AllChapt

ers
Biol
ogyf
4.
Questions&Answer
s
Chapter1
1:Def
inener voussy stem.
 Thener voussy stem i shi ghlyorgani zednet wor ksofcel l
st hatdetects
changesandcont rolsmet abolicpr ocesses, ment alandphy sical
act i
vit
iesandmai ntainhomeost asi s.
2:whatist hemadeupofner voussy stem?
 Thener voussy stem i smadeupofbi l
lionsofneur ons.
3:whatist heabi li
tyofner voussy stem?
 Theabi li
tyofner voussy stem ist omoni torandr espondt ochangesi n
thesur roundi ngbot hext ernal andi nt ernal.
4:whatist hecomposedofner voust issue?
 Thener voust issuei scomposedofneur onsandneur ogli
a.
5:Def
ineneur ons( nervecel ls).
 Neur ons( ner vecel ls)ar et hewor ki
nguni tsoft hener voussy stem that
gener ateandt ransmi tner veimpul ses.
6:Def
ineneur oglia
 Theneur ogl i
adonotconductner v ei mpul seinsteadt heysuppor tand
protectt hener v ecel ls.
7:whatdoesneur onconsi stof?
 Neur onconsi stsoft hreemai nr egions: t
hedendr i
tes, acellbodyandan
ax on.
8:Def
inedendr it
es.
 Dendr itesr eceivesi gnal scal ledi mpul sesf r
om t heot herneur onesand
conductt hei mpul sest ot hecel l body .
9:Def
ineanaxon.
 Anaxoncar r
iest hener v eimpul sef rom t hecell bodyt ootherneur ons
andmuscl es.
10:Howmanyt ypescanbecl assifi
edneur onsaccor dingt ot henumberof
dendr
ites?
 Fourt ypeswhi char e: anaxoni c, uni pol ar,bi
polar ,andmul ti
pol ar
.
11:Howmanyt ypescanbecl assifi
edneur onesaccor di ngtof unctionall
yor
di
rect
ionofi mpul seconduct ion?

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  Threetypeswhi
char
e:sensor
yneur
ones,
mot
orneur
onesamdr
elay
neurones.

12:Defi
nesensor yneur ones( afferentneur ones) .
 Sensor yneur ones: areneur onsgeti nformat ionaboutwhati sgoi ngon
insi
deandout si deoft hebodyandbr ingt hatinformat i
oni ntot hebr ai
n
andspi nal cor di nor dert obepr ocessed.
13:Defi
nemot orneur ons( effer entneur ones)
 Mot orneur ons( ef f
er entneur ons) : areneur onsgeti nformat ionfrom the
spinal cor dandconv eyort ransmi tcommandst ot heef fect ororgans
suchasmuscl esorgl ands.
14:Defi
ner elayneur ons.
 Ther el
ayneur onsar ef oundonl yint hebr ainandspi nal cordconnect
oneneur ont oanot her.
15:writ
epar t
scov eringofpr ot ectiv econnect iv
et i
ssueaccor dingner vesand
def
ineeachone.
 A)Endoneur ium: i
sadel icatet issuesur r
oundi ngeachi ndividual fi
bre
whichi scont inuouswi tht hesept at hatpassi nwor dsf rom t he
perineur i
um.
B)Perineur ium: isasmoot hconnect ivet i
ssuesur roundi ngeachbundl es
off
ibre.
C)Epineur ium: ist hef i
br oust issuewi thsur roundsandencl osesa
numberof bundl esofner vef ibres.
16:Defi
nener vei mpul se.
 Aner veimpul sei sanel ect ri
cal char get ravelli
ngt hel engthofneur on.
17:Defi
ner est i
ngpot ent i
al.
 Rest ingpot ent ial isanon- conduct i
ngner v efi
br eisdescr i
bedt obei na
restingpot ent ial.
18:Defi
neact i
onpot ent i
al .
 Actionpot ential i
sal ocal isedchangei nther estingmembr anepot ential
b/wt heinsi deandout si deoft hener vefibrecausedbyast imul us.
19:Defi
neasy napse.
 Asy napsei saj unct i
onb/ wdendr itesoft woadj acentneur ones.
20:Howmanydi v isi
onsdoesner voussy stem consi stof?
 Twomaj ordi visi ons: thecent ral andper ipheral nervoussy st ems.

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21:Howmanypar
tscanbeclassif
iedt
hecent ralnerv
oussyst
em?
 Twoandtheyare:
thebrainandspinalcord.
22:Howmanypar
tscanbedividedper
ipheralnervoussyst
em accor
ding
di
vi
sions?
 Twoandtheyare:
thesensoryandmot ordivisi
ons.

23:wr
itethemeningesofthebrainanddef
ineeachone.
 Theyaret
hreeandt heyare:dur
amater,
piamater
,andarachnoi
d.
(A)Duramat eri
sthetough(taaf
)out
ermembranecover
ingthebrai
n
andspinal cor
doft hevertebr
ates.
(B)Pi
amat
eri
sthei
nner
mostmembr
anecov
eri
ngt
hebr
ainandspi
nal
cor
d.
(C) Arachnoi distheal ayeroff i
broust i
ssuet hatli
esb/ wduraandpi a
mater
s.
24:
Howmanyneur onsdoeshuman’ sbrainconsi stof ?
 About100bi ll
i
onsofneur ones.
25:
whati st hemassoft hebr ainofhumanadul t?
I tisabout1. 4kg.
26:
Howmanyoxy gencant hebr ai nconsume?
I tconsumesabout20%oft heoxy genthatr eachest hebody .
27:
whati st hefoodofbr aincel ls?
I tsfoodi sGl ucoseonl y
.
28:
Howmanypar t
scanbeconsi stedoft hebrain?
 Thecer ebr um, thediancephal on, thebrainst em, andthecer ebell
um.
29:
Def i
net hecer ebrum.
 Thecer ebr um isthel ongestandmostcompl expartsofthebr ai
nand
const i
tutesabout90%oft hebr ain'svol
ume.
30:
whati st hefunct i
onoft hecer ebrum?
I tsepar atesthet wocer ebral hemi spheresandpenet r
atestot hedepth
oft hecor puscol l
asum.
31:
Howmanyl obesdoest hecer ebr um consistof ?
 Fourl obesandt heyar e: f
ront al,pariet
al,t
empor al,andoccipitall
obes.
32:
Tell t
het hreet ypesofact i
viti
esassoci atedwi thcer ebralcor
tex.
 Hi gheror derf unctions,sensor yper cepti
onandi niti
ati
onandcont r
ol.
33:
whati st hefunct i
onofdi ancephal onandt ellwhatdoesi tconsistof?

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  Connectsthecer ebr
um andmi dbrai
n.I
tisconsi
stsofthal
amusand
hypothal
amus.
34:
whatisthefuncti
onoft hal
amus?
 Thalamusr el
aysandr edi
stri
butesimpul
sesfrom t
hemostpar t
soft
he
brai
nt othecerebralcor
tex.
35:
whatisthefuncti
onofhy pothal
amus?
Itcont r
olsandt heoutputofhormonesfrom t
hepitui
tar
ygland.

36:Tel
lpartsoft hebr ai nstem.
 Threeandt heyar e: midbr ain, ponsandmedul l
aobl ongat a.
37:Defi
nemi dbrai n
 Themi dbr ainist hear eaoft hebr ai
nsi tuat edb/ wt hecer ebr um above
andt heponsbel ow.
38:Defi
nepons.
 Ponsi sthesi tuat edinf rontoft hecer ebel l
um , belowt hemi dbr
ainand
abov et hemedul laoblongat a.
39:Defi
net hemedul laobl ongat a.
 Themedul laobl ongat aist hemosti nt eriorr egi
onoft hebr ainstem.
40:Defi
net hecer ebellum.
 Thecer ebel l
um i ssituatedbehi ndtheponsandi mmedi atelybelowt he
poster i
orpor t
ionoft hecer ebr um.
41:whatist hef unctionofcer ebel lum?
 Thecer ebel l
um cont r
olsandcoor dinat est hemov ementofv ari
ous
groupsofmuscl esensur ingsmoot h, ev en, preciseact i
ons.
42:Defi
nespi nalcord.
 Thespi nal cordi stheel ongat edal mostcy l
indrical par tofthecent ral
nervoussy st
em t hatispr otect edbyt hev ertebralcol umnand
surroundedbyt hemeni ngesandcer ebr ospi nalfluidt hoseal sogi v
et he
spinal cordapr ot ecti
on.
43:whataret hef unctionsofspi nal cord?
 A)Tr ansf ersofner vousi nf ormat i
onb/ wt hebr ainandot herpar tsof
thebodyexceptt heheadr egi on.
(B)I
tcontrolst hesi mpl erefl
exact ions.
44:Defi
ner eflexact ionsandt el li
t st ypes.

