Basic Concepts

UNIT 14 SOCIAL CONTROL AND CHANGE*

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Meaning and Definition of Social Control
14.3 Types of Social Control
14.4 Agencies of Social Control
14.5 Concept and Meaning of Social Change
14.6 Approaches to Understanding Social Change
14.6.1 Evolutionary Theories of Change
14.6.2 Cyclical Theories
14.6.3 Structural-functional and Conflict Theories
14.7 Synthesis of Social Change Theories
14.8 Factors of Social Change
14.8.1 Biological Factors
14.8.2 Geographic Factors
14.8.3 Technological Factors
14.8.4 Socio-cultural Factors
14.9 Impact of Social Change
14.10 Let Us Sum Up
14.11 References

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you would be able to understand:
Social control as a concept;
Relationship between social control and social order;
Agencies which function as social control;
Concept of social change and social transformation;
Various approaches to the understanding of social change;
Causal factors of social change; and
Rate of social change.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Social control is a central concept in sociology. All of us are expected to behave
in a certain way. It ranges from how to eat to giving respect to our elders to
driving to the left side of the road and to obey the laws of the land. The very
basic idea behind following certain desired rules is to make collective social life
possible. Community life is possible only in the context of social constraints as

168 * This unit is contributed by R. Vashum, IGNOU and Shushwi Ke, Consultant, NUEPA, Delhi.
social living demands sacrifice of individual interests. For example one is always Social Control and Change
tempted to jump a traffic signal but does not do so for fear of being fined. Thus,
in order to function smoothly and efficiently society makes certain rules and
regulations and expects that its members will follow them. Social institutions
such as family, school, religious institutions and media are some of the agents
that reinforce and maintain these rules. Many sanctions are not applied directly
but only by embedding certain values in the socialized person. Thus most people
conformnot because of fear but because they are internally conditioned to do so.
In the most fundamental sense ‘social control’ refers to the capacity of a society
to regulate itself according to desired principles and values.

14.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL

CONTROL
The purpose of social control is as the term indicates is to exercise control over
people in an effective manner. Confirming or behaving in accordance with the
norms of society is referred to as conformity. In fact in a modern complex society
social order can be achieved by making the people to accept and follow certain
specified group norms. By maintaining solidarity and stability among its members
society ensures its continuity. As a result the means of social control does not
remain external to individual but are followed unconsciously too and becomes
the larger part of culture and gets transmitted from one generation to another.
And this is how a social order is maintained. It delimits the chances of chaos
and confusion in the functioning of society. Therefore, social control is a
necessary component of social order.

It was E.A. Ross, an American Sociologist who introduced the concept Social
Control in his famous book “Social Control” published in 1901. He has defined
social control as “system of devices whereby society brings its members into
conformity with the accepted standards of behaviour”. Others like Ogburn and
Nimkoff have said that social control refers to “the patterns of pressure which
society exerts to maintain order and established rules”.

From the above definitions it is clear that society exercises some kind of influence
on the behaviour of the individual. The influence may be exercised by means of
public opinion, religion, morality, ideology or by coercion. Such influence is
exerted at various levels. It may be the influence over all members of society or
influence of a dominant group over smaller groups or individuals. Some members
exercises and influence the behaviour of others by having moral authority on
them. The influence of society over individual or group may also result in
benevolence and care giving approach. Thus socialization into the moral code
of society results in some members taking care of others. Thus social control
underlies all forms of social behaviour and has been an essential aspect of all
societies from ancient to recent times.

14.3 TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Society exercises its control on the behaviour of individual or group in many
ways. The nature of social control is also dependent on the social situation and
the nature of social goals.. In some simpler societies some form of beliefs and
customs exercise enough control to act as a social pressure on individuals or
169
Basic Concepts groups. In rural society long established traditions and beliefs have significant
influence on the behaviour of the individual or group. However, it does differ in
modern industrial urban society. Here, modern means like radio, television,
school, and law etc. work more effectively for the purpose of controlling
behaviour of members of society. In a way, formal and informal represents two
types of means to have influence on the members of society.

Thus, social control can be classified into two major types on the basis of the
means of social control that are exercised.

They are: formal control and informal control.

