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ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING IN THE EAST

REGION OF CAMEROON: AN OVERVIEW

Written By Forjindam Denison Mundi

Ph.D, Senior Lecturer, University of Douala, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Douala,
Cameroon

ABSTRACT

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) has been widespread throughout the world for over
2000 years, and today features heavily in the rural economy of many developing countries.i
like Cameroon. The interests of the country and the community demand that all forms of
mining, whether large, small or artisanal, should be subject to the same requirements in respect
of licensing, safety, health and the environment. Since 2001, Cameroon has engaged a series
of mining sector reforms aimed at attracting foreign investments as a way to maximize
government revenue streams that will contribute to development and poverty reduction. Beside
the promotion of industrial mining projects, artisanal mining has been an important activity for
thousands of people in the East region of Cameroon for a very long time but has not resulted
in significant improvement in the economic and social situation of those involved.ii In other
words, the East region is rich in resources but under-developed, poor times and landlocked in
certain districts.iii The methodology involves a single region study focused on the overview of
artisanal mining and remarks of the ministry and support organisations, national laws and
regulations relating to ‘ASM’ in the East region. This research work covers the latest
developments in terms of the institutional and regulatory frameworks for ‘ASM’ in Cameroon.
The research concludes with the identification of the current opportunities and challenges of
‘ASM’ as well as a way forward that research works on this area should work.

Therefore this paper focuses specifically on an overview of artisanal and small-scale mining in
the East region of Cameroon with much emphasis on the extraction of gold and diamond.

Keywords: Artisanal mining, mining, small-scale mining, gold, diamond, mineral resources,
Bertua, East region and Cameroon.

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INTRODUCTION

Artisanal mining is a nature-dependent activity that has evolved differently due to national
differences in governance and legal systems, as well as the presence or absence of political will
to promote the sector. iv There are diverse definitions of different types of ASM. So far, artisanal
mining broadly refers to mining by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal
mechanization, often in the informal (illegal) sector of the market. v Definitions are shaped by
stakeholders ‘perspectives and vary from country to country. vi However, many authorities used
the terms “artisanal mining” and “small-scale mining” interchangeably likewise in this paper.
It is no gain saying the fact that ‘ASM’ has been playing a crucial role in poverty alleviation
and rural development. Government participation in the development of its natural resources
is of utmost importance particularly its mining sector. This has further reaffirmed the principle
of permanent sovereignty of States over their natural resources. Therefore, permanent
sovereignty of States over their natural resources is an inherent and inalienable right. vii

It will be ironical to say that petroleum sector almost literally caused the demise of the solid
mineral sector. This is adjudged from the revenue accruing to the Cameroonian Government
from crude oil sales which in 1985 production of crude oil reached a record level of 186,000
barrels/day.viii However, the sector is perhaps better known for its high environmental cost and
poor health and safety record. Many continue to view it as dirty, unprofitable and
fundamentally unsustainable. The artisanal mining sector was organised even before national
independence, contributing up to 20% of the economy. Artisanal mining can be traced some
decades back ago essentially concentrating in some localities in the East region of Cameroon.
Artisanal mining (diamond and gold) activities continues in the area unabated till today. After
independence, the activity continued but was hindered by smuggling and by exploitation of
ix
local actors. Numerous artisanal gold mining sites are known. (producing around 1500
kg/year), but it appears that no modern exploration methods have been used to locate
Cameroon’s primary gold potential. x
The resources mined in Cameroon are limited, with
annual artisanal production of around 45 000 oz/year of gold and 12 000 ct of diamonds, as
well as various building materials.xi However, in recent years, there has been a revamping and
reorganising of the mining sector. The government is currently examining the assistance it
gives to the artisanal mining sector with the recent birth of the Support Framework and
Promotion of Artisanal Mining (CAPAM),xii and today SONAMINES. Article 18 states that
the state shall transfer to SONMAINES for ownership or use, depending on the legal status of

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the property, assets as well as the property of the defunct Mining, Handicrafts Support and
Promotion Framework (CAPAM),comprising built-on or non-built on estates, according to
xiii
types or use. Cameroon has a strong geographical potential for a number of mineral
resources that, if well managed, could support economic growth.

Cameroon diamond and gold is mainly mined by small-scale artisans. In fact, according to the
government, the estimate of small-scale artisanal mining produced about 16,653 kgs of gold
between 2010 and 2015. xiv

CONCEPT OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING ‘ASM’

For the sake of clarity, the concept of small-scale and artisanal mining needs to be defined.
Generally speaking, artisanal and small-scale-mining refers to mining by individuals, groups,
families or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanisation, often in the informal (illegal) sector
of the market. Pursuant to the code, small-scale mining is defined as any permanent small-scale
mining projects based on proven existence of a deposit, using standard rules, semi-industrial
or industrial processes, and whose annual production does not exceed a certain tonnage of the
marketable product in the form of mineral ore, concentrate, or metal, as laid down by regulation
for each substance.xv Despite many attempts, a common definition of ‘ASM’ is yet to be
established. For others, there is no generally agreed definition of the term ‘small-scale mining-
although it is often defined with regard to mine’s output, capital investment, numbers employed
or managerial structure. Small-scale mining is a relative term; thus the choice of limiting
criteria to distinguish between small and large-scale mining (such as production rate, capital
and labour employed) will differ from commodity to commodity and from country to country.
By artisanal mining, it is meant, small-scale mining involving the extraction of minerals with
the simplest of tools, on a subsistence level. In some countries, a distinction is made between
‘artisanal mining’ that is purely manual and on a very small-scale, and ‘small-scale mining’
that is more mechanised and on a large scale. Nevertheless, the terms ‘artisanal and small-scale
mining’ will be used interchangeably.

With many countries with large mining industries, both small and large exploration and mining
companies compete aggressively and successfully side by side. This allows for the exploitation
of small (low capital) projects and provides opportunities for more entrepreneurial operators.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EAST REGION: A REGION

