Charles Е.

Townsend
PRINCETON UNIVERSIТY

RUSSIAN
WORD-FORMATION

McGRAW-HILL ВООК COMPANY

New York St. Louis San Francisco Toronto London Sydney
IMPERFECTIVE DERIVATION

viij tij 'ivaj

1 1 1
1 • 1 1 11 1
Syllab1c Obstruents (НУ) NonsyllaЬic И All others ex-
resonants 1 1 cept Е, which
i inserted Consonant
has all three
in root mutation
1
root C6C-ivaj >
root CiiC-ivaj

ABBREVIATIONS

А adjectiva/ fut future past pass part past passive

асс accusat ive gen genitive participle
act actit•e Ger German pej pejoratit•e
adj adjective, adjectit•al ger gerund perf perfective
affec ajjectionate impf imperfective pl plura/
alt inf altemate iujinitive impf deriv imperfective poet poetic
arch archaic derit•ation рор popular
aug augmer.tatii·e imps impersonal ррр past passii·e participle
С consonant(a/) impv imperatit·e prep prepositional
ChS Cl111rcl1 Slat•onic inf infi11itit•e pres presellt
collec collective inst instrumental pres act part present active
colloq col/oq11ial intr intransitii·e participle
сотр compшative iron ironic pres pass part present
conj conju,r;ation m, masc masculine passive participle
dat datit·e N nomina/ qual qua/itative
decl decleusiou neu nelller relat relationa/
deriv derit'fllion, derivative nom nominative R, Russ R11ssia11
det determ,ne,i nondct 11ondetermined semel semelfactive
dim dimi1111tit•e ns no11syllablc sg singular
Eng Г.nglis/1 obs ob~·olete tran transitii·e
f, fem femiuiue рар present acti1 1e par1iciple V vo1i·el, vocalic
l•g pguratit·e part participle v, vЫ verba/
Гr Frenc/1 pass pass1ve
 TREES FOR CONJUGATION
PAST PASSIVE
PARТICIPIAL ENDING:

-т -ен -н

1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Resonants НУ (НУ) О Obstruents И All othe1·s

PAST ACТIVE
PARТICIPIAL El'П>ING:

-ший -вший
1
1 1 1 1
Obstruents (НУ) Р All others

CONSONANT
MUTATION:

и Е
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
First Past Imperfecti \·е First Past Imperfective
singular passive derivation singular passive derivation
present participle present participle (rarely)
(rarely)

А Obstruents: velar mutations only

1 1
1 1 1 1
Present Present ImperatiYe Present tensc: second/third singular Past passi\e
tense gerund first/second plural participle
RUSSIAN WORD-FORMATION
RUSSIAN WORD-FORMA TION
Copyright © 1968 Ьу McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this puЬlication
may Ье reproduced, stored in а retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or Ьу any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record-
ing, or otherwise, without the prior written permission ofthe puЫisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card NumЬer 68-11238
65116
1 2 з 4 5 6 7 8 9 о - ::\1Al\1l\l- 7 5 4 з 2 1 о 698
Charles Е. Townsend
PRINCETON UNIVERSIТY

RUSSIAN
WORD-FORMATION

McGRAW-HILL ВООК COMPANY

New York St. Louis San Francisco Toronto London Sydney
То Janet, Erica, Sylvia, and Louise
 PREFACE

Russian Word-Formation is а practical, general description of Russian deriva-

tional morphology aimed at а wide audience. All or most of it should Ье of in-
terest and use to Russian linguists in the broadest sense of this broad term:
specialists in the Russian language, graduate students in Slavic languages and
literatures, teachers of Russian; and, taught carefully and perhaps selectively Ьу
the latter, students of Russian at the intermediate and advanced levels. In its
preliminary forms the book has been used successfully both in graduate courses
in the structure of Russian and in second- and third-year \anguage courses, in
the latter case usually in conjunction "'·ith my second-third-year textbook Con-
tinuing with Russian, soon to Ье puЫished Ьу McGraw-Hill, though its use is in
no sense dependent оп this textbook. Russian Word-Formation in its various
forms has been used at Harvard, Princeton, Brandeis, the University of Cali-
fornia at Los Angeles, and а number of other major institutions throughout the
country.
The book is divided into four sections. Section I attempts to provide а
working theory of Russian word structure and treats certain specific proЫems
vii
Vlll PREFACE

in word formation. Section II, which deals with verbs, will Ье of the most inter-
est to linguists and is the most rigorously handled and self-contained of the sec-
tions. It first presents conjugation in terms of а one-stem system, including an
excursus on verbal stress, and gives an inventory ofverbs Ьу type which includes
almost all verbs from unproductive types; it then treats verbal (including
aspectual) derivation in detail. Section 111 treats nouns, with particular emphasis
on deverbative nouns, and Section IV deals with adjectives. The book includes
а detailed tаЫе of contents, and particular attention is invited to the ComЬined
Subject lndex and Glossary at the back ofthe book, which includes or gives text
references to many explanations of linguistic terms and notations, including
references to the general definitions given in the beginning of Section 1. Also in-
cluded in the back for ready reference are а Root List, an Index of Nominal
Suffixes, and an Index of Adjectival Suffixes. The book also contains various
taЫes and trees.
This book neither pretends to nor intends an exhaustive delineation of all
aspects of Russian derivational morphology. Description of stress, for example,
is almost exclusively limited to conjugation and verbal derivation (Section 11).
With regard to linguistic approach in general, certain simplifications and nor-
malizations have been made in the exposition and format in the interests of
making both as accessiЫe as possiЬ\e. For instance, once the spelling system and
the basics of morphophonemics have been explained in the beginning, the
Russian alphabet is used almost exclusively, and in many of the descriptions,
particularly in Sections 111 and IV, а number of details that would Ье necessary
for а full linguistic description are omitted as unnecessary for а general under-
standing. Economy of description is, of course, employed where redundancy
would undermine а principle or а rule, but in general the terseness characteristic
of many linguistic descriptions is avoided in favor of elaboration and some
repetition, where this seems in the interests of learning or emphasis. Finally, the
notation that is used is kept as simple as possiЫe and is explained both in а
separate subsection in Section I and, in many cases, as it is introduced.
The approach to derivational analysis in Section I and in the book in gen-
eral is frankly semantic, and openly semantic criteria are applied to form the
bridge between the synchronic and etymologica\ \evels in Russian. А certain
mixing of these \evels cannot, of course, Ье a\together avoided in any discussion
of derivation, nor should it Ье in all cases, but in the author's opinion certain
limits must Ье drawn, and the ,vlюlesale use of older systems and smuggled-in
etymologica\ information begs the question of а modern description. The solu-
tions and systems presented in this work are suggestive rather than final, and
 PREFACE ix

there are competent persons at work in this relatively new field who will have
much to contribute. This book will have served some purpose if it сап engage
the attention of scholars and students who might otherwise limit themselves to
the more trodden paths of phonology and morphology.
А few words should Ье said about the great benefit ofteaching word-forma-
tion to students learning Russian. Though it is almost uniformly ignored in
Russian textbooks and in most descriptions, and is almost always inadequately
treated in those (mostly Soviet) grammars that do treat it (except for В. О.
Unbegaun's Russian Grammar, whose full and useful, if quite traditional, des-
cription of word formation was of great help to me), there are few languages
in which the study of word formation is more necessary and more rewarding
than Russian. For the student who has learned how to decline and conjugate,
continuing the study of Russian is largely а matter of learning vast numbers of
new words which do not become more familiar, the more sophisticated they be-
come, as, for example, in French. Rather, the task oflearning all these words ad
hoc often discourages students from going оп with Russian after one or two
years. The author has found, through several years ofteaching parts ofthis book
to second- and third-year classes at Harvard and Princeton, that the systematic
study of the structure of words and their analysis into their component parts
helps students learn vocabulary efficiently and enjoyaЫy. Word recall among
these students has been demonstrated to Ье far higher than among students who
have not studied word-formation. For the graduate student or teacher who has
studied Russian for several years, and for the native speaker of Russian who has
never studied his own language formally, the systematic study of words will also
Ье new or, if not entirely new, will help to organize information and insights he
already has about Russian words into а practical system he сап use or teach.
The classification of suffixes in Sections 111 and IV and some of the general
organization of these sections is more or less generally based оп traditional
Soviet models, specifically, Е. М. Galkina-Fedoruk, Sovremennyj russkij jazyk,
and statements оп productivity in general follow this work and the three-volume
Academy Grammar. However, the exposition and general treatment do not at all
follow these models, which are rigidiy traditional, though useful for inforшation­
al purposes.
All the subsections of the book contain exercises of various types. ln Sec-
tions I and II the exercises are designed to help the user achieve mastery of the
materials in those sections. The exercises in Sections 111 and IV are mostly dic-
tionary exercises drilling various suffixes in the same order in which they are giv(:n
in the exposition. Persons who know Russian quite well тау use these exercises
Х PREFACE

as а passive check оп what they have read, while the intermediate or advanced
student of Russian will need to use the dictionary in most cases. The dictionaries
recommended for these drills are А. 1. Smirnickij, Russko-angliskij s/ovar', latest
edition availaЫe, and the four-volume Academy Dictionary, Slovar' russkogo
jazyka, 1957-1961.
This book owes а great deal to many of my friends and colleagues and to
the interest and alertness of many of my students who have used its various
parts, and it is my pleasant duty to thank all of these people for many construc-
tive suggestions. The one-stem verb system, of course, originated with my teacher
Roman Jakobson of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (in his Ьу now famous article in Word, December, 1948), but the
present version owes many of its important innovations to Alexander Lipson of
Cornell University, who was, as far as I know, the first to teach а one-stem sys-
tem successfully to students. Other friends and colleagues who read the manu-
script and offered much helpful advice were Michael Shapiro of the University
of California at Los Angeles, Charles GribЫe of Brandeis University, and
Robert Rothstein of Harvard University, who suggested а physical layout for
my description of verbal stress. Igor Berukshtis of Princeton, New Jersey, and
recently of Moscow, checked the style levels and usage of most of my examples
(usage, where indicated, generally follows the four-volume Academy Dictionary,
S/01:ar' russkogo jazyka).
In the last few months Mrs. Sophie Bargman of Princeton University
read the entire manuscript and offered many helpful comments. А great debt of
gratitude is also due Alex Zarechnak of Princeton University, who typed most
ofthe manuscript in final form, whose patience and accuracy were а constant
boon, and whose vigilance caught many errors and misprints.
Lastly, my warm thanks go to Horace G. Lunt of Harvard University, who
gave constant help and encouragement throughout the years of the book's
development and whose teachings and materials originally suggested to me the
importance of derivational morphology.
Charles Е. Townsend
 CONTENTS
with links

Preface vii
BiЫiography xvii
Abbreviations xviii

SECTION I. GENERAL

А Linguistic terminology and notation 2

1 General, 2
2 Sounds, 2
З Notation, 5

В The Russian spelling system and word-formation 7

1 Advantages of the Russian spelling system for word analysis, 7
2 Spelling of vowel basic sounds after consonants, 8
З The spelling of the basic vowel, о, 9
4 The consonantj (jot), 10
ТаЫе of Russian basic sounds and their spellings, 12

xi
xii CONTENTS

С The structure of inflected Russian words 13

Noninflected derivatives, 13
Roots, 15; Meanings and parts of speech of roots, 16; Latin roots, 19
2 Prefixes, 20
3 Suffixes, 21; Zero-suffixes, 23
4 Productivity, 25

D Analysis of words 26
1 Principles of division, 26
2 Analyzing words of foreign origin, 27

Е Fusion of building elements: bases and enlarged suffixes 29

Fusion of а root with а suffixal element, 30
2 Fusion of а prefix with а root, 32
3 Fusion of а prefix with а prefix, 33
4 Fusion of а suffix with а suffix, 33

F ComЬining building elements into а word 35

Verbal vs. nominal-adjectival comЬination, 36
Verbal comblnation, 37; Prefix plus root, 37; Root plus suffix, 38; Root plus
ending and suffix plus ending (conjugation), 39; Root plus ending, 40; Suffix
plus ending, 41; Suffix plus suffix, 43
2 Nominal-adjectival comblnation, 43; Prefix plus root, 43; Root plus ending and
suffix plus ending (declension), 44; Root plus suffix, 44; Suffix plus suffix, 45

G Consonant mutation and alternation 46

1 ТаЬ!е of mutations, 46
2 Occurrence of mutations, 47; Mutation of velars, ск, and ц before the verbal
suffixes -11- and -е-, 48
3 Sporadic consonant alternations, 49
4 Analysis of consonant alternations, 51

Н Vowel alternations 52

Church Slavonicisms 54
Alternations involving vowels in comblnation with р and л, 55; Russian pleo-
phonic vs. Church Slavonic nonpleophonic variants, 55; Russian РОТ-, ЛОТ
vs. Church Slavonic РАТ, ЛАТ in initial position, 57
2 Russian ё vs. Church Slavonic с, 57
3 Russian, ч, ж vs. Church Slavonic щ, жд alternating ,vith т, д, 58; Russian ч, ж
vs. Church Slavoпic щ, жд, and other alternations in verbs in -т11ть, -д1пь, 58;
Other ч, ж vs. щ, жд alternations, 59
4 Churcl1 Slavonic prefixes, 59
 CONTENTS ХШ

J Vowel-zero alternations in prefixes, roots, and suffixes 60

1 Alternations at the inflectional and derivational levels and notation, 61
2 The occurrence and conditioning of vowel-zero alternations, 62; Consonantal
prefixes (syllablc or nonsyllablc), 62; Nonsyllablc roots and S) IlaЬic roots or
bases ending in certain consonant groups, 62; Consonantal or zero-suffixes,
63; Zero-endings and consonantal endings, 63
3 The alternations themselves, 65; Alternations at the inflectional Jevel, 65;
Alternations at the derivational level, 66
4 Vowel-zero alternations in declension. The moblle vowel and its spelling, 69;
Nouns, 70; The moЬile vowel in nouns, 71; The moblle vowel and Jot, 71;
Adjectives and pronouns, 73
5 Vowel-zero alternations in conjugation and verbal derivation. MoЬile vowels
and their spellings, 74; Conjugation, 74; Verbal derivation, 75; Excursus оп
the nonsyllaЬic roots ЙД and Й/М, 78

SECTION II. VERBS 81

А Single basic stem and form: classification and conjugation 81

1 Basic stem and basic form, 81
2 Conjugation, 83; Trees for conjugation, 85; Verb tаЫе, 86; Conjugation of
head verbs, 88; Excursus оп verbal stress and the formation of the imperative,
90; Formation of the imperative, 96
3 Verb inventory, 97; Nonsuffixed stems, 98; Suffixed stems, 100; Irregular
stems, 110

В Aspect and verbal derivation I 14

1 Simplex stems, 1 14
2 Verbal prefixes, 116; Prefixation and the question of aspect pairs, 116; Prefixa-
tion: lexical and suЫexical (" Aktionsarten "}, 118; Latin prefixes in English as а
means of rendering Russian prefixes, 122; Prefix tаЫе, 123
3 Imperfective derivation, 134; Distribution of the formants, 137
4 Suppletion and other irregularities in aspectual pairs, 141
5 Other verbal suffixes, 143; The suffix -и-. Factitives, 143; The suffix -ей-. Verbs of
"becoming," 145; -и-ич-ай-, 146

SECTION III. NOUNS 149

PREFIXATION 149

А Simple addition of prefix to noun 149

В - Prefixed suffixal nouns derived from prepositional phrases 150

xiv CONTENТS

SUFFIXATJON 151

А Abstract nouns 152

1 Verbal nouns in -й -ё (-ь/-ё), 153; Stress, 154; Types in -ь/-ё, 155; Limitations on
formation, 155; "Нistorical" or exceptional types, 156; Meaning of the verbal
noun in -й - ё(-ь/-ё), 156
2 Other deverbative nouns of action/result, 158; General, 158; The types them-
selves, 161
3 Other abstract nouns, 167; Productive types, 167; Slightly productive or un-
productive types, 169

В Nouns denoting persons 171

1 Productive masculine suffixes, 171
2 Slightly productive or unproductive masculine suffixes, 178; Slightly productive
types, 178; Unproductive types, 179
3 Productive feminine suffixes, 180
4 Slightly productive or unproductive feminine suffixes, 183
5 Second declension nouns of common gender, 185

С Nouns denoting animals 185

D Nouns denoting objects

1 Productive suffixes, 187
2 Less productive and unproductive suffixes, 189

Е Nouns denoting places 193

1 Productive suffixes, 193
2 Slightly productive or unproductive suffixes, 193

F Nouns with collective meaning 194

G Nouns built with suffixes not creating new independent words 196
1 Diminutive suffixes, 196; Suffixes including к, 197; Suffixes including ц, 197;
Enlarged diminutive suffixes, 198; Diminutives which lose their force, 199
2 Augmentative suffixes, 200

COMBINATION 201

А Coordination 201

В Subordination 201
1 Elements joined directly, 201
2 Elements joined Ьу а connecting vowel, о, 202
3 Compound abbreviated words, 206
 CONTENTS XV

SECTION IV. ADJECПVES 209

А Qualitative and relational adjectives 209
В Nonderived adjectives 211

PREПXATION 212

А Simple addition of prefix to adjective 212

В Prefixed suffixal adjectives derived from prepositional phrases 213
SUFFIXATION 214
А The suffix -/н- 215
В Suffixes which build relational adjectives 218
1 -/ск- (-еск-), 218
2 -ов-, 222
3 Unproductive or slightly productive relational suffixes, 223
4 Possessive and relational-possessive adjectives, 225

С Suffixes which build qualitative adjectives 227

1 Productive suffixes, 227
2 Slightly productive or unproductive suffixes, 229

D Suffixes of participial origin 233

1 From present active participles, 233
2 From present passive participles, 234
3 From past active participles, 235
4 From past passive participles, 235
5 From participles in -л-, 236
Е Diminutive and augmentative 237
COMBINATION 237
А Coordination 237
В Subordination 238
1 Nouns preceded Ьу а modifier, 238
2 Other types of subordination, 239

Appendix 1. Root list 243

Appendix 2. Index of nominal suffixes 257
Appendix 3. Index of adjectival suffixes 260
ComЬined subject index and glossary 262
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dawson, Clayton Leroy, The derivationa/ suffixes of the Russian substantive; а syn-
chronic study, unpuЫished thesis, Harvard University, 1954.
Galkina-Fёdoruk, Е. М., Sovremennyj russkij jazyk, Moscow, 1958.
Isacenko, А. V., Grammaticeskij stroj russkogo jazyka v sopostavlenii s s/ovackim, Mor-
foligija 11, Bratislava, 1960.
Isacenko, А. V., Die russische Sprache der Gegenwart, Halle, 1962.
Jakobson, Roman, "Russian Conjugation," Word, vol. 4, по. 5, December 1948.
Klagstad, Harold Leonard, Vowel-zero alternations in contemporary standard Russian,
unpuЫished thesis, Harvard University, 1954.
Levin, Ephraim Matthias, The derivationa/ suffixes of the Russian adjective; а syn-
chronic study, unpuЫished thesis, Harvard University, 1957.
Sanskij, N. М., Ocerki ро russkomu s/ovoobrazovaniju i leksikologii, Moscow, 1959.
Unbegaun, В. О., Russian Grammar, London, 1960.
Ward, Dennis, Тlze Russian Language Today, Chicago, 1965.
REFERENCE WORKS

Bielfeldt,Н. Н., Rйckliiujiges W orterbuch der russischen Sprache der Gegemi·art, Berlin,
1958.
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, vol. 1, Akademija nauk SSSR, Moscow, 1960.
S/ovar' russkogo jazyka, vols. 1-4, Akademija nauk SSSR, Moscow, 1957-1961.
S/ovar' sovremennogo russkogo literaturnogo jazyka, vols. 1-17, Moscow-Leningrad,
1950--1965.
Smirnickij, А. 1., Russko-anglijskij s/ovar', Moscow, 1965.
Viismer, Мах, Russisc/1es Etymologisches Worterbuc/1, Heidelberg, 1953-1958.
XVII
ABBREVIA TIONS

А adjectival fut future past pass part past passive

асс accusative gen genitive participle
act active Ger German pej pejorative
adj adjective, adjectival ger gerund perf perfective
affec ajfectionate impf imperfective pl plural
alt inf alternate infinitive impf deriv imperfective poet poetic
arch archaic derivation рор popular
aug augmentative imps impersonal ррр past passive participle
С consonant(al) impv imperative prep prepositional
ChS Church Slavonic inf infinitive pres present
collec collective inst instrumental pres act part present active
colloq colloquial intr intra11sitive participle
comp comparative iron ironic pres pass part present
conj conjugation m, masc masculine passive participle
dat dative N nominal qual qualitative
decl declension neu neuter relat relational
deriv derivation, derivative nom nominative R, Russ Russian
det determined nondet 11ondetermi11ed semel semelfactive
dim diminutive ns 11011syllablc sg singular
Eng En,r:lis/1 obs obsolete tran transitive
f, fem femini11e рар prese11I active participle V vowe/, vocalic
fig figurative part participle v, vЫ verbal
Fr Fre11c/1 pass passive
xviii
 I
GENERAL

The study of Russian, Iike that of most modern foreign Ianguages, concentrates
оп declension and conjugation; that is, оп the analysis of words into stems plus
inflectional endings. But most students of Russian will have noticed that many
stems are further analyzaЫe; that, in addition to а root, they may contain pre-
.fixes (preceding the root) and/or derivational suffixes (between root and ending).
Derivational suffixes are also called formants. 1 The study of suffixes and pre-
fixes and their comЬination with roots is called word-formation or deriL'ation.
Word-formation cannot Ье studied efficiently or correctly without some
discussion of the basic sounds of Russian and, particularly, of how the spelling
system portrays these sounds. In order to do this, and also for the purpose of
providing а first acquaintance with certain terms which will Ье used later on, we
will begin with some definitions, first general, then more specific ones pertaining
to the Russian sound system. Linguistic terms not defined here are given in the
Index and Glossary at the back of the book. The definitions here should Ье read
through now and used for later reference as well, as the terms and concepts be-
come more meaningful.
1 We wil\ use the term "suffix" to designate а derivational suffix only, not an ending.
2 SECTION 1: GENERAL

А LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION

1 General
LINGUISTICS The science of speech, of language in general. The three chief
areas of study of а given language are:
1. PHONOLOGY Phonology, the study of the basic, distinctive sounds of а lan-
AND guage, as opposed to phonetics, which treats sounds without
PHONEТICS respect to whether they are distinctive or not (occasionally the
term "phonology" includes phonetics). Phonology can Ье
approached through the study of phonemics or morphopho-
nemics, depending on whether one analyzes the basic sounds
as phonemes or morphophonemes (see below).
2. MORPHOLOGY 1 The study of the meaningful units, the morphemes of а lan-
guage, more specifically, of the parts of а word: prefixes,
roots, suffixes, and endings. Morphology deals with two
basic areas:
а. INFLECTION The study of endings-the forms within the paradigm of а
single word. The ultimate direction of inflection, since it in-
volves relationships between words, is syntactica/.
Ь. WORD-FORMATION, also called DERIVATION. The study of the components
of а word exclusive of the ending; more specifically, the
study of roots, prefixes, and derivational suffixes. The ulti-
mate interest of word-formation, since it focuses upon the
word itself, is /exical.

3. SYNТAX The study of sentence structure, the relationships between

words, and their disposition in the sentence.

2 Sounds
In this book Russian basic sounds and words or parts of words transcribed
into basic sounds are represented Ьу Latin letters in italics (rather than enclosed
in slashes, as is customary in phonemic and morphophonemic transcription).
Phonetic transcription of Russian sounds and words is in Latin letters enclosed
in brackets. For example, "Вода 'water' begins with basic sound v and its tran-
scription in basic sounds is voda. The phonetic transcription is [vada]." 2
1 The term "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the study of inflection only.
2 More information regarding symbols and notation is given оп рр. 5-6.
 LINGUISТIC TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION 3
BASIC SOUNDS or MORPHOPHONEMES (or MORPHONEMES) are distinctive sounds
which can independently distinguish meaning and are nonpre-
dictaЫe in terms of their environment. (Phonemes are similar to
morphophonemes, except that they are more predictaЫe in
terms of environment and give less information about the mor-
phology of Russian than morphophonemes; hence we work
with morphophonemes.) Basic sounds are divided into:

YOWELS Virtually no obstruction in mouth; different vowels result from

differences in tongue position. Russian has five basic vowel
AND sounds: а, е, о, и, i.

CONSONANTS Various degrees of obstruction in mouth. There is а further divi-

sion based on degree of obstruction:

RESONANTS Not much obstruction of air stream. The Russian resonants are:
r, r', 1 /, /', п, п', т, m',j; v and v' have resonantal qualities and
act as resonants in derivation. Resonants are also distinguished
Ьу their Iack of voiced-voiceless opposition; they are always
voiced in Russian. (Note that v and v' once again play an inter-
mediate role: they are opposed to voiceless f and f', but differ
from obstruents in that consonants preceding them may Ье dis-
AND tinguished as to voiced-voiceless.)
OBSTRUENТS Quite а Ьit of obstruction of air stream. But unlike resonants,
obstruents may Ье, and most of them are, opposed as to voiced-
voiceless (see YOICED·YOICELESS below). Obstruents may Ье fur-
ther divided on the basis of type of obstruction: stop (t), frica-
tive (s), and affricate (с), but the division is not useful gram-
matically and may Ье disregarded.
Russian consonants are divided, according to their place of
articulation, into:

LABIALS Both lips, or lower lip and upper teeth:

Obstruents: Ь, Ь', р, p',f,f'
Resonants: v, v', т, т'

DENТALS Tip of tongue touching or near upper front teeth:

Obstruents: d, d', t, t', z, z', s, s', с
Resonants: п, п', /, /', r, r'
1 An apostrophe symbolizes that а consonant is palatalized.
4 SECTION 1: GENERAL

PALATALS Tongue touching or near middle of the roof of the mouth (hard
palate):
Obstruents: z, s, с, sc
Resonant: j
Note that it is important not to confuse palatal consonants with
palatalized consonants. The former have а single, palatal articu-
lation; the latter have а primary nonpalatal and а secondary
palatal articulation. (Cf. below under HARD-SOFТ and PAIRED-
UNPAIRED.)

The obstruent palatals (z, s, с, sc) are often grouped together and
called нusНINGS (щипящие). Hushings are important in grammar
and word-formation, because they frequently (and, historically,
almost always) imply mutation from а nonhushing consonant.
VELARS Back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate (the soft
area behind the hard palate):
Obstruents: g, (g'), k, k', х, (х')

Velars act together in conjugation and, particularly, in deriva-

tion.
The articulations described are approximate, and the student does not need
to memorize them, but they тау help him "fee\" what the consonants are like
and remember more easily which belong to which groups.