Formal Control: Formal control is exercised by some institutionalised

organisations or associations characterised by formal authority like government
which makes law and legislation to control. Formal control is a feature of modern
urban complex society in which the interaction is mostly impersonal in nature
and social life is anonymous. A complex society requires the necessity of formal
control or rules and regulation to make its members conform. The legal institution
and judiciary are a well recognised and well accepted means of social control.
The various laws are exercised by specific body in which officials are vested
with power to enforce control. The state is often the highest agent of social
control and subsumes within itself subsidiary institutions like that of the police
and the military for the enforcement of control.

Informal Control: Informal control is mainly exercised by unwritten rules and

regulations characterised by informal agents like folkways, traditional beliefs
and customs, rituals, gossip, public opinion etc. Informal means of social control
evolve on their own and are an integral and accepted part of life over a period of
time. They become more established with practice. Though no specific
punishment is given to persons in case of violation yet, informal controls are
more effective in their influence than even formal control. They are more effective
in simple or rural society where members of society are more tradition oriented
and the community is more tightly knit. They are also more effective in primary
groups like family where interaction takes place more at personal ground. In
informal control, the control is either through internalized values or through
feelings of shame, honor and ridicule.

In complex societies and in urban city life, both formal as well as informal
mechanism of control work simultaneously to maintain social order.

14.4 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

A society maintains social control through agencies that have evolved over time
to be effective. Society uses law, education, physical coercion and codes besides
folkways, religion, traditional customs, mores etc. to exercise control over its
members of society. The types of social control mechanisms used by society
depend upon nature of society in terms of its organisational complexity.

Control by Law: Law is the most powerful instrument of social control in the
modern urban industrial society. Law appears in a society with a political
organization of the state. The term ‘Law’ has been defined in various ways. J. S.
Roucek says that “Laws are a form of social rule emanating from political
170
agencies”. The sources of law are many. Laws are made and legislations are Social Control and Change
enacted on the basis of social doctrines, ideals and mores. Laws are made formal
when they are enacted by a proper law making authority. Formal laws are
deliberately made with proper planning. In the western system laws are supposed
to be definite, clear and precise and everybody is treated equally before law in
identical circumstances. Such may not however be true for non-western laws
emanating from cultures other than European. Law is enforced by agencies;
therefore, formal bodies are created. With colonization and the spread of western
civilization, the nature of formal law has become similar in most societies.

Control by Education: Education is very significant tool and a mechanism of

social control in all forms of society. Education can be just simply viewed as
imbibing of social values and norms by the younger generations. Informal
education is imparted by all socializing agents especially the family. Education
has been visualised by Emile Durkheim as ‘the socialisation of the younger
generation’ because it is through education by which society passes its heritage
to from one generation to another. Formal education, that is the education that is
imparted by an institution that is dedicated primarily to it and which has its own
tools and techniques, books, and teachers, been playing central role in controlling
the behaviour of members of society. Formal education is designed to impart
the right kind of ideology to the young members of society so that they contribute
to its reproduction. Formal education often includes religious and patriotic values
that are deemed necessary for the formation of the responsible citizen.

Control by Public Opinion: Public opinion is an important agency of social

control. Public opinion simply refers to mass of ideas which people expresses
on any given issue. In fact it works as a collective opinion of majority of members
of society. Moreover it is more valued in democratic societies. Public opinion is
gathered through various modern means like Press, Radio, and Television etc.

Control by Propaganda: Propaganda does affect people’s attitude, behaviour,

faith and ideology. At times it is also used to replace an older belief system with
the new one. However, it may have both positive and negative impact. Most
governments and power regimes use propaganda to bring changes in the
behaviour of people. Thus people are urged to conform to the goals of the state
willingly through propaganda that makes them believe that what the society
wants is actually also good for them.

Control by Coercion: Coercion refers to physical force to stop or control the

behaviour of an individual or group. When people are forced to follow certain
rules under threat or under some imposed controls, it is said that coercion is
used to regulate the behaviour of an individual or members of society. State is
the only agency which uses it legitimately although every one may not agree
with every situation of use of force, like when police uses force on peacefully
demonstrating people or when the state uses repressive measures to suppress
any protest.

Control by Customs: Custom is basically an informal means of social control.

