 Concept to understand plants: Plants are an incredibly important kingdom

of organisms that are multicellular, eukaryotic, and photosynthetic.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy, water, and
carbon dioxide to produce sugars and oxygen. Plants provide the
foundation of many food webs and animal life would not exist without
them. Plant biology is the branch of science that studies plants, their
evolution, structure, function, and role in life on earth.

 Origin and evolution of plants: Plants originated from a group of green

algae that colonized the land about 500 million years ago. Living on land
required plants to make serious changes to their body plans, such as
developing roots, stems, and leaves. Roots absorb water and nutrients from
the soil, stems transport materials between roots and leaves, and leaves
produce sugars for the plant. Plants also evolved vascular tissue, which is a
system of tubes that transports water and nutrients around the plant body.
Vascular tissue allowed plants to grow taller and more complex. Plants also
evolved different ways of reproducing, such as spores, seeds, and flowers.

 History of plant classification: Plant classification is the process of grouping

plants based on their similarities and differences. The earliest system of
plant classification was based on morphology, or the appearance and
structure of plants. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287
BC) is considered the father of botany because he wrote two books on
plant morphology and classification. Later, in the 18th century, the Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) developed a system of binomial
nomenclature, which assigns each plant a two-part name consisting of a
genus and a species. Linnaeus also classified plants into 24 classes based on
their floral characteristics. However, morphology-based classification has
limitations because it does not reflect the evolutionary relationships among
plants. In the 20th century, plant classification shifted to a phylogenetic
approach, which uses molecular data such as DNA sequences to infer the
evolutionary history and relatedness of plants. Modern plant classification
 uses a hierarchical system of ranks, such as kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species.

 General characteristics of major plant groups:

- Bacteria: Bacteria are not plants, but they are important for plant
biology because they are involved in many interactions with plants.
Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms that lack a nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. They have a single circular
chromosome and may also have plasmids, which are small circular
pieces of DNA. Bacteria can be classified by their shape (such as
cocci, bacilli, or spirilla), their cell wall structure (such as gram-
positive or gram-negative), their metabolism (such as aerobic or
anaerobic), or their ecological role (such as decomposers or
symbionts).
- Algae: Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that
live in aquatic or moist environments. They are not true plants
because they lack true roots, stems, leaves, and vascular tissue. Algae
can be unicellular or multicellular, and can be classified by their
pigments (such as green algae, red algae, or brown algae), their cell
wall composition (such as cellulose or silica), or their life cycle (such
as haploid or diploid).
- Fungi: Fungi are not plants either, but they are also important for
plant biology because they form many associations with plants. Fungi
are eukaryotic organisms that have a cell wall made of chitin. They do
not perform photosynthesis but obtain nutrients by absorbing
organic matter from their environment. Fungi can be unicellular
(such as yeasts) or multicellular (such as molds or mushrooms). Fungi
can be classified by their mode of reproduction (such as sexual or
asexual), their spore type (such as zygosporangia or basidia), or their
symbiotic relationship with plants (such as mycorrhizae or lichens).
- Bryophytes: Bryophytes are the simplest group of true plants. They
include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are non-vascular
 plants that lack true roots, stems, leaves, and seeds. They have a
dominant haploid gametophyte stage in their life cycle, which
produces gametes by mitosis. The gametes fuse to form a diploid
sporophyte stage, which produces spores by meiosis. The spores
germinate to form new gametophytes. Bryophytes are usually found
in moist habitats, where they can absorb water and nutrients directly
from their surroundings.
- Pteridophytes: Pteridophytes are the first group of vascular plants.
They include ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses. They have true roots,
stems, and leaves, but they do not produce seeds. They have a
dominant diploid sporophyte stage in their life cycle, which produces
spores by meiosis. The spores germinate to form a haploid
gametophyte stage, which produces gametes by mitosis. The
gametes fuse to form a new sporophyte. Pteridophytes are usually
found in shady or wet habitats, where they can disperse their spores
by wind or water.
- Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms are the first group of seed plants. They
include conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes. They have true
roots, stems, leaves, and seeds, but they do not produce flowers or
fruits. They have a dominant diploid sporophyte stage in their life
cycle, which produces male and female cones. The male cones
produce pollen grains, which are the male gametophytes. The female
cones produce ovules, which contain the female gametophytes. The
pollen grains are carried by wind or animals to the ovules, where
they fertilize the eggs to form seeds. The seeds contain a diploid
embryo and a food supply, surrounded by a protective coat. The
seeds are dispersed by wind or animals to germinate into new
sporophytes. Gymnosperms are usually found in dry or cold habitats,
where they have adaptations such as needle-like leaves or resinous
sap.
- Angiosperms: Angiosperms are the most diverse and successful
group of plants. They include all flowering plants and most crop
plants. They have true roots, stems, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits.
They have a dominant diploid sporophyte stage in their life cycle,
which produces flowers. The flowers contain male and female
 reproductive organs. The male organs produce pollen grains, which
are the male gametophytes. The female organs produce ovules,
which contain the female gametophytes. The pollen grains are
carried by wind or animals to the ovules, where they fertilize the
eggs to form seeds. The seeds are enclosed in a structure called a
fruit, which aids in their dispersal by wind or animals. The seeds
germinate into new sporophytes. Angiosperms are found in almost
every habitat on earth, where they have adaptations such as diverse
flower shapes and colors, nectar and fragrance production, and
coevolution with pollinators.

