CHAPTER-1

FACTORS

What are the Factors?

Factors are the numbers that can divide a number exactly. Hence, after division,
there is no remainder left. Factors are the numbers you multiply together to get
another number. Thus, a factor is the divisor of another number.

Properties of Factors
Some of the important properties of factors of a number are listed below:

 1 is a factor of every number

 Every natural number is a factor of itself
 Apart from 0 and 1, all the whole numbers have at least two factors
 Every factor is less than or equal to the given number
 The number of factors of a given number is finite
 Factors can be evaluated using both multiplication and division method

Factorisation in Algebra
The numbers 1, 2, 6, and 12 are all factors of 12 because they divide 12 without a
remainder. It is an important process in algebra which is used to simplify
expressions, simplify fractions, and solve equations. It is also called as Algebra
factorization.

Terms and Factors

What is a Term?
It is something which is to be added or subtracted (subtracting is adding a negative
number) in an expression.

If 2x + 7 is an expression, then 2x and 7 are the terms.

Sum = term + term

What is a Factor?
1
It is something that is to be multiplied in an expression.
Product = factor × factor

For example :

p = 4(2q – 6)

4 and 2q – 6 are the factors whereas 2q and 6 are the terms.

Basic Factorisation Formula

 a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)
 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
 a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
 a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)n
 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
 (a – b – c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 – 2ab + 2bc – 2ca

Factorisation Methods
There are four methods to factorise the algebraic expressions.

 Common factors method

 Regrouping terms method
 Factorisation using identities
 Factors of the form (x+a) (x+b)

Method of Common Factors

In this method, we simply take out the common factors among each term of the
given expression.

Example: Factorise 3x + 9.

Since, 3 is the common factor for both the terms 3x and 9, thus taking 3 as a
common factor we get;

3x + 9 = 3(x+3).

2
Regrouping of Terms Method
Regrouping means rearranging the given expression based on the like terms or
similar terms.

For example, 2xy + 3x + 2y + 3 can be rearranged as:

2xy + 3x + 2y + 3

Expanding the terms into factor form.

=2×x×y+3×x+2×y+3

Rearrange to get the common factor

= x × (2y + 3) + 1 × (2y + 3)

Now (2y + 3) is the common factor we can take out.

= (2y + 3) (x + 1)

Thus, these are the required

factors. Factorisation using

identities
By using the common identities, we can factorise the given expression.

Example: Factorise 4x2 – 9.

Solution: By using the algebraic identities, we know;
a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a+b)

Hence, we can write,

4x2 – 9

= (2x)2 – 32

= (2x + 3) (2x – 3)

Note: For the rest identities check with the formulas for factorisation mentioned in
the above section.

3
Factors of the Form (x+a) (x+b)
If a given expression is in the form of x2 + (a + b) x + ab, then the factors will be
(x+a) and (x + b).

Example: Factorise x2 + 5x + 6.

Solution: If we compare the given expression with x2 + (a + b) x + ab, then;

a+b = 5 ….(i)
ab = 6 ….(ii)

Now we will try putting the values for a and b such that they satisfy the above two
equations.

If we put a = 4 and b = 1, then a + b = 5 satisfies the eq.(i) but a.b = 4, does not
satisfy eq.(ii).

Again, if a = 2 and b = 3, then a + b = 5 satisfies eq.(i) but a.b = 6, does not satisfy
eq.(ii).

x2 + 5x + 6

= x2 + (2 + 3)x + 2.3

= x2 + 2x + 3x + 2.3

= x(x+2) + 3(x+2)

= (x+2) (x+3)

Factorization Method of Quadratic Equations

Factorization of quadratic equations can be done in different methods. They are:

 Splitting the middle term

 Using formula
 Using Quadratic formula
 Using algebraic identities

4
Solved Problems on Factors
Q.1: Find factors of 24.
Solution:

Let’s write the number 24 as the product of numbers.

 1 × 24 = 24
 2 × 12 = 24
 3 × 8 = 24
 4 × 6 = 24
 6 × 4 = 24
Now, there is repeated multiplication, so we have to stop the multiplication.
Hence, the factors of 24 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 and 24

Q.2: What are the Factors of 72?

Solution: Representation 72 as the product of other numbers is given as:

 1 × 72 = 72
 2 × 36 = 72
 3 × 24 = 72
 4 × 18 = 72

 6 × 12 = 72
 8 × 9 = 72
 9 × 8 = 72
Now, we have repeated multiplication so we have to stop the multiplication.
Thus, the factors of 72 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 72

Q.3: Calculate the factors of 12.

Solution: Finding the factors of 12 is simple as given below:

 1 × 12 = 12
 2 × 6 = 12
 3 × 4 = 12

5
  4 × 3 = 12
Therefore, the factors of 12 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12

Q.4:Define the proper factor.

The proper factor is the factor of the number except 1 and the number itself. For
example, the factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, and 15. Then, the proper factors of 15 are 3
and 5
Q.4:Explain the factors and numbers.
A factor is a number that divides the given number exactly without a remainder,
whereas a multiple is a number, and that number is a product of the given number
with other numbers.

Q5:What are the common factors of 10 and 15?

The factors of 10 are: 1, 2, 5, 10
The factors of 15 are: 1, 3, 5, 15
Therefore, the common factors of 10 and 15 are 1 and 5.

Questions on Factors
Q1 What are factors of 16?
Q2What are the factors for 42?
Q3What are factors of 90?
Q4 What are factors of 81?
Q5Write down the common multiples of 3 and 7?
Q6What is the smallest factor of 9?
Q7What are the common factors of 12 and
15? Q.8: Factorise the Quadratic Polynomial:
Q.9: Factorise: x2 – 64.
Q.10: Find the greatest common factor of 6x7 + 3x4 − 9x3.
Q.11 Factorise (7 x + 7 x3) + (x4 + x6).

6
 ANSWER
Answer 1- The factors of 16 are 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16. The factors of 16 can be
expressed in terms of multiplication of numbers as given below:
1 × 16 = 16
2 × 8 = 16
4 × 4 = 16
Answer 2- The factors of 42 are: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 and 42
Answer 3-The factors of 90 are: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 30, 45, and 90
Answer 4-The factors of 81 are: 1, 3, 9, 27 and 81
Answer5- The common multiples of 3 and 7 are 21, 42, and 63.
Answer6- The factors of 9 are 1, 3 and 9. Then the smallest factor of 9 is 1.
Answer7- The factors of 12 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
The factors of 15 are: 1, 3, 5, 15
Therefore, the common factors of 12 and 15 are 1 and 3.
Answrs8- x2 + 7x + 6
The constant term is 6, which can be written as the product of 2 and 3 or of 1 and
6. But 2 + 3 = 5, so 2 and 3 are not the numbers I need in this case. On the other
hand, 1 + 6 = 7, so you can use 1 and 6:

x2 + 7x + 6 = (x+1)(x+6)

Note that the order doesn’t matter in multiplication, so the above answer can be
written as “(x + 6)(x + 1)”.