It is exercised mostly unconsciously. We learn them from childhood in our
families or what we say in primary groups in a very informal manner. It ensures
collective life. They are more influential in traditional or rural society.

171
Basic Concepts Control by Religion: Religion refers to faith in some supernatural forces.
MacIver and Page has defined religion as religion “implies a relationship not
merely between man and man but also between man and some higher power”.
It is a strong instrument of social control. Therefore, it is based on the belief that
it confirms the man’s relationship with God and therefore, constitutes a religious
code. And it is this religious code which becomes significant to control the
conduct of human behaviour. The power of religion is very deep rooted as it
conflates the social requirements with the wishes of the higher power. For
example in many religions women are made to believe that it is their religious
duty to serve men and is very effective in maintaining and continuing a patriarchal
society. Similarly many religions supported the rule of kings saying that the
king or ruler was divine.

Control by Morality: There is a close relation between morality and religion.

Morality is “that body of rules and principles concerned with good and evil as
manifested to us by conscience”. Morality is what makes a person distinguish
right conduct from wrong. But the moral order is not universal and varies from
society to society, and each society imbibes its own norms and values in its
children. In the context of a Western society one may identify honesty,
faithfulness, trust, fairness, conscientiousness, kindness and sacrifice to represent
some of the moral concepts. The moral order of Indian society is more towards
family and respect for elders and following rules. The moral order is internalized
by the people and therefore, plays very crucial role in influencing people’s
behaviour or maintain control on members of society.

Besides the above mentioned mechanism of formal as well as informal means

of social control different social ceremonies in terms of rituals, fashions are also
used to regulate the behaviour of an individual or members of society.

Thus, society in order to function smoothly and effectively uses some form of
inbuilt mechanism. Individuals have the tendency to deviate from the desired
behaviour because of their desires for their self, like pleasure and individualistic
goal fulfillments. For example people wish for the good things of life that they
may not be able to get by fair means but by anti-social means such as theft or
breaking of rules. Social control refers to all the mechanism which are used to
regulate the behaviour of individuals and makes them conform to its norms and
values. It is the way through which society ensures its collective life and maintains
normative social order. The effectiveness of mechanisms varies from simple to
complex society. Means like customs, folkways and mores are more effective in
rural traditional simple society. But law, education, public opinion plays more
significant role in urban complex society.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Explain the meaning and definition of social control.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
172
2) Discuss various types of social control. Social Control and Change

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Discuss the agencies of social control.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

14.5 CONCEPT AND MEANING OF SOCIAL

CHANGE
Social change has been defined in various ways. Scholars and authors have
defined them in many different ways so that there is no one agreed definition of
social change. Nevertheless, for our purpose we shall attempt a working definition
of social change. Social change can broadly be defined as the significant
alteration or modification of any social organization and/or social structure
and functions of a society and its various manifestations. The definition
incorporates the aspects of significant changes in the various patterns of social
relationships- social processes, social patterns, action and interaction-, the rules
of relationships and conduct (norms), values, symbols and cultural products.
The concept of social change also refers to variations over time in both the
material and non-material aspects of culture. These changes take place both
from within the societies (endogenous forces) and from without (exogenous
forces) that is brought about by external forces.

14.6 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL

CHANGE
There are a few main approaches to the understanding of social change and/or
social transformation. They are:
i) Evolutionary theories;
ii) Cyclical theories; and
iii) Structural-functional and conflict theories.

14.6.1 Evolutionary Theories of Change

Evolutionary theories of social change are conglomeration of many but
interrelated theories of change. The main notion of the evolutionary theory of
change is that there is a consistent direction of social change of all societies in a 173
Basic Concepts similar sequence of stages from the original to the final stage of development,
or from a simple and ‘primitive’ to the more complex and advanced state.
Evolutionary theory also implies that evolutionary change will culminate at
reaching the final stage of development. Evolutionary theorists consider change
as progress and growth. The theory can be classified into two main categories-
Classical evolutionary theories and Neo-evolutionary theories.