 Morphology, function and types of roots, stem and leaves (brief overview):
Roots, stems, and leaves are the main vegetative structures of plants. They
form the shoot system and the root system, which are responsible for
supporting the plant, absorbing water and nutrients, transporting
materials, and performing photosynthesis.

- Roots: Roots are the part of the plant that grows underground. They
anchor the plant to the soil and absorb water and minerals from it.
Roots can also store food or propagate new plants. Roots can be
classified by their shape (such as taproot or fibrous root), their
function (such as primary or adventitious root), or their modification
(such as tuber or aerial root).
- Stems: Stems are the part of the plant that grows above ground.
They support the leaves and flowers and transport water, minerals,
and sugars between them. Stems can also store food or produce new
plants. Stems can be classified by their growth habit (such as
herbaceous or woody), their arrangement (such as opposite or
alternate), or their modification (such as bulb or thorn).
- Leaves: Leaves are the part of the plant that usually performs
photosynthesis. They capture light energy and use it to convert
carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen. Leaves can also
regulate gas exchange, transpiration, and temperature. Leaves can
 be classified by their shape (such as simple or compound), their
margin (such as entire or serrated), their venation (such as parallel or
netted), or their modification (such as spine or tendril).

 Flower structure: Flowers are the reproductive structures of angiosperms,

or flowering plants. They are composed of four whorls of modified leaves:
sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.

- Sepals: Sepals are the outermost whorl of a flower. They are usually
green and protect the flower bud before it opens. The sepals
collectively form the calyx.
- Petals: Petals are the next whorl of a flower. They are usually colorful
and attract pollinators to the flower. The petals collectively form the
corolla.
- Stamens: Stamens are the male reproductive organs of a flower.
They consist of a filament that supports an anther, which produces
pollen grains. The pollen grains contain the male gametophytes,
which produce sperm cells. The stamens collectively form the
androecium.
- Carpels: Carpels are the female reproductive organs of a flower. They
consist of an ovary that contains one or more ovules, a style that
connects the ovary to a stigma, which receives pollen grains. The
ovules contain the female gametophytes, which produce egg cells.
The carpels collectively form the gynoecium.

 Reproduction in plants (asexual and sexual): Plants can reproduce both

asexually and sexually.

- Asexual reproduction: Asexual reproduction is the production of new

plants without involving gametes or fertilization. It results in
genetically identical offspring (clones) of the parent plant. Asexual
 reproduction can occur by various methods, such as fragmentation,
budding, layering, grafting, cutting, or tissue culture.
- Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction is the production of new
plants by involving gametes and fertilization. It results in genetically
diverse offspring that inherit traits from both parents. Sexual
reproduction can occur by various methods, such as self-pollination,
cross-pollination, seed formation, seed dispersal, seed germination,
or vegetative propagation.

 Fruit structure and types: Fruits are the structures that develop from
fertilized ovaries of flowers. They contain seeds and aid in their dispersal by
wind or animals.

- Structure: Fruits have three main layers: exocarp (outer layer),

mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). The relative
thickness and texture of these layers vary among different types of
fruits.
- Types: Fruits can be classified by their origin (such as simple,
aggregate, or multiple), their development (such as fleshy or dry), or
their dehiscence (such as dehiscent or indehiscent). Some examples
of fruits are:

- Simple fruits: Fruits that develop from a single ovary of a single

flower. Examples are apple, peach, cherry, tomato, etc.
- Aggregate fruits: Fruits that develop from multiple ovaries of a single
flower. Examples are raspberry, blackberry, strawberry, etc.
- Multiple fruits: Fruits that develop from multiple ovaries of multiple
flowers. Examples are pineapple, fig, mulberry, etc.
- Fleshy fruits: Fruits that have a soft and juicy mesocarp. Examples are
berry, drupe, hesperidium, pepo, etc.
- Dry fruits: Fruits that have a hard and dry mesocarp. Examples are
nut, achene, samara, capsule, etc.
 - Dehiscent fruits: Fruits that split open at maturity to release seeds.
Examples are legume, follicle, silique, etc.
- Indehiscent fruits: Fruits that do not split open at maturity and retain
seeds. Examples are caryopsis, schizocarp, nutlet, etc.