SPECIALISED IN ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE MINING
The East region occupies the south eastern portion of the republic of Cameroon. It is bordered
to the east by the Central African Republic, to the south by Congo, to the north by the Adamawa
region, and to the west by the central and south regions with 109,002 km2 of territory, it is the
largest region in the nation as well as the most sparsely populated. Historically, the peoples of
the east have been settled in Cameroonian territory for longer than any other of the country’s
many ethnic groups, the inhabitants being the Baka (or Babinga) pygmies. xvi
It is made up of four (4) divisions i.e. the Boumba-et-Ngoko, Haut-Nyong, Kadey and Lom-et
Djerem with Bertua as a regional capital.
The soil of the east is predominately ferrallitic,xvii rich with iron and red in colour. The southern
three quarters of the region consists of metamorphic rock such as gneiss, schist, mica and
migmatite. Starting at about the level of Bertua and going north, however, granite becomes the
dominant soil component.xviii While the region supports an abundance of plant life, it is not
particularly fertile due to leaching caused by the humid environment. Eastern dirt hardens
quickly in the sun, and it is often used as a building material by poorer inhabitants.
About the relief, almost the entire territory of the East region lies on the South Cameroon
Plateau that forms the south eastern half of the country. The elevation thus varies between 500
and 1000 metres above sea level except for lower-lying plains of 200 to 500 metres in the
extreme south-east centered on the Dja, Boumba, Sangha and Ngoko River.xix The land consist
largely of monotonous, gently undulating hills known as “half-oranges due to their resemblance
to that fruit.
Concerning the Plants and animal life, approximately the lower two thirds of the region is
covered in rain forest, which grows progressively thicker as one travels south. The forests are
composed of hardwood evergreens species such as dibetu, ebony, iroko, mahogany, obeche,
and sapelli, some which grow to heights of 70 metres or more. The upper third of the region
(beginning at about the latitude of Bertua and Batouri) is dominated by humid, wooden Savana.
Trees here are sparser, may still may grow to be come as tall as 20 metres.
Animal life is abundant and diverse. The forests are inhabited by numerous species of monkey,
as well as some of the last populations of gorillas and chimpanzees in Cameroon.

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REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR ARTISANAL SMALL-SCALE

MINING IN CAMEROON
The law governing the mining sector in Cameroon is law No 2016 of 14 December, 2016
instituting the mining code. According to the Code, any natural or legal persons may undertake
or carry out an activity governed by this law on State public land or State private land, national
land or private individual land. xx Also only legal persons under Cameroonian law operating
in the mining sector shall be granted a mining title.xxi The Ministry of Mines, Industry and
Technological Development (MIMTD) is responsible for the issuance of mineral exploration
licenses. The institute for Geological Research (IRGM) under the MIMTD is the agency
responsible for all Geologic and mining activities (including conducting geologic exploration
programs, mechanized drilling operations, overseeing the mining of mineral deposits and
preventing unauthorized exploitation of mines and quarries) in the Cameroon.

a. Exploration Permit Specific to Small-Scale Mining

An exploration permit is a legal instrument that gives the holder the exclusive right to conduct
exploration works within the perimeter of the permit. xxii

The exploration permit shall be issued to a legal person under Cameroonian law by the Minister
in charge of mines,xxiii for the purpose of conducting exploration works to locate and evaluate
mineral deposits and to determine conditions for the commercial mining thereof.xxiv As for
small-scale mining permits, it shall be issued by the Minister in charge of mines. xxv A small-
scale mining permit shall confer on its holder the right to extract mineral substances from the
soil or subsoil, by any standard process or method, to obtain the useful substances therefrom.xxvi
The small-scale mining permit shall be granted for an initial period of 5 (five) years, renewable
for periods of 3 (three) years. xxvii

The area for which a small-scale mining permit is granted shall be determined on the basis of
the mineral deposit that a feasibility study had earmarked for miningxxviii and the surface area
for which the permit referred to in section 52 (1) above is granted shall consist of a single
polygonal block wholly contained within the exploration permit on the basis of which the
small-scale mining permit is issued.xxix So, a small-scale mining permit holder shall be required
to start mining and developing the deposit within a period not exceeding 2 (two) years, with
effect from the date of notification of the permit, failing which the permit may be withdrawn
after a formal notice served remains unheeded, xxx without prejudice to other penalties provided

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for in this law. xxxi Moreover, Small-scale mining permit holders shall be entitled to exclusive
occupancy for mining purposes and any other related operations, and to dispose of only mineral
ores specified in the mining permit.xxxii

Pursuant to the code, the State shall hold 10% (ten per cent) of the total share capital of the
small-scale mining company, and as resource owner, the State shall be entitled to the said
shares free-of-charge and without any encumbrances. Shares held by the State shall not be
xxxiii
subject to dilution in the event of share capital increase. It should be understood that the
holder of an individual non-industrial miner’s card may, at any time, mark out one or several
non-industrial mining perimeters, in accordance with the provisions of this law and the
conditions laid down by regulation. xxxiv

It is clear that the issuance of artisanal mining licences in Cameroon is within the competence
of the regional and sub divisional delegates in charge of mines for the region concerned who
awards the artisanal mining permit in Cameroon. Among the many artisanal mining sites
located in the region, only one of the owners of the permits was operational and accepted to be
interviewed. He reported he had spent over XAF 1.800,000 to obtain the permit. Due to
administrative bottlenecks and corruption, obtaining a permit entails much money and time,
which artisanal miners do not possess. xxxv

b. Mining Agreement

A mining agreement shall be signed between an exploration permit holder and the State with a
xxxvi
view to developing and mining or financing a new mineral deposit, and the mining
agreement shall be signed on behalf of the State by the minister in charge of mines and on
xxxvii
behalf of other parties to the agreement by their legal representatives. The mining
agreement referred to in section 44 (1) shall be drafted according to a standard format approved
by regulation. xxxviii The duration of the mining agreement shall correspond to that of the mining
title. xxxix

The mining agreement shall be established on the basis of an exploration permit application
deemed admissible. The mining agreement shall be signed before the granting of a small-scale
or industrial mining permit and shall take effect from the date of notification of the permit. xl
The signing of the mining agreement referred to in section 45 (1) shall be subject to

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classification and certification of the reserves of the mineral substances to be extracted and the
mining agreement shall not go contrary to the provisions of this law. xli

c. Mining Permit

A mining permit is a legal document that confers on the holder the exclusive right to conduct
mining operations within the perimeter of the permit. xlii

As part of the exploration referred to in section 46 (1) of this code, where a mineral substance
other than that for which the mining permit was granted is discovered, the permit holder shall
enjoy the preferential right to mine it. The preferential right period shall not exceed 18
(eighteen) months with effect from the date of notification of the discovery to the State. xliii

Where necessary a small-scale or industrial mining permit holder may request from the minister
in charge of mines for a change in the originally approved work programme, under the terms
and conditions laid down by regulation. xliv

A small-scale or industrial mining permit holder who undertakes to build a processing plant for
all or part of the mining production may benefit from special incentives. xlv Small-scale or
industrial mining permit holders shall submit progress reports in hard and soft copies to the
minister in charge of mines, under the terms and conditions laid down by regulation. xlvi

d. Leadership of a Camp
The leader of a camp called “chef de chantier” is generally the person who discovered the
deposit. Discovery is through prospection. Usually discovery is done by hunters who already
work in an existing mine.xlvii People move from either a forest farm settlement or an existing
camp to the areas around the river courses and swamps and bore shallow prospection holes at
the periphery of the settlements. The gravel is washed and production reveals a promising
deposit or not. If the results are promising, a deeper hole is dug to confirm the previous results
obtained. Once affirmed as being a good deposit, a camp is set up a few meters from the mine,
generally on a slope. Trees are cleared and felled around the settlement to allow for better
sunlight. The discoverer of a deposit is the natural head of the camp and he outlines his working
and settlement principles. He designates an assistant who is either a close family member or a
trusted friend. xlviii The first inhabitants of a camp are the “chef de chantier” and his immediate
family; other relatives and friends then follow. The growth in the population of a camp depends
on gold production. If production is good, many more people, both miners and businessmen,