The classical evolutionary theories have been developed by the 19th century
anthropologists and sociologists. Although, approaches differ among them, there
is an underlying principle of convergence of ideas that evolutionary change
takes place in a unilinear and similar direction. They largely draw an analogy of
the progress of animal life from the simple uni-celled organisms to the most
complex animal- the human being. They believe that as societies evolve and
grow, the functions of its members would also become more specialized just as
the development of millions of body cells to perform specific functions within
an interrelated system. The main proponents of the classical theories of
evolutionary change were August Comte (from French Evolutionary and
Positivist School), Herbert Spencer, E.B.Tylor, H.J.S.Maine, J.F.McLennan and
S.J.G.Frazer (from British Evolutionary School); Lewis Henry Morgan (from
American Evolutionary School); and J.J.Bachofen, Adolf Bastian and Ferdinand
Toennies [Ferdinand Tönnies] (from German Evolutionary School). We shall
consider some of the frameworks of classification of human evolution developed
by these classical evolutionists.

The Neo-Evolutionary theories were introduced in the 20th century by V.Gordon

Childe, Julian Steward and Leslie White. Their formulations of evolutionary
theories are characterized by careful scrutiny of evidence, systematic analysis,
and rigorous reasoning. To distinguish them from the classical evolutionary
theorists, they have also been labeled as neo-evolutionists. Later, Marshall D.
Sahlins and Elman Service attempted a synthesis of the theories of evolution
(particularly the theories of Julian Steward and Leslie White’s) by developing
the concept of ‘specific’ and ‘general’ evolution. The main claim of these theories
was that evolution moved simultaneously in two directions in both the biological
and cultural aspects. This evolutionary process then led to progress and made
new ones emerge out of the old ones. They considered these two processes as
interconnected in its totality.

14.6.2 Cyclical Theories

Cyclical theories have been concerned with the repetitious change of conditions,
events, forms and/or fashions over a long period of time, although the period of
recurrent phases (cycles) of change would vary. The cyclical theorists believe
that societies pass through a series of stages. However, they do not consider the
notion of ending in a stage of perfection but see them as a return to the stage
where it began for further round in a cyclical manner. Some of the eminent
contributors include A.L.Kroeber, Oswald Spengler, Pitirim Sorokin, Arnold
Toynbee, and Vilfredo Pareto.

14.6.3 Structural-functional and Conflict Theories

The structural-functional and conflict theories are generally concerned with micro
and middle range theories of social change. The structural-functionalists assume
174 that society, like the human body, is a balanced system of institutions, each of
which performs a function in maintaining society. They consider ‘change’ as a Social Control and Change
constant that requires no explanation. They hold that changes disrupt the
equilibrium of a society, until the change has been integrated into the culture.
Societies accept and adopt those changes that are found useful (functional),
while they reject changes that are useless (dysfunctional).

Conflict theories are closely related to structural-functional theories of change.

They have no specific theory per se of change. The conflict theorists believe
that societies progress to a higher order when the oppressed groups improve
their conditions of life. They do not however assume that societies smoothly
evolve from lower to higher levels. They consider conflict as a constant and
necessary factor to bring about social change. They view social change as the
result of social conflict, but not as constant. As conflict continuous, so is also
change.

14.7 SYNTHESIS OF SOCIAL CHANGE THEORIES

Most theorists today integrate the various ideas and theories of social change
that have been discussed above. There is a general agreement, however, that
societies change because of various factors conditioned on the society. These
factors could be both within and without the society and/or planned and
unplanned. Many theorists do believe that changes in societies are not necessarily
good or bad. They opine that although a stable society is usually better than a
chaotic and conflict-ridden society, stability would sometimes imply exploitation,
oppression, and injustice. In such situation of injustice and oppression, conflict
is bound to take place and the society will be forced to change.

14.8 FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change is brought about by various factors. These factors are mainly
responsible for the differences in the rate and nature of change in different
societies and at different times. They may be broadly classified into the following
categories —
i) Biological factors
ii) Geographic factors
iii) Technological factors
iv) Socio-cultural factors

14.8.1 Biological Factors

Biological factors may be further classified into two types : Non-human biological
factors, and Human biological factors. The non-human biological factors include
plants and animals. They affect the lives of the people in varied ways. Human
beings need plants and animals for survival, be it for food, cloth, medicine and
other purposes in many different ways as defined by one’s culture. Man also
needs plants and animals indirectly for availing oxygen and other utilities through
many processes. Transformations of the environment may bring about changes
in livelihood, food habits and related social aspects. Human biological factors
affect social change in two main ways- the genetic character of a given population,
and the quantity, density and composition of population. Population change,
175
Basic Concepts unlike genetic factor, is considered to be one of the most important factors of
social change. Growth in population and also it s composition have been affecting
various aspects of socio-cultural lives. Migration brings about further change
by creating a new environment setting after the contact of two or more alien
peoples and cultures with that brings about numerous new problems. Migration
could also affect the processes of acculturation, cultural diffusion and/or social
conflict.