 Seed structure and dispersal: Seeds are the structures that contain the
embryonic plants and a food supply. They are produced by fertilization of
ovules in flowers.

- Structure: Seeds have three main parts: seed coat (outer layer),
endosperm (food storage tissue), and embryo (young plant). The
seed coat protects the seed from physical damage and water loss.
The endosperm provides nutrients to the embryo during
germination. The embryo consists of a radicle (embryonic root), a
hypocotyl (embryonic stem), and one or two cotyledons (embryonic
leaves).
- Dispersal: Seeds are dispersed by various agents, such as wind,
water, animals, or gravity. Dispersal helps the seeds to find suitable
habitats for germination and avoid competition with the parent
plant. Seeds have different adaptations for dispersal, such as wings,
hairs, hooks, spines, or fleshy coverings.

 Economic importance of plants: Plants are extremely important in the lives

of people throughout the world. People depend upon plants to satisfy such
basic human needs as food, clothing, shelter, and health care. These needs
are growing rapidly because of a growing world population, increasing
incomes, and urbanization¹. Plants also provide many other benefits to the
economy, such as:

- Plants provide raw materials for many industries, such as

pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, paper, rubber, etc.
 - Plants provide fuel for cooking, heating, and transportation, such as
wood, charcoal, ethanol, biodiesel, etc.
- Plants provide income and employment for farmers, traders,
processors, and retailers of plant products.
- Plants provide ecosystem services, such as oxygen production,
carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water purification,
pollination, etc.
- Plants provide aesthetic and recreational value, such as parks,
gardens, forests, etc.

 Brief overview of plants used as food:

- Cereals: Cereals are grasses that produce edible grains rich in

carbohydrates and proteins. They are the staple food for most of the
world's population. Some examples of cereals are rice, wheat, maize
(corn), barley, oats, millets, sorghum, etc.
- Pulses: Pulses are legumes that produce edible seeds rich in proteins
and fibers. They are often consumed with cereals to provide a
balanced diet. Some examples of pulses are beans, peas, lentils,
chickpeas, soybeans, etc.
- Vegetables: Vegetables are herbaceous plants that produce edible
parts such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits. They are rich in
vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. They are consumed raw or
cooked in various dishes. Some examples of vegetables are potato ,
carrot , onion , cabbage , spinach , cauliflower , tomato , cucumber ,
etc.
- Mushrooms: Mushrooms are fungi that produce edible fruiting
bodies rich in proteins and fibers. They are consumed fresh or dried
in various cuisines. Some examples of mushrooms are button
mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus
ostreatus), shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes), etc.
 Brief overview of plants used as fruits:

- Apple: Apple is a pome fruit that develops from the ovary and
receptacle of a flower. It belongs to Rosaceae. It is a juicy and
crunchy fruit with a sweet or sour taste. It is rich in fibers and vitamin
C. It is consumed fresh or processed into juice , cider , vinegar , jam ,
pie , etc.
- Pear: Pear is also a pome fruit that develops from the ovary and
receptacle of a flower. It belongs to Rosaceae. It is a soft and juicy
fruit with a sweet or sour taste. It is rich in fibers and vitamin C. It is
consumed fresh or processed into juice , wine , jam , etc.
- Plum: Plum is a drupe fruit that develops from the ovary of a flower.
It belongs to Rosaceae. It is a fleshy and juicy fruit with a sweet or
sour taste. It is rich in fibers and vitamin C. It is consumed fresh or
processed into juice , wine , jam , dried plum (prune) , etc.
- Peach: Peach is also a drupe fruit that develops from the ovary of a
flower. It belongs to Rosaceae. It is a fleshy and juicy fruit with a
sweet or sour taste. It is rich in fibers and vitamin C. It is consumed
fresh or processed into juice , wine , jam , canned peach , etc.
- Apricot: Apricot is also a drupe fruit that develops from the ovary of a
flower . It belongs to Rosaceae . It is a fleshy and juicy fruit with a
sweet or sour taste . It is rich in fibers and vitamin A . It is consumed
fresh or processed into juice , wine , jam , dried apricot , etc.
- Almond: Almond is also a drupe fruit that develops from the ovary of
a flower . It belongs to Rosaceae . However , it is not the flesh but the
seed (kernel) that is edible . It is a crunchy and nutty seed with a high
fat content . It is rich in proteins , fibers , vitamin E , and minerals . It
is consumed raw or roasted or processed into oil , butter , milk , flour
, etc.
- Cherry: Cherry is also a drupe fruit that develops from the ovary of a
flower . It belongs to Rosaceae . It is a fleshy and juicy fruit with a
sweet or sour taste . It is rich in fibers and vitamin C . It is consumed
fresh or processed into juice , wine , jam , pie , etc.
 - Walnut: Walnut is a nut fruit that develops from the ovary and
involucre of a flower. It belongs to Juglandaceae. It is a hard and
woody fruit that contains an edible seed (kernel). It is a crunchy and
nutty seed with a high fat content. It is rich in proteins, fibers,
vitamin E, and omega-3 fatty acids. It is consumed raw or roasted or
processed into oil, butter, flour, etc.

