider 4 connected across the DC supply, while the other arm consists of the ballast resistance # and capacitor C of the charging circuit as shown in the figure. Hydraulic feed mechanism has proven to be mare effective than the electro-motor-driven type. Wenr ratio is the amount of erosion suffered by the tool elecirode compared with that of the workpiece.Electrical Discharge Machining ee Pinion Reduction gear box Rack Permanent magnet servo motor ie Spindle Dielectric fluid 0.c. Supply Figure 6.8 _Electric-motor-driven type of tool feed mechanism 6.4.5 Pumps and Filters Pumps are used to circulate the dielectric fluid at a suitable pressure into the spark gap, while filters serve their usual purpose of filtering the wear debris and other impurities thereby circulating clean dielectric fluid to the machining gap resulting in efficient machining to take place. 6.5 EDM PROCESS PARAMETERS A few important parameters that determine the accuracy and surface finish of a workpart in EDM include: a) Influence of spark frequency The effect of decreasing the current and increasing its frequency result in improved surface finish in view of the small crater size as shown in figure 6.9. This is because, the energy available for metal removal during a given period is shared by a large number of sparks. The corresponding crater size is reduced. Lwin] Lea} | Figure 6.9 Influence of spark efficiency on EDM process64 7 Non Traditional Machining b) Influence of current ee Seo seaoyed and the surface finish obtained depends on the current in the the figure that, a e re -10 shows the influence of current on metal removal. It is clear from (bulk metal ae curent increases, each individual spark removes a larger crater of: material eae ) rom the. workpiece. Since the depth of crater defines the surface finish. a + results in poor surface finish. In view of the surface finish and metal removal rates, the amperage settings need to be done accordingly 4. Amp 3 2.Amp 2 hare, ; Time in : micro seconds 0 250 0 250 0 250 (a) tb) ted Figure 6.10 Influence of current on EDM process c) Spark gap Typical gap between the tool and the closer the accuracy witha good -achieve with small gaps. : 6.6 | HEATAFFECTED ZONE inEDM InEDM, metal removal from the workpiece takes place due to melting and/or vapourization or the ; he discharged electric spark, The temperature ofthe discharged i tl ine en 12000°C. This high temperature may, result in microstructural changes leading to changes in the mechanical properties of the machined surface, Microscopie study of machined components reveals the presence of three ee layers or zones: recast layer, heat affected zone, and converted layer as shown in figure 6.11. the workpiece ranges from 0.01-0.05 mm. Thesmaller the gap, surface finish. However, efficient flushing becomes difficult to+ Electrical Discharge Machining 65 Diameter of hole Converted layer. machined by EDM Heat affected zone NSS UY Recast layer Js Unaffected —T base layer Figure 6.11 Heat affected zones in EDM process Zone 1 Recast layer During machining, ifthe molten (vapourized) material from the workpiece is not flushed out quickly, itwill re-solidify and harden due to the cooling effect of the dielectric fluid and gets adhered to the machined surface. This thin adhered layer of about 2 ~ 40 Lin is called the recast layer. It is extremely hard, brittle and porous, and may contain microcracks. The layer must be removed by secondary machining process before the workpart is put into use. The fatigue strength has been found to increase by about 5% with the layer removal. Zone 2 Heat affected zone Around (or below) the recast layer is the heat affected zone formed due to rapid heating and quenching cycles during machining. This layer is approximately 25 ym thick. The heating-cooling cycle and diffused material during machining are the responsible reasons for the presence of this zone. Thermal residual stresses, grain boundary weakness, and grain boundary cracks are some of the effects related duc to this zone. Note When both recast layer and heat affected zone are removed, the fatigue strength can be restored to about 95% of its original value. Zone3 Converted zone Around (or below) the heat affected zone can be found the converted zone, where a change in grain structure from the original structure is apparent. Around (or below) the converted zone lies the unaffected base layer which remains in the same condition as it was prior to the EDM process. 6.7 ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS & APPLICATIONS of EDM Following are a few advantages, limitations and applications of EDM. _ Advantages a) Extremely hard materials can be easily machined with close tolerances,66 Non Traditional Machining b) Thin and small sized workpieces can be casi! ly machined, which otherwisi I difficult with conventional methods due to th eoagiee a he excess cutting tool pressure exerted, ©) There is no direct contact with the tool and the workpiece. Therefore, delicate sections can be casily machined without any distortion, d) Fine holes can be easily drilled with this process, c) Appreciably high value of MRR can be achieved when compared to other non-traditional machining processes. Disadvantages a) Suitable for electrically conductive workpiece materials. b) Slow material removal rate compared to conventional machining proces c) Inability to machine sharp comers. d) Specific power consumption is high ¢) Overcut is formed duc to side sparks. 