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  Ref l
exact
ionsar ear apidautomaticresponsetoacert
ainsti
mul us.I
ts
t
ypesaresimpler eflexandcondi ti
onalrefl
exacti
ons.
45:Howmanypar tsdoesper ipheralner
voussy st
em consi
stofaccordi
ngt o
nerves?Anddefineeachone.
 Twocr ani
alandspi nal ner
ves
(A)Crani
alnerves: arethener vesthatri
sefrom t
hebrai
nandi nnervat
e
areasintheheadandf ace.
(B)Spinalnerves:ar
et henervesthatr isef
rom thespinal
cordand
i
nnervatestheli
mpsandt runk.
46:Howmanypar t
scanbecl assi
fi
edper ipheralner
voussystem accordi
ngt
o
di
vi
sions?
 Two: motorandsensor ydivi
sions.
47:Tellpar
tsoft hemot or.
 Somat icandaut onomi c.
48:Tellpar
tsoft heautonomi cnervoussy stem anddefineeachother.
 Two: thesy mpatheticandthepar asy mpathet
ic.
(A)Thesy mpat het
icismostact iveint i
mesofemer gencyorstress
whent heheartrateandbr eathi
ngrateincr ease.
(B)Thepar asympat het icnervoussy st em i smostact i
vewhent hebody
i
srelaxed.
49:Def i
nesomat i
cner voussy st
em.
 Somat i
cnervoussy stem isthesy stem r elayinf
or mationfrom external
sensor yreceptorstot hecentralnerv oussy stem andmot ornerves
rel ayinformati
onf r
om t hecent r
al ner voussy stem t oskeletal
muscl es.
50:
Def ineaut onomi cner voussy stem.
 Aut onomicner voussy stem i
sasy stem car ri
esimpul sesf r
om the
cent r
alnervoussy stem t othehear tandot herinternalorgans.
51:
Def inecor nea.
 Thepar tthatli
ghtf irstenterstheey ecal ledcor nea.
52:
Def inepupi l.
 Thecor neahel pst of ocusthel i
ghtt hroughanopeni ngcal l
edpupi l
.
53:
Def inei ri
s.
 Thecol oredpor ti
onoft heey eandcont ainingaci r
cularopeningt hat
bl ackcal l
ediri
s.
54:
Def inel ens.

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  Thel ensisl
ocatedintheeyeandchangingt
heshapeoft
heey
eandi
s
t
hewhi t
epartoftheeye.
55:
Definereti
na.
Theret
inaisamembr aneatt hebackwal
loftheeyebal
l
.
56:
Definerods.
 Rodsar emoresensitiv
etolight
.
57:
Definecones.
 Conesar esensi
tivetocolor
.

58:Li
stthel ightsensi ti
vecel l
st hatcov ert
her et
ina.
 Theyar e:rodsandcones.
59:Defi
ne
 Theyar e:rodsandcones.
59:Defi
nebr ai
n.
 Braini sthepor tionoft hecent ralnervoussystem thatislocat
edwithi
n
theskul l.
60:Defi
neneur otransmi tters.
 Neur ot r
ansmi tt
er sar echemi cal messengersthattransmitamessage
from aner vecel lacr osst hesy napsetoat argetcel
l andthetar
getcan
beanot herner vecel l
,amuscl ecelloraglandcel l
.
61:Defi
neopt icnerve.
 Opt i
cner v
ei sthener v
et hatconnect stheey etothebr ai
n.
62:Li
stthef ivesenseor gansanddef ineeachone.
 Theyar e:eyes, ear s,nose, tongueandski n.
Theeyei stheor ganf orsi ght.
Theearistheor ganf orhear ing.
Thenosei st heor ganf orsmel l.
Thetonguei st heor ganf ortaste.
Theskinist heor ganf ort ouch.

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Chapter2: Endocr inesy st
em: Quest ions&Answer s
1.Def i
neendocr inegl ands?
 Endocr inegl andsar egr oupsofsecr etorycellssur roundedbyan
extensi v enet wor kofcapi l
lar
iest hatfacilit
atesdi f
fusionofhor mones
from t hesecr et
or ycel l
si ntothebl oodst ream.
2.Whatar eal sor eferredt oast heendocr i
negl ands?
 Duct l
essgl andsbecausehor monesdi ffusedi r
ectlyintot he
bloodst ream.
3.Whatdot hehor monesi nf l
uence?
 Almostev er ycel landor ganinourbodi es.
4.Def i
nehor mones.
 Hor monesar esubst ancessecr etedbycel lsthatactt or egulat
ethe
activi
tyofot hercel l
si nthebody .
5.Whatdot heexocr inegl andssecr ete?
 Subst ancest hroughduct s.
6.Whatcani ncl udet hesubst ancest hatsecr etedbyexocr inegl ands?
 Wat er, enzy mesandmucus.
7.Whatar et heexampl esofexocr inegl ands?
 Sweatgl ands, mucousgl ands, sali
varygl andsandot herdi gesti
ve
glands.
8.Whatar ecl assi fiedhor monesbasedont hei rstructure,solubili
tyand
mechani sm ofact ion?
 Steroidhor monesandnon- steroidorami noaci dhor mones.
9.Whatar eexampl esofst eroidhor mones?
 EstrogenandTest osterone
10. Whatar eal socal lednon- ster
oidhor mones?

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  Ami noaci dhor mones.
11. Whatar esol ubl est er oidhor mones?
i nl ipids.
12. Whatar eexampl esofnon- ster oidhor mones?
I nsul inandgr owt hhor mones.
13. Li stcat egor iesofhor monesaccor dingt ot hemannerordependi ngon
theirchemi cal nat ure.
 Li pophi li
c( nonpol ar), whi char efat-
sol ubleandHy drophili
c(polar),
whi char ewat er-sol ubl e.
14. Whati ncl udet hel ipophi li
chor mones?
 St eroi dhor monesandt hy roidhor mones.Mostot herhor monesar e
hy dr ophi l
ic.
15. Expl ainhy dr ophi lichor mones.
 Hy dr ophi li
chor monesar ef reel ysolubleinbl ood, butcannotpass
thr ought hemembr aneoft argetcel ls.Theymustt her ef
oreact i
vate
thei rrecept or sf rom out sidet hecell membr ane.
16.Expl ainl i
pophi l
ichor mones
 Li pophi li
chor monest ravel int hebloodat t
achedt ot ransportproteins.
Thei rli
pi dsol ubi li
tyenabl est hem t ocr osscel lmembr anesandbi ndt o
i
nt racel lularr ecept or s.
16. Whati sHomeost asi s?
 Homeost asi si sdef inedasast abl
ei nternal environment .
17. Whati st her ol eoft heendocr inesy stem?
 Theendocr inesy stem pl ay sani mpor tantrol eint hemai ntenanceof
homeost asi sbecausehor monesr egul atet heact iv i
ti
esofcel ls,t
issues
andor ganst hr oughoutt hebody .
18. Tel l thef unct ionoff eedbackmechani sms, tomai nt ainhomeost asis.
 Cont rol hor monesecr etion.
19. Whati saf eedbackmechani sm?
 Feedbackmechani sm i sonei nwhi cht hel astst epi naser i
esofev ents
cont rolst hef irst.
20. Li stt ypesoff eedbackmechani sms.
 Negat i
v eorposi t i
v e.
21. Whi chmosthor monesy st emsuseposi t
iveornegat ivefeedback?
 Negat i
v ef eedback.

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22. Def ineAnt agoni sticHor mones.
 Anumberofhor moneswor kt oget heri npai rstoregul atet hel evelsof
critical subst ancesar er efer r
edt oasant agoni sti
chor mones.
23. Tel l twooft hem t heexampl esofant agoni st ichormones.
 Gl ucagonandi nsul in.
24. Whi chi ncl udest heendocr inesy stem?
 Al lthegl andst hatsecr etehor monessuchaspi t
uitary, t
hy roid,
par at hy roid, adr enal glands, thepancr eas, ov ar
ies, testes,pi nealgland
andt het hymusgl and.
26.Defi
nepi tuitar ygl and.
 Pit uitar ygl andi sasmal lglandwi t
ht hedi amet erof1cm t hati slocated
att hebaset hehy pot halamus.
27.Li
stlobesofpi tui t
ar ygl and.
 Ant eriorandpost eriorpi tuitar y.
28.Explainant eriorpi tuitar y.
I tconsi stsofspeci alizedgl andul arcel l
st hatsecr et ehor moneswi th
var iousf unct ionswhi chi nt urnr egul at et hesecr etionsofot herglands.
29.Li
sthor monest hati ncludeant er i
orpi tuitary .
 Gr owt hhor mone, Thy roid-st i
mul at i
nghor mone( TSH) ,Prolact i
n(PRL) ,
Fol licle-st i
mul atinghor mone( FSH)andLut eini
zinghor mone( LH).
30.Explaingr owt hhor mone.
I tst imul atescel l divisionandgr owt hespeci all
yboneandmuscul ar
cel lsi nchi l
dhoodandadol escence.
31.Explaint hy roid-st i
mul atinghor mone.
 St i
mul atest het hy roidgl andt opr oducet hehor monet hy roxine.
32.Defi
nepr ol actin.
 Pr olact i
ni st hebestknownf orst imul ati
ngt hemammar ygl andst o
pr oducemi l
ki nmammal saf tergi vingbi rth.
33.Explai nf ol li
cle- sti
mul at i
nghor mone.
I tisr equi redf ort hedev elopmentofov ar i
anf olli
clesandsper m.
34.Explainl ut einizi nghor mone.
 St i
mul atest hepr oduct i
onofest rogenandpr ogest eronebyt heov ari
es
andi sneededf orov ulationi nf emal er epr oduct ivecy clesandI nmal e,i
t
stimul at est het est est opr oducet est ost erone, whichi sneededf or
sper m pr oduct i
onandf ort hedev el opmentofmal esecondar ysexual

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 char act
er i
sti
cs.
35.Li
sthor monest hati ncludepost eri
orpituitary.
 Ant i
diureti
chor mone( ADH)andOxy tocin.
36.Explai
npost er i
orpitui tary
.
 Thepost eri
orpi tuitaryappear sfi
brousbecausei tcont
ainsaxonsthat
or i
ginateincell bodi eswi t
hinthehy pot halamus.
37.Defineneur osecr etor ycells.
 Ant i
diureti
chor monear emadebyner vecel lsinthehypothal
amusand
thesener vecel lst hatsecr et
ehor monesar ecall
edneurosecr
etorycell
s.
38.Explai
nAnt idiuret
ichor mone.
 Ant i
diureti
chor monest imulateswat err eabsorpti
onbyt heki
dneys,and
indoi ngsoi nhibitsdi uresi
s( uri
neproduct i
on).