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will rush in to get a share in a short period of time. Information will spread about the mine
locally as miners work there and go back to the village for supplies. Artisanal miners do not
have prospector cards as required by the 2016 code. This is but very clear that they are working
clandestinely even the collectors since they are not legally recognized. xlix

Pursuant to the code, the small-scale permit shall confer on the holder a movable real right on
the substance and an immovable real right within the perimeter during the period of the permit,
such rights shall be open to farm out and may be pledged and mortgaged respectively.l

e. Organisation of Artisanal Mining in the East Region of Cameroon

Artisanal mining has a traditional classification which is headed by the Village chief, who is
almost like the head of the mining field. li The hierarchy is as follows: The field leader is in
charge of partitioning the fields allocated to mining. He may play the role of a trainer to
beginners in the mine. He normally receives a percentage of the income allotted to miners.
Then, the pit leader who is in charge of allocating the space called a pit. He often works with
his family members like his brothers, women and children. Lastly, we have simple diggers who
can be hired by the leader of the pit.lii In most cases, children learned artisanal mining from
their parents who were former diggers.

f. Mode of Exploitation/Process
Artisanal and small-scale mining are mining activities that use rudimentary methods to extract
and process minerals and metals on a small scale. Artisanal gold miners often use the simple
method of “panning” for gold: using a pan to scoop silt and sand from a river bottom, and sift
through it for bits containing gold. Often miners combine mercury (see the section on “Risks”)
with silt that contains gold, to form a hardened amalgam that has collected most of the gold
metal from the silt. The amalgam is later heated with blowtorches or over an open flame to
evaporate the mercury, leaving small gold pieces.

g. Marketing of Mineral Products

Our focus here is basically about places and moments of periodic exchange of supplies and
other materials in the region. Those in the market agree on the fact that the collectors carry out
transactions among themselves or with miners behind the counters.liii In Gbiti for instance, the

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market that holds every Wednesday witnesses a massive affluence of people from all the
eastern villages and most especially, neighbourly Central African townships.
Although these markets are special days for the trade in diamond, (Thursday in Boubara and
Friday in Toktoyo), these exchanges are done out of people’s sight, behind the counters or in
houses. It is almost impossible to know the rate of transactions unless one is initiated into it.
Generally, the “Centro” (Central Africans) sell their minerals with primary aim of buying food
stuffs. It is very clear that the methods and instruments of diamond evaluation does not favour
miners in the east region.

Among the biggest of these markets is that of Gbiti. Here most of the market products from
Toktoyo and Boubara are sold.liv This is therefore the turntable of the trade in diamond in the
region. Its operations are done behind counters as said before. Let’s not forget that most of the
collectors who are also traders know enough on diamond and enjoy a consistent investment
capacity. Some of them have been in the region for more than twenty years and may be
foreigners. It is important to note here that most of the dealers in the markets are Mauritanians
and Malians.lv

Collectors often offer higher prices compared to those offered by CAPAM. The state-owned
lvi
institution CAPAM fixes the official price of gold to be received by artisanal miners.
Hopefully, with the creation of SONAMINES, prices will be fixed taking into consideration
the carat of the gold, the price on the world market in dollars, and the percentage lost at
smelting. At this point in time, miners generally do not have any bargaining power. In this
light, much is expected of newly created SONAMINES.

Indeed, collectors often offer higher prices compared to those offered by CAPAM. Miners
generally do not have any bargaining power. It is generally a must-take price from both
collectors and CAPAM.lvii As we speak, the price of gold has tremendously increased within
the last 10 years – from XAF 4500 per gram in 2003, to XAF 17,000 in 2013, which is an
increase of 377%. All miners said the situation is better today than before, with the exception
of too many price fluctuations. All miners reported that they did not pay taxes. CAPAM pays
taxes together with other supplementary purchase charges. CAPAM pays 3% of the value of
the gold it purchases as taxes, as stipulated by the legislation in place. The 3% is shared as

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follows: 50% to the public treasury, 15% to the local council, 10% to the local residents and
25% for the follow-up commission. lviii

h. The Exportation of Diamond from Cameroonian Territory

It could be capable to identify where diamond circulating in the east region and Kadey in
particular was from. It is left to know where the diamond in question goes to, from the Gbiti
market which is the main diamond exchange pool.

First and foremost, we heard about main collectors and we managed to meet a few of them.
They are based in Batouri, Gbiti and Boubara etc. Their work is to buy the diamond in great
quantities. They receive the minerals from less influential collectors. But still, how does the
diamond leave Cameroon?

The natives here used the term “smugglers”. “Smugglers” are people who may be foreigners
who come and buy from the main collectors or at the diamond exchange zones. They buy it in
large quantities for export.

These people are clandestine who go against the laws that have been put in place. They pay no
taxes; neither do they have any authorisation to export. Although this could not be verified, it
seemed logical to see how involved the purchase office was in this trade. The main purchase
office is in Mandjou (Bertoua), owned by Mr Alhadji Djibo. To him, selling gold is more
profitable; given that its supply is reliable in Cameroon and the world prices are available on
the Internet. This is also because all diamond cannot leave Cameroon through a lone exit. It is
believed there are “smugglers” based in Yaounde and Douala who often buy minerals. Other
purchase offices do probably exist. In any case, our interviewees gave us a deaf ear, which
was a strategy to deny the existence of exportation from Cameroon. How can traceability be
implemented when the ancient exit points are not yet known? lix

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MAIN INSTITUTIONS GOVERNING ARTISANAL AND SMALL-

SCALE MINING
The mining sector has evolved over the years. Not only has the national government been
developing laws and regulations, but regional and international organisations have also exerted
influence. Let’s commence here with the national initiative.