1) Tool wear occurs during machining, hence additional costs for the tool Applications The process is widely used in aerospace applications to produce turbine blades, nozzle holes, aint other parts: in mould making and die casting to produce die/mould cavities, small deep holes, narrow slots, stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion dies, forging dies, intricate mould cavitie: of holes with straight or curved axis are a few other possible applications of EDM. 6.8 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE GRINDING G) Electrical discharge grinding (EDG) process is similar to EDM process, except the Stationary tool electrode used in EDM process is replaced with a rotating wheel electrode. Grinding process takes place without the use of abrasive particles as is the case in conventional grinding. Figure 6.12 illustrates the EDG process. The tool electrode is in the form ofa rotating wheel and is usually made from graphite, brass, or steel, The wheel is made to rotate about a horizontal axis and is separated from the workpiece by adiclectric fluid. The gap between the wheel and the workpice is maintained by a servo-control mechanism. When sufficient pulse DC power supply is applied, the insulative properties of the dielectric fluid arc momentarily broken down, thereby allowing a small spark to jump through the gap between the: tool and the workpiece. The thermal energy of the spark melts a small portion of the workpiece at the point where the spark makes contact with the warkp' The rotating motion of the wheel causes the molten metal to ejected from the warkpicce leaving a small crater. ‘This action is repeated hundreds of thousands of times each second resulting w metal removal from the workpiece: is small amounts, s wy be > ceonomically machined with EDM process, Re-sharpening of cutting tools and broaches, trepanning .Electrical Discharge Machining Servo system Rotary mechanism Metallic grinding wheel Spark Workpiece Support Figure 6.12 Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG) aK 6.9 ‘TRAVELLING WIRE EDM. Wire Electrical Discharge Machining, simply called as Wire EDM, is one of the. greatest innovations among the various non-traditional machining processes. Figure 6.13 illustrates the principle of wire EDM process. The process makes use ofa traveling wire made from copper or brass, typically of diameter 0.05 to0.3 mm toact as the tool electrode. The wire unwinds from a spool, feeds through the workpiece, and is taken up ona second spool with constant wire tension, all of which is monitored precisely by a computer numerically controlled (CNC) system. Deionized water* is used as the dielectic fluid, and is injected though nozzles in to the spark gap coaxially with the wire so that a fresh portion of the tool is always presented to the workpiece during machining. A small gap of about 0.025 to 0.05 mm is maintained between the traveling wire and the workpiece. In operation, when sufficient voltage is applied, the dielectric fluid (deionized water) ionizes resulting ina controlled spark discharge between the tool and the workpiece. The spark precisely erodes a small portion of he workpiece causing it to melt and vapourize, The circulating dielectric fluid cools the vapourized metal and forces the resolidifed eroded particles from the ‘gap. The eroded particles *,, Deionized water (demineralized water) must not be confused with distilled water, Although both are pure forms of water, there liesa difference between the two. Distilled water is produced by distillation Process.that involves boiling the water and then condensing the vapour into a clean container leaving solid contaminants behind, Whereas, deionized water is produced by deionization — a chemical process that removes mineral and ions, both cations (positively charged ions such as sodium, calcium, ‘von, and copper) and anions (negatively charged ions such as chloride and sulfate). 67: i | J. Non Traditional Machining puma 2 along withthe deionized water causes the conductivity ofthe deionized water to rise. A Pump automatically forces the water through a filter and a resin tank which helps in the removal of the conductive elements to make the water pure (deionize). ‘The resin removes the dissolved Particles while fiers remove suspended particles. To mainain efficient machining and part accuric. the deionized water flows through a chiller so as to maintain a constant temperature of the water. During machining, spark discharges occurat the leading surface ofthe wire, and asa result, there $S2.Amall erosion inthe traveling wire also, and fortis reason, fresh wire is always fe from a spool. Guide pulley Wire-electrode after EDM Used wire spool Figure 6.13 Wire EDM process Note Inwire EDM, to cut internal shapes in workparts, initially a small hole need to be drilled inthe * workpart for the insertion of the tsaveling wire. The wire is threaded through this hole and the * > machining operation is started. & aifUnit -7 PLasma Arc MACHINING 7.1 PRINCIPLE of PLASMAARC MACHINING (PAM) Plasma* are machining or Plasma are cutting (PAC) is a thermal machining process that is primarily used for cutting thick sections of electrically conductive materials, The principle of the process is based on utilizing a high-temperature plasma, which is generated by heating gases to elevated temperatures (to a few thousand degrees). The plasma in this state is composed of positive ions, neutral atoms, and free electrons that have become disassociated from the main gas atoms. The temperature of the plasma can beas high as 30,000°C, which means that, it can be utilized to melt and cut rapidly any type of material. 