39.Ex plainOxy toci n.

 Oxy toci nst imul at est hemi lkeject i
onr eflex,duri
ngsuckl i
ng,sensory
recept or sint heni ppl essendi mpul sest ot hehypothalamus,and
Oxy toci nisal soneededt ost imul ateut eri
necont ract
ionsinwomen
dur ingchi ldbi rt
h.
40.Def i
nei slet sofl anger hans.
 Speci alizedcel lsi nt hepancr eascal ledi sletsoflangerhans.
Part2t r
ueandf al se
41.Thet wol obesoft het hy r
oidgl andar el ocat edneart helowerpartoft he
lar
ynx, trueorf alse?
 Tr ue
42.Listt hreehor monest hatt hy roi
dgl andsecr etes.
 Pr i
mar i
lyt hy roxine, smal leramount soft rii
odothyronineandcal cit
onin.
43.Whati st hef unct i
onoft hyroid-stimul atinghor mone( TSH) ?
 Regul at est her eleaseoft het hyroidhor mones.
44.Whati st hef unct i
onoft het hy r
oidhor mones?
 Hel pmai nt ainnor mal hear trate,bloodpr essureandbodyt emper at
ure.
45.Thet hy roidgl andal sosecr etescal citoni nwhi chplaysar ol
ein
maintaini ngpr operl evel sofcal cium int hebl ood, tr
ueorf al
se?
 Tr ue.
46.Thepar athy roi dglandsar ef oursmal l glandsat t
achedt othethyroid,tr
ue
orfalse?

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  True.
47.Whatist hef uncti
onoft hepar athyroidglands?
 Whenbl oodcal ci
um levelsar etool ow,theparathyr
oidglandsincrease
product i
onofpar at
hyroidhor mone.
48.Whatist hef uncti
onofpar athyroidhor mone?
I ncreasesbl oodcal ci
um levelsbyst i
mulati
ngt hebonestorelease
calcium.
49.Wher ear elocatedtheadr enal glands?
 Justabov eeachki dney.
50.Whatiscomposedofeachgl and?
I nnerpor ti
on( Adrenalmedul la)andout erlayer(Adr
enalcortex)
.
51.Li
stadr enalglands.
 Rightadr enalglandandl eftadr enalgland.
52.Whatpr oducest headr enalmedul l
a?
 Twoami noaci d-basedhor mones: epinephri
neandnor epi
nephrine.

53.Whati sthef unct ionofmedul l

a?
 Whenaper soni sstressed, t
hemedul lasecretesepinephrineand
norepinephr i
nei nt
ot hebl oodstream.
54.Whati sthef unct ionofepi nephrineandnor epinephrine?
I ncreasehear trate,bloodpr essur e,bl
oodglucosel evel
,bl oodfl
owt o
thehear tandl ungs.
55.Whatr espondst headr enal cortex?
 Adr enocor ti
cot r
opichor mone( ACTH) .
56.Adrenocorticot ropichor monei ssecr etedbytheant eri
orpituitar
y,y
esor
no?
 Yes.
57.Whati sthef unct ionofACTH?
 Stimulatest headr enalcor t
ext opr oducethest er
oidhormonecor t
isol
andal dost erone.
58.Whati sthef unct ionofcor ti
sol?
 Promot est hepr oductionofgl ucose.
59.Whati sthef unct ionofal dost erone?
 Hel psraisebl oodpr essur eandv olumebyst imulati
ngsal tandwater
retenti
onbyt heki dney s.

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60.Explaingonads.
 Gonadsar etheov ari
esi nfemal esandt hetest
esinmal es,aregamete-
pr oducingor ganst hatalsopr oduceagr oupofsteri
odsexhor mones.
61.Whati st hefunctionofsexhor mones?
 Regul atebodychangest hatbegi natpuberty.
62.Whensecr etedbyt heant eriorpitui
tary
,thehormonesluteinizi
nghormone
(LH)andf oll
icle-
sti
mul ati
nghor mone( FSH)st i
mulatesecret
ionofsex
hormonesf rom t hegonads, trueorf alse?
 Tr ue.
63.Infemal es,LHandFSHst imul atesecreti
onofest r
ogenandpr ogester
one
from t
heov ar i
es,tr
ueorf al
se?
 Tr ue.
64.Estrogenandpr ogesteronehor monescauset hemont hlyrel
easeofan
eggbyanov ar
yandbui l
dupoft heut eri
neli
ning,t
rueorfal
se?
 Tr ue.

65.Inmal e,LHst i
mul atest hetestestosecr et
eagr oupofsexhormones
call
edandr ogens, t
rueorf alse?
 Tr ue.
66.Test oster onei sanandr ogenthatregulatesmalesecondarysex
characteristics,trueorf alse?
 Tr ue.
67.Whati sdi abetes?
 Di abet esi sadi seaset hatresultsfr
om t hebodynotproduci
ngenough
i
nsul inornotpr oper lyusinginsuli
n.
68.Listty pesofdi abetes.
 Ty pe1di abetesandt y
pe2di abetes.
69.Whatmeanst ype1di abet es?
I nsul in-dependent .
70.Whati st reatmentf ort hepeopl ewithtype1diabetesorthepati
ent
swith
type1di abet es?
 Exogenousi nsulininjecti
ons.
71.Whatmeanst ype2di abet es?
 Non- insulindependent .

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72.Whati streat mentf orthepeopl ewi tht ype2diabetesort hepat ient
swith
ty
pe2di abet es?
 Cont rol t
heirdi abet est hr
oughdi etandex er
cise.
73.Whati shy perthy roidism?
 Ov erproduct ionoft het hyroi
dhor monesi scall
edhy pert
hy roi
dism.
74.Whatar et hesy mpt omsofhy per thy roidism?
Incl ude: wei ghtloss, highbl oodpr essure,heartrat
eandbody
temper ature.
75.Whatcanbet r
eat edwi t
hhy per thy roidism?
 Medi cat i
onorbysur gicalremov al ofpartofthethyroidgland.
76.Whati shy pothy roidism?
 Thy roid-hormonedef iciencyi sknownashy pothyroi
dism.
77.Whatar et hesy mpt omsofhy pot hy roidism?
Incl ude: growt hr etardat i
on,lethar gy,weightgain,l
owhear trateand
bodyt emper ature.
78.Whatcanbet r
eat edwi t
hhy pot hy roidism?
 Suppl ement aryt hyroxine.

79.Def i
negoi ter.
 Goi t
erisaswel li
ngoft heneckr esul t
ingf rom enlar
gementoft he
thy roidgland.
80.Whatcanbepr eventedf orgoiters?
 Fr equentconsumpt i
onofseaf oodori odi zedtablesalt
.
81.Ifhy pot hyroi
dism i scausedbyi odi
nedef i
ciency,thengoiter
,tr
ueorf al
se?
 Tr ue.
82.Listt ypesofgr owt hhormonedi sorders.
 Hy posecretionofgr owt hhor moneandHy per
secreti
onofgrowt h
hor mone.83.Whenoccur sthegr owt hhor monedef ici
ency(GHD) ?
 Whent hepi t
uitaryglanddoesn' tproduceenoughgr owthhormone.
84.Chi l
dr enwi thGHDar eshorterthant heirpeer sandhav eyounger,rounder
faces,trueorf al
se?
 Tr ue.
85.Ex plaindwar f
ism.
I nchi l
drenwhoar est i
llgrowing,tool owgr owt hhormonecancause
acondi tioncal l
eddwar fism.

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86.Acromegal yi sahor monal disorderthatdevelopswheny ourpit
uit
ary
gl
andpr oducest oomuchgr owthhor monedur i
ngadul thood, t
rueorfalse?
 Tr ue.
87.Explaingigant i
sm.
I nchildrenwhoar estil
lgrowing, t
oomuchgr owt hhor monecan
causeacondi tioncall
edgi gantism.
88.Whati shy posecr eti
on?
 hy posecr et
ioni swhent heamountofhor monesar er el
easedistoo
l
ow.89.Whati shy persecretion?
i swhent heamount sofhor monesar ereleasedi stoomuch.
90.Defi
neendocr i
nesy stem.
 Endocr inesystem isthesy stem ofglandst hatproduceendocr ine
secretionsthathel ptocont r
ol bodil
ymet aboli
cact i
v i
ty.