HARD-SOFТ and PAIRED-UNPAIRED

Ву а hard consonant we mean а nonpalatalized (nonpalatal) consonant

(e.g. t) or а hard palatal consonant (e.g. s); Ьу а soft consonant we mean а pala-
talized consonant (e.g. t') or а soft palatal consonant (e.g. с). The terms "pala-
talized" and "nonpalatalized" may thus Ье replaced Ьу "soft" and "hard," as
long as we keep in mind the distinction between palatalized and palatal con-
sonants (explained under PALATALS above).
All Russian consonants are either hard or soft and, in addition, al\ are
either paired or unpaired with respect to hardness-softness. For example, р and
т' are paired, because р' and т are opposed to them; с is unpaired, because it is
not opposed to anything; it is simply soft, and there is no hard с. AII Russian
consonants are paired except the five palatals and с. Of these unpaired conson-
ants, z, s, and с are liard; с, sc, and j are soft. The velar consonants g (g') and
х (х') are not opposed phonemically, but тау Ье regarded as paired (cf. foot-
note 1, page 12).
 LINGUISТIC TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION 5

VOICED-VOICELESS

The opposition of voiced consonants and 1:oice/ess consonants is extremely

important in Russian phonetics. Put your fingers in your ears and hiss both z
and s. When you hiss z, you will hear а hiss plus а hum or buzzing; when you
hiss s, уои will hear just а hiss. The only difference between z and s is that z is
VOICED: Vibration of vocal cords accompanies the stream of air and
whatever happens to the stream of air,
while s is
VOICELESS: No such vibration occurs.
We noted above that resonants lack the voiced-voiceless opposition, and we
cited the intermediate position of v and v' (see under RESONANТS). All Russian
obstruents are opposed (or paired) voiced-voiceless except с, с, sc, and х, which
are voiceless and have по voiced counterparts as basic sounds. True, voiced
counterparts do occur as predictaЫe variants in the rare cases (usually at word
boundaries) where these consonants occur before voiced consonants, and
assimilation takes place: жечь бы, отец бы, phonetically [z~dzby, at'edzby].

3 Notation
Henceforth when we wish to call attention to the structure of а word, we
shall use hyphens to separate its parts: prefix(es)-root-suffix(es)-ending: рыб-ак,
стар-оват-ый, по-мбг-ут. Roots are in lowercase Cyrillic when given in words
but in uppercase when given separately; for example, the root in рыб-ак is РЫБ.
Normal Russian spelling is retained except in certain cases when the sound jot
plus а vowel may Ье expressed Ьу й plus the vowel symbol variant following hard
paired consonants (e.g. красн-ей-у, rather than красн-е-ю, мой-ут, rather than
мб-ют); cf. pages 11-12. In addition, we shall use the following symbols to denote
vowel-zero alternations at the injlectional /е1:е/ (vowel-zero alternations are dis-
cussed fully оп pages 60-80): we shall use а slash (/) to indicate the presence
of zero and enclose the (moЬile) vowel in the vowel-zero alternation within ta·o
s/ashes: 1
тетрад-/к-а тетрад-/о/к
д/е/нь д/н-я:

1 We shall use this notation consistently throughout the book for atternations in nouns,
adjectives, and pronouns; in the case of verbs we shall use it when we are considering voy,•el-
zero alternations as such, or when we list а verb as а type, but elsewhere the notation may Ье
omitted. 1.е. б/р-а-ть, б/е/р-у or бр-а-ть, бер-у.
6 SECTION 1: GENERAL

When we wish to emphasize the presence of а zero-ending, or zero-suffix, we

shall use the symbol #:
тетрад-/к-а тетрад-/о/к-# д/е/нь-# д/н-я
мен-яй-ут мен-#-а ход-и-ть хбд-#-# (zero-suffix plus zero-ending)

А "greater than" sign ( >) means "becomes, goes to"; for example,
д > ж before fi.rst singular present ending -и in И verbs.
А "less than" sign ( <) means "comes from"; for example, in вожу, ж < д
before first singular present ending -и in И verbs.
Finally, we shall use the asterisk (*) to designate а word or form not extant
in modern standard Russian, but whose previous existence is presumed on the
basis of modern knowledge of the history of Russian, of analogous words or
forms extant in the language, and so on. In addition, we may also use the aster-
isk to designate any hypothetical word or form. For example:

*крик-е-ть > Modern Russian крич-а-ть

*вада is how вода would Ье spelled if а "phonetic" alphabet were used.

All Russian words which take а stress, including monosyllaЬic words, are
marked with the usual "acute" stress mark, with the following important ex-
ception: Russian verbal "basic forms," which are discussed in Section 11, page
82, have their own special stress notation, which is described in the Excursus
on Verbal Stress (pages 90-96) and used from that point on through the rest
of the book. The basic forms are infinitives or third plural present forms; they
may or may not contain а stress mark, may contain а stress mark over а conso-
nant, а prefix, and so on. If such forms are encountered before the system is
learned, the stress notation may simply Ье ignored.

EXERCISE Break down the following words into: prefix(es) + root + suffix(es) +
ending. Designate zero-endings Ьу #. (Write out this exercise in Russian letters,
but at boundaries involvingjot show what the actual division is.)

новый готов показать сороковой конкретный

новому приrотовить показывают правый интересный
нов сто показавши прав интересен
книrа сот ездить поправить просить
книгу выходить второй правда спросить
книг поставить повторить русский расспросить
белом дорогой повторяют привезут
белизна лететь малый свет
белеют лётчик мал светлый
 ТНЕ RUSSIAN SPELLING SYSTEM AND WORD-FORMATION 7

В ТНЕ RUSSIAN SPELLING SYSTEM

AND WORD-FORMA ТION

1 Advantages of the Russian spelling system for word analysis

The Russian spelling system lends itself excellently to word-formation
analysis, because it preserves the basic sounds of а word at the expense of giving
more exact information about pronunciation of phonetic variants. Let us take
an example. The spelling of the Russian word for 'water' is вода. The pronun-
ciation is [vada]. The accusative singular of the word is воду; the pronunciation
is [vodu]. The genitive plural is вбд, the pronunciation [vot]. The phonetic spell-
ings *вада and *вбт would destroy the visual apprehension of the root ВОД
'water.' The analyst would not know whether the basic root was ВОД or ВАД
in the first case, or ВОД or ВОТ in the second. The Russian spelling system pre-
fers to give the root and ask one to learn how unstressed о is pronounced and
that а voiced d becomes а voiceless [t] in final position.
The importance of the visual preservation of basic sounds is obvious in
word-formation. For example, if the derivatives
водный water водород hydrogen
водяной water (adj) водка vodka
were spelled phonetically, only the first word would preserve the root: [vodnyj,
V;)d'inoj, V;)darot, votk;)]. The advantage of visual preservation of prefixes and
suffixes becomes obvious if we observe the variety of phonetic variants of а given
prefix or suffix:
PREFIX pod (под)
ПОДНЯТ [pod-] подпись [pot-]
поднять [pad-] подпишут [pat-]
подниму [p:id-] подписать [p:it-]

SUFFIX ov (ов - ев)

плодовый [-ov-] нулевой [-iv-]

носовой [-av-] лицевой [-yv-]
содоr.ый [-:iv-]

When one learns the Russian alphabet and how to read Russian words, one
encounters certain proЫems in the relation between Russian letters and the
sounds they represent. Not all these proЫems are satisfactorily solved or con-
fronted in basic courses. Let us reexamine some points which are particularly
important in analysis of words.
8 SECTION 1: GENERAL

2 Spelling of vowel basic sounds after consonants

There are five basic vowel sounds in Russian and two symbols for each
vowel. The vowel /etter chosen depends оп the preceding consonant; in the case
of paired consonants, оп whether it is hard or soft:
HARD: ta та te тэ to то tu ту ti ты
SOFТ: t'a ТЯ t'e те t'o тё t'u ТЮ t'i ти

or, in the case of unpaired consonants (ж, ш, ч, щ, ц, й), upon spelling rules
already known; for example,
after ш only и, never ы
after ч only а, never я

Let us give some examples in inflection:

MASC/NEU GEN SG OF NOUNS: -а DAT PL OF ADJECТIVES: -im
stul-a стула star-im старым
ucit' el'-a учителя s'in'-im синим
mui-a мужа xoros-im хорошим
muz' ej-a музея tr'et'j-im третьим

PRES I SG OF VERBS: -и MASC/NEU/DAT SG OF ADJECТIVES: -omu

klad-u кладу star-om11 старому
govor'-u говорю s'in'-om11 синему
spros-u спрошу xoros-onm хорошему
citaj-u читаю tr' et'j-omu третьему

One can easily see that the endings are the same; it is simply а matter of
which letters are used after the preceding consonants. The same principle holds
for the derivational suffixes. For example:
ADJECТIVAL SUFFIX -ov-
gaz-ov-oj1 газовый adj from газ'gas'
pol'-ov-oj полевой adj from поле 'field'
boj-ov-oj боевой adj from бой 'battle'

IMPERFECТIYIZING SUFFIX -aj-

pomog-aj-11t помогают help (impf)
poi•tor'-aj-111 повторяют repeat (impf)
t•strec-aj-ut встречают meet (impf)
1 The masculine nominative singular adjectival ending in basic sounds is -oj, but the spell-

ing is -ый or -ий outside of stress. This is one of the few examples in Russian of phonetic rather
than morphophonemic (basic sound) spelling (assuming the pronunciation [-у}]).
 ТНЕ RUSSIAN SPELLING SYSTEM AND WORD-FORMATION 9

IMPERFECПVIZING SUFFIX -ivaj-

zap' is-ivaj-ut записывают write down (impf)
ocen'-ivaj-ut оценивают evaluate (impf)
spras-ivaj-ut спрашивают ask (impf)

With one or two exceptions, we shall use the Russian alphabet for both
suffixes and endings. But one should Ье prepared for the vowel spelling variant
not given, if the requirements of spelling so dictate. Thus, for the adjectival
suffix just listed we give -ов-, rather than -ов- (-ев-), and expect one to recognize
that the suffix will Ье spelled ев after the appropriate consonants. Or, to give
another example, we give the adjectival suffix -ап- as -ян-, because paired con-
sonants occur soft before it, but if а final root consonant is а hushing (ж, ш, ч,
щ), the suffix is spelled -ан-:

вода water водяной

нефть oil нефтяной
серебро silver серебряный

but
кожа leather кожаный

3 Тhе spelling of tbe basic vowel о

The basic vowel о is spelled о after hard paired consonants and after hush-
ings in stressed position in grammatical endings and in some stems. Elsewhere,
it is spelled е. We already know that а spelled е in unstressed position тау
emerge as ё when it receives the stress. In word analysis it is both useful and cor-
rect to regard the е as having represented а basic о in the first place. For example,
весна has а basic о, since the stress shift in the plural gives вёсны. Стена, on the
other hand, has а basic е since the stem-stressed nominative plural accusative
singular gives стены - стену. Such an е which represents а basic о тау Ье
marked ё (вёсна, нёсут), the actual stressed ё being marked Ъу the usual diaere-
sis (вёсны, нёс).
In relatively rare instances, ~ stressed о тау alternate with а stressed е in
the same root or, very rarely, in the same paradigm:
жёна - жёны but женСЮiЙ
вёдут - вёл but ведший

We тау apply the same principle to inflection and derivation. In the

examples on page 8, -ему could Ье written -ёму and -ев- written -ёв-, for we
are dealing with а basic о in both cases. Note the following inflectional and deri-
vational positions involving а basic о.
10 SECTION 1: GENERAL

Neu nom/acc sg of nouns -о место полё решениё

Masc/neu inst sg of nouns -от столом ножо:\1 учйтелём
словарём rероём
Pres I pl of verbs -от станем берём делаём встаём
Masc/neu prep sg of -от старом хорошё:\1 большо:\1
adjectives
Past pass part -оп встречён переведён сбережён
Verbal suffix -ova- интересовать горёвать воёвать
Adjectival suffix -ovat- молодоватый синёватый
Mobile vowel -о- кусок дружок конёк человечёк

From now on we shall use ё when we want to call attention to а basic о in а root,
formant, or ending. In the Root List at the back of the book roots which ever
occur with а stressed ё are marked Ё; for example, НЁС, ЖЁН.

EXERCJSE Locate basic n in the following words and clarify each case:
звезда море подстрижен
стекло знаешь переночевать
привезут музеем кусочек

4 Тhе consonant j (jot)

The spelling of the unpaired soft consonant jot is complicated Ьу the fact
that it is not always represented Ьу the same or Ьу а single symbol. Before а
consonant or in final position it is spelled й; for example:
str6jka стройка Bobrujsk Бобруйск
stroj строй saraj сарай

Before а vowel it is rendered Ьу the same vowel letter which follows soft paired
consonants:
(е)

я е ё Ю 11

for example:
jasno ясно muz'eji музеи objezd объезд
jexat' ехать z11aju знаю podjom подъём
joi ёж brat'ja братья izja11 изъян
jug юг sud'je судье adjutant адъютант
stroja строя р'jи пью
moju мою cja чья
 ТНЕ RUSSIAN SPELLING SYSTEM AND WORD-FORMATION 11

Remember that а hard sign and а nonfinal soft sign preceding а vowel symbol
always signal the presence of jot.
1-ютЕ: In а very few foreign wordsjo тау Ье spelled Ьу йо instead of Ьу ё;
e.g. N'ju-Jork Нью-Йорк 'New У ork'; jod йбд 'iodine.'

EXERCISE Which of the following words contain а jot?

лейка ЯЗЬIК семья польёт

пять обязан семей корень

пятью шлют разъяснить коренья
строём семя полёт своими

Jot plays an important part in word-formation. lt may end а root (some-

thing only а consonant may do ), as in the roots:
МОЙ wash: мою (moj-u) 1 wash мойка (moj-k-a) washing
ПАРТИЙ party: партия (partij-a) party партийный (partij-n-oj) party
(adj)

it may begin а root, as in:

ЮГ south: юг (jug) south Югославия (jug-o-s/av-ij-a) Yugoslavia
ЕЗД ride: ездить (jezd-i-t') ride приезд (pr'i-jezd) arrival

or i t maу Ье а suffix, or part of а suffix, as in:

КОРОВ cow: коровья (f) (korov'-/j-a) cow's
ДЕЛ do: делают (d'el-aj-ut) do

As one learns more about word-formation, the part played in it Ьу jot will
become clearer, but its role should not Ье obscured Ьу the spelling proЬ!ems
discussed above.

EXERCISE Identify jot and the role it plays in the following words:
Англия объяснить строй строёвой (они) едят
английский (он) бьёт стройный поездка повторяют

If we wish to emphasize the presence of jot, we may use the symbol j or й,

but we will, in general, Iimit ourselves to the normal Russian alphabet and
assume that jot is identifiaЬ!e without our making specific reference to it. For
example, if we give стрб-11-ть or герб-я, we will assume it to Ье understood that
12 SECTION 1: GENERAL

the division is стрбй-и-ть, rербй-а, etc. There is nothing whatever irregular about
jot or its use in grammar, as Iong as its spelling is understood. The necessity of
understanding the spelling of jot will Ье particularly evident when we consider
its role in vowel-zero alternations (pages 71-72).
The basic sounds of Russian and their spellings are summarized directly
below:

Т ABLE OF RUSSIAN BASIC SOUNDS AND THEIR SPELLINGS

PAIRED BASIC CONSONANTS

d t z s ь р V f
д т 3 с б п в ф
d' t' z' s' Ь' р' v' f'

l r т п g k х

л р м н r к х

l' r' т' п' (g')l k' (x')l

UNPAIRED BASIC CONSONANTS

HARD: i Ж s ш с ц

SOFТ: с Ч sc щ

j й before а consonant or in final position

а е ё ю и when not directly preceded Ьу а consonantal letter

BASIC VOWELS
а э о у ы After hard paired consonants
а е о и i
я е ё-е ю и After soft paired consonants and j

а е о-ё-е у и After i s с sc2

а е о и

а е о-е у ы-и After с2

А note оп ъ апdь

ъ occurs after prefixes ending in а consonant before roots beginning with

jot: ob-jom объём and in а few foreign words: adjutant адъютант.
1 g' and х' are not independent basic sounds but predictaЬle variants of g and х before the
front vowels i and е.
2 The details of the spelling of vowels after unpaired consonants are not being considered
here.
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFl,ECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 13

ь indicates softness of preceding paired consonants: dat' дать but says

nothing about the hardness or softness of а preceding unpaired consonant, since
these are defined as hard or soft:
/oi ложь пос ночь

А ь after а final hushing of а noun does, however, mark the noun as а third de-
clension feminine (а noun ending in а hushing without а ь is а first declension
masculine ). Final -ь also acts as а grammatical marker in verbs in:
second singular present -s -шь знаешь
infinitive -с -чь помочь
imperative in hushing -i -жь режь (< резать)

с ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS

Any element that goes into the makeup of а word we may call а building ele-
ment. In considering inflected Russian words, we will Ье concerned with four
buildiпg elements: prejixes, roots, suffixes, and endings.

Noninflected derivatives
Prefixes, suffixes, and roots are involved in certain noninflected categories,
but most noninflected words of derivational interest are derived from inflected
categories; for example, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions which have be-
come fossilized from various inflected words or groups containing inflected
words:
ADVERBS

*с 1 верху (old gen sg) from the top сверху

from the
top
в месте in place вместе together
*наедине at one наедине in pri-
vate
с лишком with excess/extra слишком too
Cf. с лишком: двадцать лет с лишком 'twenty years and some.'
*п6лность (modern полнота) fullness полностью completely
*хотя (old ger of хотеть) wish нехотя reluc-
Cf. хотя below. tantly

1 The meaning of an asterisk preceding а word, form, or expression is explained

О!} р. 6.
14 SECTION 1: GENERAL

PREPOSIТIONS

в место in place вместо instead of

*во круг in circle вокруг around
благодаря (ger of благодарить) thank благодаря thanks to
смотря (ger of смотреть) look несмотря на in spite of

CONJUNCTIONS

*хотя (old ger of хотеть) wish хотя although

*пусть (old impv of пустить) let пусть let

PARТICLES

From old tense form of а verb know ведь after all, why,
in root ВЕД you know
Noninflected Russian words which аге not derived from inflected categories are
scattered, and their derivation is of historical interest only.
For practical purposes, therefore, word-formation is concerned only with
the inflected categories: verbs, nouns, and adjectives. After our general state-
ment, we shall consider each of these in turn, in Sections 11, 111, and IV.
Any inflected Russian word consist~ of at least а root and an inflectional
ending. The ending may Ье zero. Words consisting of only root plus ending we
call nonderived (or primary) words. /па nonderived word the root is equal to the
stem; the stem is all of а word except the ending.

Nonderived words:
ROOT plus ENDING

РЬIБ а nom sg 'fish'

РЬIБ # gen pl 'fish'
конь # nom sg 'horse'
кон я gen sg 'horse'
СТАР # short-form masc 'old'
СТАР ЫЙ long-form nom masc sg 'old'
СТАР ОГО long-form gen masc sg 'old'
НЁС у r sg pres 'carry' (det)
МОГ у r sg pres 'Ье аЬ!е'

Words which, in addition to the root and ending, have one or more deriva-
tional elements (prefixes and/or suffixes), we call derived words. In derived words
the stem is alи·ays longer than the root. 1
1 In certain nonprefixed words built with а zero-suffix the stem appears to Ье по longer

tlian the root; however, zero-suffixes must Ье counted. They are discussed оп рр. 23-25.
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 15
Derived н·ords:
PREFIX(ES) ROOT SUFFIX(ES) ENDING

РЫБ ак # nom sg 'fisherman'

РЫБ ак а gen sg 'fisherman'
РЬIБ /н ЫЙ nom sg masc 'fish (adj)'
СТАР оват ЫЙ nom sg masc 'oldish'
СТАР е ют З pl pres 'age'
СТАР ость # nom sg 'old age'
нос и ть inf (nondet) 'carry'
про-из нос и ть inf (impf) 'pronounce'
nро-из НЁС ут з pl pres (perf) 'pronounce'
по м6г ут З pl pres (perf) 'help'
по мог а ют з pl pres (impf) 'help'

1 Roots
А root is an uncompounded element, tl1e part of the word which carries the
basic unextended meaning and is common to all the words of а family or 11:ord
nest (а word nest is, then, а family of all the words in а language sharing а given
root). From the standpoint of their meaning (and also of the building elements
which are used with them) roots are nominal (РЫБ 'fish '), adjectival (СТАР
'old '), or verbal (НЁС- НОС 'сапу'); the few roots which would seem to Ье
associated with other parts of speech usually function like one of the main
types; for example, ПЕРЁД - ПРЕД 'front, fore-' like nominal roots, СВОЙ
'own' like adjectival roots. However, а root Ъу itselfis neither а word nor а part
of speech; thus we distinguish the word and adjective стар (root plus zero-end-
ing) from the root СТАР, which is simply а building element of а word.
Russian roots of Slavic origin and from older borrowings always end in
consonants: 1 ХОД, РЕК, ТОПОР. 2 The typical Russian root has the structure
CVC, where С is one or more consonants and V is one vowel: БЕЛ, ХОД,
СТАН, РЕК, ВЕТ/Р. Some roots are disyllaЬic: ДОРОГ, ГОВОР, but with
very few exceptions, only non-Russian roots have more than two syllaЫes:
ГЕНЕРАЛ. А few Russian roots have the format УС; that is, begin with а
vowel: ИСК, УК.
Most roots are syllablc (contain а vowel), but there are nonsyllaЬic roots as
well, and many ofthem are important: Ж/д 'wait,' М/Р 'die,' Д/Н 'day.' Non-
1 Including Й: e.g. СТРОЙ 'build,' ЗМЕЙ 'snake.'
2 Most recent borrowings ending in vo\vels are assimilated to the Russian pattem; see
рр. 27-28 for fuller discussion of foreign roots and analysis of foreign words.
16 SECTION 1: GENERAL

syllaЬic roots тау occur in syllaЬic variants, containing а moЬile vowel. This
question is discussed in detail in the subsection on vowel-zero alternations.
There is only one nonsyllaЬic adjectival root: 3/Л 'evil.'
Most final root paired consonants are best regarded as not intrinsically hard
or soft; hardпess or softness depends on the first sound of the immediately fol-
lowing ending or suffix. In all of Russian grammar, for instance, final paired
consonants occur only soft before е. The nature of the final root paired con-
sonant тау also Ье important; for example, velars (k, g, х) occur only soft
before i (as well as before е), and / occurs only soft before the adjectival suffix
-/и-, whereas other paired consonants are only hard. Final paired consonants of
verbal roots occur only soft before endings in о, i, and а. 1 Examples:
СИЛ: сила силу силе силовой сильный
РУК: рука руку руке
СЛАБ: слабый слабую слабее
НЁС: несу несут несёт неси неся

ln addition, phonetic assimilation тау occasionally cause а softening not re-

flected in the spelling: in нести [n'is't'i] the softening of the [s] is due to the fol-
lowing [t'].
Some roots do appear to end in а soft paired consonant; that is, they have а
soft paired consonant in grammatical positions where а hard paired consonant
тау also exist; for example, мбр-ё 'sea,' вбл-я 'will,' д/е/нь, gen sg д/н-я 'day,'
гбрь/к-11й 'Ьitter.' Yet even such roots тау occur with hard final consonants in
other grammatical positions; for example, мор-ск-бй 'naval,' про11з-вб,--. 'ar-
Ьitrariness,' ден-н-бй 'day (adj),' гбрк-ну-ть 'turn Ьitter.'
We тау occasionally list а root as containing а final soft consonant if we
wish to specify that in а given instance it functions as soft (e.g. д/н' 'day' to ac-
count for the soft п' in the word д/е/нь 'day '). But in general it is best to regard
the hardness or softness of а final paired consonant as dependent on the environ-
ment.

Meanings and parts of speech of roots

The meaning of а root is almost always obviously nominal, verbal, or ad-
jectival. But whether or not estaЬ!ishment on semantic grounds is certain, the
type а root belongs to can also, in most cases, Ье formally estaЫished on the basis
of what building elements are used with it. For example, ГОВОР is used with
verbal prefixes and suffixes (zero and -/к-) which build nouns of action/result; it
is а verbal root; СТ АР is used with the nominal suffix -ость, which is only used
with adjectival roots; it is an adjectival root. Roots which appear to Ье associ-
1 Cf. р. 39.
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 17

ated with other parts of speech in fact may Ье assimilated to one of the basic
types: for example, ПЕРЁД - ПРЕД 'front, fore,' though it seems associated
with the preposition перёд and the prefix пред-, behaves like а nominal root;
e.g. it builds an adjective with the purely denominative suffix -ов-: передовой.
СВОЙ 'one's own, -prop(e)r-,' though it seems associated with the pronoun
свой, тау clearly Ье classed as an adjectival root; e.g. it builds the factitive verbs
(factitive verbs are built from adjectival roots) усвоить and освоить.
А small number of roots have undergone а type of semantic split which
causes us to assign а new part of speech to the new variant; in most cases an
older nominal (N) or adjectival (л) root becomes verbal (v). The semantic con-
nection usually remains clear:
БЕД N bad conditions БЕД v defeat, -vince (-vict)
бед-а disaster по-бед-и-ть defeat
бед-/ н-ый poor по-бед-#-а 1 victory
у-бед-и-ть convince
КЛЮЧ N key, spring КЛЮЧ v close, -clude
ключ-# key в-ключ-и-ть (in)close
за-ключ-и-ть conclude
ис-ключ-и-ть exclude
КРУТ steep
А КРУТ v turn
крут-ой steep крут-и-ть tum, twist
крут-изн-а steepness крут-/к-а 1 winding (yam)
за-крут-и-ть tum, twist
за-крут-/к-а tuming, twisting
The Root List at the back of the book, which assigns а part of speech to
each root, lists such roots as both N and v, both А and v, and so on.
The knowledge of the meaning of а root is obviously а powerful instrument
in the hands of the Iearner, but caution is advised against expecting the root to
provide an unambiguous meaning in every context. lt is true that most roots have
fairly specific or specifiaЫe meanings and that, together with correctly inter-
preted information about the rest of а word, they often provide the key to the
meaning. However, the meanings of many common roots may Ье rather elusive
in certain contexts. In many cases, particularly with verbal roots, а great deal of
experience with many words containing а given root is necessary before one
begins to acquire what is really less а concrete meaning than an idea, а set of
possiЬilities for the root.