72 NEED for PAM Drilling, sawing, machining, punching or cutting thick metals is very difficult by traditional machining processes, Plasma arc cutting is used in place of traditional machining methods, since it can be used to cut through a wide variety of metals of varying thickness at high speeds. It provides the greatest economical advantage, speed and quality on carbon steels, alurainum, stainless steels etc., when compared to traditional machining methods, 7.3. PAM EQUIPMENT Figure 7.1 shows the principal elements of a plasma arc machining equipment. The equipment consists of a power supply, gas supply unit, cooling water system, control elements, and a plasma torch. Of all the parts that make up a system, the plasma torch is the most critical to successful operation. The various parts of the plasma equipment are discussed as follows. a) Plasma torch A plasina torch, also known as plasma gun, or plasma cutter isa device in which a flowing gas is passed through an electric arc, producing a high-velocity jet of high-temperature ionized yas called plasma. The torch carries a 2% thoriated uungsten electrode connected to the negative terminal of aDC power supply. The tungsten electrode thus acts as a cathode in the circuit of the equipment. * Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of mater the others being solid, liquid, and yas. t While in plasma state, 4 gas exhibits several unusual properties such us becoming both e rically conductive ancl responsive.to magnetism. This behaviour of plasma is unique enough for it to be considered u fourth state of matter along with solids, liquids and regular eases, ‘70 A converging nozzle with a suitabl wer supply through a suita workpiece metal to be ma Positive terminal ofthe power supply. « Power supply (4) le orifice encloses the tungsten electrode, Non Traditional Machining The nozzle is connected to limit the current through, en connected directly to the ble resistor hhined is th Tungsten electrode Gasigas Worl ionised gas stream (Plasma arc} kpiece Molten metal _—: removed eH i—— Kerl Figure 7.1. Set-up for Plasma are cutting/machining b) Gas supply and cooling water system On one side of the torch is provided a passage for the supply. as used depends on the type of workpiece material being gas mixture used for different types of workpiece materia around the torch is provided in order to cool the electrode an Material to be cut of gas into the chamber. The type of machined, Table 7.1 shows the gas or Is. A provision for circulating the water nd the nozzle during the operation mixture to be used Aluminum and Magnesium | Nitro gen, nitrogen- hydrogen mixture, argon-hydrogen mixture. Stainless steel and non-ferrous metals Nitrogen-hydrogen mixture, argon-hydrogen mixture. Carbon and alloy steels, Cast iron Table 7.1 Nitrogen-hydrogen mixture and compressed air. Commonly used gas mixture for diflerent workpiece materials in PAMPlasma Arc Machining = 7.4. PAMOPERATION Inoperation, a strong arc is struck between the tungsten electrode (cathode) and the nozzle (anode), and meanwhile, a suitable gas/gas mixture is forced into the chamber. As the gas molecules collide with the high velocity electrons of the arc, the gas gets ionized and a very large amount of heat energy is evolved. This high velocity stream of hot ionized gas is called plasma, The maximum velocity of the jet is around 550 m/sec and the temperature is as high as 28,000°C. The arc is maintained stable, so that it heats the flowing gas and maintains it in the plasma state. The nozzle constricts the high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas into a small cross-section of the workpiece material. The high heat of the gas is sufficient to raise the workpiece temperature above its melting point, and the high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away resulting in metal removal from the workpiece material. The torch may be water or gas cooled, with the coolant usually flowing through the electrode and around the nozzle to dissipate the high heat of the plasma. Mechanism of Metal removal Metal removal in plasma machining is basically due to the high temperatures produced in the workpiece material, The heating phenomenon that takes place at the workpiece is a combination of anodic heating, due to direct electron bombardment, and convection* heating from the high temperature plasma that accompanies the arc. The resulting heat is sufficient