Chapt
er3SKELETAL,
MUSCULAR,
ANDI
NTEGUMENTARYSYSTEM

1.Def
ineskel
eton?
 Skelet
onist
hehar
dpor
ti
onofor
gani
smsf
orpr
otect
ionofi
nter
nal
organs.
2.Def
ineskel
etal
syst
em?
 Theframeworkofthebodyconsi
sti
ngofbonesandotherconnect
ive
ti
ssueswhichpr
otectsandsuppor
tsthebodyt
issuesandint
ernal
organs?
3.Namethecommont
ypesofskel
etoni
nor
gani
sms?Anddi
ff
erent
iat
ethem
wit
hexamples?
 Exoskeletonandendoskelet
on.Exoskeletoni stherigidhardcase
thatsurroundsthebodytoprotecttheinternalorgansandpr ovide
attachmentsitesoft
hemuscl es.Exoskeletonsar efoundininsects,
l
obst er
sandsnai l
swhil
eendoskel etonisther i
gidinternal
skeleton

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 thatf
ormsthebody ’
sfr
ameworkt
oall
owmov ementthr
ough
contr
acti
onofmusclesatt
achedt
otheskel
eton.Endoskel
etonsar
e
foundinver
tebr
ates.
4.Namepar
tsofhumanskel
eton?Anddi
ff
erent
iat
ethem wi
thexampl
es?
 Axial
skelet
onandappendi cul
arskeleton.Skul
l
,ver
tebralcol
umn,
ri
bcage,andst
ernum for
msaxi alskeletonwhil
egir
dlesandlimbs
for
msappendicularskel
etonofthehumanbodyandot her
mammal ianor
ganisms.
5.Descr
ibet
heskul
l
?Andcl
assi
fyskul
lbones?
 Theskul
li
sabonystructur
ewhichencasesthebrai
nandgi
vesform
tot
heheadandface.Skull
consi
stsof8Cranial
and14faci
albones.
6.Def
inef
oramenMagnum?Andment
iont
hesi
gni
fi
canceoff
oramen
magnum?
 Largeovalopeni
ngatthebaseoftheskulli
scall
edforamen
magnum.Itisthepassageofthecentr
alnervoussy
stem t
hrought
he
skull
connecti
ngthebrai
nandt hespi
nalcord.
7.Whati
ssut
urej
oint
?Namet
hebonest
hatar
econnect
edbyasut
urei
nthe
skul
l
?
 Sutureisafair
lyri
gidJointbet
weent woormor ehardelementsofan
organism wi
thorwi t
houtsigni
ficantov
er l
apoftheel
ements.Sutur
e
j
oinstheparietal
andt emporalboneitalsoli
nksthefr
ontal
and
sphenoidboneaswel l asi
tart
iculat
esthesphenoidandpari
etal
bone.
8.Thebonesoft
henewbor
n’sskul
lar
esoftandsl
ight
lyspaced,
how
i
mportanti
sthi
sfort
hechi
l
dandt hemot
herduri
ngbirt
h?
I
thel
pst
hebabyandmot
hert
osqueez
ethr
oughbi
rt
hcanal
.
9.Descr
ibet
hev
ert
ebr
alcol
umn?Andst
atei
tsf
unct
ion?
I
tisthecentr
alaxisoftheskel
etoninal
lver
tebrat
esandalsocal
l
ed
backbone,
spinalcol
umn.Itprotect
sthespi
nalcordandhelpt
o
maintai
nanuprightbodyporti
on.

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10.Whati
sthef
unct
ionofNasal
boneandwher
eiti
slocat
ed?
 ThefunctionofeachNasalboneistobi
ndtogetherthecart
il
agethat
for
msi ndivi
dualnosecont
oursandshapes.I
t’
slocatedintheupper
middl
ear eaofthefacebet
weent hemaxil
l
ary(upperjaw)bones.
11.Wher
eisl
acr
imal
bonel
ocat
edandt
ell
ofi
tsf
unct
ion?
Itisl
ocatedatthefrontpar
tofthemedi
alwall
oftheor
bit.I
trel
eases
flui
dwhichcleansesandprotect
stheey
e’ssur
faceasi
tlubri
cates
andmoi stensi
t.
12.Defi
nest er
num?
I tisaflatbonethatcanbefel
tjustundert
heskinI
nthemi
ddl
eoft
he
frontofthechestandalsocal
ledbreastbone.
13.Expl
aintheribcage?
 Thelong,curv
ed,flat
tenedbonesfoundmiddletr
unkofthebody
cal
ledri
bsf or
msr i
bcage.Thefir
stsevenpair
sofr i
bsarti
cul
ate
dir
ectl
ywiththesternum ar
ecalledt
rueri
bswhi l
etheothert
hree
pair
sthatareindi
rectl
yarti
cul
atewit
hsternum arecal
l
edf al
seri
bs.
14.Whati
sthef
unct
ionofcoast
alcar
ti
lages?
 Coast
alcar
ti
lagesat
tacht
her
ibst
othest
ernum.
15.Whatar
efl
oat
ingr
ibs?
 Thel
owestt
wopai
rsofr
ibsar
eref
err
edt
oasf
loat
ingr
ibs.

16.Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenpect
oral
gir
dlesandpel
vi
cgi
rdl
es?
 Pect
oral
gir
dleconnect
stheupperl
i
mbst otheaxial
skel
etonwhi
l
e
pel
vi
cgir
dleconnect
slowerl
imbstoaxi
alskel
eton.
17.Def
inecl
avi
cleorcol
l
arbone?
 Thi
sisalongbonet
hatser
vesasast
rutbet
weent
heshoul
derbl
ade
andthest
ernum.
18.Def
inescapul
aort
heshoul
derbone?

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  Thisisthebonet
hatconnect
stheupperar
m bonewi
tht
hecl
avi
cl
e
(col
larbone)
.
19.Thepel
vi
sisbr
oaderi
nfemal
est
hani
nmal
es,
deducet
hat
?
 Thewomen’spel
vi
sisadaptedforchi
l
dbear
ing,
andi
sawi
derand
fl
att
ershapet
hanthemalepelv
is.
20.Whatar
ethet
ypesofbonesbasedont
hei
rst
ruct
ure?
 Bonesarecl
assi
fi
edasl
ong,
shor
t,i
rr
egul
ar,
flatandsesamoi
d
bones.
21.Descr
ibel
ongbones,
andgi
veexampl
es?
 Thebonest
hathaveshaf
tandt
woext
remi
ti
esar
ecal
l
edl
ongbones
i
ncludef
emur,
tibi
aandfi
bul
a.
22.Gi
veanexampl
eofshor
t,i
rr
egul
ar,
flatandsesamoi
dbones?
 Shor
tbones–car
pal
s(wr
ist
).
I
rr
egul
arbones–v
ert
ebr
aeandsomeskul
lbones.
 Fl
atbones-
-st
ernum ,
ribsandmostskul
lbones.
 Sesamoi
dbones–pat
ell
a(kneecap)
23.St
atet
her
oleofcol
l
agent
obones?
 Col
l
ageni
sav
eryst
rongandgi
vest
hebonesl
i
ghtf
lex
ibi
l
ity.

24.Descr
ibecompactboneandt
ell
itsf
unct
ion?
 Compactbonei
sdenseandstrongpartofthebonethatconsi
stsof
unit
scal
ledOst
eonsorHaver
siansystems-Tubeli
kestruct
ureswhich
runthel
engt
hofcompactbones.I
tprovi
desstr
engthandprotect
ion.
25.Def
inespongybone?
 Spongybonei
slessdensepar
toft
hebonet
hathasmanycav
iti
es
cont
ainbonemarrow.

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26.Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weent
het
wot
ypesofbonemar
row?
 Redbonemar rowi sfoundint
hehumerusboneofthear
m andthe
femurboneoftheleg.Yell
owbonemarrowisfoundi
nmanyother
bonesandconsist
sofst or
edfat
.
27.Howdospongyandcompactbonesdi ff
erinlocati
onandf
unct
ion?
 Accordi
ngtofuncti
on,thecompactboneisthemainstructur
einthe
bodyforsupport
,prot
ecti
onandmov ementwhilespongyboneisused
formoreacti
vefuncti
onsofthebonesincl
udingbl
oodcel l
producti
on
andionexchange.
 Spongyboneisusuall
ylocat
edatt
heendofthel
ongboneswhil
ethe
compactboneisfoundinthear
rowspace(
medull
arycav
ity
)ofabone.
28.Def
ineossi
fi
cat
ion,
car
ti
lage,
andchondr
ocy
tes?
 Thef
ormat
ionofbonef
rom ost
eobl
ast
siscal
l
edossi
fi
cat
ion.
 Car
ti
lageisanelast
icsuppor
ti
vet
issuet
hatcanwi
thst
andconst
ant
pr
essureandfr
icti
on.
 Thespeci
ali
zedcel
lsthatt
hecart
il
ageconsi
stsofandproducesl
arge
amountsofchondr
inandcoll
agenprot
einar
erefer
redt
oas
chondr
ocyt
es.
29.Howarenutr
ient
sandoxygent
ranspor
tedt
othechondr
ocy
tes?Andhow
arewast
eproductsr
emoved?
I
tgetsoxygen,
nutr
ients,andexcr
etest
hesurr
oundi
ngjoi
ntfl
uidwhen
j
ointi
sloaded;
thepressuresqueezesf
lui
dthr
oughdi
ff
usion.
30.Def
inej
oint
s?
 Thepl
aceswher
etwobonesmeeti
sknownasaj
oint
.
31.Whatar
ethet
hreemaj
orki
ndsofj
oint
s?
 Fi
xed,
semi
-mov
eabl
eandmov
abl
ejoi
nts.
32.Di
ff
erent
iat
ethef
unct
ionsofFi
xed,
semi
-mov
eabl
eandmov
abl
ejoi
nts?
 Fi
xedj
oint
spr
eventmov
ementandf
oundi
ntheskul
l
.

