Volume 8, Issue 7, July – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) and its

Psycho-Social Implications on the Girl-Child in
the Northern Senatorial District of Cross
River State, Nigeria
Aboh, Fidelis Isomkwo (Ph.D); Okom, Emmanuel Njor (Ph.D)
Department of Sociology, University of Calabar, PMB 1115,
Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria

Abstract:- Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), which is before they enter puberty. The practice of FGM is justified
otherwise known as female circumcision, is a viral by the claims that it increases a girl's likelihood of being
practice across the face of Africa that undermines the able to marry, moderates her sexuality, and helps the girl get
rights of women and female children, causing them ready for childbirth’s discomfort (Mbagwu, 2009). Toubia
health, emotional and social traumas. Nigeria is (1994) asserts that the practice of FGM is still widespread in
nonetheless left out of this practice, as reported cases of male-dominated African societies like Sudan, Chad and
FGM abound across Nigeria. This is a field research Ethiopia, and that it affects roughly 90% of adult females in
carried out in Northern Senatorial District of Cross Africa and only a small percentage of those in some other
River State, to ascertain the psycho-social implications of nations. Female genital mutilation is known to be damaging
FGM on the girl-child. Using linear regression model to girls and women in many ways, and it has no known
and simple percentage through the Predictive Analytic health advantages. First of all, it is traumatizing and brutally
Software (PASW, it was found that FGM has cultural, unpleasant. The body’s natural processes are hampered
sociological and psychological implications on the girl- when healthy, normal genital tissues are removed or
child in Cross River North Senatorial District in Cross damaged, which has a number of short- and long-term
River State. Amidst other recommendations, it was health effects. For instance, infants born to women who
suggested that media awareness and activism should be have undergone FGM experience a greater rate of neonatal
used to sensitise the people on the dangers of FGM, death than infants born to women who have not (WHO,
thereby playing down on the harmful socio-cultural 2008).
practice. Although FGM is harmful, the study concluded
that the practice is bound to linger due to cultural Communities who continue to practice FGM cite a
determinism which holds practitioners spellbound. range of societal and religious justifications. But, from the
standpoint of human rights, the practice demonstrates
Keywords:- FGM, FGC, FGM/C, Human Rights, African ingrained gender inequality and is an extreme form of
Charter, Child’s Charter, Women’s Rights Protocol. discrimination against women. Female genital mutilation
almost always occurs on children, which is against the girl
I. INTRODUCTION child’s rights. Additionally, the process breaches the right to
life when it results in death, as well as the rights to health,
 Background to the Study safety, and physical integrity of the person. It also violates
All practices involving partial or complete removal of the right to be free from torture and cruel, inhuman or
the external female genitalia or other injury to the female degrading treatment (UN Convention, 1984.)
genital organs for non-medical reasons are referred to as
“female genital mutilation” (FGM), “female genital Female genital mutilation is less common in some
cutting,” or “female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). In places as a result of years of prevention work by local
the world, between 100 and 140 million women and girls are governments, communities, and national and international
thought to have undergone such procedures, and three organizations. Communities that have used a procedure for
million girls are thought to be at risk of doing so yearly, making decisions collectively have been able to stop or
according to the WHO. Although female genital mutilation minimize FGM around them. FGM can be effectively
has reportedly occurred throughout the world, it is most eradicated, if the communities that practise it decide to stop
common in the western, eastern, and north-eastern regions doing so.
of Africa, as well as in a few Middle Eastern and Asian
countries and among some immigrant populations in North Many governments have enacted legislations
America and Europe (WHO, 2008). Female Genital prohibiting the practice, and where these laws have been
Mutilation (FGM) can be seen as a deeply ingrained cultural accompanied by educational initiatives and public
practice that is inseparable from the peoples’ ways of life in awareness campaigns that take into account cultural
most countries. FGM is frequently performed on girls right differences, the practice has declined. Organizations on a