National Initiative

a. The Ministry of Mines, Industries and Technological Development (MINMIDT)

Pursuant to Presidential decree No 2012/432 of 1 October 2012, the ministry of mines,

industries and technological development is in charge of the elaboration and implementation
of the government’s mining and industrial policy and technological development.lx

According to Decree No 2012/432 of October 1, 2012 reorganised the Ministry of Mines,

lxi
Industries and Technological Development (MINMIDT), which develops and implements
industrial and mining policy. The MINMIDT’s National Brigade for the Control of Mining
Activities [Brigade Nationale de Controle des Activities Minieres] is responsible for enforcing
mining regulations and monitoring logging activities, mineral exploration and mining
activities, and the activities of springs and mineral water companies. The MINMIDT’s
Department of Mines (Division Direction des Mines) includes the sub-directorate of Mining
Activities Division of Mining Activities, the Directorate of hydrocarbons (Sous direction des
hydrocarbures), and the Directorate of Mining Registry, and the (sous direction de Cadastre
Minier). The Department of Geology (Direction de la geologie) includes the Division of
Geologic Prospecting and the (Sous Direction de la Prospection Geologique) and the Division
of geological Mapping and Natural Hazards, (Sous-Direction de la Cartographie geologique et
des risques naturels). The Department of Industry (Direction de l’Industrie includes the
Division of Local Transformation (Sous Direction de la Transformation Locale), which is
responsible for policies and programs for the local processing of mineral production.

b. Support Framework and Promotion of Artisanal Mining (CAPAM)

CAPAM was created in 2003 and today The National Mining Company (SONAMINES) since
14th December, 2020. It was responsible for supporting artisanal miners and promoting the
development of informal gold….sand and gravel, and sapphire mining operations into more

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formal ventures such as mining cooperatives or more mechanized operations. lxii In Cameroon,
traditional administrative structures have controlled the small-scale mining sector post-
independence. Over the course of time, large number of difficulties led to a drastic reduction
in the sector’s contribution to national income.

c. The National Mining Company (SONAMINES)

The Cameroon National Mining Company (SONAMINES) was created on the 14th December,
lxiii
2020 through a Presidential Decree signed by the Head of State. It was created to replace
lxiv
CAPAM. This new establishment will henceforth develop and promote the mining sector
in Cameroon. Decree No 2020/750 of 14 December 2020 went further to approve the articles
of association of the National Mining Corporation and Decree No 2020/749 of 14 December
2020 to set up the National Mining Corporation.lxv

According to the Decree, SONAMINES is a public company with the State as its sole
shareholder. However, the Decree states that, the shareholding of SONAMINES may be open
to other public or private entities. The capital and the conditions for participation in the
shareholding of the public company will be set out in the statutes.

The Decree defines the SONAMINES mission which is to develop and promote the mining
sector and to manage the State’s interests in this field. lxvi

In collaboration with other administrations and competent bodies, the new company will carry
out mineral substances, exploration and exploitation activities and ensure the implementation
of measures relating to the restoration, rehabilitation, and closure of mining exploitation sets.
Also, SONAMINES will take shareholdings (in sites and companies operating in the field of
exploration, exploitation, marketing, treatment, and processing of mineral substances) through
contributions, orders, subscriptions, purchase of securities etc.lxvii Placed under the supervision
of the Ministry of mines, the company is being created amidst chaos in the country’s mining
sector. Indeed, according to the Artisan Mining Support and Promotion Framework (CAPAM),
the Cameroon Public Treasure loses about one billion CFAF every month due to the
concealment of resources produced by mining companies. Again, according to the Ministry of
Mines, only 40% of Cameroon’s mining potential is known to the public authorities.lxviii The
Mining Crafts Support and Promotion Framework (CAPAM) shall ceases its activities sis (6)
months after the effective start of those of SONAMIES.lxix

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Relevant International Organisations

a. The International Labour Organization (ILO)’s Convention on Safety and Health in
Mines, 1995 (No. 176)
This Conventionlxx provides minimum safety standards against which all changes to mine
operations should be measured. This convention applies to all mines. lxxi The Convention sets
out procedures for reporting and investigating accidents and dangerous occurrences in mines.
Governments that ratify it undertake to adopt legislation for its implementation, including the
designation of a competent authority empowered to monitor and regulate safety and health in
mines. Guidelines can be found in the ILO’s Code of Practice on Safety and Health in Open
Cast Mines.lxxii As of the end of 2015, 31 nations have ratified the Convention. lxxiii Of course
ratifying the convention is optional, many prominent mining nations (including those notorious
for mining incidents) have chosen not to participate.

b. Community Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (CASM)

The mission to promote the small-scale mining sector are more pronounced in the western,
eastern and southern parts of Africa. An example of such an initiative is the Community
Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (CASM) initiative under the auspices of the World Bank.
CASM increases networking, information exchange and best practices sharing among ASM
stakeholders and plays a coordination role between ASM assistance projects and donor
funding.lxxiv

c. The Kimberley Process

The Kimberley Process was initiated by African diamond-producing countries in May 2000 to
develop an international certification scheme for rough diamonds to prevent “conflict
diamonds” from entering legitimate markets. lxxv
This process was supported by the World
Diamond Council and the United Nations, and implemented by a UN General Assembly vote
in 2003. The certification process follows each diamond from mine through every transfer of
ownership to retail sale. The process is supported by a broad range of international stakeholders
in the diamond trade, including government officials, industry representatives and non-
governmental organisations. Participants officially launched the Kimberley Process
Certification Scheme (KPCS) on January 1, 2003. Participants are required to export rough
diamonds in tamper resistant containers and provide certificates validating that the contents are
conflict-free. Participants are also prohibited from importing/exporting rough diamonds

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from/to countries that are not implementing the KPCS. The process aims to reduce the use of
diamonds to fund armed conflict, rebel activities, government overthrows and the arms trade.
lxxvi
It should be noted that Cameroon is a member Kimberley Process.

d. Extractive Industries Transparency International (EITI)

Extractive Industries Transparency International (EITI) founded in 2002 encourages
governments to disclose their revenues from oil, gas and mining operations, verified by reports
of company payments to governments. EITI starts by gaining consent from host governments
for reporting their revenues and the payments by companies. Most of the consenting countries
have called for disclosure of aggregate company payments across all reporting companies. lxxvii
This method meets the primary purpose of transparency initiatives, to ensure that governments
use their revenues to benefit their citizens. It is worth emphasising that the implementation of
EITI in Cameroon affects only oil. A key problem is non-respect of the obligation to account
for all payments made by the private enterprises that exploit the natural resources.
The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) aims to remedy such poor governance
by applying six guiding principles:

1. All payments into government coffers from oil, gas and mining exploitation, and all revenue
received by the government from enterprises in the extractive industries sector, are regularly
communicated to the general public in an accessible and explicit form.
2. In the absence of government auditing of payments and revenue, a reliable independent audit
is requested in conformity with international norms.
3. Payments and revenue are reconciled by a reliable independent administrator, who expresses
his opinion on the conciliation of figures (or the discordance).
4. The approach extends to all enterprises, including State corporations.
5. Civil society takes an active part in designing, monitoring and assessing this process and
contributes to the public debate.
6. The government and all contracting parties elaborate a financially viable work schedule with
the help of international financial institutions. The schedule is accompanied by measurable
targets, an implementation schedule and an evaluation of potential constraints. lxxviii

Small-scale mines are testimonies for the existence of mineral resources, often pioneering
alluvial production close to primary sources that later become industrial discoveries. The small-

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scale mining operations are also appropriate activities for marginal deposits, where industrial
exploitation might not be economically feasible. lxxix
During the past 10–15 years, governments and donor organisations have implemented an array
of technology, support-related, sustainable-livelihood and poverty-reduction projects for ASM.
lxxx.

