Introduction Bishnu Rijal M.Sc. in Botany Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University M.A. in Anthropology Trichandra Multiple campus, Tribhuvan University Sunday, March 13, 2022 IntroductionAssessment overview Paper 1 Multiple Choice 40 marks 40 multiple-choice questions Questions are based on the AS Level syllabus content. Externally assessed 31% of the AS Level 15.5% of the A Level 1 hour 15 minutes Sunday, March 13, 2022 Paper 2 AS Level Structured Questions Thour 15 minutes 60 marks Structured questions Questions are based on the AS Level syllabus content. Externally assessed 46% of the AS Level 23% of the A Level IntroductionPaper 3 ‘Advanced Practical Skills 2 hours 40 marks Practical work and structured questions ‘Questions are based on the practical skills in the Practical assessment section of the syllabus. The context of the questions may be outside the syllabus content Externally assessed 23% of the AS Level 11.5% of the A Level Sunday, March 13, 2022 Paper 4 A Level Structured Questions 2 hours 100 marks Structured questions Questions are based on the A Level syllabus content; knowledge of material from the AS Level syllabus content will be required. Externally assessed 38.5% of the A Level IntroductionPaper S Planning, Analysis and Evaluation Thour 15 minutes 30 marks Questions are based on the practical skills of planning, analysis and evaluation. The context of the questions may be outside the syllabus content. Externally assessed 11.5% of the A Level Sunday, March 13, 2022 IntroductionThere are three routes for Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology: Route Paper? Paper2_ = Paper3 = Paper4—s Paper S 1 ASLevel only (Candidates take all AS components v v v in the same exam series) 2 Alevel (staged over two years) - 7 7 Year 1 AS Level* Year 2 Complete the A Level v v 3 Alevel (Candidates take all components in v v v v v the same exam series) * Candidates carry forward their AS Level result subject to the rules and time limits described in the Cambridge Handbook Candidates following an AS Level route will be eligible for grades a-e. Candidates following an A Level route are ible for grades A*-E. Sunday, March 13, 2022 IntroductionA LLevel (4000E) Batch ‘Cambridge international AS Level Biology topics BR 4.Cet structure 14 y 2 Biological molecules aol 3. Enzymes. ny 4. Cell membranes and transport 16 y ‘5 The mtote cot cycle 2 y 6. Nucleic acs and protein synthesis. 12 y ‘Transport in plants Fy y 8. Transport in mammals 15 v 9 Gas exchange and smoking 15 y 10, rfectous disease 7 y 44. mmunty so |v B. Cambridge international A Level Blology topics 12. Eneray and respiration 20. v 13, Photosynthesis 16 y 14, Homeostasis (BR in plants 5 periods) 25 viv 15, Control and co-ordination{ STB in parts 5 periods) | 28 vy 16, inherted change (BR Gene control 5 periods) 25 |v y 17. Selection and evoltion 19 y 18, Biodiversity, classification and conservation 28 y 19, Genetic technology (BR GMO in agricuture 5 periods)| 24 |_V. Total Lessons: | 360] 0] 63] _ 80 Sunday, March 13, 2022 Introduction7 Transport in plants Flowering plants do not have compact bodi like those of many animals. Leaves and extensive root systems spread out to obtain the light energy, carbon dioxide, mineral ions and water that plants gain from their environment to make organic molecules, such as sugars and amino acids. Transport systems in plants move substances from where they are absorbed or produced to where they are stored or used. 7.1 Structure of transport tissues Sunday, March 13, 2022 Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: 1 draw plan diagrams of transverse sections of stems, roots and leaves of herbaceous dicotyledonous plants from microscope slides and photomicrographs describe the distribution of xylem and phloem in transverse sections of stems, roots and leaves of herbaceous dicotyledonous plants draw and label xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements and companion cells from microscope slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs relate the structure of xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements and companion cells to their functions Introduction7.2 Transport mechanisms Sunday, March 13, 2022 Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: 1 state that some mineral ions and organic compounds can be transported within plants dissolved in water 2 describe the transport of water from the soil to the xylem through the: ‘© apoplast pathway, incl cellulose ‘+ symplast pathway, including reference to the endodermis, Casparian strip and suberin 3 explain that transpiration involves the evaporation of water from the internal surfaces of leaves followed by diffusion of water vapour to the atmosphere 4 explain how hydrogen bonding of water molecules is involved with movement of water in the xylem by cohesion-tension in transpiration pull and by adhesion to cellulose in cell walls 5 make annotated drawings of transverse sections of leaves from. xerophytic plants to explain how they are adapted to reduce water loss by transpiration 6 _ state that assimilates dissolved in water, such as sucrose and amino