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ISSN No:-2456-2165
national and international scale, including the World Health it is done in the Cross River North Senatorial District. This
Organization (WHO), United Nations Development research is carried out to raise awareness on the
Programme (UNDP), United Nations Educational, Scientific psychosocial effects of the practice in this area, and to make
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations research materials available that would help researchers
International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), and domestically and internationally to better understand the
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), have psychological and social effects that the practice has on
been instrumental in promoting awareness of the harmful victims, thereby increasing the body of knowledge on the
effects of the practice and conducting researches to support subject.
this. In the African continent where the practice is most
prevalent and poses difficulty to eliminate, the African  Research Questions
Women’s Organization met in Dakar, Senegal, to discuss
the health consequences of female circumcision. The group  Are there any cultural implications of FGM on the girl
formed the Inter-African Committee against Harmful child in Cross River North Senatorial district?
Traditional Practices (IAC) with national committees in  Are there any sociological implications of FGM on the
more than 20 African countries in that meeting. IAC was girl child in Cross River North Senatorial district?
able to bring the harmful consequences of female  Are there any psychological implications of FGM on
circumcision to the attention of most African Government the girl child in Cross River North Senatorial district?
(Althaus, 1997.)
 Objectives of the Study
The lack of theological justification for FGM is one of The main objective of this research is to ascertain the
many points on which anti-FGM organisations concentrate psychosocial implications of the practice of FGM on the
their arguments. The fundamental complaint against FGM is girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial District. However,
the severe physical and psychological risks it poses to girls, the specific objectives are to ascertain:
who are the principal victims. The effects of FGM on health
have been the subject of numerous studies and case reports  The cultural implications of FGM on the girl-child in
(Toubia, 1994). However, more initiatives are still required Cross River North Senatorial District.
to end the epidemic.  The sociological implications of FGM on the girl-child
in Cross River North Senatorial District.
 Statement of the Problem  The psychological implications of FGM on the girl-
WHO (2020) claims that FGM has no positive effects child in Cross River North Senatorial District.
on health. Instead, it harms girls and women in a number of
 How the practice of FGM can be eradicated in Cross
different ways. Physically, it involves removing and River North Senatorial District.
harming healthy, normal female vaginal tissue as well as
interfering with how women's bodies typically work. The
 Hypotheses (H0)
psychic scar left by the trauma rarely, if ever, heals. The
immediate medical effects include severe pain, shock,
 There are no cultural implications of FGM on the girl-
hemorrhage, tetanus or bacterial infection, viral
child in Cross River North Senatorial District.
contamination (including HIV), urine retention, open sores
in the vaginal region and damage to the surrounding genital  There are no sociological implications of FGM on the
girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial District.
tissues.
 There are no psychological implications of FGM on the
Families still force their girls to get FGM even when girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial District.
they are aware of the risks. The most frequently cited
defencee of FGM is that it is consistent with cultures that  Scope/Limitations of the Study
value rearing girls properly, preserving their honour, and The study focused on the psychosocial implications of
upholding the status of the entire family in which they reside the practice of FGM on the girl-child in Cross River North
(WHO, 2008). Families who refuse to practise FGM are Senatorial District. The study was limited by time and
ridiculed and stigmatized. financial constraint, which did not allow the researcher to
move over a wider region to interview more respondents.
According to WHO (2008), female genital mutilation Also, the research was limited by language barrier; the
is one of the harmful cultural practices that must be opposed researcher had to get interpreters to help communicate the
and eliminated in all nations. Given that FGM may have questions and get answers, with some respondents.
certain psychosocial effects on the girl-child developing into
womanhood in this region, Cross River State, and II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
specifically Cross River North Senatorial District, are not
left out of this eradication drive. A. Theoretical Literature Review
A theoretical analysis of relevant literatures is
Although many articles have been written and studies conducted to examine the causes, methods, and negative
have been conducted on FGM in various climates, no health implications of FGM.
researcher in this field has specifically examined the
psychosocial effects that the practice has on young girls, as

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Motives behind the FGM procedure. FGM is practised infection during childbirth are a few of them. They also
in Nigeria for a variety of reasons. These explanations might include failure of the wounds to heal, abscess formation,
include psychological, societal, and even religious ones. It is cyst formation, excessive growth of scar tissue, and urinary
done for psychosexual reasons in order to reduce female tract infections. Numerous infections are rampant, and there
sexual desire, uphold virginity and chastity prior to are many opportunities for other diseases like HIV-Aids to
marriage, keep faithfulness throughout marriage, and spread (Gruenbaum 1982, Gordon 1991, Inhorn & Buss
promote female sexual pleasure (Anzaku, et al., 2018). And, 1993, Larsen 2002.)
as the researcher has noted elsewhere that, for psychosexual
reason, FGM “…is done to attenuate sexual desire in the In the context of HIV/AIDS, FGM requires immediate
female, maintain chastity and virginity before marriage and attention since the use of contaminated instruments during
fidelity during marriage, and increase female sexual the procedure may be a significant mechanism of
pleasure” (Aboh, 2019.) It is done for sociological reasons transmission. The operation is primarily triggered off by
such as cultural appropriation, initiation of girls into traditional medical professionals and traditional birth
womanhood, social integration, and preservation of social attendants, using filthy knives and other devices, in often
cohesiveness and acceptance (HAFAI, 2017). Many unhygienic settings, which increases the dangers. Along
religious communities practise female genital mutilation for with the typical gynaecological and psychological issues
religious reasons, believing that it is required by their own connected to the practice, the transmission of HIV/AIDS is
religions (Wikipedia, 2021). It is performed in various an obvious risk. The requirement to cut open the infibulated
civilizations for hygienic and aesthetic reasons, because the area for birthing in the case of infibulations adds to these
external female genitalia are by nature seen as filthy and existing hazards.
ugly (Anuforo, Oyedele, & Pacquiao, 2004). As a result,
they are removed to encourage hygiene and give aesthetic  Carried out with crude, unsterilized instruments and
appeal, increase fertility, promote child survival, improve without anaesthesia, the reopening operation causes
marriage prospects, and improve childbirth, among other intense pain and frequently results in infection and
factors. heavy bleeding. In the worst of cases, it can lead to:

 FGM Procedure. For cultural or other non-therapeutic  The opening of channels between the vagina and
reasons, this entails the partial or complete removal of bladder or anus, resulting in vesico-vaginal fistula
the external female genitalia and/or harm to the female (VVF), a disorder most frequently linked to early-
genital organs, and is frequently divided into the pregnancy obstructed labor but sometimes also caused
following types: by cutting open infibulated women,
 Recto-Vaginal Fistula (RVF) – where, due to the young
 Type1 – Clitoridectomy. age of the pregnant woman, whose pelvis and birth
This is the least severe form of the practice and canal are not fully formed, constant pressure from the
involves the removal of the hood or of the clitoris and/or baby's skull damages the birth canal, causing a break in
part of the clitoris itself. the wall that allows uncontrollable leakage of faeces or
urine from the bladder into the vagina (UNICEF,2014.)
 Type 2 – Excision.
This is a more severe practice, involving the partial or B. Empirical Literature Review
total removal of the clitoris and labia minora with or without Firstly, it has been found that the girl-child feels a
the excision of the labia majora. sense of belongingness to the womenfolk through FGM,
which is seen as an important rite of passage to adulthood in
 Type 3 – Infibulations. order to checkmate extra-marital affairs. Secondly, FGM
This is the most severe form of FGM. It involves the engenders social acceptability in the girl-child and averts the
removal of the clitoris, the labia minora and the adjacent fear of being rejected by the community. Respondents who
medial part of the labia majora, and the stitching of the had not been circumcised as infants succumbed to FGM
vaginal opening leaving an opening the size of a pinhead to because of this fear of being rejected by their community
allow for the flow of urine and menstrual blood. (Nyong, Ikpeme & Daniel, 2018: 22.) Thirdly, respondents
also affirmed that having undergone FGM reduced their
 Type 4 – Others. sexual urge to such an extent that they could cope with pre-
All other harmful procedures to the female genitalia marital sex. Fourthly, respondents also believed that their
for non-medical purposes, such as pricking, piercing, chances of getting married were validated by their
incising, scraping and cauterising the genital area (Anzaku, undergoing FGM. Fifthly, respondents believed that being
et al., 2018). circumcised made them a part and parcel of their culture
(Nyong, Ikpeme & Daniel, 2018: 22.) Briggs’ (1999)
FGM’s negative medical repercussions. FGM has a finding supports this when he wrote that female genital cut
wide range of negative outcomes. Infertility, pelvic is a strong cultural practice among the Opuama clan of
inflammatory diseases, hepatitis and other blood-borne southern Ijaw local Government Area of Bayelsa State,
illnesses, urinary tract infections, painful menstruation, where the uncircumcised woman lacks status or voice and is
chronic urinary tract obstruction/bladder stones, obstructed restricted from places of interest in the community. Owumi
labour, keloid scarring, increased risk of bleeding and (1993), in a research conducted in Somalia, also affirmed