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  Semi-moveabl
epermi
tonl
yli
mitedmov
ement.
Theyar
efoundi
nthe
ver
tebral
columnandri
bcage.
 Movabl
ejoint
senablethebodytoper
for
m awi derangeofmov
ement
s
andact
ivi
ti
es.Theyarefoundi
nallot
herj
oint
si nt
hebody.
33.Giveexampl esofmov abl
ejoint
sandexpl ai
nthei
rrole?
Thefollowingareexamplesofmov ablejoi
ntsandthei
rr ol
e;
 Hi ngejoi
ntsarefoundintheelbows,kneesandankleall
owsonl
y
bendingandstrai
ghteni
ng.
Ball
-and-socketjoi
ntiti
stheshoulderjoi
ntwhichenablesyoutomoveyour
arm up,down, f
orward,andbackward.
 Pi
votj
ointist
hejoi
ntformedbyt het
optwovert
ebraeofy
ourspi
ne
whi
challowsyoutoturnyourheadfr
om si
detoside.
 Saddl
ejoi
nti
sfoundatt
hebaseofeachthumb,al
lowsyout
orot
ate
yourt
humbsandhelpsy
ougraspobj
ectswit
hyourhand.
 Gl
idi
ngjoi
ntsal
l
owbonest osl
ideoveroneanot
her.
Examplesaret
he
j
oint
sbetweenthesmal
lbonesofyourfootwhi
chal
lowyousli
ghtl
y
movement.
34.Whati
sthef
unct
ionofsy
nov
ial
flui
d?
 Synovial
flui
dhel
psandpr
otectt
heendsofbonesf
rom damageby
fr
ict
ion.
35.Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsoft
heskel
etal
syst
em?
 Skelet
alsy
stem cont
ri
butessupport
,pr
otect
ion,
for
mat
ionofbl
ood
cel
ls,r
eser
voir
,andmov ementofthebody.
36.Di
ffer
ent
iat
et y
pesofbonefr
actures?
 Simpl
efractur
e:t
hebonebreaksbutdoesnotcomet
hrought
heski
n.
 Compoundf
ract
ure=Thebonepr
otr
udest
hrought
heski
n.
 St
ressf
ract
ure=Thi
ncr
acki
nthebone.
37.Descr
ibeost
eopor
osi
s?

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  Ost
eoporosi
sisacommonbonedi
sor
dert
hatcausesbonest
obecome
weakandbri
ttl
e.
38.Whatar
ethef
oodst
hatar
egoodf
orbonedev
elopment
?
 Mi
l
k,cheese,
greenl
eaf
yveget
abl
es,
fish,
nut
sandsoy
abeans.
39.Forheal
thybones,
sunexposur
eisadv
ised,
just
if
ythat
?
 Tosti
mulat
ethepr
oduct
ionofv
itami
nDi
ntheski
ntopr
opert
hebone
dev
elopment.
40.Def
ineAr
thr
it
is.Andnamet
wocommonar
thr
it
is?
 Art
hri
ti
sisani
nfl
ammati
onoft
hej
oint
se.
gOst
eoar
thr
it
isand
Rheumatoi
dar
thr
iti
s.
41.Howmanyway
scanbecl
assi
fi
edmuscl
esaccor
dingt
othei
rst
ruct
ure
andfunct
ion?
 St
ruct
ure:
Skel
etal
muscl
e,smoot
hmuscl
eandcar
diacmuscl
e.
 Funct
ion:
Vol
unt
aryandi
nvol
unt
arymuscl
es.
42.Ri
gormor t
isi
sacondi
ti
oni
nwhichal
loft
hebodymuscl
esbecomer
igi
d
orsti
ffshor
tl
yaft
eraper
sondi
es.Whydoesr
igormor
ti
sdev
elop?
 Rigormortisi
stheresul
tofdeat
hofcell
sinmuscl ef
iber
sofhuman
body, whi
chleadstochemi
calchangesi
nthosefiber
sthatcause
shorteni
ngorstif
feni
ngofthemusclesf
orlackofATP.
43.Whatdoesskel
etal
muscl
efi
berandmy
ofi
bri
l
scont
ain?
I
tcont
ainsbundl
esoft
hreadl
i
kest
ruct
urescal
l
edmy
ofi
bri
l
s.
 Myofi
bri
lismadeupoftwot
ypesofprotei
nfi
lament
sthi
ckonesand
t
hinones.Thi
ckfi
l
amentsar
emadeoft heprotei
nmyosi
n,andt
hin
f
il
amentsaremadeofthepr
otei
nacti
n.
44.Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenf
lex
orandext
ensorwi
thexampl
es?
 Bicepmuscl
eisanexampl
eofflex
ormuscl
ewhi
l
etr
icepsmuscl
eisan
exampleofanext
ensormuscl
e.
45.Def
inet
wit
ch?

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  Amuscl
est
imulat
edwithasingl
eelect
ri
cshockqui
ckl
ycont
ract
sand
r
elax
esi
naresponsecal
ledt
witch.
46.Howmanyway scanbeclassi
fi
edskel
etal
muscl
efi
ber
sont
hebasi
sof
thei
rspeedofcont
ract
ion?
 Sl
ow-
twi
tchandf
ast
-t
wit
chf
iber
s.
47.Namesomeofheal
thcompl
i
cat
ionsofmuscl
es?
 Muscl
ecr
amps,
muscl
efat
igue,
muscl
est
rai
n,muscl
etear
ing.
48.Whatar
ethecomponent
soft
hei
ntegument
arysy
stem?
 Ski
n,hai
randnai
l
s.
49.Whatar
ethef
ourt
ypesoft
issuest
hatar
ecomposedofbyt
heski
n?
 Epi
thel
i
alt
issuecov
ersbodysur
faces.
 Connect
ivet
issuepr
ovi
dessuppor
tandpr
otect
ion.
 Muscl
eti
ssuei
nvol
vedi
nbodymov
ement
.
 Nerveti
ssuef
ormsthebody’
scommunicati
onnet
wor
k.
50.Whatar
etheaccessor
ygl
andscont
aini
ngtheski
n?
 Sweatgl
andsandsebaceousgl
ands.
51.Namet
het
womai
nlay
ersoft
heski
n?Anddef
ineeachoft
hem?
 Epider
mi sandDermis.Epider
mi sisthemostsuperfi
cial
lay
erandis
composedofst rat
if
iedkerati
nizedsquamousepithel
ium.Dermisi
sthe
i
nnerlayeroftheskiniti
scomposedofl iv
ingcell
sandspeciali
zed
str
uctures.
52.Whatar
emel
anocy
tes?
 Thecel
l
sthatproducemelani
nthathel
pstoprot
ectt
heski
nfr
om t
he
har
mfulef
fect
sofultr
avi
oletr
aysinsunl
ight
.

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53.Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsoft
heski
n?
 Pr
otect
ionoft
hebody
.
 Regul
ati
onofbodyt
emper
atur
e.
 For
mat
ionofv
itami
nD.
 Sensat
ionand
 Excr
eti
on.
54.Def
inesebum?
I
saf
att
ysubst
ancesecr
etedf
rom t
hesebaceousgl
ands.
55.Whendoest
heski
ndi
sor
derofacner
esul
tfr
om?
Ift
heductsofoi
lgl
andsbecomecl
oggedwi
thexcessi
veamount
sof
sebum,deadcel
l
sandbacteri
a.
56.Def
inet
hehai
rpapi
l
laorbul
b?
 Thebaseoff
oll
i
clei
sacl
ust
erofcel
l
scal
l
edpapi
l
laorbul
b.
57.Whati
sgenet
ical
l
ydet
ermi
nedbyhai
rcol
or?
 Hai
rcol
ori
sgenet
ical
lydet
ermi
nedbyanddependsont
heamountand
t
ypeofmel
ani
npresent.
58.Gi
vet
woexampl
esofski
ndi
sor
der
s?
 EczemaandAcne.
59.Whati
stheEczema?
 Eczemaisanal
ler
gicreacti
onthatmani
fest
sasdry
,it
chypat
chesof
ski
nthatr
esemblerashes.di
sorder
soft
heskin?
60.Namesomeofcommonski
ndi
sor
der
s?
 Sebor
rheadermati
ti
s(ont
hescal
p),
psor
iasi
s,col
dsor
es,
impet
igo,
scabi
es,andwart
s.