14.8.2 Geographic Factors

Geographic changes have been significant factors of social change. There are
several instances where social changes have been brought about by geographic
factors. Natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods can cause both
environmental and social changes. Often when land and resources are lost in
such mishaps there is deepening of social inequalities as most of the burden
falls on the marginal people. Ecological change is also a major source of social
change in the modern times. Many ecological changes have been induced by
human beings. Over population of a region, overexploitation of a region/border
area due to social and political conflict, deforestation, construction of large dams,
among others, for one reason or another have caused enormous social and
ecological problems in the contemporary world which are found to be even
greater factors of social change than migrations and disasters.

14.8.3 Technological Factors

Technology has been considered as one of the important factors of social change.
This is quite true particularly in the context of the contemporary World. This is
for the fact that variation in technology affects social organization and/or structure
of a society in a significant way. The use of mass media and rapid transfer of
information through the internet and the revolution in communication technology
has changed the face of the world. However this has often resulted in the dominant
cultures such as American culture making its impact worldwide. People have
began to wear western clothes and eat popular junk food all over the world. At
the same time, the magnitude and the rate of change could differ from one period
and situation to another depending on the availability and use of technology.
While modern technology has been a great boon to man, there are also the other
dark side of it. This is mainly due to change of the old ways of life and systems,
destructive nature of the technologies being designed or misuse of technologies
for destructive ends.

14.8.4 Socio-cultural Factors

Socio-cultural factors have been the most important causal factors of social
change. Humans are the most important player of social change. As society is a
human creation so also humans are primarily responsible fo rchanging their
own creation. Social change has been caused by various human activities in the
form of discovery, invention, diffusion, social movements, and so on. Change is
also caused by the attitudes and values of the people toward innovation in a
society. Some people are more conservative and resistant to change while others
are more open to transformation. Change is however viewed as inevitable and
natural by most people.

176
Societies located at world crossroads areas of greatest intercultural contact have Social Control and Change
always been centres of change. On the other hand, isolated areas are generally
centres of stability, conservatism, and resistance of change. Ethnographic
evidences show that the most primitive tribes have been found among the most
isolated communities. Discoveries and inventions have contributed much to the
process of social change. This truth is increasingly realised in modern times
after the introduction of modern technological know-how.

Diffusion, the process of the spread of culture from group to group, has been
considered as one of the main causes of social change. Diffusion takes place
within societies and between societies through contact. This is why the process
of diffusion becomes difficult to penetrate in a situation of isolation. Jazz, which
was originated among black musicians of New Orleans diffused to other groups
within the society, and then later spread to other societies as well and to different
parts of the world.

Social movement is certainly one of the most important factors of social change.
We can understand social movement into two different forms- one, those
movements organised to create some new social forms that are usually radical
and liberal in nature; and two, those movements concerned with maintaining or
recreating older social forms that are generally conservative or reactionary.
However, in both these cases, social change will depend much on the success of
the movements and the impact it could cause to the society.

Again, the amount of success of a social movement aimed at creating new social
forms will depend on several inter-related factors, such as, the bearing and
relevance of the goals and objectives of the movement to the people concerned,
quality of leadership it provides, the art of strategy, the ability to incorporate
influential persons and sections of the society, and the extent to which vested
interests, counter forces and hurdles are successfully tackled.

Revolutionary movement may be considered as a kind of social movement.

Revolutionary movements also cause social change. The French Revolution of
1789 witnessed the rise of French democracy, rise of modern civilian army, and
was a great eye-opener and model for many peoples in different parts of the
world who are struggling for liberation and justice. The Russian Revolution is
also another example of revolutionary change that brought an end to monarchical
government and class stratification in Russia.