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the special significance of female genital cut as a source of welcome experience amongst its “victims”. It is in this
full womanhood, and as instrument of female sexuality regard that Boddy (1989) notes that, “It makes better
control. Bassey, Obonor and Ejeje (2017) quoted the ethnographic sense to view FGC in Sudan as nonagentively
Council on Scientific Affairs and the American Medical embedded in everyday life than imposed by coercive
Association (1995) as reporting that many families allow agentive restraint.”
their daughters to undergo female genital cut out of the fear
that no man will marry an uncircumcised woman and that Government power to legislate against FGM is
she will be ostracized from the community as it is among the agentive power which exists mutually exclusively of cultural
Masai in Kenya. Osarenren (1997) also reported that deep power which is nonagentive power, such that, although
cultural inclination towards female genital cut made some government agentive power may be coercive, cultural power
affluent parents living in cities and abroad to take their to perpetrate FGM may well exert an overbearing power on
daughters to their villages for circumcision, due to pressure its victims much more than State power. It is in this regard
from relatives that their uncircumcised daughters may never that Comaroff & Comaroff (1992:22) noted that, “Power in
get married. Ogunmodele (1969) also justified the practice the nonagentive mode proliferates outside the realm of
of FGM when he wrote that, to keep the young girls pure institutional politics, saturating such things as aesthetics and
and the married women faithful, genital cuts are maintained ethics, built form and bodily representation, medical
as one of African’s most important tradition. knowledge and mundane usage” In other words, cultural
practices, such as FGM, go on in spite of concerted efforts
Many educated Nigerian parents and beyond are to eradicate them, due to the saturated power it wields over
pushed into accepting FGM for their daughters, in spite of its adherents.
the dangers associated with the practice, because of social
pressure and the strong beliefs associated with the practice The socio-cultural theory of Bourdieu’s is relevant to
among Africans. The high value placed on FGM among this study in that FGM has social meaning and value held by
Africans has made it very difficult to eliminate. It is in this a cultural people, which influence “victims” to willingly but
regard that The Director General of WHO had this to say: reluctantly undergo FGM in order to be relevant to their
society and culture. However, the weakness of Bourdieu’s
Our purpose should not be to criticize and condemn, theory rests on the fact that, first, his theory was written in
nor can we remain passive, in the name of bland version of no easy, everyday French and so its translation into English
multiculturalism. We know that the practice of female was no less difficult; hence “Bourdieu’s prose is notoriously
genital cut is painful and can have dire consequences on the difficult in his native French, and no easier in English
health of the baby girl and later on the woman. But we must translation” (Webb, 2017.) Lastly, Bourdieu’s reliance on
always work from the assumption that human behaviour and psychoanalysis to demonstrate the epistemological status of
cultural values however senseless or destructive they may his privileged position as a theorist does not supply us with
look to us from our particular personal and cultural stand independent evidence that demonstrates why lay social
points, have meaning and fulfil a function for those who agents must accord him this epistemic authority (Kim,
practice them. People will change their behaviour only when 2004.)
they themselves perceive the new practices proposed as
meaningful and functional as the old ones. Therefore, what Biological or natural determinism is also relevant here
we must aim for is to convince people including women that in giving a theoretical foothold to the study. The theoretical
they can give up meaningful aspects of their own cultures belief that human social actors are constrained or limited by
(Nakajima, 1994, quoted in “Female genital mutilation”.) their natural endowments such as genes, brain size, sex, skin
colour, or other biological attributes dates back to Aristotle,
C. Theoretical Exposition when he posited that “there are species in which a
The socio-cultural theory of Pierre Bourdieu (1930 – distinction is already marked, immediately at birth, between
2002) will be discussed here as a means of providing a those of its members who are intended for being ruled and
theoretical underpinning to the present study. Bourdieu’s those who are intended to rule” (Baker, 1950:14.) In other
theory was formulated to deal with cultural symbolism words, rulers and ruled are biologically determined in
which for the most part dealt with cultural domination or politics, having been naturally endowed as born rulers and
cultural violence. Power in all societies, notes Bourdieu, born ruled. If that be the case, then, the human genitalia
works from below (in other words, from the depth of the which is unsightly and looks “like some sort of grotesque sea
social actor) as the self is constructed and human bodies are creature” (Carver-Jones, 2017) is a natural gift deterministically
shaped in everyday dynamic relations amongst social actors, given the human social actor, which, either through his free or
social institutions, cultural meanings, conventions and cultural will, has come under the sharp blade of circumcision.
constraints; in interactions between social subjects and their The removal of the unsightly covering both for men and women
humanly constructed environment of objects, spaces and has implication for their genital self-consciousness, sexual
others, via practical engagement with the world behaviour and self-esteem (Vanessa, et al. (2010.) In other
(Bourdieu:1977, 1990). This calls to mind the fact that words, if nature had not endowed upon man such unsightly
cultural reality such as FGM is socially constructed (Berger gifts, there would have been no need for FGM. The natural
& Luckmann, 1991) as the understanding of selves and determinism which has necessitated the cultural practice of
social meanings are constructed and commonly held by FGM calls to mind the popular saying that necessity is the
cultural subjects, to the extent that, though painful, FGM is a mother of invention. In other words, since the unsightly