1 The verbalization of these roots is suggested both Ьу their meaning and Ьу their capabll-
ity of being comblned with the zero-suffix and -/к- to make deverbative nouns with abstract
meaning.
18 SECTION I: GENERAL

Let us give three roots, one nominal, one adjectival, and one verbal, and list
аfew words built with each root and possessing varying degrees of association
with the central idea in the root.
МУЖ male, man
муж-# husband муж-ик-# peasant (arch)
муж-ск-бй masculine, men's муж-а-ют reach manhood
муж-чин-а man муж-(е)ств-о courage
нов new
нбв-ый new нов-изн-а novelty, newness
нбвь-#-# 1 virgin soil об-нов-и-ть renovate
нов-ость-# (а piece of) news; нов-ич-/6/к-# novice
novelty
СТУП step
ступ-и-ть - ступ-а-ют step
Verbs in -ступ-it-ть - -ступ-а-ют. Most have nouns in -ступленне, and some
have other corresponding deverbative nouns:
вь1ступ-и-ть (с inst) соте out, соте forward, appear puЫicly, perform
(with) (шЕА 'step out'); вь1ступить с песней, с докла­
дом sing а song, make а report
на-ступ-и-ть step on; на-ступ-а-ют (impf only) attack, advance
о-ступ-и-ть-ся stumЬ!e; lose one's way (IDEA 'misstep ')
от-ступ-и-ть step back, recede; deviate, digress; от-ступ-а-ют (impf
only) retreat
пере-ступ-и-ть step over (Cf. пре-ступ-и-ть 'transgress. ')
по-ступ-и-ть enter, enroll (in an institution) (IDEA 'step in'); act, behave
(IDEA 'take а step ')
Cf. поступление 'enrolling, entering'; поступ/о/к-#
'act'; пбступь-#-# 1 'step' (person's).
при-ступ-и-ть к (dat) begin, get at (IDEA 'step to')
у-ступ-и-ть make place for, step out of the way of; concede
Nouns:
ступ-ень-# step (of stairs) ступ-иц-а hub (of wheel)
In the examples with al\ three of these roots the meaning of the root is less
а sure guide to the meaning of а word than an orientation point around which
one may group members of а word nest as one learns them.
1 These words have а zero-suffix as wel\ as а zero-ending. See рр. 23-25 for а discussion of
zero-suffixes.
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 19

EXERCISE Using а dictionary, find а number of words built with the nominal root
КРАС. How wou\d the meaning of the root Ье characterized?

Latin roots
Russian contains а fairly large number of loan translations, also called
calques: literal translations of foreign words, especially the direct rendition of the
separate elements of prefixed or compound words into Russian equivalents.
Most calques are ultimately from Latin, either directly, or through French, Ger-
man, or English; the intermediary does not matter. If several words containing
the same root are involved, it may Ье useful to abstract the Latin root when
translating the Russian equivalent. Many such roots are verbal. Some examples
are:
вин -cuse из-вин-и-ть excuse
об-вин-и:-ть accuse
ВЛЁК -tract из-влёк-ут extract
от-влёк-ут distract, abstract
ключ -clude в-ключ-и-ть inc/ude
ис-ключ-и-ть exclude
за-ключ-и-ть conclude
КОРЕН -radic- ис-корен-и-ть eradicate
РОД -gen- вод-о-род hydrogen
род-и-тель-н-ый genitive
ТРУД -labor- со-труд-нич-ай-ут co\laborate

Larger families are:

ЛОЖ-СТАВ -pose, -ропе ВЁД - ВОД -duce, -duct
от-лож-и-ть postpone вёд-ут conduct
пред-лож-и-ть propose в-вёд-ут introduce
пред-по-лож-и-ть suppose вь1-вёд-ут deduce
рас-по-лож-и-ть dispose при-вёд-ут adduce
пере-став-и-ть transpose про-из-вёд-ут produce

со-став-и-ть compose с-вёд-ут reduce

EXERCISE The verbal root ПИС frequently corresponds to Latin -scribe. Но\\' many
compounds in -ш1сать сап you find ,vhich have an English \'erb in -saibe as
one of their translations?
20 SECTION 1: GENERAL

In practice, of course, such exact and neat correspondences do not always

exist. But the Latin may suggest the meaning even if it is not itself the appro-
priate translation.
We shall mention calques again on page 122, when we discuss verbal pre-
fixes.

2 Prefixes
Prefixes play а subordinate role in Russian compared to the root and more-
over, unlike suffixes, do not make parts of speech. There are, fundamentally,
three types of prefixes: (r) prefixes based on prepositions used in prepositional
phrases; (2) simple nominal and adjectival prefixes added to independent words;
and (3) verbal prefixes (sometimes called preverbs).
r. Many prefixed nouns and adjectives are derived from or hardly separ-
aЬ!e from prepositional phrases. They are built Ьу various suffixes and are some-
times called prejixed-suffixal nouns and adjectives. They are treated in more
detail in Sections III and IV, respectively. Here are some examples:

NOUNS

безлюдьё absence of people без людей without people

Закавказьё Transcaucasia за Кавказом beyond the Caucasus
(Mountains)
безработица unemployment без работы without work
подлее/о/к underbrush ПОД ЛеСОМ under the forest

ADJECТIVES

безлюд/ный unpopulated без людей without people

(Cf. above.)
закавказский Transcaucasian за Кавказом beyond the Caucasus
приморский seaside (adj) при море Ьу the sea
надводный above water над водой above water

2. Certain nominal and adjectival prefixes are not correlated with preposi-
tions (though а few may formally coincide with them) but are simply added to
independent nouns and adjectives. Except for the negative не, which combines
quite freely with adjectives, they build quite small groups ofwords. Some foreign
prefixes are included; these also build primarily small groups. Some of these
prefixes coincide formally with prepositional or verbal prefixes below, but they
must Ье co11sidered distinct from them, even if the meanings are similar. For
example, the под in подгруппа 'subgroup' is а nominal prefix which is simply
added to the 11oun; it differs fundamentally from the под/ in подполье 'under-
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 21

ground' and подпольный 'underground (adj),' which аге based оп the preposi-
tional phrase под полем 'under the ground'; it also differs from the под/ in
подходйть 'approach' and in подход 'approach' (the verbal noun). Examples:

NOUNS

анти- anti- антифашист antifascist

не- поп- незнание ignorance
под- sub- подгруппа subgroup
пра- proto- праязь1к protolanguage
раз- (intensifier) раскрасавица very beautiful woman
со- со- соавтор coauthor

ADJECТIVES

анти- anti- антифашистский antifascist (adj)

не- поп-, not нехороший not good, bad
пра- proto- праславянский proto-Slavic
пре- (intensifier) предобрый extremely nice
раз- (intensifier) развесёлый very gay

3. Verbal prefixes differ fundamentally from the preceding two types. Ex-
cept for вз/ - воз, вы, низ/, пере - пре, and раз/, they have corresponding prep-
ositions with which they share а common origin. Verbal prefixes have primary
meanings of а physical, directional, or spatial nature, which may Ье close to the
meanings of the corresponding preposition (e.g. о(б/) in об/о/йдут 'go around '),
but most of them have one or more abstract meanings whose connection with
the primary sense or any corresponding preposition may vary from fairly ob-
vious to remote or unestaЫishaЫe (e.g. обслужйть 'serve, wait оп (submit to
serving),' обмерить 'give false measure (cheat),' объяснйть 'explain' (factitive
meaning 'make clear'). Verbal prefixes are very important in Russian and will
Ье considered separately in Section 11.

3 Suffixes
In nonsuffixed words the type of root involved determines the part of
speech; nominal, adjectival, and verbal roots build nouns, adjectives, and verbs,
respectively:
Nominal root РЫБ plus ending -а > рь1ба 'fish'
Adjectival root СТАР plus ending -ый > старый 'old'
Verbal root НЁС plus ending -ут > нёсут 'they сапу'
Prefix под plus nominal root ГРУПП plus ending-a > по,1грj'·ппа 'subgroup'
Prefix по plus verbal root МОГ plus ending ,ут > помогут 'they \vill help'
22 SECTION 1: GENERAL

In suffixed words the suffix assumes the role of part-of-speech maker from
the root, and we call suffixes nominal, adjectival, or verbal according to whether
they build nouns, adjectives, or verbs. In words which contain more than one
suffix, it is the last suffix which makes the part of speech; for example, in уч-it­
тель-ств-ова-ть 'Ье а teacher' (suffixes italic) the verbal suffix -ова- makes the
word а verb. Suffixes may Ье comЬined with more than one type of root or
stem; for example, the nominal suffix -ств- makes nouns from nominal, adjec-
tival, and verbal roots or stems:
брат brother братство brotherliness
великий great величество greatness
производить produce производство production
or may Ье restricted to one type of root or stem; for example, the nominal
suffix -ость- makes nouns only from adjectives:
храбрый brave храбрость bravery
цен/ный valuaЫe ценность value
Some suffixes (including most verbal suffixes) are, for practical purposes,
exclusively part-of-speech makers; for example, -11- added to ГОВОР, -е- added
to СМОТР, and -ова- added to ИНТЕРЕС make verbs (говорить, смотреть,
11нтересовать); or they may delineate categories и·ithin а part of speech; for
example, -ivaj- and -aj- added to the perfective verbal stems спрос11 and по­
мог create imperfective stems from them (спрашивают, помогут).
Many other suffixes (particularly nominal and adjectival suffixes), in addi-
tion to making parts of speech, also carry а general lexical meaning or restric-
tion. For example, the suffixes -ств- and -ость- discussed above build nouns
which have an abstract meaning. The suffix -тель- designates personal nouns of
agent of male sex from verbs indicating the action performed; for example,
учить 'teach,' учитель 'teacher.' The adjectival suffix -/н- makes adjectives from
inanimate nouns only; for example, кнпга 'book,' книжный 'bookish'; but -cк­
makes adjectives from nouns denoting persons, places, and institutions; for
example, Ленин 'Lenin,' ленинский 'Leninist (adj),' Англ11я 'England,' анг­
лпйский 'English.' Still other suffixes convey а diminutive or augmentative
meaning, often with overtones of affection or depreciation; for example, -/к­
builds diminutive nouns (река 'river,' реч/ка 'little river'); -ищ- builds aug-
mentative nouns (дом' house,' до:\111ще 'Ьig house '); -оват- attenuates the force
of adjectives (зелёный 'green,' зеленоватый 'greenish ').
А given suffix may play several roles in the language; for example, the nomi-
nal suffix -/к- makes nouns of action/result from verbs (вь1став11ть 'display,'
вь1став/ка 'display(ing), exhiЬit(ion) '); nouns denoting female persons (а:\1ер11-
ка11/ка 'American (f) '); and diminutive nouns (река 'river,' реч/ка 'little river ').
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECTED RUSSIAN WORDS 23
Many verbal roots, it will Ье noted, build only suffixed verbs; for example,
ГОВОР 'talk, say,' СМОТР 'look at,' and ПИС 'write' require the suffixes
-11-, -е-, and -а-, respectively, to make them verbs: говорйть, смотреть, and 011-
сать. In addition, а number of adjectival roots require suffixes to make them ad-
jectives; for example, ВЫС 'high' выс-ок-11й, КРЕП 'strong' креп-/к-нй, РЕД
'rare' ред-/к-11й.
Nouns built directly from such roots, 1 notaЫy nouns which are clearly
associated with suffixed verbs but do not themselves contain the verb-making
suffix, comprise а somewhat special case, since one cannot cite formal derivation
from а word. Here we тау say that the first word is correlated with the second
(in the sense that both are directly derived from the same element) rather than
derived from it. However, it is easily seen that semantically the difference is not
significant; 2 that is, that the correlated words are as closely associated as words
which are formally derived one from the other:

VERB DERIVAТIVE DERIVAТIVE

ROOT VERB FROM ROOT FROM VERB

пис пис-а-ть write пис-арь clerk пис-а-тель writer

МЕР мер-и-ть measure мер-/к-а measure мер-й-л-о standard
за-МЕН за-мен-и-ть за-мен-#-а substi- за-мен-й-тель substitute
tute

ADJECТIVE DERIVATIVE DERIVAТIVE

ROOT ADJECТIVE FROM ROOT FROM ADJECТIVE

РЕД ред-/к-ий rare ред-ей-ут become ред-к-ость scarcity

scarce

In these examples there is clearly no difference in the meaning ofthe root between
derivatives for the root and those for the suffixed word.

Zero-suffixes
А number of Russian words appear to Ье unsuffixed and yet, from their
meaning and the fact that they are а different part of speech from their under-
lying roots, it is clear that they have been derived Ьу something. Since endi11gs
alone cannot derive words or change the part of speech, we presume the exist-
ence of а zero-suffix between the root and the ending. А zero-suffix, just like any
Including prefix plus root in the case of prefixed verbal derivatives.
t
Nor should it Ье, since the suffixes have no meaning other than to make the correspond-
2

ing-part of speech.
24 SECТION 1: GENERAL

other suffix, makes а part of speech and has а meaning. 1 We may distinguish
three zero-suffixes: ( r) а nominal suffix which builds deverbative and deadjec-
tival nouns with abstract meaning; (2) an adjectival suffix which builds com-
pound adjectives based on phrases consistiпg of an adjective or the preposition
без plus nouns designating а part of the body; (3) а nominal suffix which builds
masculine compound nouns of agent in comblnation with а verbal root, which
is normally the second element of the compound, the first usually being а
complement of the action expressed Ьу the verb. 2 Examples:

I. Nouns with abstract meaning:

DEVERBA11VE (VERY COMMON)

воют howl вой-#-# howling

рассказать relate рассказ-#-# tale, story
нажмут press нажим-#-# 3 pressure
составить compose состав-#-# composition
взrлянуть glance взrляд-#-# glance
ходить go ход-#-# movement
верить believe вер-#-а belief, fai th
заменить replace замен-#-а replacement
связать tie, link связь-#-# tie, link
DEADJEC11VAL (LIMПED)

зелёный green зелень-#-# verdure, greens

высокий high ВЬIСЬ-#-# height(s}

2. Compound adjectives (part of body):

красное лицо red face краснолиц-#-ый red-faced
толстые rубы thick lips толстогуб-#-ый thick-lipped
без головь1 without а head безголов-#-ый headless
1 А zero form may Ье posited in Russian grammar as long as it is unique; i.e. as long as
the reference of the zero is unamЬiguous within its category. This unamЬiguity gives zero the
same force as the presence of an ending, suffix, etc. would have. For example, а zero-ending in
feminine nouns is always the genitive plural, in short-form adjectives always the masculine; а
zero-verb is always the present tense of быть. Similarly, in the above examples, the zero-suffix
in noncompound nouns a\ways has abstract meaning, in adjectives it always describes а being
or an object Ьу association with а part ofits body, and in compound nouns it always designates
an agent.
2 But not always. For examples of other types of zero-suffix compound agent nouns see
рр. 204-205.
3 NonsyllaЬic roots occur in syllablc variants before the zero-suffix; hence ЖИМ instead
of Ж/М. Cf. р. 78.
 ТНЕ STRUCTURE OF INFLECТED RUSSIAN WORDS 25
3. Compound agent nouns:

ловить рь16 catch fish рыболов-#-# fisherman

сосать пь1ль suck dust пылесос-#-# vacuum cleaner
едят людей eat people людоед-#-# cannibal

All three zero-suffixes will Ье discussed in more detail in the appropriate

sections below.
Specific verbal, nominal, and adjectival suffixes will Ье treated in the appro-
priate sections, but in the rest of Section I we shall attempt to shed some light on
general principles relating to suffixes, roots, and prefixes and their occurrence,
analysis, and comЬination into words.

4 Productivity
When we speak of an element or а process as productii·e, we mean that it is
alive in the language, that it is actively used in the formation of new words. For
example, Russian is still building new words Ьу adding the verbal formant -ова­
tо а root {арест-ова-ть 'arrest ') and making new adjectives Ьу adding the adjec-
tival formant -/и- to а root (атои-н-ый 'atom(ic) '); hence we call -ова- and -/н­
productive formants. An unproductive type cannot give rise to new words;
examples are the formant -е- in смотр-е-ть 'look at' and the formant -/б- in
судь-/б-а 'fate,' which are both totally dead. Among living types there can Ье
degrees ofvitality, and а given suffix may Ье productive for one type ofstem, but
not for another; e.g. -/ц- is productive for noun stems but not for adjective
stems (in ленин-/е/ц, but not in глуп-fе/ц).
А large percentage of common Russian words are built with formants
which are either completely dead or have lost some or most of their productivity.
For example, the verbal formants -а- and -е- are quite dead but, between them,
build more than а hundred verbs, many of them quite common (e.g. шrс-а-ть,
смотр-е-ть). Thus, while productivity suggests the lines along which new \\'ords
will Ье formed, it is obvious that we will not Ье аЫе to ignore the many dead
formants which are importantly represented in the Russian Iexicon.
The concept of productivity. is most important for formants but may Ье
applied to roots and prefixes as ,vell. Productivity of roots usually varies with the
usefulness, relevance, or generalizaЬility of the meaning; for example, ПИС is
obviously rich and generalizaЫe (though most of the words have рrоЬаЫу
already been built). РАКЕТ will рrоЬаЫу build new ,vords, ,vhile СОХ' ,vooden
plo,v' clearly has little future. Most of the important Russian prefixes are still
productive, though some have unproductive variants; for example, воз and пре,
of вз/ and пере respectively.
26 SECTION 1: GENERAL

D ANALYSIS OF WORDS

1 Principles of division
Basically, the structure of а Russian word is а rnatter of its derivational
history: of how it was built, of the elernents it was rnade frorn, and of any
changes which rnay have resulted frorn the cornbination of its elernents. Each
new unit is added to а ready whole; if the whole consists of rnore than one part,
the parts are taken together. Let us analyze three rather typical derived Russian
words:
резкость 'sharpness'
Root РЕЗ 'cut' + adjectival suffix -/к- > резк-ий 'sharp'
Adjectival stem резк- + (abstract) nominal suffix -ость- > резкость
'sharpness'
подписывают 'sign (imperfective meaning)'
Root ПИС 'write' + verbal suffix -а- > писа-ть 'write'
Verbal stem писа- + prefix под/ (meaning 'under, sub') > подписа-ть
'sign (perf)'
Perfective verbal stem подписа- + imperfectivizing suffix -ывай- > подпи­
сывай-ут 'sign (impf)'

учительствовать 'teach, perform the profession of а teacher'

Root УК + verbal suffix -и- > учи-ть 'teach'
Verbal stem учи- + nominal (agent) suffix -тель- > учитель 'teacher'
Nominal stem учитель- + (abstract) nominal suffix -ств- > учительств-о
'teaching profession (activity or body of реор!е)'
Nominal stem учительств- + verbal suffix -ова- > учительствова-ть 'Ье а
teacher, perform the profession of а teacher'

The above exarnples suffice to show that analyzing words is rnore than а
matter of sirnply breaking them down into their parts. One must know what the
parts are and rnean, as well as the implications of their comblnation (cf. sub-
section Е, pages 35-36). In the cases ofthe above three words (and, fortunately,
in thousands of other Russian words) the breakdown is straightforward. The
words are what they seem and, after having learned the basic patterns here,
one becomes аЫе to handle such analyses easily.
Many other words, however, are not quite or not at all what they seem at
first glance. Semantic shift without accompanying formal changes, popular ana-
logy, and various other factors тау have eroded or changed the correspondence
between the external makeup of а word and its present meaning or among words
within а nest. For example, the word муж 'husband' originally meant 'man'
 ANAL YSIS OF WORDS 27

as well as 'husband.' The derived adjective муж-ск-бй 'male, men's' rests оп the
older meaning and does not mean 'husband's.' The connection between БЕД in
бед-/н-ый 'poor' and БЕД in по-бед-и-ть 'conquer' has become somewhat re-
mote, 1 while between буд-ут 'Ье' and за-буд-ут 'forget' there seems to Ье попе
at all. The verb создать - создавать 'create' has been assimilated Ьу analogy to
the -дать - давать type, whereas in origin it had nothing to do with 'give' but
belongs to the nonsyllaЬic type З/ Д 'build' (which makes the derivation seman-
tically more reasonaЬ\e); that is, со-зд-а-ть rather than соз-да-ть.
Or а word like стран-иц-а 'page' looks as if it should Ье derived from
стран-а 'country,' until one learns about Church Slavonicisms; specifically, that
СТРАН here is not 'country' but the Church Slavonic alternate СТРАН for
Russian СТОРОН 'side.'
There are а number of Russian words whose analysis requires special ety-
mological study. For example, ок/н-б 'window' is unanalyzaЬ\e in terms of the
modern \anguage. There is no suffix which may Ье separated out; -/н- builds
adjectives but not nouns. Yet ОК/Н seems an unlikely Russian root; most syl-
lablc roots are like ГОВОР, СИЛ, ВОД, etc.; they ordinarily do not end in un-
pronounceaЬ\e c\usters. Etymological studies reveal that the word was originally
а derivative ок-н; it is associated with ок-о, the old Russian word (still used
poetically and in other Slavic \anguages) for "еуе" (cf. а similar connection
between "еуе" and "window" in the English word "window,'' Old Norse
vindauga, i.e. "wind еуе "). 2
Certain special phonetic developments in peculiar contexts, popular ety-
mology, and certain other factors have also contributed to making а number of
Russian words unanalyzaЫe without special etymological help. For example:

за-тх-л-ый 'musty,' connected with за-д6х-ну-ть 'become musty'

Old participle *задхлый > затхлый (д > т before voiceless х)
вь1-ну-ть (impf вы-н-им-а-ют) 'take out'

This verb, which looks as if it lacks а root (prefix вы, suffix -ну-) replaced an
earlier (and etymologically correct) *вь1-н-я-ть (cf. the imperfective).

2 Analyzing words of foreign origin

Many Russian words of foreign origin, especially if they are from Westerп
European languages and borrowed fairly recently, are immediately recognizaЫe;
for example, спбрт, фундамент, литература. For purposes of our analysis for-
1 See р. 17.
- 2 Cf. also ок-бш/к-о, а diminutive or familiar "'ord for window, built оп ОК, not ОКН.
28 SECTION 1: GENERAL

eign stems are not broken up into parts, even if they seem analyzaЫe, though
endings and Russian formants are separated; for example, през11дент, пропа­
га11д-а, фра1щуз-с1~-иii (not 11ре-з11д-ент, про-паг-анд-а, франц-уз-ск-11ii). How-
ever, certain foreign suffixes have become Russianized to the point that it is use-
ful to separate them; for example, -11ст-, -11З:\1-. Such suffixes will Ье treated in
Sections III and IV.
Other words of foreign origin may Ье less or not at а\\ obviously foreign, so
that it may at first Ье difficult to tel1 that they are unanalyzaЫe. After one has had
enough practice working with roots and suffixes, relatively few foreign words
should Ье confusing. One develops а good sense for what Russian roots are like
and, having encountered most of the Russian suffixes, рrоЬаЫу does not try to
analyze older roots from non-Slavic languages like КАРАНДАШ 'pencil,'
ТОПОР' ахе,' ХУДОЖ• art.' Most older foreign roots, t\10ugh not themselves
analyzaЫe, may themselves build words:

карандаш-н-ый pencil (adj)

топор-йщ-ё ахе handle
худож-ник artist

Generally speaking, ifmodern foreign words сап Ье borrowed into Russian

so that their roots emerge as consonantal and ifthey are admitted to inflectional
patterns, they are admitted to derivational patterns as wel\. For example, rela-
tively recent noun borrowings ending in consonants are readily admitted to both
dec\ension and derivation:

ПРЕЗИДЕНТ президент-а, -у etc.; · президент-ск-ий

А ТОМ атом-а, -у etc.; атом-н-ый

Borrowings of nouns ending in -а are readily assimilated to the Russian pattern

Ьу regarding the -а as the nominative singular ending of а feminine word. For
example, the Italian word co/oratura is borrowed as а feminine колоратура and
builds an adjective ко.110рат5·рныii. 1 Оп the other hand, words which are more
difficu\t to assimilate and are not accepted into inflection are in most cases ex-
cluded from derivational processes as well; for example, ке11гуру 'kangaroo' and
к11нб 2 'cinema' neither are declined nor build adjectives. Hence КЕНГУРУ and
КИНО, though technically roots, have по real significance for word-formation.

1 Ап example of а foreign word ending in а vowel other than -а being assimilated, for

derivational purposes, to а Russian root type is the masculine кбфе ( < Dutch koffie) which
builds the adjective i,;oфeii11ыii.
2 lndcclinaЫe neuters like к~11ю may Ье used in compound words, where the о is assimi-

\ated as а connecting vowel; e.g. к111юnро~1ь1шленность 'movie industry.'

 FUSION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS: BASES AND ENLARGED SUFFIXES 29

Е FUSION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS:

BASES AND ENLARGED SUFFIXES

Various processes and changes, most important among them semantic

shifts in the language, may precipitate the semantic redistribution and fusion of
building elements in words. More specifically, suffixa\1 or prefixal 1 elements may
cease to function as independent semantic units and fuse with roots into bases,
or а suffix may cease to play an independent role semantically and fuse with а
following suffix into an enlarged suffix. These fused elements may look com-
posite, but the important thing is that they are semantically indivisiЫe and act
as units when they are combined with prefixes, suffixes, and endings. For
example, the bases тверд' hard,' кон/ц 'end,' спор' argument,' смотр 'look,' and
the enlarged suffixes -оват- '-ish' and -ность- (abstract meaning '-ness ') are
historically divisiЫe into ТВЁР-Д, КОН-Ц, С-ПОР, С-МОТР, -ов-ат-,
-и-ость- but have become autonomous roots and suffixes, because their
meanings have become independent of their component parts (the older root
element has often either ceased to exist independently, or the semantic associa-
tion has become remote; for example, МОТР 'look at' does not exist in the
standard language, ТВЁР Д 'hard' bears no semantic relation to ТВОР 'create,'
to which it was originally related). Without an understanding of this functional
redistribution and fusion, proper analysis of many words in Russian is im-
possiЬ!e.
In discussing fusion we may distinguish basically two levels of historical
occurrence and significance. In root-suffix fusion we may recognize (1) an
"earlier" type, in which the component parts are likely to Ье less obvious, and
the suffixal element involved will in many cases, though not always, have ceased
to function as such or in the same role as in the modern language (e.g. РАБ-ОТ
'work,' ДОБ-Р 'good, nice'; от and р are dead suffixal elements in the modern
language); and (2) а "later" type, in which the component parts are likely to Ье
quite obvious, and the suffixal elements involved are extant and active in the
language in other words (e.g. БЕД/И 'poor,' ЛОд/К 'boat'; the suffixes -/н­
and -/к- play actively in the modern language the same role they had played in
БЕД/И and ЛОД/К before fusion; for example, in the words ато:\-1-11-ый 'atom-
ic,' котлет-/к-а 'cutlet (dim)'). In root-prefix fusion we may similarly distin-
guish earlier and more recent types of fusion. In both types of fusion there may
Ье cases where one may argue as to which level а given instance belongs, but in
general the distinction of levels is useful for practical purposes.
1 We will regard as suffixal and prefixal elements any building elements that, respectively,
followed or preceded the root, regardless ofwhat analysts of the words of the earlier pre-Russian
language might choose to call them in the context·of that language.
30 SECTION 1: GENERAL

1 Fusion of а root with а suffixal element

\Ve have already noticed above (page 27) that the analysis of certain roots
is primarily an etymological rather than а modern concern; their breakdown is
meaningless or almost meaningless in terms of the modern language. Examples:
ГОВОР (ГОВ-ОР) ЗАБОТ (ЗОБ-ОТ)

ОТ/Ц (ОТ-Ц) ЯСН (ЯС-Н)

ln discussing fusion we are much more concerned with the many other
roots whose breakdown is to some degree meaningful; that is, where there is
some semantic connection, which may Ье quite remote or quite obvious, with
another (nonderived) root. Let us take some examples:
БОГАТ 'rich'
богат-ый • rich,' богат-ств-о • riches,' о-богат-и-ть •enrich.'
бог-ат related to БОГ 'god, divinity,' as in бог 'god,' на-бож-/н-ый 'de-
vout,' о-бож-а-ют 'adore.' But cf. у-бог-нй 'poor.'
ДОБР • good, nice'
добр-ый •good, nice,' добр-як •good fellow,' о-добр-и-ть •approve.'
ДОБ-Р related to ДОБ 'suitaЬility' as in у-доб-/н-ый 'convenient,' на­
доб-/н-ый • necessary .'