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CHAPTER4: THEGENETI CMATERI ALANDPROTEI NSYNTHESIS
1.Namet het hreepar tsofanucl eoti
de.
 A)Pent oseSugar
(
b)Ni t r
ogenousbases
(c)Phosphat eGr oup
2.Statet hebase- pai
ringr ul
esi nDNA.
 Answer :
 Adeni newi l
lalway sbi ndswi t
ht hyminewhile,cyt
osinewil
lal
waysbi
nd
wi thguani ne.
 Adeni nef ormst wohy drogenbondswi t
hguani ne
 Cy tosinewi llf
ort hreehy drogenbondswi t
hguani ne.
3.At empl atest randofDNAhast hefoll
owingsequence:
3'
-CGTTACCCGAGCCGTACGATTAGG-5
Uset hesequencei nformat iont odet ermine
a.Thepr edictedsequenceoft hemRNAf orthisgene.
 Templ atestrandi susedt opr oducemRNA, sucht hatApai
rswit
hU,T
pairswi thA, Cpai rswi thGandGpai r
swi t
hC.
Templ ate-3-CGTTACCCGAGCCGTACGATTAGG- 5
MRNA- 5GCAAUGGGCUCGGCAUGCUAAUCC- 3
b.Thepr edictedami noaci dsequenceoft heprotein.
 Answer :
Aminoaci dsequencei sdet ermi nedbyt hesequenceof
codonsonmRNA.
MRNA- 5- GCAAUGGGCUCGGCAUGCUAAUCC- 3

4.Whatist hemeani ngofgeneticcode,codon,anti

codon,i
ntr
on,exon,
tr
anscri
ptionandTr anslati
on?
 ANSWER:
Geneti
cCode: Thegenet i
ccodeisthesetofrulesby
Whichinformat i
onencodedwi thi
ngeneticmaterial(
DNAormRNA
Sequences)i st r
anslat
edi nt
oprotei
nsbyl i
vi
ngcel l
s.
I
ntron:Thei nterveni
ngsequencesort henon-codingregi
onsofthegene.
Thesearer emov edduri
ngmRNAmat ur
ationbysplici
ng.

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Exon: Thesear et hecodi ngsequencest hatcodef orapr ot ein.Thesear ethe
sequencest hatar eact uall
yexpr essedi namat ur emRNAt obet ranslatedinto
aprot ein.
Codon: I
ti sasequenceoft hr eebasesonDNAorRNAwhi chf orm aUni tof
geneticcodeencodi ngf orapept ide.
Anticodon: I
tisasequenceoft hreebasesont het RNAcor respondi ng
toacompl ement arybasesequenceonmRNA
Transcr iption: Thepr ocessofexpr essionofgenet ici nfor mat i
onon
DNAonanewmol ecul eofmRNAi sknownast r
anscr iption.
Translat i
on: Theexpr essi onofgenet iccodeonmRNAt of or m apept ide
sequencewi tht hehel pofRi bosome’ s,tRNAet c.isknownast ranslation.
5.Compar et ypesofRNAaccor dingst ruct ur eandf unct ion
 Answer :
Therear et hreemai nt ypesofRNA, allinv olvedi npr oteinsy nt hesi s.
 1.MessengerRNA( mRNA)ser vesast hei nter medi ar ybet weenDNA
andt hesy nthesi sofpr oteinpr oduct sdur i
ngt ranslat ion.
 2.Ri bosomal RNA( rRNA)I tensur est hepr operal i
gnmentoft hemRNA
andt her ibosomesdur ingpr oteinsy nthesi sandcat alyzest hef ormation
oft hepept idebondsbet weent woal ignedami noaci dsdur ingpr otein
sy nthesis.
 3.Tr ansf erRNA( tRNA)car r
iesanami noaci dt ot hecor respondi ngsi t
e
ofpr ot
einsy nt hesi sint her i
bosome.I tisthebasepai r
ingbet weent he
tRNAandmRNAt hatal lowsf ort hecor rectami noaci dt obei nser t
edin
thepol ypept idechai nbei ngsy nthesi z ed
6.Descr i
bet her oleofhel icasesandDNApol y mer asesdur ing
DNAr epl i
cation
 Answer :Thehumangenomei scompl exandl arge, itcannotbe
unwoundandr epl i
cat edi nonego.Ther efore, thepr ocessofr epl i
cati
on
takespl acei nsmal lDNAst archesknownasr eplicat ionf or ks.These
forksar ef ormedbyunwi ndi ngof
DNAst rands.Thi sunwi ndi ngi scausedbyt heHel icaseenz ymes.
7.Stat ewhyDNAr epl icationi sasemi conser vativepr ocess.
 Answer :
Duringt heDNAr epl i
cat ion, DNApol ymer asepol y mer i
zesonl yin5’ –3’
dir
ection.Ther ef ore, ther epl i
cat ioni scont inuousonl yal ongoneoft het wo

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strandsofDNA.Ont heot herst randst hef ormati
onofOkazaki fragment s
takespl ace, whi char elaterj oinedbyl igases.
Hence, ast her eplicationpr ocessi scont inuousonl yal
ongonest rand, i
tis
calledassemi conser vativepr ocess
8.Summar izet hef lowofgenet icinfor mat i
on.
 Answer :
Inacel l,infor mat ionf lowsf rom DNAt oRNAandf rom RNAt oprot eins.Thi
s
fl
owofi nfor mat ioni suni direct i
onal .
 Repl i
cat i
on: Thepr ocessofcopy ingofDNAi scalledr epli
cat i
on.
 Tr anscr iption: Theconv ersionofgenet i
cinformationi n
DNA, int oani nt ermedi at efor m cal l
edt heRNA, occursint hepr ocesscal led
transcript i
on.
 Tr ansl ation: Inthi sprocess, informat i
oninRNAi si nterpretedinachai n
ofami noaci d,whi chf or msapol ypept i
de.
9.Sequencet hemai nst epsoft ranscr i
ption.
 Answer :
 1. Initiation
 2. El ongat i
on
 3. Ter mi nat ion
 4. 5’ Cappi ng
 5. Pol y adeny l
ation
 6. Spl ici
ng
10.Listt hef ourway si nwhi cht hest ructureofRNAdi ff
ersf rom t hatofDNA
 Answer :
RNAi sdi fferentf rom DNAi nf ourbasi cway s.
 1.RNAhasr ibosei nsteadoft hedeoxy ri
boseDNAhas.
Riboseanddeoxy ribosear ev erysi milarbutdi ff
erinonlyonepar t;ri
bosehas
onemor ehy drogenmol eculeat tachedt oi t.
 2.I nRNAur acil replacest hymi nei nDNA.Theyar eal sov erysimi l
arand
thy mi nehas2mor ehy dr ogenandonemor ecarbon.
 3.RNAi susual lysingle- strandedwhi l
eDNAi sdoublest randed.
 4.RNAi smuchshor t
ert hanDNAi nlength

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CHAPTER5GENETI CS
 Answeral loft hef oll
owi ngQuest i
ons
1.Expl aint hedi fferencesbet weent het ermsi nthef oll
owi ngset s
a)Domi nantandr ecessi ve
b)Genot ypeandphenot y pe
 Answer :
Genot ype: Itisthepr esent ationofgenet icconst i
tuti
oncompl ementofan
i
ndiv idual wi t
hr espectt ooneormor echar acter.
Phenot ype: ItisOpsav ailableext er nal mani festationofmor phological ofy ou
l
ogi cal char actersameasdomi nanthomozy gousorhet erozygousst ate.
Domi nant :Itisabl et oexpr essi tsef fectev eni nthepr esenceofi t
s
cont rastingal lelei tdoesnotr equi r
ecompanyofanot hersimilarAl l
elef or
produci ngi tsef fect
Recessi ve: I
tcannotexpr essi tselfeff ectinpr esenceofi tscontrastingi tcan
produceofsi mi l
ari tcannotex pressi tselfeffecti nplacesofi tscont rast i
ngit
canpr oduceI t’sphenot ypicef fectonl yincompanyofsi mi l
arAlleleit’
s
phenot ypicef fectonl yincompanyofsi mil
aral lel
e.
2.Whi cht erm descr i
besaper sonwhoi shet erozygous?f orar ecessi ve
disorder ?
 Answer :
Carr i
er
3.Howi st hei nher it
ancepat ter nbet weenpar entsandof fspri
ngr epresent
diagrammat i
cal l
y
 Answer :
Pedi gree
4.Pr edictt hegenot ypesoft hechi ldr enofaf atherwi th
Hunt ingt on’sdi seaseandanunaf fect edmot her
 Answer :
Hunt ingt on’sdi sor derisdomi nantt rait.Sot hef athercanbehomozy gousor
heter ozy gous.I fthemot heri snor mal ,andf atheri shomozy gous, al
l thekids
willhav et het rait.IfThef atheri shet er ozygous, 50%oft hekidswi l
lshowt he
genot ype
Uset hephot obel owt oanswerquest ion5

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5.Descr i
beaf etal testt hatresultsinthekary oty
peshownabov e.
Answer :
Amni ocentesisi st hef etal t
estdonet oobt ai
nt hekar yotype.
6.Whatchar acter i
st i
csar eassoci at
edwi thDownsy ndrome.
 Answer :
Characteri
st i
cs:-
1.Heal t
hpr oblems: hear tdefect,hypothyroi
dism, celiacdi sease, respiratory
i
nfections,eyeandhear i
ngpr oblems, dentalproblems
2.Phy si
calpr oblems: -Shor tstature,weakmuscl esorhy pot onia,irregularl
y
shapef ace,slant edey es
7.Inpeapl ant sy ell
owseedcol oristhedomi nantt raitandgr eenseedcol ori
s
therecessivet rait.UseaPunnet tsquaretoshowt her esultsofacr oss
betweenahet erozy gousy ell
ow- seedplantandagr eenseedpl ant
 Answer :
Crossbet weenYy( Yellow)×y y(green).Therefore,possi blegamet esfor
yel
lowseedpl antar eYandywhi leforgreenseedpl antist heonl yy .