Answer9- Given, x2 – 64

We can also write the given expression as:

⇒ x2 – 82 [Since 8 x 8 = 64]

7
Now by using the formula,

8
⇒ a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

⇒ x2 – 82 = (x + 8) (x – 8)

Answer10- Given, 6x7 + 3x4 − 9x3

Now factoring the given expression, we get;

⇒ 3x3 ( 2x4 + x − 3 )

Therefore, the greatest common factor is 3x3.

Answer11-(7 x + 7 x3) + (x4 + x6)

Open all the brackets.

⇒ 7x + 7x3 + x4 + x6
Taking the common
factors.

⇒ 7x (1 + x2) + x4 (1 + x2)

⇒ (7x + x4) (1 + x2)

⇒ x (7 + x3 ) (1 + x2)

Hence, the required factors.

9
 CHAPTER-2
LOGARITHMS

Logarithms are the other way of writing the exponents. A logarithm of a number
with a base is equal to another number. A logarithm is just the opposite function of
exponentiation. For example, if 102 = 100 then log10 100 = 2.

Hence, we can conclude that,

Logb x = n or bn = x

Where b is the base of the logarithmic function.

This can be read as “Logarithm of x to the base b is equal to n”.

What are Logarithms?

A logarithm is defined as the power to which a number must be raised to get some
other values. It is the most convenient way to express large numbers. A logarithm
has various important properties that prove multiplication and division of
logarithms can also be written in the form of logarithm of addition and subtraction.

“The logarithm of a positive real number a with respect to base b, a positive real
number not equal to 1[nb 1], is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield a”.
i.e. by= a ⇔logba=y
Where,

 “a” and “b” are two positive real numbers

 y is a real number
 “a” is called argument, which is inside the log
 “b” is called the base, which is at the bottom of the log.

10
Logarithm Rules and Properties
There are certain rules based on which logarithmic operations can be performed.
The names of these rules are:

 Product rule
 Division rule
 Power rule/Exponential Rule
 Change of base rule
 Base switch rule
 Derivative of log
 Integral of log

Product Rule
In this rule, the multiplication of two logarithmic values is equal to the addition of
their individual logarithms.

Logb (mn)= logb m + logb n

For example: log3 ( 2y ) = log3 (2) + log3 (y)

Division Rule
The division of two logarithmic values is equal to the difference of each logarithm.

Logb (m/n)= logb m – logb n

For example, log3 ( 2/ y ) = log3 (2) -log3 (y)

11
Exponential Rule
In the exponential rule, the logarithm of m with a rational exponent is equal to the
exponent times its logarithm.

Logb (mn) = n logb m

Example: logb(23) = 3 logb 2

Change of Base Rule

Logb m = loga m/ loga
b

Example: logb 2 = loga 2/loga b

Base Switch Rule

logb (a) = 1 / loga
(b)

Example: logb 8 = 1/log8 b

Derivative of log
If f (x) = logb (x), then the derivative of f(x) is given by;

f'(x) = 1/(x ln(b))

Example: Given, f (x) = log10 (x)

Then, f'(x) = 1/(x ln(10))

Integral of Log
∫logb(x)dx = x( logb(x) – 1/ln(b) ) + C

Example: ∫ log10(x) dx = x ∙ ( log10(x) – 1 / ln(10) ) + C

Other Properties
Some other properties of logarithmic functions are:

 Logb b = 1
12
 Logb 1 = 0
 Logb 0 = undefined

13
Logarithmic Formulas
logb(mn) = logb(m) + logb(n)

logb(m/n) = logb (m) – logb (n)

Logb (xy) = y logb(x)

Logbm√n = logb n/m

m logb(x) + n logb(y) = logb(xmyn)

logb(m+n) = logb m + logb(1+nm)
logb(m – n) = logb m + logb (1-n/m)

Logarithms Examples
Example 1:
Solve log 2 (64) =?

Solution:
since 26= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 64, 6 is the exponent value and log 2 (64)= 6.

Example 2:
What is the value of log10(100)?

Solution:
In this case, 102 yields you 100. So, 2 is the exponent value, and the value of
log10(100)= 2

Example 3:
Use of the property of logarithms, solve for the value of x for log3 x= log3 4+
log3 7

Solution:
By the addition rule, log3 4+ log3 7= log 3 (4 * 7 )

Log 3 ( 28 ). Thus, x= 28.

14
Example 4:
Solve for x in log2 x = 5

Solution:
This logarithmic function can be written In the exponential form as 25 = x
Therefore, 25= 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32, x= 32.

Example 5:

Find the value of log5 (1/25).

Solution:
Given: log5 (1/25)

By using the property,

Logb (m/n)= logb m – logb n

log5 (1/25) = log5 1 – log5 25
log5 (1/25) = 0 – log5 52

log5 (1/25) = -2log55

log5 (1/25) = -2 (1) [By using the property loga a = 1)

log5 (1/25) = -2.
Hence, the value of log5 (1/25) = -2

Questions on Logarithms
Q1What are logarithms?
Q2What are the two different types of logarithms?
Q3Mention any two properties of the logarithm?
Q4What is the logarithm of 0?
Q5What is the logarithm of 10?

15
 ANSWERS
Answer 1-Logarithms are the other way of expressing exponents. A logarithm is
defined as the power to which a number must be raised to get some other values. In
other words, it gives the answer to the question “How many times a number is
multiplied to get the other number?”. The logarithm of a number is expressed as
logb x = y
Answer 2-The two most common types of logarithms are:
Common Logarithm (or) Base 10 Logarithm
Natural Logarithm (or) Base e Logarithm
Answer 3-The two important properties of logarithm are:
Logb (mn) = logb m+ logb n
Logb (m/n) = logb m – logb n
Answer 4-The logarithm of 0 is undefined. Because, we never get the value 0, by
raising any value to the power of anything else.
Answer5-The logarithm of 10 is 1. (i.e.,) log10 10 = 1. Hence, the base 10
logarithm of 10 is 1.

16
 CHAPTER-3 ARITHMETIC
PROGRESSION (AP)

Arithmetic Progression (AP) is a sequence of numbers in order, in which the

difference between any two consecutive numbers is a constant value. It is also
called Arithmetic Sequence. For example, the series of natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6,… is an Arithmetic Progression, which has a common difference between two
successive terms (say 1 and 2) equal to 1 (2 -1). Even in the case of odd numbers
and even numbers, we can see the common difference between two successive
terms will be equal to 2.