КОН/Ц 'end'
кон/е/ц•end,' конеч-н-ый •final,' конч-и-ть •finish.'
КОН-Ц related to КОН, as in за-кон 'law,' нс-по-кон in испокон веков
'from time immemorial' (associated with 'beginning'; cf. Ч/Н in на­
чн-ут • begin ').

ЛЁГ /К •easy'
лёг/к-ий 'easy,' лёгк-ость 'easiness,' об-лёгч-и-ть 'make easy, facilitate.'
ЛЁГ/К related to ЛЬЗ 1 in ПОЛЬ/3 'use,' as in польз-а 'use,' полез-/н-ый
•useful,' нельзя · it is impossiЫe.'
РАБОТ 'work'
работ-а •work,' работ-ник • worker ,' работ-а-ют •work.'
РАБ-ОТ related to РАБ 'slavery,' as in раб 'slave,' раб-ств-о 'slave.' Cf.
по-работ-и-ть 'enslave,' where the senses are very close.

In а number of cases а base is formed whose meaning is identical or prac-

tically identica\ with the simple root; such bases may Ье considered merely
variants oftl1e simple root. For example, МОКР 'wet': мбкр-ый 'wet,' мбкр­
ость • wetness' is really no more than an adjectival base for the root МОК' wet';

1г alternates with з in а handful of words; cf. друг - друзья.

 FUSION OF BUILDIJ\:G ELEMENTS: BASES д;-.:D ENLARGED SUFFIXES 31

cf. моч-11-ть '\\'et (tran),' про-:\lбк-ну-ть 'get \\'et,' :\Юч-а 'urine.' ЗЕ:\1 and
ЗЕМ/Л have the identical meaning 'earth': зе:\1:1-я 'earth'; compare зе:\1-н-бй
'earthly (referring to the Earth, the \,·orld)' \vith зе:\1.1-ян-бй 'earthen (made of
or connected \Vith earth, dirt, etc.)'; при-зе:\1.1-11-ть-ся 'Iand (in plane, etc.),'
зем.1-ян/к-а 'dugout,' назе:\1ь 'to the ground,' etc. No fusion has occurred here;
\\'е are dealing simply \\'ith а root \'ariant resulting from mutation. 1
The roots ДЕД (ДЁЖ-ДЕЖд) 'put, !ау,' ДЕН 'put, !ау,' ДЕЙ 'put,
!ау; do, act, operate,' and ДЕЛ 'do, make' are all related etymologically and
sho\\' semantic connection. The root 'give' has the variants: ДАД, ДАР, ДАЙ,
ДАН, ДАТ. Still other examples \Vith close or identical semantic association are:

ДОЛГ long ДЛ long

ЗНАК sign, meaning ЗНАЙ know
СМЕХ laughter СМЕЙ laugh; Ье bold
СЕМЕН - СЕМЯ seed СЕЙ SO\V

Examples of the "later" type of fusion are comparatively fe\v. The adjec-
tival suffix -/н-, for example, retains its functional role in the so-called "relation-
al" adjectives, where it obviously derives а specific noun; for example, реч-н-бй -
река' river,' атом-н-ый - аТО:\1 'atom,' бр1аж-н-ый - бр1аr-а 'paper.' In а fe\\'
older adjectives in -/н-, ho\vever, the meaning has changed to the point \Vhere its
relation to the original is obscured or irrelevant; а breakdown is no Ionger
meaningful, and the -/н- has shifted to the root. For example:
крj'·п-/н-ый'large, major; coarse (as opposed to "fine"),' originally deri\'ed
from кр)-п-а•groats • (а type of coarse cracked ,,·heat); пе,,· deriYati\'e in
КРУП/Н: кр}-пнеют •become larger' (colloq)
бед-/н-ый 'poor,' originally БЕд-.'Н (cf. бе.1-а 'catastrophe'); ne,,, deriYatives
in БЕД/Н-: бе,1н-ость 'po,·erty,' бе.1н-е-ют 'become poor,' and others

The nominal diminutizing suffix -,'к- may fuse \\'ith а root if the root is no
Ionger used independently of it. For example, .16,1 к-а · boat · is originally а
diminutive of Old Russian *.10,1ь-/я, no\\' no Ionger used. Here the deri,·ative
simply replaces an older form, \vith по change in meaning. DerivatiYe \,·ords are
all built оп ЛОД/К; for example, .1б,1оч-,'н-ый 'boat (adj). • Fusion could also Ье
said to occur if the connection bet\\'een а noun and its diminuti\'e becomes alto-
gether remote. Ho\\·e,·er, though many former diminuti,·es in - к- (and other
suffixes as ,vell) have clearly lost their diminuti\'e status (i.e. do not mean "small
Х" but "regular-sized У"), the semantic connection remains close enough so

1 The :1 in the variant ЗЕ:\1'.1 is not а ,,·ord-building element in origin; it de,·eloped as а

result of the regular mutation )t > )Ы in certain phonetic positions. For other root Yariants
restJlting from mutation see р. 50.
32 SECTION 1: GENERAL

that it would Ъе incorrect-as well as inefficient-to assign root status to the

emancipated diminutive. For example, чаш-/к-а 'cup' was originally а diminu-
tive of чаш-а 'goЬ!et,' but usage (and, perhaps, drinking custoшs) have altered
this relationship, and the word today means simply 'cup,' not 'little goЫet.' Any
new derivatives having to do with "cup" are built оп the stem чаш/к; for
example, а new diminutive чашеч-/к-а. However, the semantic connection
between the two words remains clear, and чаш/к is not а fused root. See pages
199-200 for other examples of "emancipated" diminutives coexisting with the
words from which they were derived.

2 Fusion of а prefix with а root

The process described above, operating in the other direction, has caused а
number of cases of prefix-root fusion, with the resulting bases acting just like
roots in the language; that is, ti1ey function as units and have suffixes added to
them just like other roots. They are often easy to identify, 1 because they fre-
quently still resemЫe prefix-root, but the relationship between the parts is
usually obscure and сап Ъе estaЫished only etymologically, not in terms of the
modern language. Examples:
ОБРАЗ form, shape: об- 'around, against' plus РАЗ 'strike, cut'
образ form, shape, figure, image; icon
6браз-/н-ый figurative, picturesque; образ-н-6й 'icon (adj)'
образ-ова-ть form, educate
во-образ-и-ть imagine
ПОЛЬ/З use: по- plus ЛЬ/З (related to Л/Ё/Г in лёг/к-ий 'easy'
п6льз-а use: полез-/н-ый (mobile е appears before the -/н-)
п6льз-ова-ть-ся, вос-п6льз-ова-ть-ся, ис-п6льз-ова-ть use

ПОМ/Н remember: по- plus М/Н 'think' (as in мн-ение 'opinion')

п6мн-и-ть remember: вс-п6мн-и-ть 'recall'; на-п6мн-и-ть 'remind,'
and others; also у-помя-ну-ть 'mention' (МЯ is а vari-
ant of М/Н). Imperfectives are in -поминают.
Other examples are ПО-КОЙ 'rest,' С-ПОР 'argument,' С-ЛОЙ 'layer,'
ОБ-РЁТ 'find,' С-ПО-СОБ 'capability,' О-СНОВ 'base,' У-ЖАС 'horror,'
У-ДАР 'hit,' О-РУД 'tool,' O-РУЖ 'wеароп.'
As with root-suffix fusion, cases of the "later" type of prefix-root fusion
are relatively few. С-КАЗ 'say' and С-Ч/Т(С-ЧЁТ) 'consider, count' тау Ье
1 Difficult ог impossiЬ\e to identify without special training or kno\\'\edge are cases like
ЗДОРОВ 'hcalthy' (С-ДОРОВ related to ДЕРЕВ 'wood')and СМОТР 'look at' (С-МОТР;
cf. Russian dialect and other Slavic words in l\lOTP).
FUSION OF BUILDING ELEMENTS: BASES AND ENLARGED SUFFIXES 33

taken as examples. U nlike до-каз-а-ть 'prove,' на-каз-а-ть 'punish,' у-каз-а-ть

'indicate,' etc., the stem сказ-а \1as built its own family ofprefixed verbs with the
common denominator СКАЗ 'say, tell': вь1-сказ-а-ть 'say out,' до-сказ-а-ть
'finish saying,' пере-сказ-а-ть 'retell,' под-сказ-а-ть 'prompt,' рас-сказ-а-ть
'tel1, recount' (impf вы-сказ-ыва-ют, до-сказ-ыва-ют, etc.). The base С-Ч/Т
builds а number of prefixed verbs in its extended variant -счит-а-ют, impf
-счит-ыва-ют: рас-счит-а-ют 'reckon,' со-счит-а-ют 'count' (impf рас-счит-ы­
ва-ют, со-счит-ыва-ют). Such cases тау Ье regarded as examples of а more
recent level of prefix-root fusion.

3 Fusion of а prefix with а prefix

Fusion of prefixes is re\atively rare. The composite про-из is limited to а
handful of stems (произ-вёд-ут 'produce,' произ-нёс-ут 'pronounce '). In addi-
tion, недо- and обез- are often cited as compound prefixes. The negative particle
не 'not' has been fused with the verbal prefix до- 'complete an action' to form
недо- 'do insufficiently':

оценить estimate недооценить underestima te

вьшолнитъ fulfill недовьшолнитъ underfulfill
Обез, 011 the other hand, is not really а composite prefix, since the words it
builds are not обез- plus verb but rather о- plus а prepositional phrase with без
plus а verbal suffi.x; for example:
обессмертить o- без смерти и

'immortalize' (make verb prefix •without death' verb suffix

without death) (factitive) (factitive)
обезумеют o- без ума ей

'go mad' (become with- verb prefix 'without mind' verb suffix
out mind) ('become')

4 Fusion of а suffix with а suffix

Fusion of suffixes with each other is, comparatively speaking, more com-
mon than the other types of fusion and has led to the creation of а large number
of enlarged (or composite) suffixes, most of them c\ose or identica\ in meaning
to the primary suffixes from which they were formed. These suffixes achieve
autonomy through the same semantic redistribution described in root-suffix
fusion, but the direction is from right to left rather than from left to right. Fusion
is most Iikely when t\VO suffixes are thrown next to each other in many \\'ords.
For example:
34 SECTION 1: GENERAL

-,'1.- and -/н-: The large number of adjectives in -/н- built on derivatives ш
-/1.- causes the frequent occurrence of -очи-:
в6д-/к-а в6д-оч-н-ый vodka (adj)
л6д-/к-а л6д-оч-н-ый boat (adj)
при-став-/к-а при-став-оч-н-ый prefixal

The оч/н type is emancipated from its dependence on the -/1.- suffix and is used
autonomously to build words lacking this suffix:
лент-а лент-очн-ый tape (adj)
карт-а карт-очн-ый card (adj)
-те.1ь- and -ств-: The frequent occurrence of -тельств- in words like
учитель-ств-о teaching profession (people or activity)
представитель-ств-о representation, representatives

creates а potentiality for its autononюus use in words like

вмеша-тельств-о interference
доказа-тельств-о proof

where no *в:\lешате.ТJЬ or *доказате.1ь exists (in other words, the nouns are
built directly from the verbs в,1ешаются 'interfere' and доказать 'prove '). 1

EXERCISE Using the Root List and the dictionary, discuss the following words
and word groups in the light of the concepts of fusion treated above:
счастливый культурность - готовность
МЯГКИЙ ленивый - леность
грусть издательство - обязательство
важный принять-приятель

Our discussion ofthe emergence offused roots (bases) and enlarged suffixes
should have demonstrated the importance of semantic changes for the genera-
1 The emergence of -те.1ьств- was precipitated Ьу the following semantic change.
Words in -те.1ь-ств- originally designated only а group or body of agents; e.g. as above: уч11те­
.1ьство 'teaching body,' представите.1ьство '(group/body of) representatives.' But v.·e note
that these words have acquired, in addition, abstract meanings ('teaching profession/activity,'
'representation ') which dissociate them from the agent suffix -те.1ь-. At this point we have а
new fused suffix -те.1ьств- with abstract meaning, which may build directly from verbs, whether
or not agent nouns in -те.1ь- coexist. E.g. стршiте.1ьство 'construction' is built directly on
строить • build' and not on стро1iте.1ь 'builder ,' though the latter exists.
 COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 35

tion of new building elements and of semantic analysis for word study in general.
Though а strictly formal approach to morphology is certainly possiЫe, we be-
lieve that the application of semantic as well as formal criteria to word analysis
enaЫes us to acquire the truest and most useful insights into word structure.

F COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD

The addition of endings to suffixes and roots has already occupied the stu-
dent in his study of declension and conjugation. In word-formation we are con-
cerned with all types of combination involving all four e\ements: prefixes, roots,
suffixes, and endings.
Parts of words begin and end with either consonants (С) or vowels (V).
When the parts are being comЬined, it is crucial to know which sounds are being
juxtaposed. There are four possiЫe comЬinations: CV, VC, СС, VV. As а gen-
eral rule, juxtaposition of unlikes (CV, VC) results in simple addition, without
truncation or modification of а preceding sound other than palatalization of
paired consonants before certain endings and formants and except for some
relatively isolated cases of consonant mutation. 1 Juxtaposition of alikes (СС,
VV), on the other hand, may result in addition, but often a\so in some modifica-
tion of the preceding element; or, in conjugation and verbal derivation, it тау
result in truncation of the preceding (or, rarely, of the following) element.
Generally speaking, the juxtaposition of consonants in comЬination results
in the neutralization of the hard-soft opposition in а preceding paired conson-
ant. Except for л, which usually occurs only soft, preceding paired consonants
generally occur only hard 2 regardless of whether the consonant is hard or soft
in other contexts. For example, paired consonants other than л occur only hard
before the suffix -ск-, and л occurs only soft:
татар Tartar -ск-ий > татарский Tartar (adj)
царь tsar -ск-ий > царский tsar (adj)
Урал Ural -ск-ий > уральский Ural (adj)
февраль February -ск-ий > февральский February (adj)

А notaЫe exception to this rule is the hard-soft opposition of а number of

consonants, particularly of the consonants р, л, and 11, before the masculine and
1 Consonant mutation resulting from CV is restricted to velars and ц and limited to
essentially two cases: before conjugational endings in -о- (examples are оп р. 40) and before
а very few nominal and adjectival suffixes beginning in -11- (examples are оп рр. 44 and 45).
2 Neutralization in favor of soft paired consonants is very rare, but occurs, for instance,

before the suffix /б:

БОР struggle бор /б-а > борьба struggle
ХОД walk ход /б-а > ходьба walking
36 SECTION 1: GENERAL

feminine diminutive suffixes in #к (/-/ о/к and -/к-а). The consonant retains the
hardness or softness it has in the base noun:
вечер evening вечер /о/к- > вечер/6/к evening (dim)
вечер /к-а > вечер/ка
nузь1рь ЬuЬЫе пузырь /е/к > пузыр/ё/к ЬuЬЫе (dim)
пузырь /к-а > пузырь/ка
стена wall стен /к-а > стен/ка wall (dim)
няня nanny нянь /к-а > нянь/ка nanny (colloq) (dim form)
Preceding р, л, and н before nondiminutive suffixes in /к:
подарить give (gift) по-дар /о/к > подар/о/к present
переделают alter пере-дел /к-а > передел/ка alteration
звонить ring звон/о/к > звон/6/к bell, ring
The comЬination prefix-root is less complex than the other combinations.
Modifications and truncation do not occur when the prefix is nominal or adjec-
tival, and verbal prefixes offer only а few special proЫems, which will Ье treated
below.

Verbal vs. nominal-adjectival comЫnation

Based оп the types of combination that occur and оп the types of processes
affecting the preceding vowels or consonants in the combinations, there is а
quite clear division in Russian inflection and word-formation: verbs (conjuga-
tion and verbal derivation, including imperfective derivation and conjugation-
ally derived verbal nouns in -ие) vs. nouns and adjectii·es (nominal and adjectival
declension and nominal and adjectival derivation). The basic differences may Ье
classified under four headings:
Types of comblnation (juxtaposition of sounds) involved:
Verb: AII types: CV, СС, УС, VV.
Noun/adjective: Only CV (declension and derivation) and СС (derivation).
Consonant mutation (see page 46 for tаЫе of consonant mutations):
Verb: AII mutations occur in both conjugation and verbal derivation.
Noun/adjective: Only velar mutations (plus ц > ч, к > ц) occur in nominal-
adjectival derivation. No mutation in declension.
Truncation:
Verb: Occurs, quite regularly in а number of positions.
Noun/adjective: Does not occur, except for very isolated instances.
Ot/1er modifications of preceding consonant:
Verb: Occur in specific positioпs.
Noun/adjective: Do not occur, except for very isolated instances.
 COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 37
1 Verbal comblnation
Prefix plus root
At this boundary СС and VV, as well as VC and CV, generally result in
simple addition. There are certain proЬ!ems of spelling, however, and а few
special cases of truncation and modifications noted below:
VC: Simple addition as expected; e.g. пр11 ход > пр11хбд 'arrival,' по езд >
поезд 'train.' Note that пойду 'I will go,' зайду '1 will drop in,' etc. are regular
from по, за plus the root ЙД (ИД in initial position), but пр11дут 'they will
arrive' (пр11 йд ут; cf. пр11йтп) is irregular, as is пр11мут 'they will receive'
(from при й/м-ут).
CV: Simple addition as expected; e.g. 1в/ уч-11-ть > 11зучпть 'study.' In roots
beginning with i- (always spelled II in initial position) the variant after con-
sonantal prefixes is (ы), as we would expect after а hard consonant:
об/ иск-а-ть > обыскать search
с/ игр-а ют > сыграют play
пред ид-ущ-ий > предыдущий preceding
VV: Simple addition rather than truncation; for example:
на имен-ова-ть > наименовать name
при уч-и-ть > приучить train
СС: Simple addition rather than truncation; for example:
в/ ход > вход entrance
от/ дых > отдых rest
But note:
1. Prefixes ending in з are written with с before voiceless consonants; for
example:
вз/ ход-и-ть > всходить go up
из/ чез-ну ть > исчезнуть disappear
раз/ сказ > рассказ story
2. Prefixes ending in а consonant insert ъ before roots beginning v✓ith j; for
example:
в/ езд > въезд entrance
об/ ясн-и-ть > объяснить explain
3. Prefixes ending in а consonant insert о before almost all nonsyllabic
verbal roots and sometimes before initial clusters in syllabic verbal roots; for
eчmple:
38 SECTION I: GENERAL

под/ б/р-а-ть> подобрать Cf. подбирают select

раз/ бь/й-ют > разобьют Cf. разбивают smash
под/ грей-ют > подогреют warm

(This question is discussed in more detail on pages 76-77.)

4. After the prefix об/- an initial в of а root is sometimes deleted; for
example:

об/ врат-и-ть > обратить turn Cf. возвратить return

об/ вяз-а-ть > обязать oЫige Cf. связать Ьind
об/ вык (> ч)/н-ый> обь1чный usual Cf. привь1кнуть get used to
об/ вет ( > щ)-а-ют > обещают promise Cf. ответить answer

But note обведут 'lead around,' обв11нить 'accuse,' and обвязать 'tie around'
(cf. обязать above).

EXERCISE СоmЬiпе the followiпg prefixes and roots:

у знай раз спрос раз нбс пере уч-й-ть
ДО ЙД·)' об вид-е-ть от йд-у изхбд
от имён-н-ый ИЗ крив-И-ТЬ займ-у с/ шь/й-ут
от зв-а-ть обём прб иск об влад-ей-ут
пред яв-и-ть

Root plus suffix

Since roots always end in consonants, the combinations are CV, СС. Most
verbal suffixes begin with а vowel.
CV: Simple addition except that velars, ц and ск normally mutate before suffixes
beginning in II or е:
пис а-ть > писать write стар ей-ут > стареют get old
смотр е-ть > смотреть look at с-берег ай-ут > сберегают save
треб ова-ть > требовать demand говор 11-ть > говорить talk
слуг 11-ть > служить serve крик е-ть > кричать 1 shout
лоск,и-ть > лощить polish кон/ц-11-ть > кончить end
СС: Only two verbal suffixes begin with а consonant: the imperfectivizing
suffix -вай- and the suffix -ну-. А preceding final root consoпant is always trun-
cated before the former and ofteп before the latter.
1е > а is explained later.
 COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 39
-вай-: о-де~ вай-ут > одевают Cf. о-ден-ут > оденут dress
про-жи, вай-ут > про­ Cf. про-жив-ут > прожи­ live
живают вут

The final root consonant if deleted is deleted in all forms of the verb, whether in
-ну- or in truncated -н-, but it appears in related verbs or other words in which
the suffix -ну- is not present:
-ну-: вз-гляjt ну-ть > взглянуть Cf. вз-rляд-ывай-ут > взгля- glance
дывают

про-тяf ну-ть > протянуть Cf. про-тяг-ивай-ут > про- extend

тягивают

And note the abstract nouns взгляд 'glance' and протяжение 'extent.'
Note that the final consonant is retained before -ну- in numerous other
verbs; for example:
от-прыг ну-ть > отпрь1гнуть jump back
риск ну-ть > рискнуть risk

NОТЕ: We will henceforth list verbs like взг.1януть and протянуть with а
slash through the trunca ted consonan t: взглярнуть, протяf нуть.

EXERCISES Combine the following e\ements into words, carrying out any changes
which seem indicated:
став и-ть брос ай-ут плак а-ть о стан вай-ут-ся

кип е-ть торг ова-ть о стриг ай-ут от плыв вай-ут

The imperfective verbs отдёргивают and прикидываются have correspond-

ing perfectives in -ну-. In the light of the information above, suggest what
these may Ье.

Root plus ending and suffix plus ending (conjugation)

А final root or suffixal paired consonant occurs оп/у soft before any ending
beginning with о, i, or а:
нёс з sg pres -ёт (-ot) > нёсёт he carries
нёс imp -и (-i) > нёси carry!
нёс pres ger -я (-а) > нёся carrying
толк-ну 3 sg pres -ёт (-ot) > толкнёт he will push
толк-ну imp -и (-i) > толкни push!
40 SECTION 1: GENERAL

Root plus ending

Since roots always end in consonants, the combinations are CV, СС.

CV: Simple addition, except that а final root ve/ar mutates before any ending
beginning with о. 1 Examples:
нёс ёте > несёте you сапу стан ет > станет he will become
нёс и> нёси сапу! берег и > берёги guard!
нёс я> нёся carrying (pres
ger)
тек ут > тёкут they flow тек ёт > тёчёт it flows
могём > м6жём we сап с берёг ён > has been saved
сберёжён
у сек ён > усёчён has been нёс у> несу I carry
chopped off
СС: This comЬination produces а high percentage of the irregularities which
cause trouЫe in conjugation. Simple addition is rather rare:
мог ла > могла she could нёс ти > нёсти to сапу

Truncation of preceding consonant is common:

ста+. ть > стать to become жи+ ть > жить to live
зна~ л > знал he knew кла/ ла > клала she was laying
на-де+ в > надев having put оп

Sometimes truncation is accompanied Ьу an additional modification in the root:

моi ть > мьпь to wash
In а number of verb types the final root consonant is not truncated but is
replaced Ьу another consonant or, less often, а vowel. А glance at the non-
suffixed stems in the Verb ТаЫе, page 86, shows the multiplicity of modifica-
tions which take place at the СС boundary (including those which involve other
sounds in the root as well). То know them all is to know the conjugation of the
types involved. Some examples:
д - т > с before -ти/-ть: 2
вед ти > вёсти to lead мёт ти > мёсти to sweep
1 This is true of final root velars in suffixed verbs (comblnation VV) as well, except for а

single verb; see footnote 3, р. 42.

2 The change of д - т plus т to ст is not limited to infinitives. Several nouns were built Ьу

adding а suffix -ть to а root in д - т: влад-ть > власть 'power,' страд-ть > страсть 'pas-
sion.' Cf. влад-е-ют 'own, possess' and страд-а-ют 'suffer' (Christ's passion). Note also из­
вестия 'news' from вед-т; ест 'he eats' from ед-т; among others.
 COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 41

г - к plus -ть > -чь (and апу preceding ё

> е):
мог ть > мочь сап пёк ть > печь bake
(Cf. masc past tense пёк.)
м - и > я (а after hushings):
жм ть > жать press мнть > мять wrinkle

EXE]JCISES ComЬine the following elements into words, carrying out any changes
which seem indicated:
берёг у вёз-ут
берёг ёт вёз ём
берег и по вёз ён
с берег ён

ComЬine the following elements into words, performing the necessary trunca-
tion and carrying out other changes that seem indicated:
плыв ть за-крой в
дуйл вы-пий т

вёз ла

ComЬine the following elements into words, carrying out any changes which
seem indicated:
плёт ти стриг ть на-чн ть блюд ти

Suffix plus ending

Verbal suffixes end in vowels (-11-, -е-, -а-, -ова-, -о-, -ну-) or the consonant
й (-ей- and -ай- including the imperfectivizing suffixes -ай-, -ывай-, and -вай-).
Since verbal endings may Ье either vocalic (e.g. -у, -ёшь, -ён) or consonantal
(e.g. -ть, -л, -и), all four comЬinations are possiЫe. Examples:

CV: Simple addition:

дел-ай у > делаю I do красн-ей у > краснею I Ыush
дел-ай ошь > делаёшь you do красн-ей ошь > краснеёшь you
Ыush
дел-ай а > делая doing красн-ей а > краснея Ь\ushing
дел-ай # > делай 1 do! красн-ей #> красней Ьlush!