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES IN THE ARTISANAL AND

SMALL-SCALE MINING SECTOR IN THE EAST REGION

1. Opportunities of Artisanal Mining In The East Region

a. Job/Employment Creation
Artisanal mining is an attractive employment option for many in the East region of Cameroon;
the barriers to entry are minimal (low technology and little capital is needed) and activity levels
are dynamic because precious minerals often rise in value during periods of economic crisis.
So to speak, ‘ASM’ offers job opportunities for people of the East region and beyond at
different stages of the process. lxxxi The marginalised population of the East region in particular
benefits from jobs created by ‘ASM’ and this gives them hope for a better future. For instance,
in Cameroon 20 000 – 30. 000 employment opportunities with plans for 60 000 due to
lxxxii
implementation of CAPAM. These employment opportunities allow several million
Africans to earn money, obtain healthcare, create a better home environment and provide and
provide education for their children.

Also, there is the potential for local businesses and individuals to profit from the presence of
the mining project. Many sectors like catering, hotels, supply of materials, and security could
have an increase in business related to the mining project. These businesses could also serve
as partners, or as subcontractors in a mining project.

In fact, artisanal mining employ about ten times as many people, typically workers who are not
eligible for employment in industrial mining due to a lack of formal education and experience.
Furthermore, small miners’ earnings tend to be spent locally or sent as remittances to other
poor communities, supporting sustainable economic growth in local communities. Bringing

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ASGM into the formal economy through legalisation benefits governments in that they reduce
illicit financial transactions, collect taxes, and often see a subsequent reduction in crime in
these regions. lxxxiii

b. Financing and Revenue

The State will collect much revenue from the mining companies, such as fees, land royalty,
Ad Valorum tax, extraction tax, and others. This income will be paid to the public treasury,
and if correctly used, will improve the economy of the country, region, council and local
communities around the project. In Cameroon, solid mining during the 1997/98 fiscal year
contributed only 4.8 billion CFA or 0.08% to the GDP.

By law, 10% of revenue from Ad Valorum tax goes to the region in which mineral extraction
takes place, 10% of extraction tax goes to the local population, and 15% goes to the council
with territorial jurisdiction over the area. lxxxiv

The revenues generated from diamond and gold mining have transformed the lives of many
people on the continent. The income not only increases the overall standard of living, but also
funds essential government services such as health, education and development.lxxxv

In Cameroon, gold mining started in 1933 and totalled about 20 tonnes between 1934 and 1984,
which is an average annual production of 300 kg, currently worth about 2 billion CFA lxxxvi In
the East region of Cameroon, an estimated 100 kg of gold is now produced per month by some
10. 000 small-scale miners, mostly channeled through informal circuits.lxxxvii Official figures
by the Department of Mines and Geological Research are much lower: approximately 500 kg
of gold produced annually by ‘ASM’ throughout the entire country. lxxxviii With regard to
diamonds, the 700-km border between Cameroon and the Central African Republic has
significant diamond production evaluated at 800 carats per month in 1993, despite the
inadequate experience of Cameroonians in diamond exploitation.lxxxix In all, artisanal and
small-scale mining generates income in the East region in particular and Cameroon in general.

c. Infrastructural Development
The revenue generated from the diamond and gold trade help build infrastructure in the East
region in particular and the national territory. The surrounding population is likely to benefit

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from the infrastructure that would be constructed for the transportation of ore (roads, railways,
etc.). The Cameroon mining code provides potential for local development projects that will
provide community benefits. Curiously, in the East region it is discovered that almost all the
artisanal mines are accessible by motorcycles and by foot. Is this true? According to Foumena,
W. C. and Bamenjo, J. N. (2013), xc after visiting about 32 artisanal mines in all “we are aware
that we did not go to some mines like Tamouna Guese and Mboumbe Nasse, as confirmed by
the traditional leaders due to the bad roads”.

d. Education and Healthcare Improvements

Education opportunities have increased thanks to mining revenues. The revenue generated
from diamond and gold mining have transformed the lives of many in the East region of
Cameroon. The income not only increases the overall standard of living, but also funds
essential government services such as health, education and development. xci According to
Marc Anselme Kamga despite the economic reinforcement and financial support for
educational development impelled by mining activities in the region, villages within active
mining areas are more impacted negatively as 75% of students are abandoning schools for
mining.xcii A good example is the report about the situation in Lycee de Kampele Batouri where
classrooms visited on the 9th September, 2021 on school resumption by the educational
authority in the east region were discovered empty as students of this school had preferred
mining to school.

With good governance and appropriate laws, these benefits can be achieved continuously.

2. Challenges of Artisanal Mining in The East Region

The negative impact of artisanal mining on both the population and the environment include:
high rate of school drop outs, poor hygienic conditions in the mining camps giving rise to
diverse health challenges, high rate of prostitution which leads to the spread of STIS,
deforestation which leads to loss of farming land, water pollution and air pollution.

a. Environmental Challenges
Generally speaking, every mining project impacts the neighboring populations and
environment in numerous ways:

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In fact the process of mining destroys vast surfaces of land by removing vegetation and topsoil,
and often blasting and drilling into the rock. This can mean the loss of forest resources, wildlife
habitat, and/or agricultural cropland.