What is Arithmetic Progression?

In mathematics, there are three different types of progressions. They are:

 Arithmetic Progression (AP)

 Geometric Progression (GP)
 Harmonic Progression (HP)
A progression is a special type of sequence for which it is possible to obtain a
formula for the nth term. The Arithmetic Progression is the most commonly used
sequence in maths with easy to understand formulas.
Definition : A mathematical sequence in which the difference between two
consecutive terms is always a constant and it is abbreviated as AP.

Notation in Arithmetic Progression

In AP, we will come across some main terms, which are denoted as:

 First term (a)

 Common difference (d)
 nth Term (an)
 Sum of the first n terms (Sn)
All three terms represent the property of Arithmetic Progression. We will learn
more about these three properties in the next section.

17
First Term of AP
The AP can also be written in terms of common differences, as follows;
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d,,a + (n – 1) d

where “a” is the first term of the progression.

Common Difference in Arithmetic Progression

In this progression, for a given series, the terms used are the first term, the
common difference and nth term. Suppose, a1, a2, a3, ……………., an is an AP,
then; the common difference “ d ” can be obtained as;
d = a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = ……. = an – an – 1

Where “d” is a common difference. It can be positive, negative or zero.

Arithmetic Progression Formulas

There are two major formulas we come across when we learn about Arithmetic
Progression, which is related to:

 The nth term of AP

 Sum of the first n terms
Let us learn here both the formulas with examples.

nth Term of an AP
The formula for finding the n-th term of an AP is:
an = a + (n − 1) × d

Where
a = First term
d = Common

18
difference n = number
of terms
an = nth term

19
Example: Find the nth term of AP: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…., an, if the number of terms
are 15.
Solution: Given, AP: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….,
an n=15
By the formula we know, an = a+(n-1)d
First-term, a =1
Common difference, d=2-1 =1
Therefore, an = a15 = 1+(15-1)1 = 1+14 = 15
Note: The behaviour of the sequence depends on the value of a common
difference.

 If the value of “d” is positive, then the member terms will grow towards
positive infinity
 If the value of “d” is negative, then the member terms grow towards
negative infinity

Types of AP
Finite AP: An AP containing a finite number of terms is called finite AP. A finite
AP has a last term.
For example: 3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21
Infinite AP: An AP which does not have a finite number of terms is called infinite
AP. Such APs do not have a last term.
For example: 5,10,15,20,25,30, 35,40,45………………

Sum of N Terms of AP
For an AP, the sum of the first n terms can be calculated if the first term, common
difference and the total terms are known. The formula for the arithmetic
progression sum is explained below:
Consider an AP consisting “n” terms.
Sn = n/2[2a + (n − 1) × d]

20
Sum of AP when the Last Term is Given
Formula to find the sum of AP when first and last terms are given as follows:
S = n/2 (first term + last term)

List of Arithmetic Progression Formulas

The list of formulas is given in a tabular form used in AP. These formulas are
useful to solve problems based on the series and sequence concept.

General Form of AP a, a + d, a + 2d, a +

3d, . . .
The nth term of AP an = a + (n – 1) × d

Sum of n terms in AP S = n/2[2a + (n − 1)

× d]
Sum of all terms in a finite AP n/2(a + l)
with the last term as ‘l’

Arithmetic Progressions Solved Examples

Below are the problems to find the nth term and the sum of the sequence, which
are solved using AP sum formulas in detail. Go through them once and solve the
practice problems to excel in your skills.
Example 1: Find the value of n, if a = 10, d = 5, an = 95.
Solution: Given, a = 10, d = 5, an = 95
From the formula of general term, we
have: an = a + (n − 1) × d
95 = 10 + (n − 1) × 5
(n − 1) × 5 = 95 – 10 = 85
(n − 1) = 85/ 5
(n − 1) = 17
n = 17 + 1
n = 18
21
Example 2: Find the 20th term for the given AP:3, 5, 7, 9, ……
Solution: Given,
3, 5, 7, 9, ……
a = 3, d = 5 – 3 = 2, n = 20
an = a + (n − 1) × d
a20 = 3 + (20 − 1) × 2
a20 = 3 + 38
⇒a20 = 41
Example 3: Find the sum of the first 30 multiples of 4.
Solution:
The first 30 multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, …..,
120 Here, a = 4, n = 30, d = 4
We know,
S30 = n/2 [2a + (n − 1) × d]
S30 = 30/2[2 (4) + (30 − 1) × 4]
S30 = 15[8 + 116]
S30 = 1860

Questions on Arithmetic Progression

Q1What is the general form of Arithmetic Progression?

Q2What is arithmetic progression? Give an example.

Q3How to find the sum of arithmetic progression?

22
Q4What are the types of progressions in Maths?

Q5What is the use of Arithmetic Progression?

ANSWERS
Answer1-The general form of arithmetic progression is given by a, a + d, a + 2d, a
+ 3d, . . .. Hence, the formula to find the nth term is:
an = a + (n – 1) × d
Answer2-A sequence of numbers that has a fixed common difference between any
two consecutive numbers is called an arithmetic progression (A.P.). The example
of A.P. is 3,6,9,12,15,18,21, …
Answer3-To find the sum of arithmetic progression, we have to know the first
term, the number of terms and the common difference. Then use the formula given
below:
Sn = n/2[2a + (n − 1) × d]
Answer4-There are three types of progressions in Maths. They are:
Arithmetic Progression (AP)
Geometric Progression (GP)
Harmonic Progression (HP)
Answer5-An arithmetic progression is a series which has consecutive terms having
a common difference between the terms as a constant value. It is used to generalise
a set of patterns, that we observe in our day to day life. For example, AP used in
prediction of any sequence like when someone is waiting for a cab. Assuming that
the traffic is moving at a constant speed he/she can predict when the next cab will
come.

23
 CHAPTER-4
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Algebraic expressions are the idea of expressing numbers using letters or

alphabets without specifying their actual values. The basics of algebra taught us
how to express an unknown value using letters such as x, y, z, etc. These letters are
called here as variables. An algebraic expression can be a combination of both
variables and constants. Any value that is placed before and multiplied by a
variable is a coefficient.

What is an Algebraic Expression?

An algebraic expression in mathematics is an expression which is made up of
variables and constants, along with algebraic operations (addition, subtraction,
etc.). Expressions are made up of terms. Also, solve questions in Algebraic
Expressions Worksheets, at BYJU’S.

Examples
3x + 4y – 7, 4x – 10, etc.