1 The imperative ending is -и, replaced Ьу а zero (#) under certain stress conditions, but
always acting like the vowel ending -и; i.e. truncation and other modifications occur before it,
an,!1 final root paired consonants soften before it. Cf. Section 11, р. 96.
42 SECTION 1: GENERAL

СС: Truncation of preceding consonant:

дел-а~ ть > делать to do красн-е~ ть > кра­ to Ыush
снеть
дел-а~ л > делал I did красн-е~ л > краснел I Ыushed
с-дел-а~ в > сделав having done по-красн-ер в > по­ having
краснев Ыushed
за-дел-а~ ывай ут > they fil\ in
заделывают

УС: Simple addition:

смотр-е ть > смотреть to Iook пис-а ть > писать to write
смотр-е л > смотрел helooked на-пис-а н > написан written
с-прос-и в > спросив having asked треб-ова ть > требо- to de-
вать mand
толк-ну т > толкнут having been треб-ова л > требо­ I de-
pushed вал manded
при-вык-ну ть > при­ to get used при-вык-if ш > при­ having
вь1кнуть to вь1кши 1 gotten
used to
VV: Truncation of preceding vowel, accompanied Ьу mutation offinal root con-
sonant under stataЬ!e conditions; certain other modifications may also occur (see
suffixed stems in the Verb ТаЬ!е, page 87). Examples:
прос-+ у > прошу I ask треб-ова #> тре- demand!
прос-+ ит > просит he asks буй 2
по-прос-~ ён > по- has been плак-~ ёт > плачет he weeps
прошен asked став-и > ставь 2 place!
прос-+ я > прося asking лr-i ёт > лжёт 3 he lies
прос-+ и > проси ask ! пис-i у > пишу I write
смотр-{ им > смо- we look пис-i ет > пишёт he writes
трим у-креп-+ ён > has been
треб-ова ю > тре- 1 demand укреплён strengthened
бую пис-l и > пиши write!
треб-ова я > требуя demanding лёж-j им > лёжим we lie
1 In this type of vегЬ in -ну- the verba\ suffix is dropped Ьеfоге certain consonanta\ end-
ings (cf. the VегЬ ТаЬ\е, р. 87).
2 See footnote 1, р. 41.
3 Тhеге is only опе vегЬ in the standard Ianguage in which а final гооt velar does not mu-
tate before ап ending beginning with о:
тк-а-ть: ткёшь, ткёт, etc. (rather than *тчёшь, тчёт).
 COMВINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 43
толк-нj у > толкну 1 push по-втор-р. ён > has Ьееп
толк-нj ёт > he pushes повторён repeated
толкнёт

Suffix plus suffix

comЬination of verbal suffixes iпvolves, for practical purposes, the
The
additioп of the three imperfectivizing suffixes ай, ывай, апd вай to the various
verb-making suffixes. Siпce the former includes а consonantal as well as two
vocalic suffixes and the latter include two suffixes ending in а consonaпt (ай, ей)
in addition to those ending in or consisting of а vowel, all combinations exist:
VV: за-пис-А ывай у > записываю I write dowп
СС: о-дол-е~ вай у > одолеваю I overcome
CV: об-дум-f~.(t ывай у > обдумываю 1 1 thiпk over
VC: за-бол-е вай-у > заболеваю I become ill

EXERCISE Comblne the following elements into words, performiпg truncation

where пecessary апd carrying out other changes that seem indicated:
чит-ай у чит-ай л став-и ит крик-ну ут
чит-ай ум-ей ть по-став-и ен за-держ-а ывай-ут
ум-ей у говор-и в плак-а ёте по-втор-и яй-ут
ум-ей а став-и у

2 Nominal-adjectival comblnation
Nomiпal-adjectival comЬinatioп, restricted as it is to CV, СС (except at the
uпproЫematical prefix-root bouпdary), lacking truпcatioп, апd limited essen-
tially to velar mutations, is far simpler thaп verbal comЬiпatioп.

Prefix plus root

CV, СС, УС, VV: This positioп is поt proЫematical in nominal-adjectival com-
Ьiпation, though ап occasioпal spelling adjustmeпt may Ье necessary (e.g.
з > с in the first example). AII four boundaries produce simple additioп:
CV: раз крас-ав-иц-а > раскрасавица very beautiful woman
СС: под групп-а > подгруппа subgroup
УС: пре добр-ый > предобрый extremely nice
VV: пра от/е/ц-# > праотец forefather
1 Before the suffix ывай the entire suffix ай is truncated. Imperfective derivation is dis-
cussed in full in Section 2, рр. 134-143.
44 SECTION 1: GENERAL

Root plus ending and suffix plus ending (declension)

Unlike verbal formants, all nominal and adjectival formants end in con-
sonants. Unlike verbal endings, all nominal and adjectival endings, for practical
purposes, begin in vowels. 1 Since all roots end in consonants, there is only one
possiЫe comЬination in declension: CV. This plus the fact that there are no
mutations in declension, makes nominal and adjectival inflection much less com-
plex than verbal inflection. Once the тапу endings have been learned, declen-
sion becomes а matter of remembering spelling rules. Examples:
CV (the only comЬination possiЫe):

fish little fish

рыб а> рь1ба nom sg рыб-/к а > рь1б/ка nom sg
рыбы> рь1бы gen sg рыб-/к и > рь1б/ки gen sg
рыб ам > рь1бам dat pl раб-/ к ам > рь1б/кам dat pl

old oldish
стар ый > старый nom sg стар-оват ый > староватый nom sg
стар oro > староrо gen sg стар-оват oro > староватого gen sg
стар ым > старым dat pl стар-оват ым > староватым dat pl
horse summer (adj)
конь-# > конь nom sg лет-и ий > летний nom sg
кон я > коня gen sg лет-и ёrо > летнёrо gen sg
кон ям > коням dat pl лет-и им > летним dat pl

Root plus suffix

The comЬinations CV and СС are possiЫe.

CV: Simple addition. А final root velar, ц or ск, however, normally mutates
before an initial II of а suffix (cf. page 38):
рыб ак-# > рыбак fisherman
стар ость-# > старость old age
бел изн-а > белизна whiteness
бой ёв-ой > боёвбй warlike
блох ин-ый > блошиный flea (adj) (блоха flea)
1 The only exceptions аге the third declension instruшental singular ending -/ju (-ью), the

only consonantal ending in declension, and the zero-ending. The significance of these endings
fог con1Ьination, howcvcr, is li111ited to the role they play in vowel-zero alternations, to Ье dis-
cussed in subsection J below.
 COMBINING BUILDING ELEMENTS INTO А WORD 45
волк иц-а > волчиц-а wolf (f) (волк wolf)
от/ц изн-а > отчизна fatherland (от/е/ц father)
СС: Most often simple addition. But final root velars and ц mutate, and the
hard-soft opposition in final root paired consonants is neutralized bet·ore most
suffixes in favor of the hard. А notaЬ\e exception is final root л, which occurs
only soft before consonants other than к, before which it occurs only hard.
This comЬination figures importantly in vowel-zero alternation at the inflectional
\evel (see pages 65-66):
гор /к-а > гор/ка little moun- месяц /н-ый > месяч- monthly
tain НЫЙ

гор /н-ый > горный mountain сил /н-ый / силь/ный strong

(adj) тул ск-ий > туль- Tula (adj)
рыб /к-а > рь1б/ка little fish ский

рыб /н-ый > рь1бный fish (adj) мыл /к-ий > мь~лкий sudsy
рек /к-а > реч/ка little river суд /б-а > судь/ба fate
рек /н-ой > речной river (adj) дет ск-ий > детский children
город /к-# > горо little city дет ств-о > детство childhood
до/к коз /й-# > коз/и/й goat's
друг /к-# > друж/о/к friend (affec) собак /й-# > соба- dog's
ч/и/й

Suffix plus suffix

The comЬinations CV and СС are the most common.
CV: Simple addition. In the rare cases, however, that а ц or velar occurs before
initial 11 of а suffix, mutation occurs.
вред-и ость-# > вредность harmfulness
перед-ов ик-# > передовик foremost (leading) person
куп-/ ц их-а > купчиха merchant's wife
СС: Most often simple addition. But velars and ц mutate and certain other
modifications тау occur. This comЬination figures importantly in vowel-zero
alternations at the derivational \evel (see page 66-69).
рад-ост /н-ый > радост/ный joyful
говор-ун /й-а > говорунья chatterer (f)
сет-/к -/н-ый > сеточный net (adj)
вод-иц -/к-а > водичка water (dim, affec)
The comЬination VC occurs in relatively rare instances where consonantal
nominal or adjectival suffixes are added to verbal infinitive stems rather than
directly to verbal roots:
46 SECTION 1: GENERAL

уч-и тель-# > учитель teacher

крае-и ль/н-я > красильня dye works
у-ста л-ый > усталый tired
We have presented only а few representative examples of each type ofverbal
and nominal-adjectival combination. Many more examples are given and cer-
tain proЫems presented Ьу individual building elements are treated in the
appropriate sections below.

G CONSONANT MUTAТION AND ALTERNATION

The regular mutation of consonants in specific positions has produced an
important series of regular consonant alternations in Russian grammar. The
student has already encountered most of these alternations in conjugation and
has рrоЬаЫу noticed them in other contexts as well, for mutation, particularly
ofthe velar consonants, plays а significant role in all of derivation. The resulting
consonant alternations are, furthermore, just as regular in derivation as in
conjugation. Russian consonant mutation as а whole тау Ье expressed as fol-
lows:

1 ТаЫе of mutations
CONJUGATION AND VERBAL DERIVATION NOMINAL AND ADJECТIV AL
AND COMPARISON OF ADJECТIVES DERIVATION

д> ж м > мл' Г > Ж1 л > л' 2 Г > Ж1

т > ч б > бл' К> Ч1 н > н' 2 К> Ч 1
з > ж п > пл' Х > ш1 р > р'2 Х > ш1
с> ш в> вл' ск > щ

ст> щ ф > фл' CHURCH SLAVONIC MUTATIONS 3 ц > ч

ск > щ Д > ЖД к>ц

ц > ч т > щ

1 These are the so-called velar mutations, which are the most widespread in the lan-
guage.
2 When these consonants occur in their soft variants in the first singular present, past

passive participles in -ён, and imperfective derivation, they are historically mutations, and it is
useful to consider them as such. E.g. говорю, приговорён, and приговаривают show mutation
just as спрошу, спрошен, and спрашивают do, but the soft р in говор,iт is not а mutation (cf.
спросит). It is soft Ьecause all paired consonants occur only soft before verbal endings in i (cf.
р. 39).
3 The two Church Slavonic mutations are discussed on р. 58-59.
 CONSONANT MUTATION AND ALTERNATION 47

2 Occurrence of mutations
Consonant mutation, as we have mentioned, does not occur in declension.
The positions in which it occurs in conjugation are well known and predictaЬ!e
to anyone who has learned to conjugate; they are given in the Verb ТаЫеs,
pages 86-87. Mutations in imperfective derivation are described in Section 11,
and those in verbal nouns in -11ё are inferaЫe from the conjugational pattern
(real or hypothetical past passive participle). Consonant mutations in nominal
and adjectival derivation (which is to say, for practical purposes, the velar mu-
tations, ц > ч, and ск > щ) are less obvious to anyone who has not studied this
derivation systematically and seem more or less scattered throughout the sys-
tem. In fact mutations in nominal and adjectival derivation may, for general
purposes, Ье said to occur in two contexts: ( 1) root or suffixal velar or ц preced-
ing а suffix beginning in а consonant: 1
слуг /б-а > служба service
рек /к-а > речка river (dim)
собак /й-# > собач/и/й dog (adj)
от/ц ск-ий > отеческий fatherly, paternal
куn-/е/ц /ств-о > купечество merchantry
вод-/о/к > водочный vodka (adj)

and (2) а final root suffixal velar, ц, or ск preceding и 2 or е (е or ё). Cases of mu-
tation before II are much more numerous and important than those of mutation
before е.

1 In both nominal and adjectival derivation suffixes beginning in consonants are sub-
stantially fewer than suffixes beginning in а vowel. Mutation does not take place before а num-
ber of the consonantal suffixes, simply because velars, ц, and ск happen not to occur before
them. As а result the number of suffixes before which these mutations occur is limited.
Velars do not mutate before the adjectival suffix -л- and mutate inconsistently before the
adjectival suffix -лив-:
круг л-ый > круглый round
блёк л-ый > блёклый faded
пуг лив-ый > пугливый fearful
but
берег лив-ый > бережливый thrifty
2 When а final root or suffixal velar does appear before an initial orthographic и of а
suffix, the basic suffix is in fact in -ы-, before which velars do not mutate but may occur only
soft; hence the spellings кн, ги, хн instead of *кы, гы, хы. E.g.
раб ын-я рабь1ня slave (f)
but
_ бог ын-я богиня goddess
48 SECTION 1; GENERAL

Be/ore и of nominal suffixes:

велик и-е > величие greatness
тих ин-а > тишина silence
книг иц-а > книжица book (dim, рор)
лиц ик-о > личико face (dim)
воск ин-а > вощина empty honeycomb
куп-ц их-а > купчиха merchant's wife
бар-/ск ин-а > барщина corvee

Before и of adjectival suffixes (much less common):

м/х ист-ый > мшистый mossy

блох ин-ый > блошиный flea (adj) 1

Before е (ё) of nominal suffixes:

бег ен/е/ц-# > беженец refugee
волк ён/о/к-# > волчонок wolf cub
It remains to consider two important cases of mutation in verbal derivation.

Mutation of velars, ск, and ц before the verbal su.fjixes -11- and -e-
Final root velars, ск, and ц in all forms of verbs built with the verbal for-
mant и mutated, and there are no verbs in 11 preceded Ьу а velar; all the forms
of all such verbs are in the corresponding hushing. Hence there is no alternation
within the paradigm. The velar may coexist in other words, related in one way or
another to the verb in the hushing, or there тау Ье no such word. Some ex-
amples:
служ-и-ть serve уч-и-ть teach суш-и-ть dry (tran)
у-слуг-а service на-ук-а science сух-бй dry
лощ-й-ть polish кбнч-и-ть end (tran)
лбск luster кон/е/ц end

But note по-луч-11-ть and реш-11-ть, which have no related words in *ЛУК and
*РЕХ; here we would simply write the root with the hushing.
In addition, final root velars in all forms of verbs built with the formant е
mutated, and the vowel shifted to а; 2 these verbs belong to the ЖА (hushing or
1 Before the possessive adjectival suffix -1111 (as opposed to the relational possessive suffix

-u11-, before which velars do mutate: блох 11u-ый > блош,iuый) velars do not normally mutate:
бабуш/к-1111 > бабушюш 'grandnюther's.'
2 That is, historically, *дерг-е- > держ-а-, *кр11к-е- > кр11ч-а-, etc.
 CONSONANT MUTATION AND ALTERNATION 49
й plus а) type (see the Verb ТаЫе, page 87). Historically these verbs are identi-
cal to the modern verbs ofthe Е type (see the Verb ТаЫе), which were those with
roots not ending in а velar; e.g. смотр-е-ть, юш-е-ть 1 (it is thus no accident that
both types take the same second conjugational endings and have mostly in-
transitive meaning). Like the hushing-11 verbs just discussed, the hushing-a verbs
also have hushings throughout the paradigm, but here also the velar frequently
appears in related words. Examples:
держ-а-ть hold крич-а-ть shout (impf)
дёрг-а-ют pull крик-ну-ть shout (perf)
сль1ш-а-ть hear пищ-а-ть squeak
слых-а-ть hear (colloq) писк реер

3 Sporadic consonant alternations

The alternation к - ц is not general in Russian grammar but is observed in
а number of verbs and between certain nouns ending in -к and adjectives in
-/ск-ий derived from them:

VERBS

меркнуть grow dark (МОРОК/МРАК) 2

мерцать twinkle
воскликнуть exclaim (perf)
восклицают exclaim (impf)
проникают penetrate (impf)
проницают penetrate (impf) (obs)
Cf. проницательный penetrating, acute

NOUNS IN -к- vs. ADJECТIVES IN -ск-3

дурак fool казак Cossack мужик peasant

дурацкий foolish казацкий Cossack (adj) мужицкий peasant
(adj) (obs)
In addition to the regular mutation of consonants in specific grammatical
positions there exist more isolated cases of mutation which produce more spor-
adic consonant alternations in the language; i.e. the same mutations as above,
but not referaЫe to any pattern of consonant alternation in the modern gram-
mar. In particular, а number of feminine nouns in -а have final stem consonants
1 The same alternation of nonvelar plus е with hushing plus а is found in the superlative-
augmentative suffix -eiiш-11ii (-aiiш-11ii): нов-еiiш-нii - вел11ч-аiiш-11й (*велик-е-).
2 Cf. р. 56.

} Cf. р. 219.
50 SECTION 1: GENERAL

or consonant groups which have mutated from final root consonants and alter-
nate with these consonants occurring i11 other words. Words are denominative
and deverbative; in the latter case we have а zero-suffix (page 164). Examples:
ЗЕМ N earth: земл-я earth Cf. зем-н-6й earthly
ЛОВ v catch: лбвл-#-я catching Cf. лов-и-ть catch
про-ДАД v sell: про-даж-#-а sale Cf. про-дад-ут they will sell
НОС v сапу: нбш-#-а burden Cf. нос-и-ть сапу
ВС(Т)РЕТ v meet: встреч-#-а meeting Cf. встрет-и-ть meet
ТЁСТ N in-law: тёщ-а mother-in- Cf. тесть-# father-in-law
law

А very few masculines in -# show the same pattern:

РУБ v chop: рубль-#-# ruЫe Cf. руб-и-ть chop
Cf. page 31.
Grammatical interinfluences and analogy may contribute to isolated "un-
motivated" alternations like:
француз Frenchman француженка Frenchwoman
грек Greek (m) гречанка Greek (f)
Consonant alternations resulting exclusively or almost exclusively from
mutation within verbal inflection, such as:
г - ч берёг ть > беречь guard (берёгут)
д .._ с вёд ти > вести lead (вёдут)
т,,,. мёт ти > мести sweep (мётут)

(cf. pages 40-41) may Ье noted with the relevant verb types (see Verb ТаЫе,
page 86).
Verb roots ending in -Й may have а root variant in -В, which is usually used
to make nouns. This alternation is essentially limited to three verb types (Й,
ОЙ, and ИЙ; cf. Verb ТаЫе, page 86, and lnventory, page 98) but affects
many of the verbs within those types. Most of these types exhiЬit vowel alterna-
tions as well (cf. page 53) :
ДУЙ-ДУВ Ыоw КРЫЙ - КРОЙ - КРОВ cover
БИЙ - БЬЙ - БИВ beat ЛИЙ - ЛЬЙ - ЛИВ pour
вь,-дуй-ут - вь,-дув-/к-а по-крбй-ут - по-кров
Ыоw out Ыowing cover cover
МЫЙ - МОЙ - МЫВ - МОВ wash
ШИЙ- ШЬЙ - ШИВ sew
на-ший-т - на-шив-/к-а
sew оп stripe, tab
 CONSONANT MUTATION AND ALTERNATION 51

Verbs in ова and their derivatives comprise а special group in which root
-0В before consonant alternates with -УЙ before vowel:
ков-а-тъ forge куи-ут they forge
плёв-а-ть spit плюй-ут they spit

4 Analysis of consonant alternations

The importance of consonant mutation lies no more in the ability to make
the mutation itself than in the reverse process: recovering the consonant from
which the mutated consonant (or consonant group, in the case of the labials)
derives. The analyst should become very sensitive to consonant alternations,
particularly if а final root consonant seems to Ье involved. А hushing consonant,
in particular, should suggest the possiЬility of mutation from а nonhushing; e.g.
ш should suggest с or х, ж should suggest д, з, or г, and so on. The more that is
learned about grammar and word-formation, the more sophisticated analyses
become. Here are some simple exercises.

EXERCISES Сопsопапt mutatioп occurs before the first siпgular ending of verbs in
-и-; before the adjectival suffix -/н- анd before the пominal suffix -/о/к-#, опlу
velars апd ц mutate. Build the followiпg words, makiпg mutatioпs where
appropriate:
rлади -и rраф и -и век /н-ый ваг /н-ый город /о/к-#
о-слаб и -и в-ступ и -и с-нос /н-ый ноч /н-ой грех /о/к-#
чист и -и вь1-раз И -и дух /н-ый роскош /н-ый знак /о/к-#
спори -и брос и -и чест /н-ый овощ /н-ой лес /о/к-#
из-ум и -и цени -и рук /н-ой ног /н-ой друг /о/к-#
трат и -и ЛОВ И -и месяц /н-ый пар /н-ый глаз /о/к-#
жали -и таски -11
скок и -и об-наг и-и

Estimate the original consonant, or сопsопапts, if recovery is amЬiguous:

прощу освобожу скучный рожок

рублю сдавлю лесной паучок
сплочу приглашу грешный лесок
учиню уволю тревожный вершок
ратный дымок

конечный

Commeпt оп the zero-suffixal deverbative поuпs:

порча купля
52 SECTION I: GENERAL

We have already seen (in the case of по-луч-и-ть and реш-и-ть) that not all
final root hushings are correlated with nonvelars in other words in the language.
In addition, hushings in foreign roots obviously do not rest оп nonhus'1ings; e.g.
in карандаш-н-ый 'pencil (adj)' and двух-этаж-н-ый 'two-storied,' the ш and ж
rest оп the original hushings in карандаш 'pencil' and этаж 'floor.' Finally, of
course, we must consider the total derivation of а word in analyzing hushings (or
other products of mutation); i.e. we must bear in mind the principles discussed
in D, "Analysis of Words," above. For example, the ч in встреч-н-ый 'meeting
(adj)' and the ж in про-даж-н-ый 'sale (adj)' differ fundamentally from the same
hushings in ручной 'hand (adj)' and книжный 'book (adj), bookish.' In the lat-
ter two cases, the hushing results directly from mutation of а velar before the
-/н- suffix; in the former two the hushing is due not to the -/н- (т and д do not
mutate before -/н-) but to а somewhat unusua\ case of mutation of the final root
consonants Т and Д (cf. page 50). The resulting встреч-а 'meeting' and
про-даж-а 'sale' now build adjectives in -/н-. That is:

библиотеч-н-ый < библиотек /н ый

бумаж-н-ый < бумаг /н ЫЙ

but
встреч-Н-ЫЙ < встреч /н ЫЙ
про-даж-н-ый < про-даж /н ый

н VOWEL ALTERNATIONS

Except for the change о > а before the imperfectivizing suffix ivaj there are
по regu!ar vowel alternations in Russian grammar and derivation. Various his-
torica\ developments have left а number of unsystematic vowel alternations in-
volving certain (often verba\) roots, which at first seem quite random and
isolated. After enough examples have been encountered, however, certain corres-
pondences within very small groups ofwords become clear. Many ofthe alterna-
tions involve "irregularities" which are learned in the conjugation of certain
verbs or verb types, but they may at the same time affect isolated words as well.
It is useful to Ье at least passively aware ofthese alternations, while realizing that
they are vestiges of very old alternations which are по longer active in the
language.
The most important alternation is е (ё) - о. If the root consonant following
the vowel is а resonant, а nonsyllaЬic root variant may exist (i.e. zero a\ternates
wit\1 е and о, or eit\1er ofthe two). А final rootjot after one ofthe vowel variants
тау Ье truncated. Examples:
 VOWEL ALTERNATIONS 53
е (ё) о #
нёсут they сапу носить сапу (nondet)
(det)
вёдут they lead водить lead (nondet)
(det)
вёзут they convey возить convey (nondet)
(det)
тёкут they flow тбк current
разберут they will analyze разббр analysis разобрать analyze
стерёгут they watch стброж watchman
стелют they spread стбл tаЫе стлать spread
пефть sing пой-ут they sing
рей-а-ть hover рбй swarm (as of bees)
Otheг alternations аге less important numerically. Some тау alternate with
а root variant in zero as above, and а final root jot тау Ье truncated. А few are:
о-ы-#: збв call бтзыв opinion звать call
у-ы-о: дух breath бтдых rest вздбх sigh
ой-ый: мбй-ут they wash МЬIТЬ wash
ой-ий-#й: ббй fight бить beat бьй-ут beat
ей-ий: брей-ут they shave брить shave
о-е(ё)-я: ложиться lie down лечь lie down лёг he lay down
лягут they will lie
down
а-е-я: садиться sit down сесть sit down сел he sat down
We have already mentioned (see page 50 above) certain cases in which
final root consonants as well as root vowels alternate (МОЙ - МЫЙ - МЫВ -
МОВ, КОВ - КУЙ). In а few cases involving nonsyllabic roots ending in -М or
-Н, the vowel я (а) before а consonant alternates with zero М or zero Н before
а vowel:

М/Н crumple: мн-ут - мять Ж/М press: жм-ут - жать

These cases will Ье noted again in the sections on verbal conjugation and
vowel-zero alternations.
In subsection В3 on page 9 we mentioned that stressed ё and е тау alter-
nate in the same root (жён-ы - жен-ск-11й), or even within the same paradigm
(вё-л - вед-ший). For historical reasons which are no longer always obvious in
modern Russian, stressed е came to Ье pronounced ё in certain positions, 1 while
it remained е in other positions. Some more examples:
1 Generally speaking, before hard paired consonants and i and i.
54 SECTION I: GENERAL

At the derivationa/ /evel:

веселье gaiety весёлый gay
чернь mob чёрный Ыасk
жесть tin жёсткий hard, stiff

At the injlectiona/ /eve/:

лечь to lie down лёг he lay down
печь to bake пёк he baked
черти devils чёрт devil

Church Slavonic words sometimes have е where Russian equivalents have ё

(see the following subsection).