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gifts, given by nature, have become a necessity for removal, made use of quantitative and qualitative methods of data
cultural invention of circumcision has been made to deal collection. In the quantitative method, a well-structured
with this necessity. The invention of circumcision dates questionnaire, using the modified Likert scale, containing
back to biblical times when Abraham the Patriarch and his questions designed to elicit answers towards answering the
descendants were commanded by God to undergo the research questions, was used. In the qualitative method,
practice as a condition for being party to the Old Covenant focus group discussion was used to capture the mood of the
(Gen. 17:10.) Thus, for Abraham and his descendants, the discussants. Taro Yamane’s formula was used to determine
practice of male circumcision was a religious necessity the sample size of 798 from Obudu and Ogoja Local
antecedent to their salvation. However, female circumcision Government Areas, Northern Senatorial District, to which
is neither mentioned in the Old nor New Testament. It is to the questionnaire were distributed. The sample size formula
affirm this that El-Damanhoury (2013) wrote that “FGM is by Taro Yamane (1967) was used to determine the sample
neither mentioned in the Torah, nor in the Gospels . . . .” size from obudu and Ogoja LGAs.
The practice of FGM today, therefore, is a purely socio-
cultural practice, bereft of any biblical or religious
undertone.

Biological determinism is relevant to the present study

because, if nature had not endowed upon man such
unsightly gifts such as the foreskin and the clitoral hood,
there would have been no need of circumcision generally, or
FGM particularly. The shortcoming of this theory rests upon
the fact that it makes no allowance for nurture, which can
build upon nature and tame it. It does not believe that,
without female circumcision, women cannot curb their
libido and so remain faithful to their male counterparts.

III. METHODOLOGY

The research was carried out in Cross River North

Senatorial District, Nigeria, which is one of the three
Senatorial Districts that make up Cross River State; others
are Cross River Central and Cross River South Senatorial
Districts. The District comprises five Local Governments,
namely, Obudu, Ogoja, Bekwarra, Obanliku and Yala
LGAs. Out of these five Local Government Areas, Obudu
and Ogoja LGAs were randomly selected through the use of
simple random sampling. Obudu is at 6.670 North, longitude
9.170 East; Ogoja is at 6.650 North, longitude 8.900 East;
Bekwarra is at 6.690 North, longitude 8.900 East; Obanliku
is at 6.530 North, longitude 9.320 East; and Yala is at 6.630
North, longitude 8.620 East (GPS Coordinates, 2018.) Bette,
Ishibori, Bekwarra, Becheve and Yala are the languages
spoken in Obudu, Ogoja, Bekwarra, Obanliku and Yala
Local Government Areas, respectively (Google.com, 2018.)
The climate is tropical-humid, with rainy and dry seasons,
with average temperatures ranging from 15°C to 30°C and
annual rainfall ranging from 1300 to 3000mm (Njar, 2012.)
The high plateau of Obudu has climatic conditions that are
distinct from the rest of Cross River State’s generalized dry
and rainy seasons. Because of the high altitude,
temperatures are 4°C to 10°C cooler than in the surrounding
places. Similarly, annual rainfall is higher than in
neighbouring locations, especially on the windward side
(CRSG, 2004.) A good number of the population consists of
farmers, although there are many civil servants, traders,
crafts-men and -women, transporters, okada riders, pupils
and students, and so on.The overall population of the
District is given as follows: Obanliku 271,395; Obudu
192,444; Bekwarra 191,630; Ogoja 196,450 and Yala
110,324 (see Ottong, Ering & Akpan, 2010: 37),
representing a total population of 962,243.The researcher

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Thus, a sample of 399 and 399 of respondents were respondents were purposively selected from Senior
respectively taken from Obudu and Ogoja LGAs to make up Secondary Schools for Focus Group Discussion. The
a total sample size of 798 respondents in all. 798 purpose for this FGD was to capture the mood of the
Questionnaire were printed and distributed to respondents respondents. Pieces of questionnaire were administered to
with the help of two research assistants in each of the two other respondents within the communities earmarked for this
LGAs, using the availability sampling technique. Out of the study based on the cultural, sociological and psychological
questionnaire administered, 790 were retrieved, 8 that were implications of Female Genital Mutilation. Regression
wrongly filled were discarded. Predictive Analytic Software model and simple percentage were used to analyze the data.
(PASW) was used to analyse the data and testing the The rationale for using regression model was because of the
hypotheses. 20 Young girls which in addition to the 790 involvement of multiple variables.

IV. DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This Section deals with the presentation of data gathered from the field and how the data were analysed to answer the
research questions. The data were analysed using the Predictive Analytic Software (PASW).