These expressions are represented with the help of unknown variables, constants
and coefficients. The combination of these three (as terms) is said to be an
expression. It is to be noted that, unlike the algebraic equation, an algebraic
expression has no sides or equal to sign. Some of its examples include

 3x + 2y – 5
 x – 20
 2x2 − 3xy + 5

Variables, Coefficient & Constant in Algebraic Expressions

expression (i.e. 5x – 3),

 x is a variable, whose value is unknown to us which can take any value.

 5 is known as the coefficient of x, as it is a constant value used with the
variable term and is well defined.
 3 is the constant value term that has a definite value.

24
The whole expression is known to be the Binomial term, as it has two unlikely
terms.

Types of Algebraic expression

There are 3 main types of algebraic expressions which include:

 Monomial Expression
 Binomial Expression
 Polynomial Expression

Monomial Expression
An algebraic expression which is having only one term is known as a monomial.

Examples of monomial expressions include 3x4, 3xy, 3x, 8y, etc.

Binomial Expression
A binomial expression is an algebraic expression which is having two terms, which
are unlike.

Examples of binomial include 5xy + 8, xyz + x3, etc.

Polynomial Expression
In general, an expression with more than one term with non-negative integral
exponents of a variable is known as a polynomial.

Examples of polynomial expression include ax + by + ca, x3 + 2x + 3, etc.

Other Types of Expression

Apart from monomial, binomial and polynomial types of expressions, an algebraic
expression can also be classified into two additional types which are:

 Numeric Expression
 Variable Expression

Numeric Expression
A numeric expression consists of numbers and operations, but never include any
variable. Some of the examples of numeric expressions are 10 + 5, 15 ÷ 2, etc.

25
Variable Expression
A variable expression is an expression that contains variables along with numbers
and operation to define an expression. A few examples of a variable expression
include 4x + y, 5ab + 33, etc.

Formulas
The general algebraic formulas we use to solve the expressions or equations are:

 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
 a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)
 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
 (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
 a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
 a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

What are the Factors of a Term?

 The numbers or variables that are multiplied to form a term are called its
factors. For example, 5xy is a term with factors 5, x and y.
 The factors cannot be further factorized. For example, 5xy cannot be written
as the product of factors 5 and xy. This is because xy can be factorized
to x and y.
 The factors of the term 3a4 are 3, a, a, a and a.
 1 is not taken as a separate factor.

What is a Coefficient in an Expression?

A coefficient is an integer that is written along with a variable or it is multiplied by
the variable. In other words, a coefficient is the numerical factor of a term
containing constant and variables. For example, in the term 2x, 2 is the coefficient.

The variables which do not carry any number along with them, have a coefficient
of 1. For example, the term y has a coefficient of 1. For example, in the
expression 5ab, 5 is the coefficient.
26
 Questions on Algebraic
Expression Q1 How to derive algebraic
expressions?
An algebraic expression is a combination of constants, variables and algebraic
operations (+, -, ×, ÷). We can derive the algebraic expression for a given situation
or condition by using these combinations.
For example, Sima age is thrice more than Tina. And the total age of Sima and
Tina is 40. Expressing the algebraic form of this condition;
3x + x = 40 ⇒ 4x = 40; where x is the age of Tina.

Q2Are algebraic expressions polynomials?

No, not all algebraic expressions are polynomials. But all polynomials are
algebraic expressions. The difference is polynomials include only variables and
coefficients with mathematical operations(+, -, ×) but algebraic expressions
include irrational numbers in the powers as well.
Also, polynomials are continuous function (eg: x2 + 2x + 1) but algebraic
expression may not be continuous sometimes (eg: 1/x2 – 1 is not continuous at 1).

Q3Is 4 an algebraic expression?

No, 4 is not an algebraic expression because an expression should have at least one
variable and one operation to be algebraic.

Q4What are all the types of algebraic expressions?

There are three basic types of algebraic expressions. They are;

1. Monomial-Which has only one non-zero term.

2. Binomial-Which has two non-zero terms.
3. Polynomial- Which has more than one non-zero term with non-negative
integral exponents.
Q5What is a variable in an algebraic expression?
A variable is an unknown quantity which we need to evaluate by solving the given
algebraic equation.

27
Questions on Algebraic Expression

28
Q1Determine the variables, terms, constants and coefficients of the algebraic
expression 9x+2y-3.
Q2Find the factors of the algebraic expression 5x (2-y)

Q3What is a coefficient, term of an expression 5x+8y?

Q4What is a coefficient?

ANSWERS
Answer1-Given algebraic expression: 9x+2y-3

Here,

Variables: x and y
Terms: 9x, 2y and
3 Constant: 3
Coefficient: 9 and 2.

Answer2- Given expression 5x (2-y)

The factors of 5x (2-y) are 5, x, and (2-y).

Answer3- In an expression 5x+8y, the coefficients are 5 and 8, and the terms are
5x and 8y.

Answer4- A coefficient is a numerical value that is multiplied by a variable. For

example, the coefficient of 7x is 7.

29
 CHAPTER-5 LINEAR
EQUATIONS

Definition
An equation is a mathematical statement, which has an equal sign (=) between the
algebraic expression. Linear equations are the equations of degree 1. It is the
equation for the straight line. The solutions of linear equations will generate
values, which when substituted for the unknown values, make the equation true. In
the case of one variable, there is only one solution. For example, the equation x + 2
= 0 has only one solution as x = -2. But in the case of the two-variable linear
equation, the solutions are calculated as the Cartesian coordinates of a point of the
Euclidean plane.

Below are some examples of linear equations in one variable, two variables and
three variables:

Linear Equation in Linear Equation in Two Linear Equation in

One variable variables Three variables

3x+5=0 y+7x=3 x+y+z=0

(3/2)x +7 = 3a+2b = a – 3b = c
0 5 3x + 12 y = ½ z
98x = 49 6x+9y-12=0

Forms of Linear Equation

The three forms of linear equations are

Standard Form
 Slope Intercept Form
 Point Slope Form
Now, let us discuss these three major forms of linear equations in detail.

30
Standard Form of Linear Equation
Linear equations are a combination of constants and variables. The standard form
of a linear equation in one variable is represented as

ax + b = 0, where, a ≠ 0 and x is the variable.

The standard form of a linear equation in two variables is represented as

ax + by + c = 0, where, a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 , x and y are the variables.

The standard form of a linear equation in three variables is represented as

ax + by + cz + d = 0, where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, x, y, z are the variables.

Slope Intercept Form

The most common form of linear equations is in slope-intercept form, which is
represented as;

y = mx + b
Where,

m is the slope of the

line, b is the y-intercept

x and y are the coordinates of the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.