1 CHURCH SLA \'ONICISMS

Old Church Slavonic was the language of the oldest Slavic manuscripts,
which date from the tenth and early cleventh centuries. It was а strictly written
language elaborated from а !оса! South Slavic 1 (Bulgaro-Macedonian) dialect at
а time when the various Slavic dialects were becoming separate languages but
were still mutually comprehensiЪle. Eventually it spread to most of the various
Slavic lands, where it was adapted to serve ecclesiastical and Iater, in some cases,
literary needs. ln old Russia, Church Slavonic became both the ecclesiastical and
the literary language and, although increasingly modified according to the de-
mands of the developing spoken Russian, remained almost the exclusive literary
language of Russia until close to the beginning of the nineteenth century. As а
result it exerted an important influence on the grammar and vocabulary ofboth
literary and, eventually, spoken Russian.
Because Old Church Slavonic was adapted from а Slavic dialect which
already in the tenth century differed in certain respects from the Russian of that
time and because, as an exclusively literary language, it did not keep расе with
all of the changes in spoken Russian, certain disparities emerged between what
we call "Church Slavonic" elements and "purely Russian" elements in the lan-
guage oftoday. In most cases either the Church Slavonic or the Russian element
prevailed, but in some cases the variants continue to exist side Ъу side. Our
specific interest is in those Church Slavonic elements whose alternation with
Russian e\ements is of grammatica\ or derivational importance. At а more
1 Russian itself is an East Slavic \anguage and hence is not а lineal descendant of (i.e. does

not "come from ") Old Church Slavonic; rather both languages derive from an earlier "Com-
mon Slavic."
 CHURCH SLAVONICISMS 55
sophisticated stage of investigation the various different levels of vocabulary
which have been created Ьу the fusion of the Church Slavonic and Russian lexi-
cal stocks also deserve the attention of the student.
Let us now examine some of the most important alternations. It may Ье
noted that when Iexical items are involved, the Church Slavonic (ChS) variant
often has the more abstract or ethereal sense, the Russian (R) variant the more
specific or mundane meaning, alt/10ugh this is not alit·ays so.

1 Alternations involving vowels in comblnation ,vith р and л

Russian pleophonic 1 vs. Church Slat:onic nonpleop/10nic z:ariants

With Т designating а consonant or consonant cluster, we observe:
Russian ТОРОТ ТЕРЁТ толот толот 2
Church Slavonic ТРАТ ТРЕТ ТЛАТ ТЛЕТ

(Below we shall let Р stand for both р and л; e.g. ТОРОТ means ТОРОТ or
ТОЛОТ, ТРЕТ means ТРЕТ or Т ЛЕТ, etc.)
Pleophonic alternations usually involve roots; i.e. ТОРОТ/ТРАТ, ТЕРЕТ/
ТРЕТ are variants of а root. Let us examine four cases covering all possibili-
ties:
СТОРОН/СТРАН side ГОЛОВ/ГЛАВ head
СЕР Ед/СРЕД middle МОЛОК/МЛЕК milk
RUSSIAN CHURCH SLA VONIC
сторон-а side стран-а country
серед-ин-а middle сред-а medium; Wednesday
голов-а head глав-а head (chief); chapter
молок-6 milk млек-о-пит-а-ющ-ее mammal (ПИТ 'feed ')

Both the Russian and Church Slavonic variants are used to build а variety
of derived and compound words. Once again, in cases where the R vs. ChS root
is the only or almost the only element distinguishing two words, the distinction
mentioned above frequently, but not always, applies. Some examples:
по-сторбн-н-ий outside, extraneous стран-/н-ый strange
сторон-и-ть-ся step aside, shun у-стран-и-ть remove, move
aside

1 The word "pleophony" (adjective "pleophonic" is coined from Greek components

meaning "more voice"; i.e. the vowel preceding the р or л is repeated after the р or л.
_ 2 Оло/ле is not so widespread as the other three.
56 SECTION I: GENERAL

серед-и-як middle peasant сред-н-ий middle,

(owning а fairly average
small amount of сред-ств-о means
land) сред-н-е- Middle Ages
век-ов-ь-е
голов-и-ой head (adj) глав-н-ый main, chief
за-голов-/ о/к headline за-глав-и-е heading, title
молоч-н-ая каш-а milk porridge Млеч-н-ый Путь Milky Way

EXERCISE Give the meaning ofthe following words (using dictionary, if necessary)
and discuss the relationships:
хорон-и-ть - хран-и-ть порох-прах
корот-к-ий - крат-к-ий город - Ленин-град
дорог-ой - драr-о-цен-н-ый береж-н-ый - не-бреж-н-ый
холод-н-ый - хлад-н-о-кров-н-ый голос - воз-глас
здоров-ый - здрав-ый

А number of pleophonic Russian roots have variants without the second

vowel; in most cases ТЕРТ alternates with ТЕРЁТ and/or ТО РОТ (if а root
variant in -о- coexists); compare:
МОРОК- МРАК- МЕРК darkness: об-морок'faint'; мрак 'darkness';
мерк-ну-ть 'grow dark'
ТОЛОК- ТОЛК pound, shove: толочь, толок (inf and masc
past) 'pound'; толк-у, толк-ла (1 sg pres
and fem past of the same verb)
ВЕРЕТ - ВОРОТ - ВРАТ - turn: верет-ен-о 'spindle'; verbs in -ворот-и-
ВЁРТ ть, -врат-и-ть; верт-е-ть 'turn' (intr);
вёрf-ну-ть 'return' (impf воз-вращ-а-ют);
verbs in -вёрf-ну-ть (impf -вёрт-ыва-ют,
-ворач-ива-ют)
МОРОЗ - МЁРЗ frost: мороз 'frost'; мёрз-ну-ть 'freeze'
Sometimes the last consonant of а pleophonic group does not belong to the
root; in this case а root ТОР (ТЁР or, sometimes, Т/Р) usually coexists in other
words. The Iast consonant involved is usually the infinitive ending -ть:
The verbs iп -о- (iпf -ороть, -олоть):
бор-о-ть-ся struggle Cf. борь-б-а struggle
кол-о-ть prick Cf. кол prick
 CHURCH SLA VONICISMS 57

The verb stems in -р- (inf -ереть):

у-мёре-ть die Cf. he died
у-мёр у-мр-у 1 \\'ill die
Note also 'dead.'
мёр-т-в-ый
тере-ть rub Cf. тёр he rubbed тр-у I rub
Note also -тёр-т-ый (ррр).
The verbal prefix nepe-(ChSnpe-)comЬines with the initial consonant ofthe
following root to form ТЕРЕТ (ТРЕТ); e.g. compare:
передать give/hand/pass over предать betray
переходить go across преходящий transient

Russian РОТ-, 1 ЛОТ vs. Church Slavonic РАТ, ЛАТ in initial position
These alternations are not nearly so frequent as those involving pleophony
described above:
рбв/ный even рав/ный equal
рбб/кий timid раб slave
рбзниuа retail разница difference
In at least two cases Church Slavonic influence has caused orthographic
рот- > рат- outside of stress:
а. Prefix роз- (раз-):

рбздал he distributed раздать distribute

рбзыск search разыскать search
Ь. РОСТ 'grow':
рбст growth растут 2 grow
The alternation ЛOT-vs. ЛAT-is very uncommon:
лбд/ка boat ладь/я boat (poet); rook (chess)

2 Russian ё vs. Church Slavonic е

The shift of е to ё in certain positions in Russian which we described оп

page 53 did not take place in Church Slavonic, and words and forms from, or
felt as, Church Slavonic resisted the shift. This phenomenon produced а number
of alternations of е with ё within the same word or root and, in rare cases, within
the forms of а single paradigm:
1 Where Т stands for а consonant or а consonant cluster.
• 2 However, note the past tense: рос, but росла.
58 SECТIO~ I: GE~ERAL

неб-о (pl небеса)

sky, heaven нёб-о (pl нёба) palate (roof of mouth)
перст finger (poet) на-пёрст-/ о/к thimЫe
крест cross пере-крёст-/о/к intersection
(ChS more ethereal) (R more mundane)

And note:
нёс нёсший сапу вё;1 but велший lead
~,ё:1 :чётший S\\'eep uвё.'1 but uветший Ыооm

And compare:
совершённый (ррр) completed but совершен/ный (adj) perfect

3 Russian ч, ж vs. Church Slavonic ш, iК.1 alternating ,,ith т, д

Russian ч, ж i:s. Church S/ai-onic ш, жд, and other alternations in

z;erbs in -тить, -;JИТЬ

The Church Slavonic mutations т > щ and ;i > ж;~ characterize а number
of verbs of Church Slavonic origin in -и- \\·ith а final root consonant in -т or -;i.
The first singular present, the past passive participle (and the verbal noun in -ие
if there is one), and the derived imperfecti,·e are affected.
In addition to these alternations, Church Slavonic stems may exhiЬit other
characteristics ,,,hich mark them as such. А root ,vill al,vays Ье in ра 1.'Ia · - ре .'Ie
rather than in оро-о.-10 - epe-e.'Ie. Church Slavonic prefixes пре-, воз-, and co-
will Ье used instead of Russian пере-, вз ·-, and с -. The imperfecti,·izing suffix for
ChS И ,·erbs is aj, never ii·aj (R verbs may ha,·e either). Any verb stem having
one of the features just mentioned ,,·ill
ha,·e them all if possiЫe. The follo,,·ing
sets of verbs illustrate and compare the alternations:

FIRST SI~GULAR PAST PASSIVE IMPERFECТIVE

PARТICIPLE DERIVAТIO:-:

R от-ворот-11-ть от-вороч-у от-вор6ч-ен от-ворач-ивай-ут

turn aside
ChS от-врат-11-ть от-вращ-у от-вращ-ён от-вращ-ай-ут
а Yert, repel

R пере-rоро.::1-11-ть пере-rорож-у пере-rор6ж-ен пере-rораж-

partition ивай-ут
ChS пре-rра.1-11-ть пре-rраж-у пре-rраж.'1-ён пре-rражд-ай-ут
Ыосk, bar
 CHURCH SLAVONICISMS 59

Compare also deverbative nouns:

отворот turning aside vs. отвращение repugnance
перегорбд/ ка partition vs. преграда barrier, obstacle
Note that ст also yields щ in the same positions: о-чitст-11-ть - о-чitщ-у. Note
that ChS жд does not occur in the first singular, although ChS щ does.
From now оп when we wish to indicate that а verb acts like а Church S\av-
onic verb in the above respects, ,ve wil\ mark it '' ChS"; e.g. запретitть ChS.

EXERCISE ldentify the following verbs not already so designated as R or ChS and
give the first singular present, past passive participle, and derived imperfective
(use ii-aj if the stem is R) of all verbs:
пре-врат-и-ть о-хлад-и-ть за-род-и-ть (ChS)
за-ворот-и-ть пред-о-хран-и-ть у-трат-и-ть (R)
воз-мут-и-ть у-сад-и-ть (R) посет-и-ть (ChS)

Other ч, ж vs. щ, жд alternations

The alternation ч vs. щ characterizes а few smaller groups of words as well.
А number of modern adjectives are derived from older Russian participles con-
sisting of verbal stem plus -уч-, -яу-; the corresponding participles are in -ущ-,
-ящ-:

могучий powerful могущий which is аЫе

стоячий standing, stagnant стоящий which stands
More details and examples are given in Section IV, pages 233-234. In addition
тbecomes щ rather than ч in а few verbs in -а-:
роптать murmur: ропщут rather than *ропчут

There are а few iso\ated cases of ч vs. щ alternating with an original root
final г or к plus ть:

помогут they will help: помочь to help vs. помощь help

The alternation ж vs. жд is very infrequent:
водить lead: вожак leader vs. вождь leader

4 Church Slavonic prefixes

Church Slavonic prefixal variants воз-, пре-, and со- of вз/-, пере-, and c/-
we!e mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Of Church Slavoпic origin also are
60 SECTION 1: GENERAL

the prefixes пред- and чрез- (cf. the Russian prepositions перед and через), the
rare низ/-, and ю/-, which corresponds to the Russian prefix вы- (the two have
basically the same meaning, but have developed their own distinct spheres of
usage in the Ianguage, and из/- cannot Ье regarded as an exclusively Church
Slavonic prefix). 1 Verbs built with Church Slavonic prefixes often have mean-
ings which are abstract or bookish, particularly in comparison to а correspond-
ing Russian-prefixed verb. Examples (,л,·ith corresponding R types, if they exist):

ВОСХОДИТЬ ascend (poet) Cf. всходить go up, ascend

возмутить make indignant Cf. взмутить make cloudy Ьу shak-
ing up (as а liquid)
воскресить resurrect
извлёкут extract Cf. вьшолокут drag out (colloq)
избрать choose, elect Cf. вь1брать choose, elect
(These two verbs are often, but not always, interchangeaЫe.)
н11сходить descend (poet) Cf. сходить go down, descend
преобразовать transform
преступить transgress Cf. переступить step over
представить (re)present
предсказать predict
предыстория prehistory (nominal prefix) Cf. preposition перед
чрезмерный excessive (adjectival prefix) Cf. preposition через
сопроводить accompany
сочувствовать sympathize
сосуществовать coexist

J VO\VEL-ZERO ALTERNAТIONS IN PREFIXES, 2

ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES
The alternation of various "mobile" vowels with zero in certain pos1t10ns
is very important in Russian grammar. It is particularly useful to understand the
nature of vowel-zero alternations, because they may cause trouЫe in reading
(recognition of ,vords) and word analysis, since the removal or addition of а
vowel сап radically alter perception of а word and cause it to appear unrelated
1 Forexample, 11 verbs prefixed Ьу 11з 1 - are readily comЬined with the Russian imperfecti-

vizing suffix ii•aj:

износить - изнашивают wear out

See the Prefix ТаЫе, pages 124-126, for а more complete discussion of вы - and ю/-.
2 The complex question of the vowel-zero a\ternation in prepositions is omitted here

since it has по relevance for proЬ!ems of word-formation.

 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 61

to other forms of the same word or other words of the family. Learning when to
expect or suspect the existence of these alternations helps one to associate such
visually dissimilar words as:
мбх moss with its genitive singular мха moss
вошь louse with the adjective ВШИВЫЙ lousy
семья family with the noun семейство family
сослать exile with its imperfective ссылают exile
However, the question of vowel-zero alternations in Russian is а very com-
plex one, and we will have to investigate it in some detail. Not the least of the
proЫems it poses is that of а proper and consistent notation-clear and un-
amЬiguous designation of zero and vowels in the various building elements in-
volved in the alternations, both in words and when the elements are listed
separately.

1 Alternations at the inflectional and

derivational levels and notation
Vowel-zero alternations occur at two levels: the injfectional level and the
derii·ationallevel. At the inflectional level, zero alternates with а vowel within the
same word:
свадь-/6-а wedding (nom sg) свад-/е/6-# wedding (gen pl)
от/-6/е/р-ут take away (з pl) от/о/-6/р-а-ть take away (inf)
At the derivational level zero alternates with а vowel in different words contain-
ing the same building element. Most of the examples we give will Ье words con-
taining the same root as well, but for the language as а whole, examples sharing
merely the same building element are just as valid:
свадь-/б-а wedding свад-еб-н-ый wedding (adj)
от/-6/е/р-ут take away ото-грей-ут warm
When listing actual words, we shall continue (as we began on page 5) to
indicate zero Ьу а slash and enclose а moЬile vowel Ьу slashes at t/1e injfectional
lei·el оп/у, and we have followed this practice in the above examples. Thus the е
in свадеб and the second о in отобрать are enclosed, but the е in свадебный and
the second о in отогреют, which are moЬile vowels at the derivational level only,
are not enclosed. Similarly, the н in свадебный is not given with а slash preced-
ing it, because there is no alternation at the inflectional level (i.e. there is no
*свадеб/е/н); whereas красный and красен would Ье:

крас/н-ый крас/е/н-#
62 SECTION I: GENERAL

When listing building elements in lists or Ьу themselves, however, we shall

use the single slash ifthe element ever participates in any vowel-zero alternation,
at the inflectional level only, or at both the inflectional and derivational levels.
Thus we always give от/- and -/н- with slashes when we list them outside of
words. As we noted оп page 6, the sign # is used when we wish to emphasize the
presence of а zero-ending or zero-suffix:
д/6/нь-# свад-/е/6-# ед-#-а ход-#-# (zero-suffix followed Ьу
zero-ending)
That is, it designates а building element consisting of zero, not а zero which
alternates with а vowel as part of а building element.

2 The occurrence and conditioning of vowel-zero alternations

The occurrence of vowel-zero alternations in Russian is related to the gen-
eral question of adjustments and modifications resulting from the juxtaposition
of consonaпtal and vocalic a/ikes (cf. discussion оп page 34). In the case of
vowel-zero alternations, the juxtaposition of nonvocalic building elements causes
the insertion of а mobile vowel in the preceding element. Nonvocalic elements
not only condition the insertion of а preceding mobile vowel, but many of them
themselves participate in vowel-zero alternations.
Nonvocalic elements are (1) consonantal syllabic (contain а vowel, but the
initial or final element, whichever is involved in the combination, is а consonant);
(2) consonantal nonsyllabic (do not contain а vowel}; and (3) zero (contain
neither а vowel nor а consonant). More specifically, they are:
r. Consonantal prefixes (syllablc or nonsyllablc)
в/- вз/- воз/- из/- над/- низ/- об/- от/- под/- раз/- с/-

2. Nonsyllahic roots and syllablc roots or bases ending in certain consonant

groups 1
М/Х moss д/Н' day Б/Р take
ВЁС/Н spring ЛОК{Г elbow ХИТ/Р clever
1 Whether or not а vowel-zero a\temation occurs in а given consonant group depends on

а number of factors: the nature of the preceding consonant; the nature of the following con-
sonant; the stress pattcrn of the word; whether the word is foreign or Russian; whether the
conditioning element is derivational or inflectional (see below). However, rather than attempt
to memorize а very complex set of rules and exceptions, in practice it is best simply to Ье on the
lookout for vowel-zero altemations when dealing with any given consonant group.
It may Ье noted, in addition, that а vowel-zero alternation may exist in an individual's
pronunciation, though it is not reflected in spelling; e.g. мь1сль, кругл may Ье pronounced
[mys'il'], [krug:il] rather than [mys'l'], [krugl].
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 63
3. Consonantal or zero-suffixes
The following nonsyllaЬic suffixes condition а preceding moЬile vowel and
themselves participate in vowel-zero alternations at both the inflectional and
derivational levels:
-/к- -/u- -/н- -/н'- -/й- -/6-
The following suffixes condition а preceding moЬile vowel but do not themselves
participate in vowel-zero alternations:
-ств- 1 -ск- 1 -#-
SyllaЬic consonantal suffixes may condition а preceding moЬile vowel; for
example:
-щик- -ник- -чив- -лив- -чат-

4. Zero-endings and consonantal endings (endings beginning with а consonant or

nonsyllaЬic endings)2

ZERO·ENDINGS

DECLENSION

Nom sg: Masculine nouns (first declension):

д/е/нь/# - д/ня молод-/е/ц-# - молод-/шi

Masculine adjectives (short form):

крас/е/н-#- крае/на собач-/и/й-# - собач-ь/-я

Masculine pronouns:
в/е/сь-# - в/с-я ч/е/й-# - чь/-я од/и/н-# - од/н-а

Feminine nouns (third declension):

л/6/жь-# - л/ж-и церк/о/вь-# - uерк/в-и

The numeral 8:
в6с/е/~rь-# - вось/м-и

1 After а final root hushing these suffixes are normally preceded Ьу е, but this cannot Ье
regarded as а normal vowel-zero alternation, since the vowel is not conditioned Ьу а follow-
ing nonvocalic element. -еск- and -еств- are simply vocalic variants of -ск- and -ств- after а
hushing consonant. Examples are given оп р. 69; cf. also the suffixes -ств- and -ск- in Sections
III and IV (рр. 167 and 218), respectively. ·
2 Most of the examples below are given in pairs consisting of: а boldface form which has
а zero-ending or consonantal ending conditioning а preceding mobile vo\\·el and а form (not
boldface) which has а vocalic ending conditioning а preceding zero.
64 SECТION I: GENERAL

Gen pl: Feminine nouns (second declension):

дос/к-а - дос/6/к-# семь/-я - сем/е/й-#

Neuter nouns:
ок/н-6 - ок/о/н-# жить/-ё - жнт/е/й-#

А few masculine nouns:

муж-/й-а (мужья) - муж-/ е/й-#

The numeral 100:

с/т-6 - с/6/т-#

CONJUGATION

Imperative: (-# alternates with -11 in conjugation as а whole):

Syllahic stems (both endings are used, but no preceding alter-
nation is conditioned, since all stems are syllabic):
лезь-# вез-и день-# клад-и
However, Ий verbs, which have the nonsyllaЬic root variant
ь/йin the present tense, 1 take а zero-ending in the imperative
which conditions а moЬile е:
пь/й-ут - п/е/й-# ль/й-ут - л/е/й-#

Nonsyllahic stems (the -и ending is always used; hence no

conditioning of а preceding alternation):
ж/м-ут - ж/м-и т/р-ут - тр-и

CONSONANTAL ENDINGS

DECLENSION
Inst sg: Feminine nouns (third declension):
-ью (-jи)
(this is the only consonantal ending in declension):
л/6/жь-#- л/ж-и - л/6/жь-ю
церк/о/вь-# - церк/в-и - церк/о/вь-ю

CONJUGATION

Infinitive -ть: 2

nь/й-ут - п/п/-ть ж/м-ут - ж/а/-ть

т/р-ут - т/е/р(е)-ть ж/г-ут - ж/е/-чь
про-ч/т-ут - про-ч/е/с-ть

1 Cf. the Yerb ТаЫе in Section 11, р. 86.

2 See footnote 1, р. 65.
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 65
Past tense -л (-ла, -ло, -ли): 1

пь/й-ут - п/и/-л (-ла, ло, ли)

ж/м-ут - ж/а/л (-ла, ло, ли) т/р-ут - т/ё/р (-ла, ли)
ж/г-ут - ж/ё/г-j (but note ж/г-ла, жгл6, жглй:) 2
про-ч/т-ут - проч/ё/л (but note проч/ла, прочло, прочлй:) 2

Past gerund (and past active participle) -в(ши) (й):

пь/й-ут - п/и/в(ший) ж/м-ут - ж/а/в(ший)

т/р-ут - т/ё/р-ший

Past passive participle -т:

-пь/й-ут - -п/и/т -ж/м-ут - -ж/а/т

-т/р-ут - -т/ё/р-т

3 The alternations themselves

As we have already seen, vowel-zero alternations occur at both the inflec-
tional and derivational levels. Below we give examples for the various types of
both kinds. We list the constituent elements ofthe word separately, but note that
we do not give the resulting words broken down into these parts. Remember
also that, as we said on page 61, in giving full words we do not indicate zero and
moЬile vowels which participate in alternations at the derivational level.

Alternations at the infiectional /evel

Most zero alternations at the inflectional level are conditioned Ьу the alter-
nation of а zero-ending with а vocalic ending. In а few cases, however, they are
conditioned Ьу alternation of consonantal and vocalic endings; these are neces-
sarily limited to conjugation, except for cases involving the one consonantal
ending in declension: ью (-ju). In а few additional cases in conjugation, the
alternation of nonsyllaЬic roots with syllaЬic variants conditions vowel-zero
alternations in consonantal prefixes:

1 Truncation or modification of final root consonant is frequent before consonantal end-

ings, but such changes do not a\ter the status of vowel-zero alternations. In the case of in-
finitives of verbs in nonsyllabic roots ending in р, а moЬile е is acquired оп either side of
the р:
пи~-ть жа+-ть пи~-л про-чёf-л
про-ч/т-ть > про-чес-ть т/р-ть > тере-ть

2 In the case of these two verbs the masculine past tense ending (i.e. only the nonsyllaЬic
ending) conditions а preceding moЬile vowel.
66 SECTION 1: GENERAL

CONDIТJONED ВУ ZERO-ENDING VS. VOCALIC ENDING

Root М/Х + ending -# > м/6/х

but Root М/Х + ending -а > м/ха

Root ПОЛ/Н + ending -# > пбл/о/н

but Root ПОЛ/Н + ending -а > пол/на

Root КНИГ + suffix -/к- + ending -# > книж/е/к

Ьиt Root КНИГ + suffix -/к- + ending -а > книж/ка

Root ВИД + suffix -/ н- + ending -# > вид/е/н

but Root ВИД + suffix -/н- + ending -а > вид/на

Root ПЬ/Й + ending -# > п/е/й

but Root ПЬ/Й + ending -ут > пь/ют (пь/й-ут)

CONDITJONED ВУ CONSONANTAL ENDJNG VS. VOCALIC ENDING

Root Т/Р + ending -т > -т/ё/рт

but Root Т/Р + ending -ут > т/рут
Root ПЬ/Й + ending -ть > п/и/ть
but Root ПЬ/Й + ending -у > пь/ю
Root Ж/Г + ending -л > ж/ё/r
but Root Ж/Г + ending -и > ж/rи

Root Л/Ж + ending -ью (-ju) > л/6/жью 'Iie'

but Root Л/Ж + ending -и > л/жи 'lie'
(Cf. nom sg л/6/жь from root Л/Ж + ending -#.)
CONDIТJONED ВУ NONSYLLABIC ROOT VS. SYLLABJC ROOT

Prefix под/- + root variant Б/Р + suffix -а- + ending -ть > под/о/6/рать
'choose (inf)'
but Prefix под/- + root variant Б/Е/Р + ending -ут > под/6/е/рут 'choose (З pl)'
Prefix из/- + root БЬ/Й + ending -ут > из/о/бь/ют • beat up (з pl)'
but Prefix из/- + root variant Б/И/Й + ending -ть > из/6/и/ть 'beat up (inf)'
Prefix от/- + root 3/В + suffix -а- + ending -ть > от/о/з/вать 'call back (inf)'
but Prefix от/-+ root variant 3/0/В + ending -ут > от/з/о/вут 'call back (з pl)'

Alternations at the derivational level

The conditioning of vowel-zero alternations at the deri1:ational /evel is more
complex.
Alternations in pгeftxes are conditioned Ьу vowel-zero alternations in the
following root:
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 67

Prefix с/-+ root variant С/Л + suffix -а- + ending -ть > сослать 'exile (perf)'
but Prefix с/- + root variant С/Ы/Л + suffix -ай- + ending -ут > ссылают 'exile
(impf)'
Prefix из/-+ root variant БЬ/Й + ending -ут > из/о/бь/ют 'beat up (perf)'
but Prefix из/- + root variant Б/И/ В + suffix -вай- + ending -ут > избивают
'beat up (impf)'
Prefix под/- + root variant Б/ Р + suffix -а- + ending -ть > под/ о/б/рать
'choose (perf)'
but Prefix под/- + root variant Б/И/ Р + suffix -ай- + ending -ут > подбирают
'choose (impf)'

Alternations in roots or bases are conditioned Ьу the presence or nonpres-

ence of а following consonantal (syllaЬic or nonsyllaЬic) suffix:

Root С/Н + suffix -/н- + ending -ый > сонный 'sleepy'

Cf noun с/о/н, gen sg с/на 'sleep,' verb сниться 'dream'
Root МОСК/ В + suffix -ск- + ending -ий > московский 'Moscow (adj)'
Cf noun Москва 'Moscow,' noun москвич 'Muscovite,' etc.
Base семь/ й + suffix -ств- + ending -о > семейство 'family'
Cf noun семь/я gen pl сем/е/й 'family'; семьянин 'family man,' etc.
Root ТЮРЬ/М + suffix -шик- + ending -# > тюремщик 'jailer'
Cf noun тюрь/ма 'jail'
Root Д/Н' + suffix -ниц- + ending -а > денница 'daybreak'
Cf noun д/е/нь gen sg д/ня 'day,' днёвать 'spend day,' etc.
Prefixed stem in nonsyllaЬic root про-бь/й + suffix -вай- + ending -ут >
пробивают 'punch through (impf)'

Note that it is possiЫe for an element to contain а vo\vel-zero a\ternation at

the derivational level while not containing one at the inflectional \evel:

иrл-а 'needle,' gen pl иrл

but ИГ/Л -/к-а> иголка 'needle'
иrр-а 'play,' gen pl иrр
Ьиt ИГ/Р -/н-ый > игорный 'play (adj)'

войн-а 'war,' gen pl войн

but ВОЙ/Н -/н-ый > военный 'war, military'

венгр- 'Hungarian,' gen sg венгр-а

Ьиt ВЕНГ / Р -/ск- -ий > венгерский 'Hungarian'
68 SECТION 1: GENERAL

MoЬile vowels in nonsyllaЬic verbal roots are conditioned Ьу the zero-

suffix and Ьу consonantal suffixes:

Root БЬ/Й + suffix -#- + ending # > бой 'battle; breakage'

Cf verb бь/й-ут 'beat, fight, break'
Prefix вы + root Б/Р + suffix -#- + ending -# > вь16ор •choice'
Cf verb вь16/рать 'choose'
Root М/СТ + suffix -#- + ending -# > месть 'revenge'
Cf verb мстить 'revenge self'
Root Й/М + suffix -/к- + ending -ий > ём/кий 'capacious'
Cf verbs in -ймут/- -нимают root 'have, take'
Prefix при- + root Д/Р + suffix -чив- + ending -ый > придирчивый
•overparticular'
Cf verb прид/раться •find fault with'

In addition, the moЬile vowel i is conditioned grammatically 1 Ьу the imperfecti-

vizing suffix aj:
у-бр-а-ть у-бир-ай-ут take away
при-сл-а-ть при-сыл-ай-ут send

More attention is given these types in the discussion of verbs, pages 75-76.
Alternations in suffixes are also conditioned Ьу the presence or nonpresence
of а following consonantal (syllaЬic or nonsyllaЬic) suffix:
Root КУС + suffix -/к- + suffix -/к- + ending -# > кусоч/ё/к 'little piece'
Cf кусковой 'cut in pieces, slices'
Root СЛУГ + suffix -/6- + suffix -ник + ending -# > служебник 'church
book' (book for church service)
Cf службист-# 'zealous but unimaginative worker'
Root + suffix -/ц-
МОЛОД + suffix -ск- + ending -ий > молодецкий
(ц-ск
'valiant'
> цк)
Cf молодцёватый 'dashing'
Root КУП + suffix -/ц- + suffix -ств- + ending -о > купечество 'merchantry
Cf купч (< ц)йха 'merchant's wife'

Note that the suffixes -ств- and -ск-, though they condition preceding vowel-
zero alternations, are not themselves conditioned Ьу following alternations.