Table 1 Demographic Variable of the Respondents

S/N Variable (V) Category (C) Frequency (F) Percentage (%)
1 Sex Male 350 44.3
Female 440 55.6
Total 790 100
2 Age Less than 18 50 6.3
18 – 30 150 19
31 – 40 200 25
41 -50 180 23
51 and above 210 26.3
Total 790 100
3 Marital status Single 359 45.4
Married 391 49.4
Divorced 15 2
Widow 12 1.5
Widower 13 1.6
Total 790 100
4 Level of education No formal education 50 6.3
Primary school education 85 10.7
Secondary school education 295 37.3
Tertiary education 360 45.4
Total 790 100
5 Occupational status Student 300 37.9
Farming 145 18.3
Civil/public servant 190 24
Private business 155 19.6
Total 790 100
Source: Fied Work, 2022

Table 1 shows the demographic variables of the (10.7% ), secondary school education 295 (37.3 ) and
respondnets. For the sex of the respondents, the males were tertiary education 360 (45.4 %). The occupational status of
350 ( 44.3 % ) while the females were 440 (55.6% ). the respondents were as follows: students 300 (37.9%),
Reqarding the age of the respondnets, those whose ages fell farming 145 (18.3%), civil/public servant 190 (24%), while
below 18 years were 50 ( 6.3% ) while others were as private business men and women were 155 (19.6%).
follows: 18-30 years were 150 ( 19% ), 31-40 year were 200
( 25% ), 41 – 50 were 180 (23% ) and 51 years and above  Hypothesis One
were 210 (26.3% ). The categories of the marital status of
the respondnets were as follows: single 359 (45.4% ),  Null Hypothesis:
married 395 (49.4% ), divorced 15(2% ) , widowed 12 ( There are no significant cultural implications of FGM
1.5%) and widower 13(1.6% ). The distribution that shows on the girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial District.
the level education of the respondents were as follows: no
formal education 50 (6.3% ), primary school education 85

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Table 2 Linear Regression of Cultural Implications of FGM on the Girl Child
Variables Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 2.279 .085 26.710 .000
FGM_is_an_initiation_to_womanhood -.184 .052 -.235 -3.551 .000
For_cultural_acceptance -.102 .079 -.152 -1.294 .196
Belief_of_curtailing_premarital_sex .114 .055 .139 2.071 .039
It_is_the_belief_that_the_girl_is_clean .451 .081 .660 5.579 .000

R .475a
R-Square .226

Df 4 & 785
a. Dependent Variable: FGM is a common practice in my community.
b. *Significant at 0.05 level (P >.05 or P>.01 and N = 790

In the bid to ascertain the cultural implications of cultural implications FGM on a girl child. This suggest that
female genital mutilation (FGM) on a girl child, the findings 77.4 Per cent remaining is attributed to other implications
indicated that FGM is a cultural way of initiating girls into that were not considered in this study. This implies that
womanhood which is significant at P-value = 0.000 (P < there are cultural implications of FGM on the girl child in
.05). It was also noted that accepting the practice of FGM is the Northern Senatorial District of Cross River State.
to avoid rejection in the community was not significant at P-
value = .196 (P > .05) Another cultural factor that was  Hypothesis Two
observed is the belief that FGM reduces premarital sex and
promiscuity among girls which tested significant with the  Null Hypothesis:
significant value of .04 (P<.05). Also, the belief that FGM is There are no significant sociological implications of
a way of cleaning a girl was significant with the significant FGM on the girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial
value of 0.000 (p < .05). This analysis recorded the District.
regression coefficient (r) of .475 at .05 significant level. The
result recorded 22.6 per cent explanatory power of the

Table 3 Linear Regression of Sociological Implications of FGM on a Girl Child in Northern Senatorial Zones of Cross River State
Variables Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 1.234 .132 9.315 .000
FGM leads to fear to engage in .095 .028 .117 3.406 .001
sexual intercourse
FGM reduces marital intimacy .379 .026 .546 14.780 .000
FGM leads to infertility .155 .024 .223 6.531 .000

R .541a
R-Square .293
Df 3 & 786
c. Dependent Variable: FGM is a common practice in my community.
d. *Significant at 0.05 level (P >.05 or P>.01 and N = 790