For example, y = 3x + 7:
slope, m = 3 and intercept = 7

If a straight line is parallel to the x-axis, then the x-coordinate will be equal to zero.
Therefore,

y=b

31
If the line is parallel to the y-axis then the y-coordinate will be zero.

mx+b = 0

32
x=-b/m

Slope: The slope of the line is equal to the ratio of the change in y-coordinates to
the change in x-coordinates. It can be evaluated by:

m = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)

So basically the slope shows the rise of line in the plane along with the distance
covered in the x-axis. The slope of the line is also called a gradient.

Point Slope Form

In this form of linear equation, a straight line equation is formed by considering the
points in the x-y plane, such that:

y – y1 = m(x – x1 )

where (x1, y1) are the coordinates of the point.

We can also express it as:

y = mx + y1 – mx1

Summary:
There are different forms to write linear equations. Some of them are:

Linear Equation General Form Example

Slope intercept form y = mx + b y + 2x = 3

Point–slope form y – y1 = m(x – x1 ) y – 3 = 6(x – 2)

General Form Ax + By + C = 0 2x + 3y – 6 = 0

Intercept form x/a + y/b = 1 x/2 + y/3 = 1

f(x) instead of y
As a Function f(x) = x + 3
f(x) = x + C

33
The Identity Function f(x) = x f(x) = 3x

Constant Functions f(x) = C f(x) = 6

Where m = slope of a line; (a, b) intercept of x-axis and y-axis.

How to Solve Linear Equations?

By now you have got an idea of linear equations and their different forms. Now let
us learn how to solve linear equations or line equations in one variable, in two
variables and in three variables with examples. Solving these equations with step
by step procedures are given here.

Solution of Linear Equations in One Variable

Both sides of the equation are supposed to be balanced for solving a linear
equation. The equality sign denotes that the expressions on either side of the ‘equal
to’ sign are equal. Since the equation is balanced, for solving it,
certain mathematical operations are performed on both sides of the equation in a
manner that does not affect the balance of the equation. Here is the example related
to the linear equation in one variable.

Example: Solve (2x – 10)/2 = 3(x – 1)

Step 1: Clear the fraction

x – 5 = 3(x – 1)

Step 2: Simplify Both sides equations

x – 5 = 3x – 3

x = 3x + 2

Step 3: Isolate x
x – 3x = 2
-2x=2
x=-1

34
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables
To solve linear equations in 2 variables, there are different methods. Following are
some of them:

1. Method of substitution
2. Cross multiplication method
3. Method of elimination
We must choose a set of 2 equations to find the values of 2 variables. Such as ax +
by + c = 0 and dx + ey + f = 0, also called a system of equations with two
variables, where x and y are two variables and a, b, c, d, e, f are constants, and a, b,
d and e are not zero. Else, the single equation has an infinite number of solutions.

Solution of Linear Equations in Three Variables

To solve linear equations in 3 variables, we need a set of 3 equations as given
below to find the values of unknowns. Matrix method is one of the popular
methods to solve system of linear equations with 3 variables.

a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0

a2x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 and

a3x + b3 y + c3 z + d3 = 0

Solving Linear Equations

Example 1:
Solve x = 12(x +2)

Solution:
x = 12(x + 2)
x = 12x + 24

Subtract 24 on both sides of

equation x – 24 = 12x + 24 – 24

x – 24 = 12x

35
Simplify
11x = -24

Isolate x:

x = -24/11.

Example 2:
Solve x – y = 12 and 2x + y = 22

Solution:

Name the equations

x – y = 12 …(1)
2x + y = 22 …(2)

Isolate Equation (1) for x,

x = y + 12

Substitute x =y + 12 in equation
(2) 2(y+12) + y = 22
3y + 24 = 22

3y = -2

or y = -2/3

Substitute the value of y in x = y +

12 x = y + 12
x = -2/3 + 12

x = 34/3

Answer: x = 34/3 and y = -2/3

36
 Questions on Linear
Equations Q1What is a Linear equation?
Q2What are the three forms of linear equations?
Q3How do we express the standard form of a linear equation?
Q4What is the slope-intercept form of linear equations?
Q5What is the difference between linear and non-linear equations?

ANSWERS
Answer1- Linear equations are the equations of degree 1. It is the equation for the
straight line. The standard form of linear equation is ax+by+c =0, where a ≠ 0 and
b ≠ 0.
Answer2- The three forms of linear equations are standard form, slope-intercept
form and point-slope form.
Answer3- The standard form of linear equations is given by:
Ax + By + C = 0
Here, A, B and C are constants, x and y are variables.
Also, A ≠ 0, B ≠ 0
Answer4- The slope-intercept form of linear equations is given by:
y=mx+b
Where m denotes the steepness of line and b is the y-intercept.
Answer5- A linear equation is meant for straight lines.
A non-linear equation does not form a straight line. It can be a curve that has a
variable slope value.

37
 CHAPTER-6(A)
QUADRATIC EQUATION

What is quadratic equation?

The standard form of a quadratic equation is ax2+bx+c=0, where a,b and c are real
numbers and a≠0. 'a' is the coefficient of x2. It is called the quadratic coefficient.

List of Quadratic Equation Formulas

Standard Form of Quadratic Equation ax2+ bx + c = 0, a≠0

Quadratic Formula -b ± √D⁄2a or -b ± b2 − 4ac⁄2a

Discriminant D = b2 − 4ac

Sum of Roots −b/a

Product of Roots c/a

38
Question 1
Check whether the following are quadratic equations:

39
 (i)(x+1)2=2(x-3)
(ii)x–2x =(-2)(3-x)
(iii) (x – 2) (x + 1) = (x – 1) (x + 3)
(iv) (x – 3) (2x + 1) = x (x + 5)
(v) (2x – 1) (x – 3) = (x + 5) (x – 1)
(vi) x +
2
3x + 1 = (x – 2)2
(vii) (x + 2) =
3
2x(x2 – 1)
(viii) x3 -4x2 -x + 1 = (x-2)3

Solution:

40
Question 2
Represent the following situations in the form of quadratic equations:
(i) The area of a rectangular plot is 528 m2. The length of the plot (in metres) is one
more than twice its breadth. We need to find the length and breadth of the plot.
(ii) The product of two consecutive positive integers is 306. We need to find the
integers.
(iii) Rohan’s mother is 26 years older than him. The product of their ages (in years)
3 years from now will be 360. We would like to find Rohan’s present age.
(iv) A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been
8 km/h less, then it would have taken 3 hours more to cover the same distance. We
need to find the speed of the train.

41
Solution:

42
43
 CHAPTER-6(B)
QUADRATIC EQUATION

Standard form of the quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Any equation of the form P(x) = 0, Where P(x) is a polynomial of degree 2, is a
quadratic equation.