1 That is, there is по phonetic reason for the nюЬile vowel in -б11р- and -сь1.1-, since -aй­
is а vocalic suffix.
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 69

Zero in these suffixes alternates with е which is conditioned not Ьу а following

zero but Ьу а preceding lшshing consonant (cf. footnote 1, page 63):
ОБЩ general ОБЩ -ств- -о > общество society
КУП-/Ц merchant КУП -/ц- -ств- -о > купечество merchantry
МОНАХ monk МОНАХ -ск- -ий > монашеский monastic

4 Vowel-zero alternations in declension. The

moblle vowel and its spelling
ldentification of vowel-zero alternations is а matter of understanding the
information given above and of developing the appropriate anticipatory re-
flexes. That is, one must Ье alert for the possiЬility of а moЬile vowel or zero
alternant wherever nonvocalic elements are involved. For the best possiЬ!e re-
sponding and predicting aЬility а little more must Ье known about the types of
moЬile vowels used in the various positions and, particularly, about thcir spell-
ing.
The moЬile vowel in declension may Ье regarded as basic о, with а variant
basic е 1 before jot and ц and before soft paired consonants, unless the moЬile
vowel is preceded Ьу а velar consonant. 2 The actual spelling of the moЬilevowel
depends, of course, upon the nature of the preceding consonant and, sometimes,
other factors as well, and hence the mere knowledge of when the basic moЬile
vowel is о or е cannot always еnаЬ!е us to predict the spelling; for example, the
basic moЬile о is spelled differently in сон 'sleep' and лёд 'ice.' Having stated
what the basic moЬile vowels are, we shall confine ourselves below in both dis-
cussion and notation to orthographic variants alone.
The spelling of the basic moЬile е is, with certain exceptions to Ье noted
below, always е. For basic о we тау give the following statements as а very
general but useful rule of thumb: the spelling is е or ё, unless а 1Je!ar consonant
precedes or follows the moЬile vowel; if the velar precedes the vowel, the vowel
is always spelled о; if it follows, the vowel is usually spelled о, unless а soft paired
consonant precedes the vowel:
вёс/л6 - вёс/ё/л oar вет/ё/р - вет/ра wind
вёс/на - вёс/ё/н spring хит/ё/р - хит/рый clever
реб/р6 - рёб/ё/р rib яс/ё/н - яс/ный clear
ов/ё/с - ов/са oats ум/ё/н - ум/ный intelligent
1о and е are, of course, independent basic sounds in the language as а whole, but as
moЬile vowels they are in complementary distribution (i.e. may not replace each other in the
same positioп). Hence we may speak of а single moЬile -..;owel о with variant е.
_ 2 There are almost по exceptions; one is люб/б/вь - люб/ви 'love.'
70 SECTION I: GENERAL

but
VELAR PRECEDES MOBILE VOWEL VELAR FOLLOWS MOBILE VOWEL

ог/6/нь - ог/ня fire л6д/ка - л6д/о/к boat

ок/н6 - 6к/о/н window пал/ка - пал/о/к stick
л6к/о/ть - л6к/тя elbow рез/о/к - рез/кий sharp
howeveг

ка.ль/ка- кал/ё/к calque кон/ё/к - конь/ка horse (dim)

серь/га - сер/ё/г earring г6р/ё/к - горь/кий Ьitter

МоЬi\е orthographic о not preceding or followed Ьу а velar is rare except

in monosyllaЬic words, where it is as common as, if not тоге common than, е:
с/6/н - с/на sleep р/6/т - р/та mouth
р/6/в - р/ва ditch л/ё/н - ль/на linen
в/6/шь - в/ши louse п/ё/с - п/са dog (m)

Nouns
Noun forms in nonsyllaЬic stems like льдом, рву, вшах, ржи, ста require
the analyst to posit а moЬile vowel for forms of these words which occur in а
zero-ending. The vowel is a\ways spelled'either е or о, and when the zero-ending
form is the nominative singular (as is the case with most masculine and all
feminine "third declension nouns," the dictionary form containing the vowel can
Ье found with little effort: лёд, ров, вошь, рожь; the zero-ending (genitive
plural) form сот would not Ье in most dictionaries. Conversely, the analyst con-
fronted with forms like лёд, ров, вошь, рожь cannot tel1 whether the vowels are
moЬile, nor will the ordinary dictionary give him this information, unless it hap-
pens to include other forms under the entry.
Noun forms in syllaЬic stems involving а final consonant cluster which does
not clearly indicate а suffix containing zero are тоге proЫematica\, and for per-
sons not very well acquainted with the zero-containing suffixes, words in these
elements would also Ье trouЫesome. For example, Russian feminine nouns in
-ска normally contain а mobile о between the с and the к. Words in -/к- like
запuс/ка 'note,' колбас/ка 'sausage (dim),' and матрос/ка 'chi\d's sailor jacket'
clearly contain а zero. The analyst then needs to discover that most words in
which the к is not suffixal, including foreign borrowings in -ска, 1 have been as-
similated to the vowel-zero pattern:
дос/ка - дос/6/к board мае/к-а - мае/о/к mask
мис/ка - мис/о/к basin фрес/к-а - фрес/о/к fresco
1 Foreign words in [-sk] borrowed into Russian as masculines соте in as -ск, without а
vowe\-zero alternation: риск - риска •risk,' моллюск - молшоска •mollusk.'
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 71

However, at Ieast one word, даска - ласк 'caress' does not show the a\terna-
tions (but cf. лас/ка - .1ас/о,'к 'weasel,' which does).
Most proЬ\ematica\ are final stem c\usters whose second e\ement is а reso-
nant, and analysis of all the clusters involved is so complex that we cannot go
into it here. Diverse historical factors, both phonological and morphological,
and a\ternations in both phonological and morphological patterns as а result of
foreign borrowings, influences from various dialects and \evels of style and usage
have complicated the question enorrnously. Clusters involving а stem final р
present а particularly diversified picture; compare:
DO NOT CONTAIN ALTERNATION CONTAIN ALTERNATION

лавр-лавра laurel vs. ков/ё/р - ков/ра rug

костра - кбстр boon (textile) vs. кост/ё/р - кост/ра campfire
ветр-ветра wind (obs, vs. вет/ё/р - вет/ра wind
poet)
бббр-бобра beaver vs. боб/ё/р - боб/ра beaver fur; (рор)
beaver
The question of final vowel c\usters ending in resonants (including р) con-
cerns adjective stems too. It may Ье noted as well that vowel-zero a\ternations
existing in an individual's pronunciation, though not reflected in the spelling, a\so
usually involve final stem clusters ending in а resonant (cf. footnote 1, page 62).
Т/1е moblle 1:011·е/ in nouns. The mobi\e vowe\ in dec\ension is, as we have
said, basic о, with а variant basic е before jot, ц, and soft paired consonants (un-
Iess the moЬile vowel is preceded Ьу а velar). For example:
о: с/6/н л/ё/д лес/6/к ден/ё/к знач/6/к человеч/ё/к
сеет /ё/р вёс/ё/н
Variant е: сем/е/й вороб/е/й от/е/ц молод/е/ц д/е/нь
п/е/нь уров/е/нь
but
uерк/о/вь нбr/о/ть

As сап Ье seen from the above examples, spelling of the basic moЬile о is com-
plicated Ьу the fact that paired consonants occur soft as well as hard before it
(spelling е (or stressed ё) as wel\ as о) and Ьу various other spelling ru\es; for
example, after hushings the spelling is е if unstressed and о if stressed.1 А num-
ber of rather cumbersome rules for the spelling variants о and е cou\d Ье given
in addition, but their specification Iies beyond our purposes and scope.
The moblle i-o11·e/ and jot. The facts concerning vowel-zero alternations are
basical\y no different when jot is involved in the consonant group, though the
facts of spelling discussed on pages 10-11 must Ье kept in mind. In certain cases,
- 1 E.g. че.1овеч,1 ё/к, but знач/б,'к; горбш/ё/к, but греш,'б/к.
72 SECTION 1: GENERAL

however, and regularly in the genitive plurals of nouns in -ья and -ьё, the moЬile
vowel precedingjot is spelled 11 if unstressed. Elsewhere, and always when it is
stressed, the moЬile vowel precedingjot is е. 1 In either case jot now appears as й
(since it follows а vowel), whereas it was represented orthographically Ъу ь plus
the "soft" vowel symbol in the form without the mobile vowel. Examples:
семь/я gen pl сем/е/й family
стать/я gen pl стат/е/й article
жить/ё gen pl жит/е/й life
мужь/я (nom pl) gen pl муж/е/й husband
but, with unstressed moЬile vowel:
гость/я gen pl гост/и/й guest (f)
воскресень/ё gen pl воскресен/и/й Sunday
копь/ё gen pl коп/11/й spear
NОТЕ: There is a\so а group ofmasculine nouns in consonant plusjot, whose mo-
Ъile vowel е, a\ways stressed, is in the dictionary form; e.g. руч/е/й, genitive
singular ручь/я 'brook'; вороб/е/й, genitive singular воробь/я 'sparrow.'
If the moЬile vowel Jollmvs rather than precedes jot, the spelling situation is
different; the jot is represented together ,vith the moЬile vowel Ъу а single letter
(е, ё, 11, я). We may note that ю is never involved in the vowel-zero alternation,
and и and я each only in one word: яй/цб, genitive plural я/ir/ц 'egg'; and
за/я/ц, genitive singular зай/ца 'hare.' In the forms without the moЬile vowel, й
precedes the consonant. This type of alternation is the rule when jot precedes
а suffix or а similar internal element containing а zero. Examples:

строй/ка gen pl стро/ё/к building

европей/ка gen pl европе/ё/к European (f)
кита/е/ц gen sg китай/ца Chinese (m)
бо/е/ц gen sg бой/ца warrior

EXERCISE Find the dictionary form of the following genitive singular (masculine
or feminine third declension) and genitive plural feminine and neuter words:
льна пня дёгтя ржи австрийца стрелка
рта ремня вши угля пайка дельца

свадеб порем палок земель питей вёсел сот

серёг вёсен кухонь маек ребёр ущелий соловья

1 А single exception to this rule is the genitive plural of ружь/ё 'gun,' which is руж/е/й.
See р. 74 for discussion of the sаше phenoшenon with respect to certain adjectives and the
pronoun ч/e/ii.
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 73

Adjectives and pronouns

There is only one vowel-zero alternation in adjectival and pronominal de-
clension: the masculine (nominative) 1 singular short forrn vs. all other forms.
The alternation involves short-form adjectives, including the short forms of ad-
jectives with а mixed short and long declension and built with the suffix -/й- (the
relational-possessive adjectives in -/й and трет/11/й), and а handful of pronouns.
The moЬile vowel is the expected basic о, with the variant basic е before jot and
soft paired consonants (the rnoЬile vowel does not occur before ц in adjectival
declension).
Adjectii·es. There is only one adjective in Russian with а nonsyllaЬic stem:
зл-бй 'evil.' The short forrns have the alternation

з/л-6й: з/6/л з/л-а з/л-6 з/л-ьr

Alternations in syllaЬic stems almost always involve the final stem consonants н
and, much less often, к (these elements are usually analyzaЫe as suffixes, but
where they have lost their suffixal status, as in блед/ный-whеrе БЛЕД/Н is а
new "fused" root rneaning 'pale '-this fact does not change their effect оп pre-
ceding vowel-zero alternations). Before -/н- the moЬile vowel is spelled е if un-
stressed; if stressed it is ё, except after а hushing, in which case it is о. Before
-/к- the vowel is usually о, unless it is preceded Ьу а soft paired consonant,
or jot; for example:
-/н­ -/к-
интерес/ный - интерес/ё/н креп/кий - креп/о/к
яс/ный- яс/ё/н г6рь/кий - r6р/ё/к
ум/ный - умён бой/кий - б6/ё/к
смеш/н6й - смеш/6/н

А few other adjectives, rnostly in consonant groups ending in а resonant,

are also affected Ьу this alternation; for exarnple:
п6л/о/н (п6л/ный) хит/ё/р (хит/рый) кис/е/л (кис/лый)

However, rnost nonsuffixed adjectives ending in consonant groups do not

contain а vowel-zero alternation; fbr example:
добрый - добр смуглый - смугл чистый - ЧИСТ твёрдый - твёрд

1 Ordinary short forms of long-form adjectives (крас/е/н - крас/ный), of course, are case-

less; restricted as they are to predicate usage, they distinguish only gender (in the singular) and
number. We include "nominative" in parentheses here to cover cases of mixed declension, in
which the short forms, which may Ье used attributively or predicatively, are case forms (со­
бач/н!й nominative singular masculine vs. собачь/ю accusative singular feminine or собачь/ёго
geoitive singular masculine neuter, etc.
74 SECTION 1: GENERAL

Occasionally а douЫet exists; for example, бст/р-ый 'sharp': бстр and ост/ё/р.
There may Ье some lexical or stylistic differentiation; for example, остёр, but not
бстр, means 'sharp-witted, quick.'
The moЬile vowel orthographic и exists in one isolated case, достб/11/н from
достбii/ный 'worthy' (cf. спокб/ё/н from спокбй/ный 'calm ') and in relational-
possessive adjectives built with the suffix -/й-, which have а zero-ending in the
nominative accusative masculine singular. The ordinal numeral трет/11/й also
follows this pattern:
коз/и/й - козь/я козь/и козь/ёго козь/ёму goat's
рь16/и/й- рь1бь/я рь1бь/и рь1бь/ёго рь1бь/ёму fish's
трет/и/й - треть/я треть/и треть/ёrо треть/ёму third

Pronouns. The interrogative pronoun ч/е/й, чь/я, чь/ёгб, etc. has the same
declension as these adjectives, but the moЬile vowel, since it is stressed, is е
rather than и 1 (cf. the same е - и alternation with stress in genitive plurals of
nouns in -ья and -ьё, discussed above).
The pronoun в/е/сь - в/ся, в/сёгб exhiЬits а normal vowel-zero alternation
(moЬile vowel basic е before soft paired consonant). The pronoun од/п/н - од/на,
од/ногб, however, is unusual in having а moЬile basic (i.e. stressed) i alternating
with zero.

EXERCISES Find the dictionary form of the following adjectives:

волен кроток силён казачья
вязок стоек доступен лисьих
ответственен вульгарен дурён раскольничьими

Build and decline а relational-possessive adjective in -/й- from the word баран
'ram.'

5 Vowel-zero alternations in conjugation and verbal

derivation. Moblle vo,vels and their spellings
Conjugation
Vowel-zero alternations in conjugation are scattered but mr.y offer prob-
lems in identification when they do occur. The addition of а zero-ending or а
1 One may note also the isolated сам-трет/е/й 'with two others,' with stress оп the moblle
vowel; cf. трет/и/й.
 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 75

consonantal ending to а nonsyllabic verbal root conditions the occurrence of а

moЬile vowel in the root and often, in addition, the truncation or modification
of the final root consonant, with the result that the appearance of the root is
drastically changed and may Ье difficult to associate with thc original. The mo-
Ьile vowel and its spelling vary with the verb type and, sometimes, with the end-
ing added and the nature of the preceding consonant. Note the following
examples (cf. pages 64-65), with the moЬile vowels boldface:
Ий verbs nь/й-ут: пь/f,.- -ть > п/и/-ть drink
пь/~- -л > п/и/-л
пь/й- -# > п/е/й-#

/Р verbs т/р-ут: т/р- ть > т/е/ре-ть rub

т/р- -j > т/ё/р-#
т/р- -ла > т/ё/р-ла

/М-/Н verbs ж/м-ут: ж/ryi- -ть > ж/а/-ть press

ж/rft- -л > ж/а/-л

NonsyllaЬic ж/г-ут: ж/г- -ть > ж/е/-чь burn

obstruents ж/г- -л > ж/ё/г-#
ж/г- -ла > ж/г-ла

-ч/т-ут: -ч/т- -ть > -ч/е/с-ть regard

-ч!f- -л > -ч/ё/-л
-ч/f- -ла > -ч/-ла

А different, grammatical (cf. footnote 1, page 68) type ofvowel-zero alter-

nation at the inflectional level involves а handful of verbs which have а moЬile е
or о in the present stem alternating with zero in the infinitive stem:
б/р-а-ть 6/е/р-ут take г/н-а-ть г/6/н-ят chase
д/р-а-ть д/е/р-ут tear з/в-а-ть з/о/в-ут call
ст/л-а-ть ст/е/л-ют spread

Verbal derivation
In verbal derivation there is one important vowel-zero alternation which in-
volves the aspectual opposition in а large number of nonsyllaЬic 1 verb stems of
prefixed perfective (zero alternant) vs. prefixed imperfective (vmt·el alternant) de-

1 Most nonsyllablc stems in -и- do not have any moblle vowel before the imperfectivizing
suffix -aj-: -льстить and -мстить; e.g. обольстить-обольщают 'seduce'; отомстить­
отомщ:iют (imperfective is obsolete) 'revenge oneself.' But note the group -пб~ш,1ть - -по~111-
н1iют 'remember.'
76 SECTION 1: GENERAL

rived Ьу an imperfectivizing suffix; either -а)-, 1 which conditions а preceding

mobile vowel grammatically, or -i·aj-, which conditions а preceding mobile
vowel, because it is а consonantal suffix. The mobile vowel involved is basic i, 2
which is spelled 11, except in six or seven roots in which it is spelled ы (below, and
elsewhere in the book, we will assume II and specify ы in the few roots with which
it is used). Examples (moЬi\e vowels are bo\dface):
вь1ждать - выжидают wait зажмут - зажимают stop up
вь1брать - выбирают choose умрут - умирают die
нашьют - нашивают sew оп призвать (ы) - призывают summon
перебьют - перебивают interrupt услать (ы) - усылают send away
начнут - начинают begin засrнуть (ы) - засыпают go to s\eep
зажгут - зажигают light (up) утрут - утирают wipe away

А very important vowel-zero alternation is the alternation of о with zero in

consonantal prefixes. This alternation is conditioned Ьу the regular derivational
vowel-zero alternation discussed just above and also Ьу the inflectional vowel-
zero alternations discussed prior to that. Examples (moЬile vowels are boldface):
PREFIX WIТH MOBILE VOWEL PREFIX WIТH ZERO VERB (MEANING)

взорвать, взорвут, взорвал взрывают Ыowup

вольют вливают: влить, влил, влей flow in
обозвать, обозвал обзывают: обозвут call
обожгут, обожгла, обожгли обжигают: обжечь, обжёr scorch
обопрутся опираются: опереться, опёрся lean оп
отобрать, отобрал отбирают: з отберут take away
подожмут поджимают: поджать, поджал purse (lips)
разослать, разошлют, разослал рассылают distribute
сорвать, сорвут, сорвал срывают tear away
сочтут,сочла,сочли считают: счесть, счёл consider

Consonantal prefixes may a\so occur in о before syl\aЬic roots beginning

with а consonant cluster, and since the c\usters in such roots are not broken up,
the prefix occurs with о in al\ forms of both aspects:
1 In the case of one nonsyllaЬic root: Ч/Т 'regard, consider,' the imperfectivizing suffix
-ivaj- is used as well as -aj-, and it a\so conditions а moЬile vowel; i.e. сочтут - считают and
учтут - учйтывают.
2 The only important prefixed perfective-prefixed imperfective a\ternation involving а
vowel other than i is -гнать - -гоняют 'chase'; for example, догнать (cf. pres догоню, дого­
нят) - догоняют 'catch up to.'
3 Thr pair собрать - собирают •gather' does not observe this altemation; the prefixal

variant со- is sometimes used where с- would Ье expected (see below).

 VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNATIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 77
водворить - водворяют install
обогреют - обогревают warm
отодвиfнуть - отодвигают move away (train)

Presence ог absence of а prefixal mobile vowel in front of an initial root

consonant cluster тау vагу according to the specific clusters or prefixes in-
volved. For all three of the examples above, for instance, there are examples in-
volving the same prefix before the same cluster but 11·it/10ut the mobile vowel:
вдвиfнуть - вдвигают move in
обгрызут - обгрызают gnaw around
отдвиfнуть - отдвигают move away (obs; replaced Ьу the present form in
the moЬile vowe])

Such variation makes it difficult to give precise distributional rules for all pre-
fixes and all clusters.
The prefix с/- occurs in со- with particular frequency, notaЫy in the follow-
ing contexts.
The prefix с/- always occurs with о if the first consonant of an initial root
consonant is с or з, or before any initial root cluster щ:
состригут - состригают shear off
созреют - созревают ripen
сощипать - сощипывают pinch off
In а number of words of Church Slavonic origin со- occurs with roots
beginning with а single consonant:
сочинить - сочиняют compose сожалеют (impf only) regret
содержать (impf only) contain совершить - совершают finish
And со- is autonomous in а number of words in which it corresponds to
Western European со- (cf. page 132):
сосуществовать (impf only) coexist
сонаследовать (perf and impf) coinherit
The prefix в/- occurs in the variant во- when it precedes а root or base be-
ginning with а vowel:
вообразить - воображают imagine
воодушевить - воодушевляют inspire
Many nonsyllaЬic verbal roots build one or more abstract nouns of action/
result, usually with а zero-suffix or -/к- (cf. page 68 above) or other element
,..hich conditions а moЬile vowel in the root. The Yowel is usually basic о (spelled
78 SECTION 1: GENERAL

о or ё) or i (spelled II or ы). Here are some examples of such nouns together with
the verbs with which they are associated:
вь1бор choice вь1б/рать choose
разбор analysis раз/о/брать analyze
отрьш/о/к fragment оторвать tear off
зов call з/вать call
призь1в appeal приз/вать summon
поимка catching поймают catching
уборка harvest уб/рать harvest
счёт calculation с/о/ч/тут calculate
ПОДЖОГ arson под/о/ж/гут set fire to
нажим pressure наж/мут press
напор pressure нап/рут press

In а very few cases the vowel alternates with the zero at the inflectional Ievel
as well as at the derivational; for example:

за/ё/м gen sg зай/ма loan займут borrow

пос/о/л gen sg пос/ла ambassador послать send

Excursus оп the nonsyllablc roots ЙД and Й/М 1

The important nonsyllaЬic roots ЙД 'go' and Й/М 'take, have' are some-
what special. In the determined verb and perfective compounds of 'go' the non-
syllaЬic root variants are ЙД and Ш/д, and both condition а preceding о in
consonantal prefixes:
ЙД: наидут отойдут
Ш/Д: нашла (*на шjла) отошла (от шJла)

Ш/д has the vocalic variants Ш/Ё/д and Ш/Е/д. Ш/Ё/д occurs before the non-
syllabic past tense ending -л before which д is truncated, 2 and ШЕД before all
endings beginning with -ш- (past gerunds and past active participles):
нашёл (*нашёрл) Cf. нашла (*нашрла)
нашедши, нашедший, etc.
Consonantal prefixes occur with moЬile vowel before both Ш/Ё/д and Ш/Е/д,
even though they are syllaЬic:
1 Root initial Й- becomes И- when it occurs in initial position: cf. ,щу '1 go,' пойду '1
will go'; имеют 'have,' займут 'occupy.'
2 Truncation of root final д before the past tense endings in -л- is general in Russian:
вёд-л > вёл, мi!т-ла > мела, etc.
 VOWEL-ZERO AL TERNA TIONS IN PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES 79
отошёл (as well as отошла)
отошедши, отошедший, etc.