Gamet
es Y y

Y Yy(
Pur
ple) y
y(gr
een)

Y Yy(
Pur
ple) y
y(gr
een)

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8.Basedony ourPunnet tsquaref r
om quest i
on10, whatper cent ageofthe
offspri
ngwoul dhav eahomozy gousgenot ype?Expl ainyouranswer
 Answer :
Punnet tSquar eisnotgiv en
Assumet hatt hegenesf orseedcol orandseedshapear elocatedont he
samechr omosome.Apl antheterozy gousf orbothgenesi st estcrossed
winkledgr eenwi ththefollowingresul t
s:green,wrinkled645gr eenr ound36
yellow,wrinkled29y ell
ow, round590
9.Whatwer ethegenoty pesoft hepar ent
sandhowf arapartaret hesegenes?
 Answer :
Thegenot ypesoft hepar entsareYyRr( yell
ow,round)andy yrr(greenwr i
nkled)
Ifthemat ingoft hesepar entswerei ndependent ,t
heyr esulti
ngof f
spring
woul dhav ebeeni n1:1:1:1rati
o.Buti nthiscase,linkagei sseen.Ther ear e
almostequal numberofpar entalphenot ypesandequal numberof
recombi nantphenot ypes.
Thedi stancebet weenYandRgenescanbecal culatedusi ngthef ormula:

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1.Wr
it
ethephenot
ypeandgenot
ypeoft
hepar
enti
nthef
ir
stgener
ati
on?

 RRYY(r
oundyel
low)andr
ryy(wri
nkl
egr een)
2.Wri
tethegenot
ypeoft
hegameteinthefi
rstgener
ati
on?

 randysmallaret
hegenotypesofthefir
stgamete(
wri
nklegr
eenseed)
3.Wri
tethegenot
ypesandphenotypeoffi
rstgener
ati
oni
ndi
vidual
s?

 Rr
Yy(
roundyell
ow)
4.Howmanytypesofgamet
escansecondgener
ati
onpar
ent
spr
oduce?

fourt
ypesofgametescanpr
oduce
5.Wr
it
ethephenot
ypeformembersoft
hesecondgener
ati
on?

 9r
oundy
ell
ow,
3roundgr
een,
3wr
inkl
eyel
l
owand1wr
inkl
egr
een

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6.Howmanyphenot
ypesappear
edamongt
hemember
sofsecond
gener
ati
on?

: 9:
3:3:1
7.Whati
st herat
ioofgr
eenseedt
oyel
l
owseedi
nsecondgener
ati
on?

 3:9respect
ivel
y
8.Whatistherat
ionofsmoot
hseedt
othosewr
inkl
eseedi
nsecond
gener
ation?

 12smoot
hseedandf
ourwr
inkl
eseed.

Chapter6BI OTECHNOLOGI ES
1.Chooset hecor rectanswerf r om thef oll
owing:
1.B2. C3. A4. C5. C6. B
7.C8. B9. C10. C
 Answeral loft hef oll
owi ngquest ions
1.Definet hef ollowi ngt er ms:
A.biotechnol ogy
I tisuseofl ivingor ganism orl i
vi
ngent i
ti
eswi thtechnologicaltoolf
or
betterpr oduct ionofbi omol eculeandhumanser vi
ces.Exampl e
antibi
ot i
cspr oduct ion, plantt i
ssuecul t
ure,wineproduction,etc.
b.Plasmi d
I tisasmal l circular,ex tr
achr omosomal ,doublestrandedDNAmol ecule
presenti nbact eriawhi chcar rygenet ohelpbact er
iatosur vi
vei n
adv er
secondi tion.Ex ampl e:colpl asmid,Rpl asmid
c.Genet i
cengi neer ing
I tismani pulationofl i
vingor ganismschar actersbyalteri
ngitsgenetic
mat eri
al (exampl eBtcot t on,delay edripeningintomat o,etc.
d.Transf ormat ion
 DNAt ransf ormat ioni spr ocessi nwhi chdirectuptakeandi ncorporati
on
ofexogenousgenet i
cmat eri
alfrom itssur r
oundingthroughcel l
membr anet ransf erintot hehostcel l
.
2.Listt woty pesofmedi cal product st hatcanbepr oducedusi ngDNA
technol ogy?
 Answer :

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Twoty
pesofmedi cal
productsthatcanbegener at
edusingDNAt echnol
ogy
ar
easfol
lows:
 Humangr owthhormonet hatisusedintreati
ngdwarfi
sm
 Col
ony-sti
mulat
ingfactor
st hatareusedint r
eat
ingdefi
ci
enciesof
i
mmune- syst
em bystimulati
ngt heproducti
onofwhitebloodcell
s.

3.Rel atebi oethicst ot hecont i

nueddev el
opmentofgenet icengi neering
techni ques.
 Answer :
Thest udyofet hical i
ssuesassoci atedt otheDNAt echnol ogyi st ermedas
bioet hics.Manysci entist
sar ei nvolvedi n
i
dent ifi
cat ionofandaddr essi nganyl egal,et hical ,andsoci alissuest hathave
arisenast het echni quesofgenet icengi neer inghav edev elopednear lyall
scient istsagr eedt ot hefactofcont i
nuedr est raintandov ersightisneeded.
Forexampl e,itisofconcer nt osomepeopl et hatgenet icallymodi fi
ed( GM)
cropsmaycausehar mt ot heenv ironmenti nunusual way s.
4.Descr ibet womaj orgoal soft heHumanGenomePr oject .
 Answer :
TheHGP( HumanGenomePr oject)isasci ent i
f i
cappr oachf orthe
det ermi nat ionoft hesequenceoft hechemi cal basepai rsofhumanDNA.
Thet womai ngoal sofHGPar e:
1.f orsequenci ngandmappi ngal lt
heDNAbasepai rsoft hechr omosomesof
humans
\Ident if
yingal lthegeneswi thinasequence
5.Di stingui shbet weenpr oteomi csandgenomi cs.
 Answer :
Genomi csi sdef i
nedast hest udyofgenomes, whi chist hecompl etegeneti
c
makeupofhumansandot heror gani sms.I thel psi nunder standingt he
sequencesofbasesi ngenomesandal sot hef unct i
onofgenes, intronsand
aswel lasi ntrageni csequencesl iker epetitiveDNA( deoxy ri
bonucl eicacid)
element s, transposonsanduni quenoncodi ngDNA.
Pr ot eomi csi sdef inedast hest udyofst r
uct ure, funct i
onandi nt
er actionof
cel lularpr ot eins.Ithel psi ni dent i
fyinganddet er mi ningt hepr oteinsf unct
ion

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withi
napar ti
cularcelltype.Ital
sohelpsi nt hestudyi
ngofthree-
dimensional
shapeofcellul
arpr otei
nst hroughcomput ermodel i
ng
6.Outl
inethedifferentappl i
cati
onsofbiotechnol ogy
 Answer :
Theappl i
cati
onsofbi otechnologyincludet herapeut
ics,
diagnost
ics,
geneti
callymodifiedcropsf oragri
cult
ur e,processedfood,bi
oremediat
ion,
wastet r
eatment, andener gyproduct
ion

7.Li stsomet echniquesofgenet icengi neering.

 Answer :
Techni quesar easf oll
ow:
1.Mol ecularcl oning( Recombi nantDNA)
2.Genedel ivery
3.Genomeedi ti
ng
8.Del i
neat et het r
ansgeni cor ganismsandt hei rsignif
icance.
 Answer :
Tr ansgeni cor ganismsar eimpor tantr esear cht ools,andar eoft
enusedwhen
expl oringagene' sf uncti
on.Tr ansgenesi sisal sor el
atedt othemedi cal
pract i
ceofgenet herapy,inwhi chDNAi st r
ansf erredintoapat i
ent'scell
st o
treatdi sease.
9.Expl ai
nt hepr ocedur efort hef ollowi ng
a.PCR
 Pol ymer asechai nreact i
on( PCR)i susedt oampl ifyaspecifi
cDNA
sequencebyusi ngapai rofol igonucleot ideprimer s.Eachpairis
compl ement arytooneendoft het argetDNAsequence.Ther efor
e, PCR
i
sv eryusef ul togener atea
DNAf r agmentr equiredforcl oningexper iment .Diagnosisofspecificmut ation
whi char er elatedt ogenet i
cdi seases.
b.Gel Electrophpr esis
 El ectrophor esisisamet hodofsepar ationofchar gedmol eculesby
applyinganel ectri
cfield.St ar chgel elect rophoresisisusedt osepar ate
mol eculeswi tht hehelpofst archgel .Thi sgel actasmol ecularsieve.