Zero(es)/Root(s) of Quadratic Equation

A real number α is said to be a root of the quadratic

equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,

a≠0

if aα2 + bα + c = 0.
We can say that x = α, is a solution of the quadratic equation or that α satisfies the
quadratic equation.
The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax + bx + c = 0 and the roots of the
2

equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are same. A quadratic equation has atmost two

roots/zeroes.

Relation Between Zeroes and Co-efficient of a Quadratic Equation

If α and β are zeroes of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are
real numbers and a ≠ 0 then

44
Methods of Solving Quadratic Equation
Following are the methods which are used to solve quadratic equations:

(i) Factorisation
(ii) Completing the square
(iii) Quadratic Formula

Methods of Factorisation
In this method we find the roots of a quadratic equation (ax2 + bx + c = 0) by
factorising LHS it into two linear factors and equating each factor to zero, e.g.,
6x2 –x–2=0
⇒ 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2 = 0 …(i)
⇒ 3x (2x + 1) – 2(2x + 1) = 0
⇒ (3x — 2) (2x + 1) = 0
⇒ 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0

Necessary Condition : Product of 1st and last terms of eq. (i) should be equal to
product of 2nd and 3rd terms of the same equation.

Method of Completing the Square

This is the method of converting L.H.S. of a quadratic equation which is not
a perfect square into the sum or difference of a perfect square and a constant
by adding and subtracting the suitable constant terms. E.g,
45
(1) x2 + 4x – 5 = 0
⇒ x2 + 2(2)(x) -5 = 0
⇒ x2 + 2(2)(x) + (2)2 – (2)2 – 5 = 0
⇒ (x + 2)2 – 4 – 5 = 0
⇒ (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0
⇒x+2=±3
⇒ x = —5, 1
(2) 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0

Quadratic Formula
Consider a quadratic equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0.
If b – 4ac ≥ 0, then the roots of the above equation are given by:
2

46
Nature of Roots
For quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
(a ≠ 0), value of (b – 4ac) is called discriminant of the equation and denoted as D.
2

D = b2 – 4ac
Discriminant is very important in finding nature of the roots.
(i) If D = 0, then roots are real and equal.
(ii) If D > 0, then roots are real and unequal
(iii) If D < 0, then roots are not real.

47
 CHAPTER-7
POLYNOMIAL
Algebraic Expressions
An algebraic expression is an expression made up of variables and constants
along with mathematical operators.
An algebraic expression is a sum of terms, which are considered to be building
blocks for expressions.

Formulas
The general algebraic formulas we use to solve the expressions or equations
are:

 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
 a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b)
 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
 (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
 a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
 a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

A term is a product of variables and constants. A term can be an algebraic

expression in itself.
Examples of a term – 3, which is just a constant.
– 2x, which is the product of constant ‘2’ and the variable ‘x’

48
– 4xy, which is the product of the constant ‘4’ and the variables ‘x’ and ‘y’.
– 5x2y, which is the product of 5, x, x and y.
The constant in each term is referred to as the coefficient.
Example of an algebraic expression: 3x2y+4xy+5x+6 which is the sum of four
terms: 3x2y, 4xy, 5x and 6.
An algebraic expression can have any number of terms. The coefficient in each
term can be any real number. There can be any number of variables in an
algebraic expression. The exponent on the variables, however, must be rational
numbers.

Polynomial

An algebraic expression can have exponents that are rational numbers. However, a
polynomial is an algebraic expression in which the exponent on any variable is a
whole number.

Let us consider a few more examples,

5x +3x+1 is an example of a polynomial. It is an algebraic expression as well.
3

2x+3√x is an algebraic expression but not a polynomial. – since the exponent on x

is 1/2, which is not a whole number

Degree of a Polynomial
For a polynomial in one variable – the highest exponent on the variable in a
polynomial is the degree of the polynomial.

49
Example: The degree of the polynomial x 2+2x+3 is 2, as the highest power of x in
the given expression is x2.
Consider another example, the degree of the polynomial x8 + 2x6 – 3x + 9 is 8
since the greatest power in the given expression is 8.

Types Of Polynomials
Polynomials can be classified based on the following.
a) Number of terms
b) Degree of the polynomial.

Types of Polynomials Based on the Number of Terms

a) Monomial – A polynomial with just one term. Example: 2x, 6x2, 9xy
b) Binomial – A polynomial with two unlike terms. Example: 4x2+x, 5x+4
a) Trinomial – A polynomial with three unlike terms. Example: x2+3x+4

Types of Polynomials based on Degree

 Linear Polynomial
 A polynomial whose degree is one is called a linear polynomial.
For example, 2x+1 is a linear polynomial.
 Quadratic Polynomial
 A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial.
For example, 3x2+8x+5 is a quadratic polynomial.
 Cubic Polynomial
 A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.
For example, 2x3+5x2+9x+15 is a cubic polynomial.

 Graphical Representations
 Let us learn here how to represent polynomial equations on the graph.

 Representing Equations on a Graph

Any equation can be represented as a graph on the Cartesian plane, where each
point on the graph represents the x and y coordinates of the point that satisfies the
equation. An equation can be seen as a constraint placed on the x and y coordinates
of a point, and any point that satisfies that constraint will lie on the curve.

50
For example, the equation y = x, on a graph, will be a straight line that joins all the
points which have their x coordinate equal to their y coordinate. Example – (1,1),
(2,2) and so on.

Geometrical Representation of a Linear Polynomial

The graph of a linear polynomial is a straight line. It cuts the X-axis at exactly one
point.

51
52
Linear graph

Geometrical Representation of a Quadratic Polynomial

 The graph of a quadratic polynomial is a parabola
 It looks like a U, which either opens upwards or opens downwards
depending on the value of ‘a’ in ax2+bx+c
 If ‘a’ is positive, then parabola opens upwards and if ‘a’ is negative then it
opens downwards
 It can cut the x-axis at 0, 1 or two points

Graph of a polynomial which cuts the x-axis in two distinct points (a>0)

Graph of a Quadratic polynomial which touches the x-axis at one point (a>0)

53
Graph of a Quadratic polynomial that doesn’t touch the x-axis (a<0

Graph of the Polynomial x^n

For a polynomial of the form y=xn where n is a whole number:
as n increases, the graph becomes steeper or draws closer to the Y-axis
If n is odd, the graph lies in the first and third quadrants
If n is even, the graph lies in the first and second quadrants
The graph of y=−xn is the reflection of the graph of y=xn on the x-axis

Graph of polynomials with different degrees.