There is a risk of pollution of land, water and/or air due to exhaust fumes, dust, discharge or
spills of oils, metals, sediment or other contaminants accidentally or purposefully released into
the environment.xciii

Development of a mine can lead to displacement of local people and wildlife, marginalization
of indigenous groups, disputes over land rights and access, local price inflation due to the
immigration of more people, problems linked to fair compensation for losses, and other social
problems.xciv

The main impacts are deforestation and land degradation; open pits which are animal traps and
health hazards; stagnant water in excavated holes that are abandoned by the miners, providing
breeding ground for mosquitoes; mercury use for gold amalgamation, inefficient extraction,
dust and noise; underground and long-term hazards. xcv In fact, local administration in the east
region confirmed that gold mining is fuelling deforestation, silting of river beds, killing of
aquatic ecosystems, toxic substances pollute the environment, destroying arable lands and
partially destroying protected areas. A good example can be seen on the land degradation and
deforestation caused by small scale goal mining in the Kampele, stream pollution caused by
artisanal goal mining in Mongonam) air pollution produced by the grinding of quartz grains).
A 30 years old abandoned pit of about 15 m deep which is about 50 cm from the main foot path
in Batouri mining site stand out to be a serious danger on population of the area. It is an
underground tunnel of about 25 m long excavated in Mongonam in search for goal. Dead is
unavoidable as children are discovered to have been sinking in these unrefilled pits dug during
artisanal mining that has created a man-made lake in the east region.

b. Price Information: Priceless

An artisanal miner would benefit greatly from knowing the current market price before selling
their day’s catch. Artisanal miners are at a great disadvantage during sales negotiations when

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they lack information on mineral and metal prices, contributing to a cycle of systemic economic
insecurity.

c. Child Labour
Child labour is pervasive across many ‘ASM’ contexts, and integrated approaches are needed
to target its root causes. Due to its hazardous nature to children's safety, health (physical and
mental) and moral development, mining is considered one of the "worst forms" of child labour
as defined by the ILO. In essence, in most cases, children learned artisanal mining from their
parents who were former diggers. This activity provides job to this marginalized population
and gives them hope for a better future. It is therefore a contribution to local development by
the jobs created in the informal section. xcvi Essentially, family constituted the major source of
such labour in both Cameroon and CAR representing 84.62% and 64.29%, respectively.
According to Jenning,xcvii hundreds of thousands of children work in small-scale mines
globally, with a few countries showing figures around 250,000 (including full-time and part-
time).xcviii In the East region, children start washing gold as young as 3; from 6 they begin
breaking hard rocks with hammers and from the ages of 9 to 12 they go underground and do
the same work as the older men.xcix

‘ASM’ is therefore a contribution to local development by the employments created in the

informal sector. Students who reach the secondary level go to the main secondary school found
at Kette.c Generally, they are much more active in the mines during holidays. In some fields
like in the Loma field, children are seen seriously working while a mother is breastfeeding the
baby in the field though a minor phenomenon which is not recurrent.ci Is this not child labour
that ought to be stamped out or discouraged?

The issue is that artisanal gold and diamond mining is associated with many social problems.
Women and children are most affected. The participation of women in artisanal gold mining
varies depending on local beliefs from different countries and communities. Their role is not
limited to mining activities and includes the supply of food, tools and equipment and sex
services that exposes them to sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS.cii Marc Anselme
kamga also reveals high levels of prostitution, overexploitation of women, high prevalence of
HIV around mining sites and low farm activities.ciii

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d. Gender in Miners

In Cameroon, an average of 30% of ‘ASM’ are women who mined diamonds or gold
independently. civ Women do almost all the tasks their husbands do, especially washing gravel
“we noticed that added to the role the mother plays at the mine, she still has to take care of the
cv
younger ones in her responsibility. Where less than 10% of mining employees are
female, there are many challenges facing women in ‘ASM’. Digging, crushing ore, and other
extraction tasks are exhausting dangerous work, and yet as the primary livelihood for millions
of women, they continue to go to mining sites even while pregnant and nursing young
children. Women have reduced access to mining resources, including land, finance, and tools.
Women in mining networks have slowly grown over the years, but much remains to support
them. Empowering women, building solidarity, and supporting national associations will
ensure that rights are respected and women gain better opportunities and access to improving
livelihoods.

e. Health and Occupational Safety

Even for workers employed and trained by formal large-scale companies mining is a dangerous
job. It becomes even more deadly with ‘ASM’, as miners work with basic tools and little to no
safety equipment. cvi ‘ASM’ present a wide range of physical hazards to workers including the
use of hazardous materials (ex: mercury, cyanide), poorly constructed pits/shafts/tunnels prone
to collapses/landslides/flooding/lack of ventilation, poor waste management leading to water
contamination and diseases, lack of personal protective equipment (PPE) or training in proper
use leading to silicosis and other health risks, impacts related to dust/noise/exhaustive labour,
lack of potable water/latrines/sanitation facilities leading to gastrointestinal and other diseases,
and physical risks from inappropriate use and maintenance of mechanical equipment. It is
noticed that a series of health problems, notably body pains which is associated with the
difficult nature, hard work and long hours which mining requires. Skin diseases are very
common among miners due to long hours spent in muddy water. Waterborne diseases are also
a problem because of lack of portable drinking water in the mines. The open mines left behind
by mining carrying stagnant water, which are favorable breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
Malaria caused by these mosquitoes is one of the diseases which affects artisanal miners.
Improving monitoring and reporting on occupational health and safety is an important first
step, as well as training on standards and skills.cvii

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Essentially artisanal mining is generally characterised by a lack of occupational safety. About

49.5% of miners cited wounds from the sharp tools such as cutlasses, and spades that they used.
Other accidents included various dangers from failing trees and branches and soil collapse with
the risk of covering them in soil. Miners know that mining is a risky activity and some miners
said they have witnessed deadly accidents in the past. Exposure to wild animal attack is also a
risk that miners reported they face every day. They do not take particular safety measures but
rely on God’s guidance for protection. The majority (92.5%) of miners do not take any
particular safety majors to avoid accidents. A total of 7.5% take minor precaution at work such
as wearing gloves and being cautious at work. In case the miners fall sick most of them do not
go even to the nearest health Centre as they practice self. cviii

CONCLUSION

This paper has described some salient issues of artisanal and small-scale mining in the East
region of Cameroon as can be exemplified from the aforementioned analysis.

Small-scale mines differ from traditional artisanal mines operated by local communities.
Expatriates working at small-scale mines cooperate closely with artisanal miners, and mine
sites are located alongside areas secured through artisanal permits. Regulatory and legislative
loopholes in the mining sector, poor governance and the potential for large profits are fuelling
expansion of this new business model.

It is discovered that the populations of Cameroonian workers were poorly integrated into the
local Cameroonian communities. They live enclaves, bring in supplies from outside and spend
very little money on local produce. There is little contract between expatriates and local people.
This contributes to a situation where misunderstandings can arise and also limit the likelihood
that mining activities will make significant contributions to local economies. cvix

However, the sector provides effective poverty relief by providing jobs, ensuring profits for
small producers, and transferring wealth from the rich to poor. Grossomodo, artisanal and
small-scale mining sector must be recognised as a significant generator of rural livelihoods that
have the potential to alleviate poverty and be a tool for sustainable development.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Our first recommendation should be that Government should create enabling environment by
putting in place legislations and regulatory frameworks in which small-scale mining activities
occur. Governments need to create objective, consistent, transparent and non-discriminatory
regulatory mechanism, which offer easy access to mining title and legal production channels.
Decentralising the control of the sector was identified as a way to ensure that the design and
implementation reflects the realities of the sector.