to raise the ‘temperature of the workpiece material above its melting point, and the flowing high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal away resulting in metal removal to take place. ° yw NON-THERMAL GENERATION of PLASMA Plasma is composed of different species such as positive ions, neutral atoms’, and free electrons that are disassociated from the main gas atoms. Based on the relative temperatures of the electrons, ions and neutrals, plasma is classified as thermal or non-thermal. Thermal plasmas have electrons - and the heavy particles at the same temperature, i.e., they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Non-thermal plasmas on the other hand have the ions and neutrals at amuch lower: temperature (sometimes room temperature), whereas electrons are much hotter ( T.>>T). Generation of plasma. The Inethod of heating the-gases by first ionizing them is one of the most popular methods of Generating hot plasma. This can be achieved by applying a suitable electric field across the gas * column. The principle of plasma, generation is shown in figure 7.1. * Heat transfer frotthe plasma to the workpiece is considered 10 occur mainly by convection, with radiation from the-are column being found to make only a small contribution, » Atoms are neutrl; they contain the same number of protons as electrons. By definition, an ion is an electrically-charged paricle produced by either removing electrons from a neutral atom to givea ~:positive ion or adding electrons to a neutral atom to give a negative ion. When an ion is formed, the number of protons does not change, := Non Traditional Machining When aneutral gas*/gas mixture is forced into the plasma chamber and when sufficient electric energy is supplied to the gas, the individual gas molecules become charged. The electric field Permits acceleration of electrons of the arc within the gaseous environment due to the small masses of gas molecules. The high velocity electrons of the arc collide with the gas molecules producing dissociation of diatomic molecules or atoms into ions and electrons (ionization®), resulting in a substantial increase in the conductivity of the gas. The free electrons in tum get accelerated and cause further ionization and heating of the gases. Further, an increase in temperature takes place when the ions and free electrons recombine into atoms or when the aloms recombine into molecules as these are exothermic processes, A high temperature plasma is generated, which is forced through the nozzle in the form ofa jet The maximum velocity of the jet is around 550 m/sec and the temperature is as high as 28,000°C. The are is maintained stable, so that it heats the flowing gas and maintains it in the plasma state, } MODES of OPERATION of PLASMATORCH (TYPES of DC TORCHES) ‘Plasma is generated in plasma torches by means of direct current. (DC), alternating current (AC), radio-frequency (RF) and other discharges. However DC torches are the most commonly used due toless flicker (light) generation and noise, better control of process, low electrode consumption, and low power consumption. In a DC torch, there are two modes of clectrical connections that can be used: transferred are mode, and non-transferred arc mode. AS Transferred arc mode When the electrode is connected directly to the negative (cathode) of the DC source, while the - nozzle is connected to the positive (anode) side of the supply through a suitable resistor as shown in figure 7.2(a), a pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch between the cathode electrode and the anode nozzle. In order to cut or machine a material, the arc must be transferred to the workpiece, which is connected to the positive side of the DC supply. The plasma thus generated with this » arrangement is said to be operated in the transferred arc mode, With such an arrangement, majority of the heat energy can be transferred to the workpiece material and hence metal can be i "Inert" the Latin, and means stagnant and non- ' fen called inert gases. “Inert"comes from 1 2 a Sea hat these gases do not initiate chemical reaction$ by themselves. reactive, That means tI a, eine ne ihe process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by enleatice eo a in conjunction with other chemical changes. For me i form ions, often her gaining or losing electron 1 ry to water it vaporizes and separdies into two gases, hydrogen " . : cxample, when we surly ee Tn the same manner, when we supply more energy (0 @ gas, is and axygen, in the form si verms of temperature and eleirical characteristics, This jodified subs trons and lons among the gas ‘atoms, Wen this characteristics are mo i of free elec 1 process is culled ionization, the a oo ieid is electrically conductive because free electrons happens, the gas, which has now are available to carry current. oved at a faster rate) The electro-thermal efficiency is in the-range of 85 to 90% and hence u ved at faster ig welding and hard surfacing ofmetals, ©, ee OOPlasma Arc Machining 73 Plasma gas (-) Plasma gas tH [oc Power sxmly tw Resistor Plasma torch Plasma torch (4) Nozzle Nozzle Plasma arc Plasma flame (+) Work {a) Transferred arc mode (b) Non-Transferred