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 Starchisparti
allyhydrol
ysedinbuf f
ertopr epareasol ution.Thentrhe
soluti
onisheat edandcool edtogetstar chgel.
c.Genet herapy
 Genet herapyisanexper i
ment alt
echniquet hatusesgenest ot r
eator
preventdisease.Iti
sdesignedt ointr
oducegenet i
cmat eri
alint
ocellst
o
compensat etheabnor mal genesortomakeabenef i
cialprotei
n.Gene
therapyisusedf orthetr
eat mentofgenet i
cdi seasesinhumans.
Exampl eofgenet i
cdiseasesar ephenylketonuria,haemophgi li
aA,
cystisfi
brosi
set c

10.Descr ibehumangenomepr ojectandi tsmai ngoal s.

 Answer :
TheHGP( HumanGenomePr oject )isasci enti
ficappr oachf orthe
determi nationoft hesequenceoft hechemi calbasepai rsofhumanDNA.
Themai ngoal sofHGPar e:
 Forsequenci ngandmappi ngal ltheDNAbasepai rsofthe
chromosomesofhumans.
I dentifyingallthegeneswi thinasequence.
11.Discusst hedr asti
cenv ironment alimpact sofoi lspil
lsandhowt he
microbesl ikebact eri
acanhel pmi tigatethepr oblem.
 Answer :
Whenoi lspi l
lsoccuri nouroceans, theyleav ebehi ndawakeofecol ogical
devast ati
on.Mi cr
obescanpl ayani mpor tantroleinbi odegradationand
bioremedi ationofenv i
ronment alpol l
utant s,
assomecanact ivelydegrade
thesehar mf ulsubstances, conv ertingthem i ntohar ml essmet aboli
c
byproduct s
12.Giveanaccountofsi gnificanceoft ransgenicor ganismsinf oodindust r
y.
 Answer :
ATr ansgeni cor ganism isthatwhosegenet i
cmat erialhasbeenal teredusing
geneticengi neeri
ngt echniques.Tr ansgeni corgani smspossessanov el
combi nationofgenet i
cmat er ialtoi mpr ov ethephenot ypictr
aitsandf eatur
es.

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Thesemodi f
icat
ionspr oduceanewor ganism whi chhasanewgenet i
c
makeupbyaddi ngordel et i
ngorr eplacinggenet i
cmat erial
.
Theappl icati
onsoft ransgeni cor gani sm isv erybenef iciali
nrecentyears,
li
ke
productionofpr oduct i
onofcr opswi thincreasednut rientcontentand
physical appearancel i
kemor et hickwal led( outersheat h)oftomat oes,
colorfulcapsicums, shor tsizeofwheat ,goldenwheatet c.
13.Descr ibetheusesofDNAf ingerpr i
nting.
 Answer :
 Thesear ethepossi bleusesofDNAf i
nger print
ing
(a)UseofDNAf ingerprintinginl egal di
sput es,not abl
yt ohelpsolvecr i
mes
andt odet erminepat ernity.
(b)Itisalsousedt oi dent i
fyinher i
tedgenet i
cdi seases.
(c)Itcanbeusedt oi dent i
fygenet i
cmat chesbet weent issuedonorsand
recipi
ents.

14.Whati sgenecl oning?

 Answer :
Genecl oning,alsoknownasmol ecularcl oni ngr eferst ot hepr ocessof
i
solati
ngaDNAsequenceofi nt
er estf orthepur poseofmaki ngmul ti
ple
copiesofit.Thei denticalcopiesar ecl ones
15.Elaboratelydiscussr ecombi nantDNAt echnol ogyandi tsusef ulness.
 Answer :
 Recombi nantDNA( deoxyribonucl eicaci d)t echnol ogy,joiningofDNA
mol eculesf rom twodi f
ferentspeci esandi nser t
ingt hem int oahostt o
producenewgenet i
ccombi nationst hathav ev aluemedi cine,science,
agr i
cult
ur e,andhumanbenef its.
 Appl i
cationsofr ecombi nantDNA( deoxy ribonucl eicaci d)technol ogy
I tisusedf ormasspr oduct i
onofpr oteinbaseddr ugs.Firstdr ug
manuf actur edusingthistechnol ogyi si nsulin.
 Pr oductionoft ransgenicor gani sms
 Genet i
callymodi fi
edf oodsar epr oducedusi ngr ecombi nantDNA
technology
I thelpsint heprocessofbi oremedi ation

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CHAPTER7BI ODIVERSI TYANDENVI RONMANTALPROBLEMS
 Answert hef ollowingquest ions:
1.Compar especi esdi versit
yandgenet i
cdi versit
y.
 Answer :
GeneticDi versi
tyist hedi versit
yofgenet i
cchar acteristi
cs( expr
essedor
recessive)withinaspeci es( i
.e.bet weeni ndividualsandpopul ati
onsoft he
samespeci es).
SpeciesDi versit
yi ssimpl ythenumberandr el
ativeabundanceofspeci es
foundi nagi venbi ol
ogi calorgani zati
on( popul ati
on, ecosy stem,Earth)
2.Listsev eralreasonst ov aluebi odiv
er si
ty.
 Answer :
Biodiversi
tyisimpor tanttov aluebecauset hesedi versespeci al
spr ov i
deus
withimpor tantmedi cines,usef ulchemi cals,andr ecy clehumanwast es.
3.Howdoest hegr eenhouseef fectoccur ?
 Answer :
Thegr eenhouseef fecti sanat ural pr
ocesst hatwar mst heEar t
h'ssur face.
Whent heSun' sener gyr eachest heEar th'sat mospher e,someofi tisr eflect
ed

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backt ospaceandt her estisabsor bedandr e-
radi atedbygr eenhousegases.
Theabsor bedener gywar mst heat mosphereandt hesur faceoftheEar t
h.
4.Identif ythepr imar ycausesofmoder nspeci esex t
inctions.
 Answer :
Ther ear et hreepr i
mar yanthropogeni cprocessest hatleadt ospeci es
endanger mentandex ti
nction.
 Ov erharvest i
ng;
 Thei ntr
oduct ionofnonnat i
vespecies,i
ncl udingt hespr eadofdi sease
 Habi tatdest ruction.
5.Descr i
behowpest icides,suchasDDT, under got hepr ocessofbi o-
logical
magni ficat i
on.
 Answer :
DDTunder got hepr ocessofbi ologi
calmagni f
icat i
onbecauset hepest i
cideis
absor bedbysmal lproducer sar elowlevelconsumer s.Then, consumer sof
theseor gani smseatt hesei nfectedorganismsi nhi ghaquant i
tythat
magni fiest heaf fectofDDTi nt heupperlevelani mal .Thist r
endcont i
nuesal l
thewayupt hef oodchai nuntilthehighestanimal ont hechai nget san
extremel ymagni f
iedr esponset oDDTt hatwasi ntroducedt otheenv i
ronment .

6.Chooseaspeci esthatmi ghtbeaf fectedbygl obalwar mi ng,andpr edi

ct
howt hatspeciesmi ghtbeaf fect ed.
 Answer :
PolarBear:
Duet oglobalwar ming, theglobal t
emper atureshav ebeeni ncreasing,whi
ch
hascausedmaj ormel tingofpol aricecapswher ethepol arbear sresi
de.I
n
somear eas,thismel t
inghasbecomesoext ensivethatt hepol arbearshave
nolandt oli
veonanddi east heycannotl iv
ei nthear cticwat ers.Ifthi
s
conti
nues, t
hepopul ationofpol arbear swi lldecrease.
7.Cont r
astconser vati
onbi ologywi threst orati
onbi ology .
 Answer :
Restorat
ionecol ogyassumest hatenv i
ronment aldegr adationandpopul ati
on
decli
nesar esomewhatr eversiblepr ocesseswhi leconser vationbi ol
ogy
att
empt stopr eserv
eandmai ntainexistinghabi tatandbi odiversi
ty.
8.Explai
nwhyr eservespr otectbi odiversity.
 Answer :

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Wehav enat uralreser
vest oprotectourbi odi
ver si
tythat'sthedegreeof
vari
at ionofl ife.Asuffi
cientbiodiversit
yisrequiredt okeepourecosy st
em in
natur albalance
9. Expl aincausesandef fectsofaci drain
 Answer :
Acidr aini scausedbyachemi calreactionthatbegi nswhencompoundsl ike
sulfurdi oxideandni tr
ogenoxi desar er el
easedi nt
ot heai r
.
10.Gi veanaccountoft hefactorsthatt hr
eatenbi odiv
er si
ty.
 Answer :
Fiv
emai nt hreatstobiodiver
sityarei nvasi
vealienspeci es,cl
imatechange,
nutrientl oadingandpol l
ution,habitatchange, andov erexploi
tat
ion.

Theend
Goodlucky

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