The second point is that of financing ‘ASM’. The issue of financing ‘ASM’ operations and
making credit available for production improvements is most often identified by miners as a
major problem. As most rotation funds have not worked well, with CAPAM, so we believe that
the financing of ‘ASM’ projects needs to be tailor-made and consider non-traditional forms of
financing, such as own capital resource, joint ventures, risk capital, equity partnerships and
leasing of equipment.

The third issue that must we lay much emphases on here is that ‘ASM’ should be formalised.
This is to say, in order to maximize the positive impact of ‘ASM’, it must be formalised,
responsible and well governed. This is by facilitating procedures for obtaining artisanal mining
permits. This will lead to a formalisation of the sector and regularise many miners. The
majority of miners in the East region do not have legal title, and oftentimes the regulatory
frameworks for national mining policy work to exclude or restrict ‘ASM’ practices. Corruption
at this point is overwhelming.

The fourth recommendation we wish to put forward is that of data sharing. Data sharing is a
serious problem in ‘ASM’ in the East region of Cameroon. Data on ‘ASM’ is woefully
inadequate, which limits an understanding of the sector, and appropriate policy measures.
Collaborative and transparent knowledge sharing, data collection and analysis is required.
Governments, research and training institutions, the private sector, consultants, and civil
society should contribute to open databases, integrate ‘ASM’ into national census and surveys,
and provide for improved policy and transparency.1cx

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REFERENCES
i. Hentschel, T., Hruschka, F. and Priester, M., Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Challenges
and Opportunities. IIED. London. 2003.
ii.Willy, C. F. Jaff, N.B., Artisanal Mining, A Challenges to the Kimberley Process: Case Study
of the Kadey Division, East Region of Cameroon.RELUFA, January, 2013.
iii. For example the districts of Kette, Kenzou. Batouri, Mbang, Ndelele, Nguelebok and Ouli.

iv. Tieguhong, J.C, Verina, I and Jolien S., Impacts of Artisanal Gold And Diamond Mining
On Livelihoods And The Environment In The Sangha Tri-National Park (NTS) Landscape,
Congo basin. Yaoundé Cameroun: CIFOR. 2009. at 11.
v. Hentschel, T, Hruschka F and Priester M. Global Report on Artisanal and Small Scale
Mining. London: IIED and WBCSD MMSD. 2002.
vi. The term “Artisanal Mining’’ is widely used as a label for labour-intensive activities without
mechanization. For details, see Aryee et al., 2003; and Hentschel, T, Hruschka F and Priester
M. Global Report on Artisanal and Small Scale Mining. London: IIED and WBCSD MMSD.
2002.
vii. State sovereignty in terms of international is supreme internally and independent externally.
The Cameroon State under international law has exclusive jurisdiction over all persons and
matters on its territory with only a few exceptional cases permitted by international law.
viii. Forjindam D. M., Oil and Gas Law In Cameroon Theory and Practice (Unmasking The
Mystery).Editions Fénix. Macacos, Douala, (2020), at 28.
ix. Willy, C. F. Jaff N.B., Op. cit. at.17.
x.Mbendi 2008 Cameroon: Overview of Mining in Cameroon. Available at:
http://www.mbendi.co.za/indy/ming/,af/cmr/p0005.htm (Retrieved 18 May, 2021).
xi. Tieguhong, J.C, Verina I and Jolien S., Op. cit. at 11.
xii. The ”Cadre d’Appui et de Promotion Miniere de l’Artisanat Miniere (CAPAM)’’ Support
Framework and Promotion of Artisanal Mining. This structure was created in 2003 and today
SONAMINES.
xiii. Decree No 2020/749 of 14 December, 2020 to set up the National Mining Corporation.
xiv.Cameroon’s booming…https://www.africanews.com/2016/05/01/cameroon-s-booming-
small-scale-gold-miners/ (Retrieved 24 April, 2021).

xv. Section 4, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.

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xvi. “East Region (Cameroon) –Wikipedia” Available at:

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Region_(Cameroon) (Retrieved 6 May 2021).
xvii. Ferrallitisation is a process in which rock is changed into a soil consisting of clay
(kaolinite) and sesquioxides, in the form of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium.
xviii. Granite is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of
quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase.
xix. Ibid.
xx. Section 15 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxi. Section 15 (5), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxii. Section 4, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxiii. The government body in charge of administration of mining law is the Minister In Charge
of Mines, Industries, and Technological Development. (Presently Gabriel DODO Ndoke).
xxiv. Section 36, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxv. Section 50 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxvi. Section 50 (2), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxvii. It should be noted that the terms and conditions for granting and renewing small-scale
mining permits shall be laid down by regulation.
xxviii. Section 52 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxix. Section 52 (2), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxx. Section 52 (3), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxi. Section 52 (4), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxii. Section 53 (2), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxiii. Section 54 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxiv. Section 25 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxv. See Kevin, N.F., The Impacts of artisanal gold mining on Local livelihoods and the
Environment in the Forested areas of Cameroon. Working Paper 150. Bogor, Indonesia:
CIFOR. 2014, at 18.
xxxvi. Section 44 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxvii. Section 44 (2), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xxxviii. For details on the provisions contained in the standard format, read section 44 (3),
Cameroon Mining Code, 2016 and section 44 (4) which emphasis that apart from the provisions
contained in the standard format referred to in section 44 (3), other provisions may be

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negotiated by mutual agreement between the parties, in accordance with the laws and
regulations in force.
xxxix. Section 44 (5), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xl. Section 45 (1), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xli. Section 45 (2), and (3), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xlii.Section 4, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xliii. Section 46 (3), Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xliv. Section 47, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xlv. Section 48, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xlvi. Section 49, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
xlvii. Kevin, N.F., Op. cit. at 14.
xlviii. Ibid.
xlix. Willy, C. F. Jaff N.B., Op. cit. at 22.
l. Section 101, Cameroon Mining Code, 2016.
li. He who found the mineral rich zone.
lii. Willy, C. F. and Jaff. N. B., ibid, at 23.
liii. Ibid. at 30.
liv. Ibid.
lv. Ibid.
lvi. Kevin, N.F., Op. cit. at 20.
lvii. Ibid.
lviii. Ibid.
lix. Willy, C. F. Jaff N.B., Op. cit. at 17.
lx. “Ministry – MINMIDT” Available at: https://www.minmidt/cm/ministry (Retrieved 27
April, 2021).
lxi. Translated in French as ‘‘Ministre des Mines, De L’industrie et du Développement
Technologique (MINMIDT)’.
lxii. Republique du Cameroun, 2012, p. 4, 13, 25, Ministry of Mines, Industries, and
Technological Development, 20130.
lxiii. Decree No 2020/749 of 14 December, 2020 to set up the National Mining Corporation.
lxiv. A Draft Decree that transforms CAPAM into a center for Support and Promotion of
Mining Activities has been validated by the minister in charge of Mines, the Prime Minister
Head of Government and it is at the high sanction of the Head of State.