arc mode Figure 7.2 Modes of operation of DC plasma torch b) Non-transferred arc mode When the DC power source is connected directly across the cathode electrode and the anode nozzle as shown in figure 7.2(b), the plasma generated id to be operated in the non-transferred are mode. This arrangement eliminates the necessity to have the work material as a part of the electrical system, With such an arrangement, targe part of the heat generated at the anode (nozzle) is extracted by the cooling water circulated around it and hence the heat is wastefully lost (not effectively used). The plasma is in the form ofa flame with electro-thermal efliciency being around 65%. The plasma generated by this method is used for spraying, ceramic working and chemical synthesis. SE. scene ee ue PLASMA TORCH DESIGN ‘The plasma torch is designed carefully so that various gases, torch coolant, water (if applicable), and electrica! current can flow through the torch simultaneously without adversely affecting one another. A few guidelines to be followed in designing the plasma torch are listed briefly as follows a) Nozzle design The nozzle focuses the stream of plasma to produce the desired cut, and hence its design is very important for efficient machining. Nozzles are designed so that the orifice is slightly larger than the stream of plasma being focused. This allows the nozzle to contain and focus the vortex of plasma without being affected by it. The length of the nozzle bore is directly related to the quality of cut achieved. A long bore generally yields a high-density arc and superior cut, while a short bore generally yields relatively poor cut quality but extended life. A large orifice length/diameter ratio helps in stabilizing laminar mode of flow. b) Electrode During the course of operation of the plasma torch, the cathode electrode is heated by the current passing through it, Cathode heating is a function of clectrode diameter and the current passing through it, Excessive heating may cause melting of the electrode and additional cooling becomes ©74 Non Traditiorial Machining compulsory in the design consideration for the integrity of the cathode. However, cooling must be optimized for minimum melting/crosion without cracking the cathoxle ‘material, While operating at larger are voltages, itis preferable to increase th igle of taper at the cathode. “ tip. And while operating in the transferred arc mode, flat face cathode is beneficial. The taper of the cathode electrode and convergence of the nozzle should be such that the are terminates al the tip of the cathode electrode. The tip is hence designed to be the closest point to the anode. The degree of constriction of the are depends herein and forms the characteristic feature in producing more uniform heating at the lop and bottom of the cut on the work materi: leading to efficient metal removal. ial The alignment of the electrode and nozzle is critical to obtaining good cut quality. The plasma jet leaving the cathode tip must flow through the center of the node throat. Any misalignment would lead to undesirable arcing on the sides resulting in non-uniform erosion on one side of the electrode. ©) Plasma gas Plasma torch operation is highly dependent on the type of gases being used. Different gases different specific heats, thermal conductivities, radical production, and power requirements. For example, torches designed to run on argon gas: an electrically conductive monatomic gas, would be hard-pressed and subject to thermal damage if they were required to run diatomic eases which require much more power. Therefore, when designing a plasma torch, the feedstock with which the torch will operate is an important consideration. d)-Insulation Some portions of the positive and negative sections of the torch must be electrically insulated due, to high frequency voltage used for ignition. The insulator portion must not be nearer to the are zone in order to avoid any damage to the insulator by radiation or convection heat transfer, ue PROCESS PARAMETERS of PAM Following are the parameters which affect the metal removal rate, accuracy and surface finish of the workpiece material in plasma arc machining, \ (a) Torch-workpicce distance (stand-off) and current Stand-off distance and current vary for different materials and with different thickness as shown in table 7.2. With an increase in thickness of a particular workpiece material, the current and torch- work distance must also be increased. As the stand-off distance increases, the are diverges and spreads over a wide area leading to low thermal intensity of the plasma are, On the other hand, a close stand-off distance can promote arcing and hence, the stancl-off distance needs to be considered appropriately based on the workmetal thickness. . (b) Gas flow rate Generally speaking, the thicker the workpiece material, the greater should be the gas flow rate, However thick work materials require increased current, The gas flow must be set according toPlasma Arc Machining us the nozzle bore diameter. ifthe gas flow is too low for the current level, hh for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break down forming twoarcs and nozzle