acids, move from sources to sinks in phloem sieve tubes 7 explain how companion cells transfer assimilates to phloem sieve tubes, with reference to proton pumps and cotransporter proteins 8 explain mass flow in phloem sieve tubes down a hydrostatic pressure gradient from source to sink ing reference to lignin and IntroductionChapter 7: Transport in plants You should be able to: draw, label and describe the roots and leaves re of stems, describe the structure of the two transport ts: xylem and phloem tissues in pla explain how the str tures of xylem and f are related to their functions Sunday, March 13, 2022 explain how water and mineral salts move through plants investigate the loss of e the adaptatio water from of the le descr 0} nytic plants explain how organic molecules such as sucrose and amino acids move through plants Transport in plantsSunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plantsFigure 7. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plantsThe transport needs of plants!!!!! * Plants make their own organic molecules, using the process of photosynthesis. + Carbon dioxide gas is the source of carbon and light is the source of energy. “+ The main photosynthetic organs are the leaves, which have evolved a large surface area : volume ratio for efficient capture of carbon dioxide and light. As a result, most plants do not have compact bodies like animals, but have extensive branching bodies with leaves above ground. “+ In order to obtain the water and mineral salts also needed for nutrition, plants have extensive root systems below ground. + The plant body therefore spreads out to obtain the carbon dioxide, light energy, water and inorganic mineral ions it needs from its environment to make organic molecules like sugars and amino acids. 602 Oxygen Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants eco: |, Carbon dioxide“+ Transport systems are therefore needed for the following reasons. >To move substances from where they are absorbed to where they are needed. For example: water and mineral ions are absorbed by roots and transported in the xylem to other parts of the plant. >To move substances from where they are produced to where they are needed for metabolism. For example: sugars are produced in leaves, but glucose is needed by all parts of the plant for respiration and for converting to cellulose for making cell walls in areas of growth. Glucose can be moved in phloem as part of the sucrose molecule. >To move substances to a different part of the plant for storage. For example: to move sugars into a potato tuber for storage in the form of starch. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants14 Unlike animals, plants do not have systems for transporting carbon dioxide and oxygen. Instead, these gases diffuse through air spaces within stems, roots and leaves. 1. Carbon dioxide: Photosynthetic plant cells require a supply of carbon dioxide during daylight. Most photosynthetic tissue is in leaves, and most plants have evolved thin, flat leaves with a large surface area ideal for absorbing as much carbon dioxide as possible. They obtain this by diffusion from the air. 2. Oxygen: All plant cells require a supply of oxygen for respiration, but cells which are actively photosynthesising produce more than enough oxygen for their own needs because oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. Cells which are not photosynthesising need to take in oxygen from their environment. Plants have much lower energy demands than animals, so they respire at much lower rates. They therefore do not need such a rapid supply of oxygen. The branching shape of plants and a network of air spaces in the plant body provide a large enough surface area for effective absorption of oxygen by diffusion Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plantsSummary: * In short, it is relatively easy for carbon dioxide and oxygen to diffuse into and out of the bodies of plants, reaching and leaving every cell quickly enough down diffusion gradients. “ Consequently, there is no need for a transport system for these gases. “ However, transport systems are needed for distribution of water, inorganic and organic nutrients, as well as other substances such as plant hormones Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plantsTissue is the basis (basic unit) of anatomy. Tissue: It is a group of similar or dissimilar cells having common origin, similar structure, common method of development and similar set of functions. The term tissue was given by Nehemiah Grew. Histology: It is the microscopic study of animal and/or plant tissues. Based on division tissues are of two types: 1. Meristem and 2. Permanent tissues. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyClassification of tissues TISSUES ee Meristematic Permanent (on the basis of) Origin Plane of cell division Funetion Pro- Primary Secondary Apical Intercalary Lateral Protoderm Procanbiem Crowad oe Plate Rib ‘meristen meristem meristem meristem meristem mi Simple Complex Secretory Phloem Xylem Glandular Laticiferous Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Sieve elements _1. Tracheids ‘Ltawe alle 2.Companion cells 2. Vessels cy ia ‘3:Phloem parenchyma 3, Wood fibres internal External 7 t=" Fibres Sclereids 4: Bast fibres 4, Wood parenchyma Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyMeristematic tissue Also known as: >Meristem > formative tissue >immature tissue }juvenile tissue Derived from Greek word Meristos means divide. Definition: A group of similar cells found at the apex of roots, stems, branches, buds, etc that are capable of active/continuous cell division contributing to the growth of the plant. Term meristem was introduced by Nageli in 1858. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyCharacteristics of meristematic cells Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyCharacteristics of meristematic cells 1. Cells are isodiametric, thin walled, non-green and non-vascular. 2. Immature and undifferentiated cells without intercellular spaces. 3. Exhibit power of division and found at the apices of plant. 4. Possesses colourless protoplastids (incapable of photosynthesis) instead of chloroplast. 5. Central vacuole or vacuoles are absent, except in cambial cells. 6. No reserve food material and ergastic (cell inclusions) substances. 7. Cell wall (primary) is thin, homogenous and cellulosic but secondary wall is absent. 8. Cytoplasm is dense having large nucleus. 9. Nucleocytoplasmic ratio (regarding the volume of nucleus and cytoplasm) is very high. 10. Meristematic cells are pathogen free (viral free), so these are ideal explants for plant tissue culture. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyPermanent tissues >» When the similar or dissimilar primary and secondary meristematic cells lose the power of division, they are known as permanent tissues. »>They may be living or dead and thin or thick walled. >Thin walled tissues are generally living but thick walled tissues may be living or dead. > Also known as mature tissues. On the basis of composition, permanent tissues are of three types: 1. Simple permanent tissues, 2. Complex permanent tissues and 3. Special permanent tissues. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomy1. Simple permanent tissues These tissues are made up of similar group of non-dividing cells (homogenous) that are similar in structure and origin and perform similar functions. These tissues are of three types: a. Parenchyma, b. Collenchyma and c. Sclerenchyma. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomya. Parenchyma »Parenchyma are most common tissues. »Parenchyma is made up of thin-walled living cells. >The cell wall is made up of cellulose. >They are usually isodiametric and appear oval, spherical or polygonal in shape. »Cells may be compactly arranged or may be with small or large intercellular spaces. »Each cell has large central vacuole and a peripheral cytoplasm and nucleus. »Plasmodesmata are commonly present, »These tissues occur particularly in all the soft or non-woody parts of stems, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. ¥14 facet (8 hexagon & 6 quadrilateral) are present in closely packed parenchyma. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyb. Collenchyma >The word collenchyma was coined by Schleiden (1839). ¥It is a simple living mechanical tissue. >The cells are polygonal, spherical or elongated with pointed or rounded ends. »Cell walls are thin except at the corners where cellulose and pectin are deposited. It contains small pits. >Collenchyma may or may not have intercellular spaces. >Each cell possesses large central vacuole, peripheral cytoplasm and nucleus and may contain chloroplasts also. >Collenchyma tissue occurs in the hypodermis of herbaceous dicot stems and just above & below the vascular bundles of dicot leaves. »Collenchyma is absent in roots and monocot stems. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomy25 Angular wall thickening Cell wall Vacuole Nucleus Se Py Angular collenchyma Lacunae Lamellar thickening Lacunate collenchyma Lamellar collenchyma Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plantsc. Sclerenchyma >The word sclerenchyma was coined by Mettinius. >It is made up of simple and thick walled dead cells. ‘Antercellular space is absent. >Sclerenchyma develops either from the procambium or secondarily from parenchyma due to secondary wall deposition. >The secondary cell wall thickening is of lignin. >Nucleus and cytoplasm is absent. » Found in hypodermis of monocot stem, pericycle (of dicot stems and monocot roots), xylem (except xylem parenchyma) and phloem (fibres). Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomy2. Complex permanent tissues »The complex permanent tissues are made up of more than one type of cells (heterogenous tissue). >The complex permanent tissues work together as a unit. On the basis of types of cells and their functions, complex permanent tisssues are of two types. A. Xylem (Wood/ Hadrome elements) B. Phloem (Bast/ Leptome elements) Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyA. Xylem (wood) “ Term Xylem was coined by Nageli (1858). “* Term Hadrome was coined by Haberlandt. “+ Xylem is also a conducting tissue that is concerned with the upward conduction (unidirectional) of water and minerals. “+ It is composed of four different types of elements: a. Tracheids, b. Vessels / trachea, c. Xylem parenchyma and d. Xylem fibre. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyPhloem or Bast or Leptome “+ The term phloem was coined by Nageli (1858). «+ Term Leptome was coined by Haberlandt. “+ It is a conducting tissue meant for transporting organic food in both downward and upward directions. + The phloem developed from procambium is called primary phloem + The phloem developed from vascular cambium is called secondary phloem. “+ The phloem consists four types of cells / elements: 1. Sieve elements, 2. Companion cells, 3. Phloem parenchyma, and 4. Phloem fibre. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyVascular bundle and its types: On the basis of arrangement of xylem and phloem, vascular bundles are classified into two types: 1. Radial and 2. Conjoint. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyVascular bundles FppEEEE EEE EE EEEEE Radial vascular bundle Conjoint vascular bundle oo 7 Collateral vascular bundle Bicollateral vascular bundle | | Concentric vascular Open collateral vascular bundle Amphicribal vascular bundle Closed collateral vascular bundle Amphiyasal vascular bundle Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomy1. Radial vascular bundle: When xylem and phloem are arranged in an alternate manner on different radii (separate bundles), such vascular bundles are called radial vascular bundles. The number of xylem and phloem are equal in number. + This vascular bundle is found in roots of plants. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomy2. Conjoint vascular bundle: % When xylem and phloem are arrang vascular bundle), the vascular bundle i bundle. “It is the characteristic feature of sten “* Depending upon the mutual relationship of xylem and phloem, it is of three types: collateral, bicollateral and concentric. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyA. Collateral vascular bundle: “When xylem lies towards the centre and phloem lies towards the periphery on the same radius together, the vascular bundle is known as collateral vascular bundle. “+ On the basis of presence of vascular cambium, collateral vascular bundle is divided as: a. Open collateral vascular bundle and b. Closed collateral vascular bundle. a. Open collateral vascular bundle “* When a strip of vascular cambium is present in between phloem and xylem of each vascular bundle, it is known as open collateral vascular bundle. “> It is present in gymnosperms and dicot stem. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyConjoint Collateral Periphery of stem Open type vascular bundle Phloem Cambium Xylem Centre of stem Sunday, March 13, 2022 Open Plant anatomyepidermis cortex phloem oS cambium 22 xylem oD pith Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyb. Closed collateral vascular bundle: “ When vascular bundles do not have strip of vascular cambium in between phloem and xylem, it is known as closed collateral vascular bundle. + It is present in leaf and monocot stem. Closed Periphery Phloem Cambium Xylem Centre Sunday, March 13, 2022 Plant anatomyTwo systems: xylem and phloem: “+ The design of a plant’s transport system is quite different from that of a mammal. “In fact, plants have two transport systems, xylem and phloem. “Xylem carries mainly water and inorganic ions (mineral salts) from roots to the parts above ground. “The xylem sap contained in the xylem can move in only one direction, from roots to the rest of the plant. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Water and minerals One-way flow of sap Thick cell wall made of lignin Cells having no end walls between them Xylem Transport in plants 38“ The second system is phloem. This carries substances made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other areas of the plant. “At any one time, phloem sap can be moving in different directions in different parts of the phloem. “In neither of these systems do fluids move as rapidly as blood does in a mammal, nor is there an obvious pump such as the heart. “Neither plant transport system carries oxygen or carbon dioxide, which travel to and from cells and their environment by diffusion alone. Sunday, March 13, 2022 39 Water and food Two-way flow of sap Thin cell wall made of cellulose Cells with end walls and perforations Transport in plants40 Structure of stems, roots and leaves “Stems, roots and leaves are the main organs involved in transport within plants. + Organs are composed of more than one tissue. * Tissues are collections of cells specialized for a particular function. “The cells may be of the same type, such as parenchyma, or of different types, as in xylem and phloem. “The tissues found in stems, roots and leaves are most easily studied using prepared slides of transverse sections of these organs. “+ Drawing low power plans of the organs and representative groups of cells of the individual tissues as seen at high power with a microscope is a useful way of understanding the structure of the organs. + Structure is closely linked with function. When making drawings using a microscope, you will need to follow the advice given in Box 7.1. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants41 a ret You need the following equipment: ‘ahigh-power drawing: = pencil (H8) = Draw only a few representative cells. = pencil sharpener = Draw the cell wall ofall plant cells. = eraser = Don’t draw the nucleus asa solid blob. OG ‘Some guidelines forthe quality of your labelling: = plain paper. Label all tissues and relevant structures. Here are some guidelines for the quality of your drawing: Rasen sea ‘= Always use a sharp pencil, not a pen; no coloured Use a ruler for label lines and scale line. Pencils. Label lines should stop exactly at the structure being = Don’t use shading. labelled; do not use arrowheads. ‘= Use clear, continuous lines. Arrange label lines neatly and ensure they don't cross ‘= Use accurate proportions and observation - not a over each other. textbook version. ‘= Annotate your drawing ifnecessary (le. provide short = Make the drawing large enough -it should normally notes with one or more of the labels in order to describe ‘occupy more than half the available space on the page, ‘or explain features of biological interest). ifitisa whole organ or a tissue. individual cells drawn Add a scale line atthe bottom of the drawing at high power should be one to several centimetres in ifappropriate. diameter. a ‘= Ifyou make a mistake, use a good eraser torub out the asemunesremasenea a vas Comclaany thar rea Cleat ‘An example of a drawing ofa section through the stem ‘of Helianthus is shown below. Biological drawing is also Fora low-power drawing (Figure 7.4): covered in Chapter P1, page 262. = Don't draw individual cells. = Draw all tissues completely enclosed by lines. = Draw a correct interpretation of the distribution of tissues. ‘= Arepresentative portion may be drawn (e.g. half a transverse section). Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants42 Using an eyepiece graticule (a disc placed in the eyepiece with 100 divisions, this has no scale) and a stage micrometer will enable you to make measurements of cells, tissues and organs and will help you to show tissues in their correct proportions. See Worked example 1, page 7, for guidance on making measurements. Eyepiece Reticles and Stage Micrometers age of the _ ‘yeniece etches sie 00 | themeroscope stage (Geale in mm) Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants43 Monocotyledons and dicotyledons * Flowering plants (angiosperms) may be monocotyledons (monocots) or dicotyledons (dicots). “Each type has its own characteristics. For example, monocotyledonous plants, such as grasses, typically have long, narrow leaves. * Dicotyledonous plants typically have leaves with blades and stalks (petioles). “The mechanisms of transport through both types of plant are the same, but there are differences in the distribution of xylem and phloem in their roots, stems and leaves. “Only dicotyledonous plants are described in this book. Sunday, March 13, 2022 © ©) 0) A Dicot Plant (Brassica Campestis Mustard) b) A Monocot Plant (Zea Mays - Maize) Transport in plantsLow-power plan diagrams Transverse sections of a_ typical dicotyledonous stem, root and leaf are shown in Figures 7.2, 7.3 and 7.5-7.8. Ineach case a ___ labelled photomicrograph from a prepared slide is shown, followed by a low-power, labelled drawing of the same organ. Sunday, March 13, 2022 SEL Figure 7.2 Light micrograph of part of a transverse section of a young Ranunculus (buttercup) stem (x60). Figure 7.3 Low-power plan of the Ranunculus stem shown in Figure 7.2. Transport in plants45 CM 7. Look at Figure 74. List the errors in drawing technique that you can spotin the left-hand half of the drawing. TS stom shows examples of good technique, while the left , 0 curtis WelinaHus Cxbé) Figure 7.4 The right side of this low-power drawing, Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants46 Figure 7.5 Light micrograph of a transverse section of ‘Ranunculus (buttercup) root (x35). Sunday, March 13, 2022 Figure 7.6 Low-power plan of the Ronunculus root shown in Figure 75. Transport in plants47 upper epidermis - thin transparent layer allowing light to reach mesophyll, for circulation of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, chloroplasts in cells for photosynthesis phloem - transport of organic solutes, ‘made by photosynthesis, particularly sugar ‘vascular bundle of midrib contains palisade mesophyll - See vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) parenchyma cells ‘containing chloroplasts xylem — for mechanical strength and. ' {for photosynthesis, transport of water and mineral salts Figure 7.7 Transverse section through the midrib of a dicotyledonous leaf, Ligustrum (privet) (x50). Tissues are indicated in bold type. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants48 Figure 7.8 A plan diagram of the transverse section through a privet leaf shown in Figure 77, Parenchyma isa tissue made up ‘of unspecialised cells. Collenchyma is made up of cells in which the walls are thickened with extra cellulose, especially at the ‘corners, providing extra strength for support. Sunday, March 13, 2022 Transport in plants