Zeroes of a Polynomial
A zero of a polynomial p(x) is the value of x for which the value of p(x) is 0. If k is
a zero of p(x), then p(k)=0.
54
For example, consider a polynomial p(x)=x2−3x+2.
When x=1, the value of p(x) will be equal to
p(1)=12−3×1+2
=1−3+2
=0
Since p(x)=0 at x=1, we say that 1 is a zero of the polynomial x2−3x+2

Geometrical Meaning of Zeros of a Polynomial

Geometrically, zeros of a polynomial are the points where its graph cuts the x-axis.

(i) One zero (Linear Polynomial) (ii) Two zeros (Quadratic Polynomial) (iii)
Three zeros (Cubic Polynomial)
Here A, B and C correspond to the zeros of the polynomial represented by the
graphs.

Number of Zeros
In general, a polynomial of degree n has at most n zeros.

 A linear polynomial has one zero,

 A quadratic polynomial has at most two zeros.
 A cubic polynomial has at most 3 zeros.

55
 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial

 For Quadratic Polynomial:

If α and β are the roots of a quadratic polynomial ax2+bx+c, then,
α + β = -b/a
Sum of zeroes = -coefficient of x /coefficient of x2
αβ = c/a
Product of zeroes = constant term / coefficient of x2

 For Cubic Polynomial

If α,β and γ are the roots of a cubic polynomial ax3+bx2+cx+d, then
α+β+γ = -b/a
αβ +βγ +γα = c/a
αβγ = -d/a

 Example
Calculate the sum of the zeroes and the product of the zeroes of the
polynomial 9x2 – 16x + 20.

 Solution:
Given polynomial: 9x2 – 16x + 20
The given polynomial is a quadratic polynomial, as the degree of the
polynomial is 2.
We know that the standard form of a quadratic polynomial is ax2 + bx + c.
By comparing the given polynomial and the standard form, we can write.
a=9
b = -16
c = 20
By using the relationship between zeroes and the coefficients of the
polynomial, we can get the following:
For a quadratic polynomial,
The sum of zeroes = -coefficient of x /coefficient of x2
Now, substitute the values in the formula, we get

56
 Sum of zeroes = -(-16)/9 = 16/9.
Similarly, Product of zeroes = constant term / coefficient of x2
Plugging the values in the above formula, we get
Product of zeroes = 20/9
Hence, 16/9 and 20/9 are the sum and the product of the zeroes of the
polynomial 9x2 – 16x + 20.

Division Algorithm
Let us assume that P(x) and G(x) are the two polynomials, such that G(x)≠ 0, then
the division algorithm states the formula to find Q(x) and R(x) of the polynomial.
Here, P(x) denotes dividend polynomial
G(x) denotes divisor polynomial
Q(x) denotes quotient polynomial
R(x) denotes the remainder polynomial.
Thus, the formula stated by division algorithm is:
P(x) = G(x) × Q(x) + R(x)
To divide one polynomial by another, follow the steps given below.
Step 1: Arrange the terms of the dividend and the divisor in the decreasing order of
their degrees.
Step 2: To obtain the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of
the dividend by the highest degree term of the divisor Then carry out the division
process.
Step 3: The remainder from the previous division becomes the dividend for the
next step. Repeat this process until the degree of the remainder is less than the
degree of the divisor.

57
Algebraic Identities
1. (a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2
2. (a−b)2=a2−2ab+b2
3. (x+a)(x+b)=x2+(a+b)x+ab
4. a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)
5. a3−b3=(a−b)(a2+ab+b2)
6. a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)
7. (a+b)3=a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3
8. (a−b)3=a3−3a2b+3ab2−b3

Example 1:
Determine the quadratic polynomial, whose zeroes are 5-3√2 and 5+3√2.
Solution:
Given zeroes: 5-3√2 and 5+3√2.
Finding sum of zeroes:
Sum of zeroes = (5-3√2)+(5+3√2)
Sum of zeroes = 5+5 = 10.
Finding product of zeroes:
Product of zeroes = (5-3√2)(5+3√2)
We know that a2-b2 = (a+b)(a-b).
Hence, (5)2– (3√2)2 = (5-3√2)(5+3√2).
Therefore, product of zeroes = 25 – [9(2)]= 25 – 18 = 7

58
Thus, the required quadratic polynomial is:
P(x)= x2 -(sum of zeroes)x + product of zeroes
P(x) = x2-10x+7.
Hence, the required quadratic polynomial is x2-10x+7.
Q1How to derive algebraic expressions?
An algebraic expression is a combination of constants, variables and algebraic
operations (+, -, ×, ÷). We can derive the algebraic expression for a given situation
or condition by using these combinations.
For example, Sima age is thrice more than Tina. And the total age of Sima and
Tina is 40. Expressing the algebraic form of this condition;
3x + x = 40 ⇒ 4x = 40; where x is the age of
Tina.

Q2 Are algebraic expressions polynomials?

No, not all algebraic expressions are polynomials. But all polynomials are
algebraic expressions. The difference is polynomials include only variables and
coefficients with mathematical operations(+, -, ×) but algebraic expressions
include irrational numbers in the powers as well.
Also, polynomials are continuous function (eg: x2 + 2x + 1) but algebraic
expression may not be continuous sometimes (eg: 1/x2 – 1 is not continuous at 1).

Q3 Is 4 an algebraic expression?
No, 4 is not an algebraic expression because an expression should have at least one
variable and one operation to be algebraic.

Q4 What are all the types of algebraic expressions?

There are three basic types of algebraic expressions. They are;

1. Monomial-Which has only one non-zero term.

2. Binomial-Which has two non-zero terms.
3. Polynomial- Which has more than one non-zero term with non-negative
integral exponents.

59
Q5 What is a variable in an algebraic expression?
A variable is an unknown quantity which we need to evaluate by solving the given
algebraic equation.

60
 CHAPTER-8
TRIGONOMETRY BASIC
WHAT IS TRIGONOMETRY?
Trigonometry, the branch of mathematics concerned with specific functions of
angles and their application to calculations.