14.9 IMPACT OF SOCIAL CHANGE

The impact of social change on human society has been a major concern for
social scientists, particularly, sociologists. Sociologists are concerned with the
impacton the group more than on the individual. The opinion of sociologist
about social change differs according to the schooltowhich they belong.

There are many sociologists who believe that industrial society alienates
individuals from one another because of the nature of the work. Karl Marx was
one of the thinkers which believed that the move from agrarian to industrial
societies would alienate people from their labour and therefore from their real
selves. This, he felt, was inevitable because the goods produced would be owned
by the factory owner, and not the worker. There are also other sociologists who
177
Basic Concepts think that industrial society would affect human society. Ferdinand Tonnies and
Max Weber, among others, may be cited as those sociologists who subscribed to
the idea that industrial society would affect human relationships, albeit in different
ways. While the former believed that industrialization and urbanization isolated
people and had negative impact on social relationships the latter believed that
people will become more rational and practical.

There are few sociologists, such as Emile Durkheim who felt that complex
industrial societies have positive effect on human relationships by virtue of the
division of labour after specializations among other attributes that promote
interdependence and integration of society. But he had also talked about anomie
and break down of social relationships.

Sociologists today realise that industrial society has disintegrated traditional

family and community systems and has led to increasing cases of broken families
and divorce. The rise of individualism and more liberal views have also been
viewed as ushering in a more liberal and humane society. Sociologists are also
aware that modern socialisations and life styles encourage individuals to behave
in a way that would be compatible with industrial life and specialised professions.
The media also plays immense role in influencing the individuals to emulate
and adapt to the lifestyles of the middle class.

The introduction of modern know-how and technology has also caused great
problems and anxiety to human life and the environment. The heavy use of
automobiles and fuels causes massive pollution and hazardous emissions. It
also pollutes and damages the physical environment that man depends for
survival. The acute demand for fuel and the means to meet the demand have
often led to conflicts between communities and states even to the extent of war.
The invention and use of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction
have caused great concern to humanity. At the same time humans are forming
bonds across the world and we have now the concept of the Global Village.
Thus change works both ways and the future is always unpredictable.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Discuss various approaches to understand social change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Explain the factors for social change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
178
3) Discuss the impact of social change on human society. Social Control and Change

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

14.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have explained the meaning and concept of social control and
social change. We have discussed how social control is a necessary component
of social order to maintain the relationship among individuals in the society
through various mechanisms. We have also explained the various aspects and
approaches to understand social change through evolutionary theories, cyclical
theories, structural-functional and conflict theories. Various factors for social
change and their impact on society and individual have also been discussed.

14.11 REFERENCES
Childe, V. Gordon. (1942). What Happened in History. Middlesex: Penguin
Books.
Comte, Auguste. (1974). The Positive Philosophy. New York: AMS Press.
Durkheim, Emile. 1947 (1893). The Division of Labour in Society. New York:
The Free Press.
Kroeber, A.L. 1958. Style and Civilizations. New York: Cornell University Press.
Marx, Karl. 1946 (1867). Capital. Ed. Frederick Engels. London: George Allen
and Unwin.
Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1963 (1877). Ancient Society. Cleveland and New York:
The World Publishing Company.
Pareto, Vilfredo. (1935). The Mind and Society. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Sahlins, Marshall D. and Elman R. Service. 1960 (eds.). Evolution and Culture.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Sorokin, Pitirim. (1957). Social and Cultural Dynamics: A Study of Change in
Major Systems of Art, Truth, Ethics, Law, and Social Relationships. Boston:
Porter Sargent.
Spencer, Herbert. (1898). The Principles of Sociology. 3 vols. New York: D.
Appleton & Co.
Spengler, Oswald. 1962 (1918). The Decline of the West. New York: Knopf.
Steward, Julian H. (1963). Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of
Multilinear Evolution. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Toynbee, Arnold. 1946 (1934). Study of History. New York: Oxford University
Press. 179
Basic Concepts Tylor, Edward B. (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development
of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Customs. London: J.
Murray.
Weber, Max. (1958). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Trans.
Talcott Parsons. New York: Scribner’s.
White, Leslie A. 1959. The Evolution of Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill.

180