Results as presented in Table 3 reveals that implications of FGM on a girl child. This suggest that 70.7
sociological implications of FGM on the girl child were per cent remaining is attributed to other implications that
significant as observed from the following implications: were not considered in this study. This implies that there
FGM leads to fear to engage in sexual intercourse due to are sociological implications of FGM on the girl child in the
complications was significant with the significant value of Northern Senatorial District of Cross River State.
0.01 (P <.05); FGM reduces marital intimacy due to
insensitivity to sex or absence of sexual urge was significant  Hypothesis Three
with the significant value of 0.000 (P <.05), and it was also
discovered that FGM can lead to infertility arising from  Null Hypothesis:
complications was significant with the significant value of There are no significant psychological implications of
0.000 ( P < .05). This analysis indicated the regression FGM on the girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial
coefficient (r) of .541 at .05 significant level. The result District.
recorded 29.3 per cent explanatory power of the sociological

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Table 4 Linear Regression Analysis of Psychological Implications of FGM on the Girl Child
Variables Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 1.972 .092 21.363 .000
FGM affects the health of a woman -.042 .023 -.061 -1.801 .072
FGM leads to Psychological traumas .072 .031 .085 2.315 .021
such as anxiety
FGM is a physical abuse on women .341 .027 .484 12.806 .000

R
R-Square .512a
Df .262
3 & 786
a. Dependent Variable: FGM is a common practice in my community.
b. *Significant at 0.05 level (P >.05 or P>.01 and N = 790

Results presented in table 4 reveals that health problem indicated the regression coefficient (r) of .512. The result
as a consequence of FGM was not significant, based on the recorded 26.2 per cent explanatory power of the
significant value of .072, which was greater than .05 psychological implications of FGM on a girl child. This
significant level. From the study, Psychological traumas suggests that 73.8. per cent remaining is attributed to other
such as anxiety and physical abuse were significantly implications that were not considered in this study. This
viewed as psychological implications of FGM on the girl implies that there are psychological implications of FGM on
child with significant value of .02 and .000 respectively, the girl child in Northern Senatorial district of Cross River
which are less than .05 significant level. This analysis State.

Table 5 Measures of Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation

Options Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Standard Deviation Mean
Valid sensitization exercise 177 22.4 22.4
Government should make law 79 10.0 32.4 1.09526 2.7278
bounding FGM
young girls should not see FGM 316 40.0 72.4
as a norm
Religious body should condemn 218 27.6 100.0
the act of FGM
Total 790 100.0

Table 5 shows the measures of eradicating female implications, Briggs (1999) in his findings supports the fact
genital mutilation. The result revealed that out of 790 that FGM, among the Opuama clan of southern Ijaw local
respondents that were administered with questionnaires, Government Area of Bayelsa State, is a strong practice
177(22.4 %) suggested that sensitization exercise should be where “the uncircumcised woman lacks status or voice and
carried out, 79 (10 %) indicated that government should is restricted from places of interest in the community”. On
promulgate laws that will stop the practice of FGM in the Psychological implications, Owumi (1993), in a research
Nigeria, 316 (40 %) maintained that young girls should not carried out in Somalia, agrees that FGM enables women to
see FGM as an acceptable norm, while 218(27.6) opined control their libido and so helps them in their marital
that religious leaders should condemn the act of FGM in fidelity. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that
Nigeria. The values of the standard deviation and the mean there are psycho-social implications of FGM on the girl-
are 1.09526 and 2.7278, which do not show much child in Cross River North Senatorial District of Cross River
variability. State.

V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Findings from the cultural implications of FGM on the

girl child shows that most girls accept the practice of FGM
Based on this field research, it is seen that there are so that they will not be rejected by the members of the
cultural, sociological and psychological implications of community, FGM is associated with cultural ideals of
FGM on the girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial femininity and modesty, which include the notion that girls
District of Cross River State. Cultural implications on the are clean and beautiful after removal of body parts that are
girl-child in Cross River North Senatorial District agrees considered unclean, unfeminine or male. It was discovered
with Osarenren (1997) who noted in his research report that that people have the belief the FGM curtails premarital sex
deep cultural influence made some affluent parents in cities among young girls. Further investigation from the
and abroad to convey their daughters to their villages for discussants of the FGDs recounted their experiences of
circumcision, due to home pressure that their uncircumcised FGM based on cultural influence. “Culture is upon us as
daughters would hardly get married. On the sociological lameness is upon a cripple; we cannot escape its influence,”