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lxv. “The National Mining Corporation (SONAMINES) created by the President of the
Republic- MINMIDT” Available at: https://www.minmidt,cm/en/the-national-mining-
corporation-sonamines-created by the President-of-the-republic/ (Retrieved 25 July 2021).
lxvi. The decree clearly states that: “Hydrocarbons (which falls under the jurisdiction of the
National Hydrocarbon Corporation – SNH) and quarries (which are to be managed by the
communes per the General Code of Decentralized Territorial Collectivities – CTD are excluded
from the scope of the new institution”.
lxvii. “Cameroon establishes Sonamines, a national mining company” Available at:
https://www/businessin cameroon-com/index. Php/mining/1512-11136-cameroon establishes-
a-national-mining-company/amp (Retrieved 24 April 2021).
lxviii. This is one of the reasons for which SONAMIES was imperative.
lxix. Article 29, Decree No2020/749 of 14 December, 2020.
lxx. Adopted: Geneva, 82nd ILC session (22nd June 1995). Entry into: 05 June 1998).Available
at: https://en.wikipedia.org./safety_and_Health_in_Mines_Convention_1995 (Retrieved 23
August 2021).
lxxi. Article 2, ILO Convention 1995.
lxxii.Walle M., and Jennings, N., Safety and health in small-scale surface mines. A Handbook.
Working Paper (WP.168). ILO. Geneva. 2001. at 48.
lxxiii. Safety and Health in Mines Conventions 1995: Available at: https://
en.wikipedia.org./safety_and_Health_in_Mines_Convention_1995 (Retrieved 23 August
2021).
lxxiv. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development 2002. (MMSD 2002).
lxxv. Kimberly Process 2004. Kimberly Process Removes the Republic of Congo from the List
of Participants. Kimberly Process (09-07-2004) ghhp://.answers.com/topic/congo (Retrieved
17 August 2021).
lxxvi. For example, countries like; Sierra Leone, Angola and the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC).
lxxvii. EITI Factsheet, The EITI sets a global standard for managing revenues from natural
resources. EITI International Secretariat. August 2008. at 4.
lxxviii. EITI 2008 EITI Business Guide. How companies can support implementation. Dave
Prescott (Ed.). EITI and IBLF.at 4.

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lxxix. Gweth, P.N., Fundamental reasons at the base of the creation of CAPAM. Coordination’s
letter. Information Review for the Promotion of Mining Activities in Cameroon (Bimonthly).
Yaounde. at 5-11.
lxxx. Tieguhong, J.C, Verina, I and Jolien S., Op. cit. at 19.
lxxxi. This is from construction of the infrastructure needed for mining, to the mining work
itself. Construction of the mine, any necessary processing factories, processing factories,
requires a lot of workers, both semi-skilled and highly-qualified. For further information, see
Tiffany F., Extractive Industries in Cameroon: A source book for teachers. For UNAFAS
Conservation Values Programme, working with RELUFA. 2012. at 5.
lxxxii. Gweth, P.N., Op. cit. at 5-11.
lxxxiii. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/artisanal_mining (Retrieved 15 April,
2021).
lxxxiv. Tiffany, F., Extractive Industries in Cameroon: A source book for teachers. For
UNAFAS Conservation Values Programme, working with RELUFA. 2012. at 5.
lxxxv.Diamond Facts 2006 Human Development Index Available at:
http://www.diamondfacts.org/difference/index.
html http://www.diamondfacts.org/difference/ hdi_popup.html (Retrieved 27 July, 2021).
lxxxvi. Lang, C. 2007 L’Or Camerounais mal exploite. Le Messager. Available at:
http://www.cameroon info.net/cmi_ show_news.php?id=19684 (Retrieved 27 July, 2021).
lxxxvii. CASM, Mining together large-scale mining meets artisanal mining; a legal framework
for action. Indaba, South Africa, 2008. at 69.
lxxxviii. Lang, C., L’Or, ibid.
lxxxix. Gweth, P.N., Op. cit. at 5-11.
xc. Willy C. F. Jaff N.B., Op. cit. at 18.
xci. Diamond Facts 2006 Human Development Index Available at:
http://www.diamondfacts.org/difference/index.html
http://.diamondfacts.org/difference/hdi_popu.html (Retrieved 19 August, 2021).
xcii. “Mining In East Region: Haphazard Operations Imperil Residents” Available at:
https://www.cameroon-tribune.cm/article.html/21375/fr.fr.html/mining-in-east-region-
haphazard-operations-imperil-residents (Retrieved 17 August 2021).
xciii. See, table 38, Tieguhong J.C, Verina I and Jolien S., Impacts of Artisanal Gold and
Diamond Mining on Livelihoods and the Environment in the Sangha Tri-National Park (NTS)
Landscape, Congo basin. Yaoundé Cameroun: CIFOR. 2009. at 49.

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xciv. Tiffany, F., Op. cit.

xcv. (USAID 2000).United States Agency for International Development Environmental
Guidelines. Part III: Micro - and Small Enterprises. 2000.
xcvi.Willy C. F. Jaff. N.B., Op. cit. at 23.
xcvii.Jennings, N.S., Child labour in small-scale mining: examples from Niger, Peru and
Philippines. SAP 2.78/WP.137.ILO.Geneva. 1999.
xcviii. Tieguhong, J.C, Verina, I and Jolien S., Op.cit. at 28.
xcix. Hentschel T. Hruschka F, and Priester M., Global report on artisanal and small scale
mining. IIED and WBCSD. MMSD.London. 2002. at 67.
c. Willy C.F. and Jaff N.B., ibid, at 23.
ci. Ibid, at 24.
cii. Hentschel et al., Global report on artisanal & small-scale mining, IIED and
WBCSD.MMSD, London. 2002. at 67.
ciii. “Mining In East Region: Haphazard Operations Imperil Residents” Op.cit.
civ. Tieguhong J.C, Verina, I and Jolien S., Op. cit. at 25.
cv. Willy, C.F. and Jaff N.B., Op.cit. at 24.
cvi. 5 Challenges of Artisanal Mining That Mobile Tech Can Help Solve-Ulula Available at:
https://ulula.com/5-challenges-of-artisanal-mining-that-mobile-tech-can-help-solve/
(Retrieved 19 August 2021).
cvii. Kevin, N.F., Op. cit. p.25.
cviii. For more information, see Kevin, N.F., The Impacts of artisanal gold mining on Local
livelihoods and the Environment in the Forested areas of Cameroon. Working Paper 150.
Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR. 2014.
cix. Ibid.
cx. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org./wiki/artisanal_mining (Retrieved 25 July, 2021).

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