The trigonometric formulas for ratios are majorly based on the three sides of a
right-angled triangle, such as the adjacent side or base; perpendicular and
hypotenuse (See the above figure). Applying Pythagoras theorem for the given
right-angled triangle, we have:

(Perpendicular)2 + (Base)2 = (Hypotenuse)2

⇒ (P)2 + (B)2 = (H)2

Now, let us see the formulas based on trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, tangent,
secant, cosecant and cotangent)

BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

The Trigonometric formulas are given below:

S.no Property Mathematical value

1 sin A Perpendicular/Hypotenuse

61
2 cos A Base/Hypotenuse

3 tan A Perpendicular/Base

4 cot A Base/Perpendicular

5 cosec A Hypotenuse/Perpendicular

6 sec A Hypotenuse/Base

Reciprocal Relation between Trigonometric Ratios

S.no Identity Relation

1 tan A sin A/cos A

2 cot A cos A/sin A

3 cosec A 1/sin A

4 sec A 1/cos A

62
 TRIGNOMETRIC TABLE

Trigonometric Sign Functions

 sin (-θ) = − sin θ

 cos (−θ) = cos θ
 tan (−θ) = − tan θ
 cosec (−θ) = − cosec θ
 sec (−θ) = sec θ
 cot (−θ) = − cot θ

Trigonometric Identities

1. sin2A + cos2A = 1
2. tan2A + 1 = sec2A
3. cot2A + 1 = cosec2A

Periodic Identities

 sin(2nπ + θ ) = sin θ
 cos(2nπ + θ ) = cos θ
 tan(2nπ + θ ) = tan θ

63
 cot(2nπ + θ ) = cot θ

64
  sec(2nπ + θ ) = sec θ
 cosec(2nπ + θ ) = cosec θ

Complementary Ratios
Quadrant I

 sin(π/2 − θ) = cos θ
 cos(π/2 − θ) = sin θ
 tan(π/2 − θ) = cot θ
 cot(π/2 − θ) = tan θ
 sec(π/2 − θ) = cosec θ
 cosec(π/2 − θ) = sec θ

Quadrant II

 sin(π − θ) = sin θ
 cos(π − θ) = -cos θ

 tan(π − θ) = -tan θ
 cot(π − θ) = – cot θ
 sec(π − θ) = -sec θ
 cosec(π − θ) = cosec θ

Quadrant III

 sin(π + θ) = – sin θ
 cos(π + θ) = – cos θ
 tan(π + θ) = tan θ
 cot(π + θ) = cot θ
 sec(π + θ) = -sec θ
 cosec(π + θ) = -cosec θ

Quadrant IV

 sin(2π − θ) = – sin θ
 cos(2π − θ) = cos θ
 tan(2π − θ) = – tan θ
 cot(2π − θ) = – cot θ
 sec(2π − θ) = sec θ
65
  cosec(2π − θ) = -cosec θ

Sum and Difference of Two Angles

 sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

 sin (A − B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
 cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
 cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
 tan(A + B) = [(tan A + tan B)/(1 – tan A tan B)]
 tan(A – B) = [(tan A – tan B)/(1 + tan A tan B)]

Double Angle Formulas

 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = [2 tan A /(1 + tan2A)]

 cos 2A = cos2A – sin2A = 1 – 2 sin2A = 2 cos2A – 1 = [(1 – tan2A)/(1 +
tan2A)]
 tan 2A = (2 tan A)/(1 – tan2A)

Triple Angle Formulas

 sin 3A = 3 sinA – 4 sin3A

 cos 3A = 4 cos3A – 3 cos A
 tan 3A = [3 tan A – tan3A]/[1 − 3 tan2A]

Example 1:
If sin A = ⅗, then find the value of cos A and cot A.

Solution:
Given,

sin A =

Using the identity, sin2A + cos2A = 1,

66
cos2A = 1 – (⅗)2

67
= (25 – 9)/25

= 16/25

Considering only the positive part,

cos A = ⅘

Also, cot A = cos A/sin A = (⅘)/(⅗) = 4/3

Example 2:
Evaluate sin 35° cos 55° + cos 35° sin 55°.

Solution:
Given expression:

sin 35° cos 55° + cos 35° sin 55°

This is of the form sin A cos B + cos A sin B.

Thus, by using the identity sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, we

get; sin 35° cos 55° + cos 35° sin 55° = sin(35° + 55°) = sin 90° = 1

Example 3:
If tan P = cot Q, then prove that P + Q = 90°.

Solution:
Given,

tan P = cot Q

As we know, tan(90° – A) = cot

A. So, tan P = tan(90° – Q)

Therefore, P = 90° – Q
And

P + Q = 90°

68
Hence proved.

Practice Questions

1. Evaluate: sin 28°/cos 62°

2. Find the value of tan 1° tan 2° tan 3° … tan 89°.
3. If cos A + cos2A = 1, then show that sin2A + sin4A = 1.

Q1 What are the six ratios of trigonometry?

The six ratios, i.e., trigonometric ratios are sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant,
secant and cotangent. These can be written for an angle A as sinA, cosA, tanA,
cosecA, secA and cotA respectively.
Q2 What are the Pythagorean identities of trigonometry?
The below three trigonometry identities are known as the Pythagorean identities of
trigonometry.
sin2A + cos2A = 1
tan2A + 1 = sec2A
cot2A + 1 = cosec2A
Q3 How do you write the formulas for trigonometry ratios?
The formulas for trigonometric ratios are as follows:
sin A = Side opposite to A/Hypotenuse
cos A = Side adjacent to
A/Hypotenuse
tan A = Side opposite to A/Side adjacent to
A cot A = Side adjacent to A/Side opposite
to A cosec A = Hypotenuse/Side opposite to
A
sec A = Hypotenuse/Side adjacent to A

Q4 What do you mean by complementary and supplementary angles?

Two angles are said to be complementary if their sum is 900. In the same way, if
the sum of two angles is 1800, then they are called supplementary angles.

Q5 What is the maximum and minimum value of sinθ?

The maximum value of sinθ is 1 while the minimum value is -1.
69
 QUESTIONS

Q1What are the basic trigonometric ratios?

Q2 What are formulas for trigonometry ratios?

Q3 What are the three main functions in trigonometry?
Q4 What are the fundamental trigonometry identities?

Q5 Trigonometry formulas are applicable to which triangle?

Q6 At what angle, the trigonometric ratio tan is equal to the cot?
Q7 What are trigonometric formulas?

Q8 What is the formula for sin 3x?

ANSWERS
ANS1- Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent, Secant and Cosecant.

ANS2- Sin A =
Perpendicular/Hypotenuse Cos A =
Base/Hypotenuse
Tan A = Perpendicular/Base

ANS3- Sin, Cos and Tan are three main functions in trigonometry.

ANS4- The three fundamental identities are:

1. sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
2. 1+tan2 A = sec2 A
3. 1+cot2 A = csc2 A

ANS5- Right-angled triangle

ANS6- The trigonometric ratios tan equals cot when the angle equals 45 degrees.
(i.e. tan 45° = cot 45° = 1)

ANS7- Trigonometric formulas are used to evaluate the problem, which involves
trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, cosecant and
70
secant. Using the different trigonometric identities, we can solve the problems
which involve the right triangle’s angles and sides.

ANS8- The formula for sin 3x is 3sin x – 4sin3x.

71
72