to workpiece. The effect of double arcing is usually ‘The gas flow rates may range between 0,4 - 5.6 mlhr. the current level and also or the current level too hig! in series: electrode to nozzle, and catastrophic with the nozzle melting. Material Thickness | Torch-work (mm) | distance (mm) Titanium 13 25 Copper B 6 400 Copper / Nickel 25 10 550 3. | Casti 16 6 400 i ‘ast iron | : Table 7.2. PAM parameters an (©) Cutting speed The amount of heat energy transferred by the plasma can be controlled by the surface cutting speed. If the speed is too high, then the upper edge of the contact face comes closer to the plasma jet and receives excessive amount of heat resulting in greater metal removal rate. A kerf is produced, being very wide on the top and narrow downwards, similar toa v-shaped cross-section. ‘The surface finish is also not satisfactory with high speeds. The optimum speed is achieved by advancing the torch heat at the rate at which the distribution of the heat flow from the plasma into the work material is almost uniform throughout the thickness of the material. Under such conditions, perpendicular edges are obtained, i.e., the kerf is almost as wide at the top as at the bottom (refer figure 7.1). 7, SAFETY PRECAUTIONS in PAM » Following are some of the safety precautions need to be considered in plasma arc machining. 2a) The plasma flame emits ultraviolet and infrared radiations, which are harmful to human eyes . and’skin. Safety eye glasses or hand shields, asbestos gloves, and heat resistant clothes must be wom during the plasma operation. : ~ b) “It is necessary to carry out plasma operations in a ventilated room in order to avoid inhaling ¢ of fumes,and gases emitted during the plasma generation. Gases, particularly oxides of _ > piltrogen poses significant hazard to human operators. If ventilation is poor, air supplied ". Fespirators (masks) must be used, c). Gas cylinders and their pressures must be monitored regularly for safety working conditions. - Also electrical cable connections, power source suppl i 7 : ” /, groundings, gas leaks, etc., must be checked suitably prior to operation. aoe gs gaa leak, et,7 Non Traditional Machining 4) Plasma machining produces high levels of noise*, and hence ear muffs or plugs must be * worn, 7.10 ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS & APPLICATIONS of PAM Following area few advantages, limitations and applications of PAM. Advantages a) Any material, regardless of its hardness and refractory nature can be efficiently and economically machined. b) Faster cutting speeds duc to high velocity and high temperature of cutting gas. ¢) Requires minimal operator training. d) Process variables such as type of gas, power, cutting speed, etc., can be adjusted for each metal type. Limitations a) The high-temperature, high-velocity impinging gas causes metallurgical alterations in the workpiece material. b) Shielding and noise protection adds additional equipm precautions. & c) High equipment cost. nis, and.also burden on the operator's Applications Manufacturers of transportation and agricultural equipments, heavy machinery, aircraft components, and many other products have discovered the benefits of plasma arc machining. The process is used for sawing, drilling, machining, punching, and cutting operations. : In transportation industries, plasma are machining is used to form the outer skins of tractor-trailers,- buses and agricultural equipment. They are also used in the heating, ventilating and air conditioning industries to cut complex duct work. Makers of large construction machinery use PAM to produce cranes, bulldozers and other large equipments. Plasma torches placed on robots are being used increasingly for contour cutting of pipes and vessels, and also cutting of formed shapes, angles and curves in-various work parts. ise and fume emissions is to cut or machine the material over : nly used approach to reduce noise an 0 " e ue Serie surround the arc with a water shroud, This method requires a cutting table filled a ee upto the supporting surface, a water shroud attachment to go around the torch, and with water work: te ing pump to draw water from the cuting rable and pump it through the shroud, are-circul jod, unde! neuter plasma cutting, is also in common use. With this method, the working end Folate tobe cut are submerged under approximately 3 in (75 mim) of water While dtl pe but not cutting, a constant flow of compressed air is maintained through the Another meth of the torch an the torch is inde! torch to keep water ou.77 Plasma Arc Machining 7.1L INDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS of PLASMA JETS Apart from cramm@and welding thick and hard metals, plasma jet ean also be used for are surfacing and are spraying processes as discussed brietly below. a) Plasma arc surfacing Surfacing is the process of depositing a very thin layer of metal on the surface of a metallic workpiece in order to obtain the desired properties or dimensions, The deposited layer of metal “may contribute to corrosion resistance, wear resistance, toughness, or anti-friction properties. [It may also act to replace metal, which has worn out or corroded away. In