 Brief overview of plants used as spices:

- Saffron: Saffron is the dried stigma of the flower of Crocus sativus. It

belongs to Iridaceae. It is a thread-like and aromatic spice with a
yellow-orange color. It is rich in carotenoids and antioxidants. It is
used to flavor and color various dishes, such as rice, soup, bread, etc.
- Black cumin: Black cumin is the dried seed of Nigella sativa. It belongs
to Ranunculaceae. It is a small and black seed with a pungent and
bitter taste. It is rich in thymoquinone and other phytochemicals. It is
used to season various dishes, such as curry, salad, bread, etc.
- Coriander: Coriander is the dried seed or leaf of Coriandrum sativum.
It belongs to Apiaceae. It is a round and brown seed or a green and
aromatic leaf with a citrusy and spicy taste. It is rich in vitamin C and
other phytochemicals. It is used to flavor various dishes, such as
curry, soup, salsa, etc.
- Mint: Mint is the fresh or dried leaf of Mentha spp. It belongs to
Lamiaceae. It is a green and aromatic leaf with a cooling and
refreshing taste. It is rich in menthol and other phytochemicals. It is
used to flavor various dishes, such as tea, sauce, salad, etc.

 Brief overview of plants used as timber:

- Fir: Fir is the wood of Abies spp. It belongs to Pinaceae. It is a

softwood with a straight grain and a light color. It is easy to work
 with and resistant to decay. It is used for construction, furniture,
plywood, paper, etc.
- Kail: Kail is the wood of Pinus wallichiana . It belongs to Pinaceae . It
is a softwood with a straight grain and a light color . It is easy to work
with and resistant to decay . It is used for construction , furniture ,
plywood , paper , etc.
- Deodar: Deodar is the wood of Cedrus deodara . It belongs to
Pinaceae . It is a softwood with a straight grain and a yellowish-
brown color . It has a fragrant smell and insect-repellent properties .
It is used for construction , furniture , carving , etc.
- Poplar: Poplar is the wood of Populus spp . It belongs to Salicaceae .
It is a hardwood with a straight grain and a light color . It is easy to
work with and fast-growing . It is used for construction , furniture ,
plywood , paper , etc.
- Willow: Willow is the wood of Salix spp . It belongs to Salicaceae . It is
a hardwood with a straight grain and a light color . It is flexible and
resilient . It is used for making baskets , cricket bats , musical
instruments , etc.

 Brief overview of plants used as medicine:

- Hand: Hand (also known as costus) is the dried root of Saussurea

costus . It belongs to Asteraceae . It has anti-inflammatory ,
antispasmodic , expectorant , carminative , and aphrodisiac
properties . It is used for treating asthma , bronchitis , rheumatism ,
indigestion , impotence , etc.
- Kuth: Kuth (also known as kutki) is the dried root of Picrorhiza kurroa
. It belongs to Plantaginaceae . It has hepatoprotective , anti-
inflammatory , antipyretic , laxative , and immunomodulatory
properties . It is used for treating liver disorders , fever , constipation
, arthritis , asthma , etc.
- Tethwan: Tethwan (also known as tithonia) is the dried flower of
Tithonia diversifolia . It belongs to Asteraceae . It has antimalarial ,
 antidiabetic , antifungal , antibacterial , and antioxidant properties . It
is used for treating malaria , diabetes , skin infections , wounds , etc.
- Kralmund: Kralmund (also known as kalmegh) is the dried herb of
Andrographis paniculata . It belongs to Acanthaceae . It has anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic, antibacterial, antiviral, and
immunostimulant properties. It is used for treating fever, cold, sore
throat, respiratory infections, diarrhea, dysentery, etc.
- Sochal: Sochal (also known as silymarin) is the dried seed of Silybum
marianum . It belongs to Asteraceae . It has hepatoprotective,
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. It is used
for treating liver diseases, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, jaundice, etc.