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said a discussant. “They tell us that this is what has been just do it because our mothers and our mothers’ mothers did
happening long, long time ago. I was circumcised as a baby. it.” Another said, “I don’t know how I would have felt if I
I don’t think that I would have coped with the pains now, if was not circumcised, but, believe me, I don’t think I would
I were to be circumcised as a teen. With culture I don’t think have died without being circumcised.” When the researcher
we have a choice of our own,” she concluded. Another reminded the girls that it is believed that circumcision
discussant said, “I don’t think that anyone of us here was enhances women’s fidelity in relationship and in marriage,
circumcised as grown-up child – I stand to be corrected – one asked, “So do we conclude that all women who cheat
but the fact that an innocent baby undergoes the pain of are uncircumcised? No, I think fidelity is in the mind rather
cultural belief tells us that baby victims are helpless and than in the physical.”
may continue to be helpless so long as culture persists.” The
researcher, who was part of the discussion, reminded the When asked how the practice of FGM can be
girls that in some other areas where adult circumcision is eradicated in Cross River North Senatorial District,
practised, don’t they think that girls have a say about their discussants suggested, among other things, media awareness
own right? One of the discussant said, “I think they have. on the dangers of FGM and female activism. Other
The girls are grown enough to say no to the pains of suggestions are reflected in the recommendations below.
circumcision.” The researcher said, “But saying no to
circumcision means that the girls may not be accepted in In the bid to identify measures of eradicating female
marriage, since our culture sees uncircumcised women as genital mutilation, the responses were gathered from the
taboos in marriage.” Another discussant replied, “I prefer to respondents: Sensitization exercise should be carried out,
remain unmarried rather than accept such extreme pain for that government should promulgate laws that will stop the
the sake of marriage. I don’t think it is all women practice of FGM in Nigeria, young girls should not see FGM
circumcised that are married, so our culture is wicked to as an acceptable norm and that religious leaders should
hold on to circumcision as a factor for marriage.” Most of condemn the act of FGM in Nigeria.
the discussants felt that, so long as we hold on to our
cultural beliefs on FGM, it would be difficult to eliminate VI. CONCLUSION AND
the practice. RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings regarding sociological implications of FGM FGM has been deeply rooted in many cultures of the
indicates that girls and women who undergo FGM often world, especially in Africa. Although, the practice has no
experience long-term health consequences including medical significance, and has been found to be medically
scarring, cysts, abscesses and other tissue damage, harmful, its psycho-social significance would ever wield it
infertility, and increased susceptibility to infections. They enormous influence over the dire need for change for quite a
may experience difficulty and pain when they menstruate, long time yet to come. The fears of not being circumcised
urinate or have sexual intercourse. Having the girls discuss are so great as to damn the dangerous medical consequences
on the sociological implications of FGM yielded no much of being circumcised. However, based on the findings of the
discussion as most participating girls said they were present study, the following recommendations are made.
circumcised as infants and so could not say much what it
would be like if they had been circumcised as adults, and  In as much as FGM is a cultural means of initiation in
how society would have looked at them while they waited this area, it is recommended that if a more honourable
for the circumcision. Only two discussants said they knew and dignified rite of passage into adulthood is adopted,
some girlfriends who underwent FGM as teenagers. When such as the Moninkim of Ejagham in Central Senatorial
the researcher probed about them, one said, “My friend District of Cross River State, where music and dance
(name withheld) was always shy about her un-circumcision are the main elements of initiation, it would go a long
and felt that something was missing in her life. Other girls way in playing down on FGM as an avenue of
also felt that she was an odd person, when they knew she initiation. Therefore, alternative rites of passage are one
was like that.” The other girl said, “Being not circumcised in way of curbing the menace of FGM. It is in this regard
our community is like being an alien. My friend, though she that Amref Health Africa, through its headquarters
was afraid of the pain of circumcision, looked forward to it.” based in Nairobi, has as one of its cardinal objectives
the provision of “an alternative rite of passage that is
Results from the analysis regarding the psychological safe and acceptable to the community for integrating
implications of FGM on the girl-child in Cross River North girls to a redefined social order” (Osur, 2020.) The
Senatorial District of Cross River State, some implications success of such an objective in reality would go a long
were identified. Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) way in changing the perception of the FGM-practising
can affect a woman's mental health long after the procedure, community towards girlhood and transition into
into her adult life. Women with FGM often show signs of womanhood, which must not necessarily be by FGM.
psychological trauma: anxiety, somatization, depression,  The fear of rejection by the immediate society, it has
post-traumatic stress and other mood disorders. Further been found, makes women to succumb to FGM. It is
study using FGD was carried out and documented thus: recommended that those who have undergone
researcher asked discussants what they thought was the circumcision out of fear should be engaged in activism
benefit of FGM to the woman, one said, “I don’t see any to sensitize their immediate community against the
benefit of this practice to women. All I can say is that we dangers of FGM, so that those who refuse to undergo

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