plasma are surfacing process, an are welding gun (or torch) is used, where an arc is struck between the cathode electrode and the anode surfacing material (workpiece). The arc is constricted intoa fine beam on to the worksurface. Meanwhile, a metered quantity of metallic powder is fed bya powder feeder into the plasma arc where it is melted, deposited and bonded to the surface of the workpiece metal. b) Plasma are spraying Plasma are spraying is typically a coating process that involves spraying a molten or heat softened powder material on toa pre-cleaned work surface to produce a thin layer of coating. In plasma arc spraying process, surface preparation of the workpiece material is very important for perfect adhesion of the coating on to the workpiece material. The surface of the work metal is cleaned by degreasing in a hot alkaline bath and appropriately roughened by grit blasting. The spraying equipment consists ofa plasma torch, cooling circuit with a circulating pump, gas cylinders, and other accessories. Material in the form of powder is injected into a very high temperature plasma are, where it is rapidly heated and accelerated to a high velocity. The hot material impacts on the work surface and rapidly cools forming a coating. Plasma spraying has the advantage that it can spray very high melting point materials such as refractory metals like tungsten and ceramics like zirconia, Since the process is carried out at high temperatures in the presence of an inert gas, the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the coating are generally good. However, the high cost of the process and its complexity forms the major disadvantages.Unit-8 - LASER BEAM & ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING é QO 8.1 PRINCIPLE of LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM) Laser* beam machining is a thermal material removal process that utilizes a high-energy, monochromatic’ beam of light to melt and vapourize particles on the surface of metallic and non- metallic workpieces. The machining is achieved by a laser device, which produces a light beam with various characteristics. The electrical energy supplied (o the laser is converted into light energy and then to thermal (heat) energy. The temperature generated is high enough to melt and or vaporize any material Albert Einstein first published the key principle behind the operation of the laser, when he hypothesized that, under the proper conditions, light energy of a particular frequency could be used to stimulate the electrons in an atom to emit additional light with exactly the Same characteristics as the original stimulating light source. The light emitted from a laser differs from all other natural and man-made light sources and is able to perform material processing tasks because of its properties of monochromaticity. Lasers are mainly used to cut, drill and weld materials. However, they can also be used to mark parts (scribing and marking), heat-treat surfaces and selectively clad materials. 8.2 NEED for LBM Machining of very thin materials like those used in electronic and hydraulic components is very difficult by traditional methods. Also, few of the non-traditional methods are not suitable in thes: cases. Laser beam machining is preferred to perform micro machining on all difficult-to-cut materials like ceramic, diamond, glass, semiconductor wafers and chips, etc. 8.3. LBM EQUIPMENT Figure 8.1 shows the schematic of laser equipment. The equipment consists of the following main parts: + Ruby crystal + Xenon flash tube + Cooling system, and + Focusing lens. The word laser is en acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Monochromatic light refers to visible light of a narrow band of wavelengthsam & Electron Beam Machining Laser Bei a) Ruby crystal The cylindrical shape is‘aluminum oxide wit made absolutely parallel to each oll itreflects nearly 96% of the incident crystal is partially silvered and contains a smal d ruby crystal forms the important part of the laser beam equipment. Ruby chromium dispersed throughout it, Both the ends of the ruby crystal are her, One of the end faces of the crystal is highly silvered, so that light. In order to tap the laser output, the other end face of the II hole through which the laser beam emerges. b) Xenon flash tube - ’ The ruby crystal is surrounded bya helical flash tube containing inert gas xenon, which itselfin tum is surrounded by a reflector, to maximize the intensity of the incident light on the ruby crystal. The xenon tube is connected toa pulsed high voltage source by which the xenon transforms the electrical energy into white light flashes (light energy). Highly silvered-face Xenon flash tube Reflector Pulsed Cooling system high voltage * Ruby crystal Veet th / Repsssstssssss6= § 8 N § Silvered face with tiny hole Laser beam T Focal length ~~” ‘ae ab Concentrated te ae 3 eee Figure 8.1 Schematic of Laser equipment ". ¢) -Cooling system, : = A cooling system, which utilizes water, air or liquid nit an eat : es h id nitro; i s rom the.enormous amount of heat Grocraeds nitrogen, is provided to protect the ruby crystal® , +Ruby crystal becomes less efficient at high temperatures,