The root ХОД, etymologically related to Ш/Е/д and Ш/д, serves to build
the nondetermined verb and imperfective compounds, and is the variant used in
most of the deverbative nouns and adjectives:
ходить go ХОД movement
находить find наход/ка find
отходить step away отход departure
ход/к-ий marketaЫe

The root variant ШЕСТ ( < Ш/Е/д - Т) comЬines with the suffix -вий- to
form а handful of nouns; e.g. шествие 'procession,' нашествие 'incursion.'
The nonsyllaЬic root Й/М has several syllabic root variants containing
various vowels: 1 ИМ, ЕМ, ЁМ, Я{Т), НЯ(Т), НИМ. Й/М, НИМ, and НЯ
alternate in an important family of prefixed verbs (the И/М - НИМ type in the
Verb ТаЫе, page 86). Before vocalic endings Й/М is used regularly before the
imperfectivizing suffix aj. Nouns associated with these verbs are built with
various of the root variants. Examples (with root variants boldface):
займут occupy, lend занятие occupation
занять за/ё/м loan
ЗаНаVIаЮТ заимствовать borrow
ПОДНИ:\-1ут raise поднятие raising
поднять подъём rise
поднимают
проймут penetrate пройма armhole (in а dress, etc.)
пронять
пронимают проём aperture; embrasure
снимут take off/down; снятие taking off, taking down
снять photograph спим/о/к photograph
снимают съём/ка survey; shootiпg (film)
съём output (as of steel)

In the verbs возьмут - взять 'take' and примут - принять 'receive,' ЙМ

is replaced Ьу М. In возьмут - взять, ня is replaced Ьу я, and the verb is alto-
gether irregular as far as the И/М - НИМ type is concerned (see page 111).
1 The Н in НИМ and НЯ is an external element which became part of these root variants

and "replaced" the initial jot. ln the case of НЯ the root final М is truncated before the con-
sonantal endings; i.e. -н-ям-ть > -пять, etc. AII the vowels are properly regarded as mobile, but
for purposes of simpler notation we do not enclose them in slashes; i.e. НЯ, ЁМ, rather than
Н/Я/;/Ё/М (Й/O/М), etc.
80 SECTION 1: GENERAL

Other words built with variants of this root are:

имеют have неотъемлемый inalienaЫe
поймают catch преемник successor
ём/кий capacious рукоят/ка handle

EXERCISE Discuss and account for the vowel-zero alternations in the following
groups of words:
житьё - житейский нашьют - нашивают - нашивка
служба, служб - служебный примут, принять - принимать - приём
Литва - литовский бьют, бить - бой
огонь, огня - оrонёк, огонька стлать, стелют - СТОЛ
разорвать- разрывают- разрь1в разомнут, размять - разминают
 II
VERBS

А SINGLE BASIC STEM AND FORM:

CLASSIFICAТION AND CONJUGAТION

1 Basic stem and basic form

Conjugation and verbal derivation are both more complex and more im-
portant than declension and nominal and adjectival derivation. The complexity
is largely due, as we have seen, to the frequent combination of alikes (VV and
СС) and also to the great number of verbal stem types (which we shall classify
below). The importance rests on the versatility of these many types, which have
made and are making thousands of verbs, and also on the great number of
words, above all nouns, which are built from verbal stems. А glance at almost
any Russian text shows at once the extremely high frequency of verbals in the
language.
Most people working with Russian verbs have рrоЬаЫу considered and
learned them in terms of two forms: the infinitive (the dictionary form) and the
third plural of the present tense. From these forms they learned how to predict
the rest of the paradigm. lt is also possiЫe to describe Russian verbs in terms of
81
82 SECTION 11: VERBS

а single or basic stem, which is equivalent to or includes the basic root of the
verb. This basic stem enaЫes us to predict the conjugational forms of а given
verb and also allows us to approach efficiently certain important proЫems of
word-formation.
The basic stem is easy to obtain. Practically speaking, it is simply whichever
ofthe two stems, the present or the infinitive, is the longer. 1 For example, ofthe
third plural present говор-ят and infinitive говори-ть, the latter stem is basic,
while of жив-ут and жи-ть the former is basic. 1f the two stems are of the same
length, the third plural present stem is basic: вед-ут not вес-ти. This will mean
in practice that consonanta/ 2 basic stems will always Ье derived from the third
plural and vocalic basic stems from the infinitive, simply Ьу subtracting either -ut
or -t' as appropriate. Henceforth, therefore, we shall give only the third plural
for consonant stems and the infinitive for vowel stems, and we shall call each the
basic form for its type of verb. The other forms are then obtained from the basic
form Ьу subtracting -ut or -t' to obtain the basic stem, апd theп adding the de-
sired ending and applying the rules of combination (Verb ТаЫе, pages 86-
87).

EXERCJSE Obtain the basic stem and mark it "С" if consonantal, "V" if vocalic.
деть-денут шагнуть - шагнут спрятать - спрячут
редеть - редеют читать - читают понять - поймут
звучать - звучат рвать-рвут пасти - пасут
стричь - стригут жать-жнут колоть - колют
спорить - спорят вьпь-воют тереть - трутЗ
кипеть - кипят ПЛЬIТЬ - плывут требовать - требуют
свергнуть - свергнут

In classification of verbs according to type of stem and in the comЬination

of stems and endings prefixation is unimportant. For purposes of simplicity we
shall work, as far as possiЫe, only with nonprefixed stems, but the things we say
about 11ес-ут 'carry' would а pply equally well to 11ри-11ес-ут 'bring,' у-11ес-ут
'carry away,' and the like. When we list or describe а prefixed stem in the follow-
ing discussion, we do so because the stem does not occur iп the noпprefixed form
(i.e. the verbal root is always prefixed; Й/М пever occurs without а prefix, and so
1 The only regular exception to this is the type in /р; e.g. тр-j·т - тере-ть 'rub,' but those

few n/sA steшs which have а шоЬilе vowel in the present steш also violate the rule; e.g. б/ра-ть­
бср-ут 'take.'
2 А "consonantal" basic steш ends in а consonant; а "voca\ic" steш ends in а vowel.

з Sec footnote I above.

 CONJUGA TION 83

we give по-й/м-ут as the example for the type), but this fact in itself has по bear-
ing оп its classification or conjugation.
What is important i11 classification and conjugation is whether or not the
stem has а suffix, and we divide all basic stems into two types: nonsuffixed (with-
out а suffix) and suffixed. А nonsuffixed (nonprefixed) stem is equivalent to the
root and, since all Russian roots end in consonants, all nonsuffixed stems are
consonantal: нёс, жив, стан. Suffixed stems consist of а root plus а suffix:
люб-11, ш1с-а, интерес-она. AII ofthe suffixes (and hence the resulting stems) are
vocalic except two: АЙ (дел-ай) and ЕЙ (у~1-ей) are consonantal.
Nonsuffixed stems are further divided into resonant stems and obstruent
stems, according to their final consonant. Resonants differ phonetically from
obstruents (they are less consonantal), but it may Ье simpler merely to memo-
rize the groups; note that the six obstruents comprise three voiced-voiceless
pairs: Д- Т, З - С, Г - К. The resonants (Й, Р, М, Н, В) are поt paired as to
voici11g. (с, though it is paired with/ pho11etically, fu11ctions as а reso11ant i11
co11jugatio11.)
The great majority of 11011suffixed stems are syllabic: нёс, ж11в, стан. No11-
syllabic 11011suffixed stems comprise reso11a11ts i11 /Р, 1 /М - /Н, a11d Й/М - НИМ
(НИМ is а syllaЬic varia11t of Й/М) and 011\у two obstrue11ts: ж/г 'bur11,' ч/т
'regard.' There are а 11umber of suffixed stems in no11syllaЬic roots, about fiftee11
ofwhich are built with the suffix -а-, formi11g а type which we designate "n/sA":
ж/д-а-ть 'wait' (see Verb ТаЫе, page 87). There are а few others as well; e.g.
мст-11-ть 'reve11ge 011eself,' т/к-ну-ть 'jab.'

EXERCISE ldentify the stems from the exercise 011 page 82 as suffixed or no11suffixed.
Mark а11у 11011syllabic stem "11s."

2 Conjugation
The Verb ТаЫе 011 pages 86-87 lists all the stem types into which we
divide 11011suffixed and suffixed verbs. Nonsuffixed verb types are 11ormally
designated Ьу the last sound of the root, and suffixed verb types Ьу the suffix, in
uppercase Cyrillic letters. With each type we give an example, where possiЫe а
verb already familiar, which we call а "head verb.'' F or example, the head verb
for the А type is ш1с-а-ть: а11 А verb acts like ш1с-а-ть; i.e. conjugates the same
way and works the same way i11 derivatio11. Иск-а-ть 'seek' has mutation in the
prese11t te11se a11d imperative, builds imperfectives with ii·aj, and acts i11 other
ways like ш1с-а-ть; it is, therefore, an А or писать verb. ·
1А slash used with а stem type designator indicates the presence of zero in Yerbs of that
type;_ e.g. /Р (т/р 'rub'), n/sA (ж/д-а-ть '\vait').
84 SECTION 11: VERBS

писать: писал писав пишу пишешь пишут пиши расписывают

искать: искал искав ищу ищешь ищут ищи разь,скивают

А head verb shows all the major features common to its type but it cannot, of
course, portray variations и·ithin а type. For example, пис-а-ть, as the head verb
of а type comprehending more than one stress pattern, cannot serve as а stress
model for all А verbs; it has shifting stress (as does иск-а-ть), but the А verb
маз-а-ть 'smear' has stem stress; i.e.

пишу - пишут ишу - ишут but мажу - мажут

ln the tаЫе the process of simple addition and the process of truncation of
а preceding alike are taken as normal, as is the automatic softening о/ апу paired
consonant before апу ending in о, i, or а (cf. Section 1, page 39), but all
other modifications within а stem are specified. The tаЫе also contains some
general statements about stress. The stress of Russian verbs is rather complex,
and а detailed description of it is given below in an excursus beginning оп page
90. The basic forms in the Verb Inventory (pages 98-100) are accented (or not
accented) according to the system described there. The head verbs, however,
bear no information as to stress (since тапу stem types have more than one
stress pattern among their verbs, and а single verb could exemplify only one
pattern); instead, if а stem type has а single stress pattern for all verbs, this in-
formation is given in the tаЫе.

VERBAL ENDINGS
CONSONANTAL: 1. Infinitive -t' (-t' i)
2.Past tense -/ -!а -!о -/'./
3. Past gerund -vf-vsoj/-si
4. Past active participle -vsoj/-soj
5. Past passive participle -t/-n
VOCALIC; 6. Present tense:
First singular -11
First conjugation -os -ot -от -ot'e -111
Second conjugation -is -it -im -it'e -at
7. Imperative -i(-#) (-t'e)
8. Present gerund -а

9. Present active participle и/а plus -scoj

10. Present passive participle o/i plus -moj
1 1. Past passive participle -011
 CONJUGATION 85

TREES FOR CONJUGATION

PAST PASSIVE
PARТICIPIALENDING:

-ён -н

1
1 1 1 1
Resonants Obstruents И АН others

PAST ACТIVE
PARТICIPIAL ENDING:

-ший -вший
1

1 1 1 1
Obstruents (НУ) Р All others

CONSONANT
MUTATION:

и Е
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
First Past Imperfecti ve First Past Imperfective
singular passive derivation singular passive derivation
present participle present participle (rarely)
(rarely)

А Obstruents: velar mutations only

1 1 .
1 1 1 1 1
Present Present Imperative Present tense: second/third singular Past passive
tense gerund first/second plural participle
 86 SECTION 11: VERBS

VERB Т ABLE: NONSUFFIXED STEMS

All are -ёт verbs. No stress shift in present.
АН are consonant stems. Мау have stress shift in past.

HEAD VERB ТУРЕ MODIFICATIONS (OTHER THAN СС) ррр

SYLLABIC RESONANT STEMS -т

жив-ут live в
ден-ут put Н Stem stress.
дуй-ут Ыоw й
мой-ут wash ОЙ о > ы before С. Stem stress.
пий-ут drink ИЙ 1 ий > ьй before V. 1

NONSYLLABIC RESONANT STEMS -т

т/р-ут rub /Р2 /р > ере before -ть and ёр before other С.
Masc past -л drops.
ж/м-ут press /М-/Н /м - /н > я (а after hushings) before С.
по-й/м-ут understand Й/М (After У prefix) й/м > ня before С.
с-ним-ут take off НИМ 3 (After С prefix) им > я before С. Shifting
prefixal stress in past. Shifting stress in
pres (НИМ type only).

OBSTRUENТ STEMS 2 -ён

вёд-ут lead Д-Т4 д- т > с before -ти (-ть).

вёз-ут convey З-С 4 Masc past -л drops; other С simply added.
nёк-ут bake Г-К Masc past -л drops; other past endings
added. г - к plus -ть > чь, and а preced-
ing ё > е. Mutation before endings in о.

1 ий > ьй before а stressed vowel is а general rule in Russian; cf. verbal nouns in '11ё
alternating with -ь/ё (решеm1е vs. ж11тьё). In the Ий type all verbal endings are stressed;
hence basic form ш1й-ут gives third plural пыот (а nonsyllaЬic present stem).
2 For past gerund and past active participle add -ш11(й), not -вш11(й), to stem.
3 й/м is а nonsyllaЬic verbal root with the meaning 'take, have'; ним is а syllaЬic variant

of it.
4 Have end stress in the past and infi11itive in -ти except for а few stems in Д and З, which

have stem stress in the past and i11finitive in -ть.

 CONJUGATION 87

VERB TABLE: SUFFIXED STEMS

И, Е, and ЖА are -ит verbs. No stress shift in past.
All others are -ёт verbs. Мау have stress shift in present.

HEAD VERB ТУРЕ MODIFICATIONS (OTHER THAN VV) ррр

VOWEL STEMS ·ИТ VERBS

прос-и-ть request и Mutation in I sg pres, ррр, and impf -ён

deriv.
смотр-е-ть look at Е Mutation in I sg pres and, rarely, in ррр -н
and impf deriv.
держ-а-ть hold ЖА 1 -н

VOWEL STEMS -ёт VERBS

пис-а-ть write А Mutation throughout pres tense and in -н

pres ger and impv.

ж/д-а-ть wait n/sA Sometimes shifting stress in past tense. -н

треб-ова-ть require ОБА ова > уй (ёва > юй) before V. -н

кол-о-ть prick о Consonants soften before endings in 11. -т

толк-ну-ть push НУ ну is retained in all forms of verb itself, -т

but is lost in impf deriv.

слеп-(ну)-ть go Ыind (НУ) ну is usually dropped before past tense, -т

с-верr-(ну)-ть overthrow past ger, and рар endings, with re-

sulting stems acting like obstruents,
and is always lost in impf deriv. Two
suЬtypes exist (see Inventory, р. 107).
Stress is on syllaЫe preceding (ну).

CONSONANT STEMS

дел-ай-ут do АЙ Whole suffix (not just final С) is lost in -н

impf deriv.
ум-ей-ут know how ЕЙ

EXCEPTIONAL ТУРЕ

да-вай- give АВАЙ авай > ай in pres tense 011(1·, and pres
tense endings are stressed.·

_1 Ж represents any palatal consonant: а hushing or й.

88 SECTION 11: VERBS

Below we conjugate the twenty-five head verbs, giving as many ofthe above
forms as exist for each type. Note that the past active participle stands a\so for
the past gerund, if one exists, and that of the present tense only the first and
second singular and third plura\ are given:

NONSUFFIXED STEMS

в н й ОЙ
/ / / /
жить деть дуть мыть
/ / / /
жил дел дул мыл

жила жили дела дула мьша

жйвший девший дувший МЬIВШИЙ
-жит -а -ы -дет -дут -мьп
живу дену дую мбю
живёшь денешь дуешь мбешь
живут денут дуют мбют
живи день дуй мбй
живя дуя мбя
живущий дующий моющий

ИЙ /Р /М-/Н Й/М
I ,,
пить тереть .жать понять
/ ,,
пил тёр жал пбнял
пила пили тёрла жала поняла пбняли
пивший тёрший жавший понявший
-пит -а -ы -тёрт -жат пбнят -а -ы
/ ,,
пью тру жму пойму
пьёшь трёшь жмёшь поймёшь
/ /
пьют трут жмут поймут
/ /
пей три жми пойми

пьющий трущий жмуший

 CONJUGATION 89
NONSUFFJXED STEMS (continued)

ним Д-Т З-С Г-К

,, /
снять вести везти печь
,,
снял вёл вёз пёк
сняла сняли вела вели везла везли пек;,л пекли
сняв~рий ведуt'ий вёз;nий пёкший
/
снят -а -ы -ведён -везён -печён
сниму веду везу пеку
снимешь ведёшь везёшь печёшь
снимут ведут везут пекут
сними веди вези пеки
ведя везя
ведущий везущий пекущий

ведомый 1 (везомый)

SUFFIXED STEMS

и Е ЖА А n/sA
,,
просить смотреть держать писать ждать

просил смотрел держал писал ждал -а -и

просивший смотревший державший писавший ждавший

-прошен -смотрен -держан -писан -ждан

прошу смотрю держу пишу жду

просишь смотришь держишь пишешь ждёшь

просят смотрят держат пишут ждут

проси смотри держи пиши жди

прося смотря держа _2

просящий смотрящий держащий пишущий ждущий

просимый

1 Present passive participles in -0~1ый from some obstruents are occa~ionally found but,
practically speaking, are rarely used.
2 Present gerunds are very rare for А verbs but do exist; e.g. п:1акать - п:1ача. Пиша was
used_ in earlier Russian, notaЫy Ьу Pushkin.
90 SECTION II: VERBS

SUFFIXED STEMS (continued)

ОБА о НУ (НУ)а

требовать колоть толкнуть слепнуть

требовал колол толкнул слеп слепла
требовавший коловший толкнувший слепший
-требован -колот -толкнут
требую колю толкну слепну
требуешь колешь толкнёшь слепнешь
требуют колют толкнут слепнут
требуй коли толкни слепни
требуя коля
требующий колющий слепнущий
требуемый

(НУ)Ь АЙ ЕЙ АВАЙ

свергнуть делать уметь давать

,
сверг свергла делал умел давал
свергший делавший умевший дававший
свергнут -делан
свергну делаю умею даю
свергнешь делаешь умеешь даёшь

свергнут делают умеют дают

свергни делай умей давай
делая умея давая
делающий умеющий дающий
делаемый даваемый

Excursus оп verbal stress and the formation of the imperative

1. 1n conjugation, as in declension, stress тау Ье jixed оп either the stem or
the ending, or it тау Ье sblfting. For example, we have present tense patterns
with stress fixed оп the stem:
вижу видишь ВИДЯТ

or with stress fixed оп the ending:

живу живёшь живут

as opposed to patterns with stress shifting from the ending (in the first singular)
to the last syllaЫe of the stem (in the other forms):
люблю любишь любят
 CONJUGATION 91

Or in the past we have verbs with stress fixed оп the stem:

любил любила любило любили

and with stress fixed оп the ending (when there is one):

вёл вела вело вели

as opposed to verbs with ending stress only in the feminine and stem stress in all
other forms:
жил жила жило жили

Some prefixed resonant stems and some irregular verbs (notaЫy быть and
дать) have shifting stress between the prejix of past tense and past passi1:e pш­
ticiple nonfeminine forms and the ending of the corresponding feminine forms.
А few of the same types of stems when unprefixed may stress не with nonfemi-
nine past tense forms. We call this type of stress prefixal and designate it Ьу plac-
ing а "greater than" sign ( >) over the prefix vowel receiving the stress.
>
проживут прожил прожила прожило прожили 1
прйбыть прибыл прибыла прибыло прибыли

не пий-ут не пил не пила не пило не пили

>
не дать не дал не дала не дало не дали

2. Two generalizations сап immediately Ье made. First, the shifts just illus-
trated are the only ones that occur in conjugation. Second, the present tense
shift occurs only in suffixed verbs, the past tense shift only in nonsuffixed verbs.
Stated in another way: nonsuffixed verbs have fixed stress in the present and тау
have shift in the past; suffixed verbs have constant stress in the past and тау
have shift in the present. Notice the following exceptions:
а. The single nonsuffixed stem моtут and the НИМ subgroup of the
Й/М - НИМ nonsuffixed stem type have shifting stress in the present:
могу можешь могут; сниму снимешь снимут

мог(у~ has ending stress in the past (designated Ьу (,> over the ending.
Ь. Certain n/sA (suffixed) stems have shifting stress in the past tense and op-
tional shifting stress in the past passive participle. For n/sA i·erbs alone of suf-
fixed verbs, presence or absence of а stress mark indicates, respectively, fixed or
shifting stress in the past (and past passive participle, if the optional shifting
stress is used) rather than the present, whose stress is, in any case; unproЫemati­
cal (always оп the ending):
1 Note corresponding past passive participle forms: прожит прожита прожито
прожиты. Cf. paragraph 10, pages 94-95.
92 SECТION 11: VERBS

послать: послал послала 1 послали; послан 2 послана посланы

(пошлю пошлют)
собрать: собрал собрала собрали; собран 2 собрана 3 собраны
(соберу соберут)

3. How сап we make use of the above generalizations? Given а suffixed

verb, there are two possibilities. Either the present tense stress is fixed, or it
shifts. If it is fixed, we сап mark the basic form to indicate the syllaЫe that is
always stressed. Thus
говорить implies говорю говоришь etc.
толкнуть implies толкну толкнёшь etc.
требовать implies требую требуешь etc.
If the stress shifts, there is only one possiЫe pattern; hence leaving the basic
form unmarked results in no ambiguity: по mark implies shifting stress; that is,
ending stress in the first 3ingular and stem stress elsewhere in the present:
любить implies люблю любишь etc.
писать implies пишу пишешь etc.
4. The past tense stress (and the infinitive stress, which is the same as the
past tense) is fixed for these suffixed verbs and is assumed to Ье on the final stem
syllaЫe unless marked somewhere else. Thus

говорить implies говорил говорила etc.

любить implies любил любила etc.
писать implies писал писала etc.
but
крикнуть implies крикунл крикнула etc.
требовать4 implies требовал требовала etc.

Thus, with suffixed stems, the presence or absence of а stress mark refers
to the present tense; past tense stress is then inferaЫe therefrom.
5. In describing the stress of nonsuffixed stems, we сап use the same con-
vention: stress mark indicates fixed stress; absence of stress mark indicates
1 То save space, we shal\ henceforth omit neuter past and past passive participle forms,

which are a\ways the same as the corresponding masculine and plura\ forms.
2 The stress оп the prefixes in these past passive participle forms is not the "prefixal"

stress described above (for verbs like nрож11вут) but merely fixed or shifting, as the case may
Ье, and falls оп the prefix simply because of the rule described in paragraph 10, рр. 94-95.
3 Optional stress is indicated Ьу stress marks over each vowel involved.
4 Note that -овать implies -j·ют: арестовать, арестуют. The few primary ОВА verbs

have -уют: ковать, ку,от (cf. lnventory, р. 103).

 CONJUGATION 93
shifting stress. But here the convention will refer to the past tense since, as we
have seen, nonsuffixed stems always have fixed stress in the present. Thus
вёдут implies вёл вела вели
денут implies дел дела дели

(both with fixed stress), but

живут implies жил жила жили

6. In some verbs with nonsyllabic present tense stems we must place а stress
mark on the consonant preceding the ending to indicate the stem stress:
жмут implies жал жала жали

бий-ут implies бил била били

as opposed to
nий-ут implies пил пила пили

(Marking the basic form бий-ут would imply бил била били.)

7. The present tense stress of nonsuffixed verbs is fixed and is assumed to Ье

on the ending unless marked on а stem vowel. Thus

вёдут implies веду ведёшь etc.

живут implies живу живёшь живут
кладут implies кладу кладёшь кладут 1
but
денут implies дену денешь etc.
8. The stress in the infinitive of these verbs is on the \ast or only stem sу\­
\аЫе except for ending-stressed stems in dentals (cf. footnote 4, page 86)
(Д - Т, З - С), which have the stressed infinitive ending -ти:

живут implies жить

денут implies деть
берёrут implies беречь
кладут implies класть
but
вёдут implies вести
вёзут implies везти

1 А small group of anomalous verbs has stem stress in the past but ending stress in the
present. \Ve indicate this pattern Ьу placing а stress mark оп the consonant preceding the ending:
кладут: клал клала клали - кладу кладёшь ... кладут
стригут: стриг стригла стригли - стригу стрижёшь ... стригут

Cf. the same convention in биii-ут above.

94 SECTION 11: VERBS

9. For both suffixed and nonsuffixed verbs, stress in the imperative and
present gerund is generally on the ending 1 unless marked on а stem vowel. Thus
вёдут implies ведя веди

живут implies живя живи

кладут implies кладя клади

говорить implies говоря говори

смотреть implies смотря смотри

but
мой-ут implies моя мой (и > zero when unstressed and not
помнить implies помня помни following two consonants; cf. р. 96.)
ставить implies ставя ставь

Similarly, stress in the past gerund and past active participle is on the final stem
vowel unless marked elsewhere. Thus
вёзут implies вёзши(й)
живут implies жив(ши(й))
мой-ут implies мьш(ши(й))

говорить implies говорив(ши(й))

смотреть implies смотрев(ши(й))
but
ставить implies ставив(ши(й))

10. Stress in the past passive participle for nonsuffixed verbs follows the
past tense, including shift to а prefix if this happens in the past; for example:
на-денут implies надет надета надеты
про-вёдут implies проведён проведена проведень1
на-бий-ут implies набит набита набиты
> -
за-лии-ут залил залила залили implies залит залита залиты
>
по-йм-ут понял поняла поняли implies понят понята поняты

The past passive participle in suffixed stems has ending stress if the present has
ending stress and stem stress if the present tense has stem or shifting stress. 2 If
1 In general, in verbs with shifting stress, an ending consisting of а single vowe\ (-а, -i, -и)
is stressed (e.g. с,1отря, с,ютрп, смотрю).
2 However, quite а few stems with shifting stress violate this rule Ьу having ending-

stressed past passive participles:

об-судить: обсуждён обсуждена обсужденьr

Conversely, а few ending-stressed types have stem-stressed past passive participles:

в-винтить: ввинчен ввинчена ввинчены
 CONJUGAПON 95

the infinitive is in а(я)ть, 1 -еть, -путь, or -бть however, the stress is always on the
second vowel before any -н or -т. Thus
по-ставить implies поставлен поставлена -ы

до-стиг( ну )ть implies достигнут достигнута -ы

с-просить implies спрошен спрошена -ы

and
при-говорить implies приговорён приговорена -Ьl

but
про-читай-ут прочитать
implies прочитан -а -ы
про-сидеть просидеть
implies просижен -а -ы
раз-вёрfнуть развернуть imp!ies развёрнут -а -ы
за-колоть заколоть implies заколот -а -ы

1 1. AII forms of any perfective verb in the prefix вы- are stressed on the
prefix, regardless of any other rules. For example:
вь1брать: вь1берут вь1бери вь1брал вь1брала вь1бран вь1брана
вь1говорить: вь1говорят вь1говори вь1говорил вь1говорила
вь1говорен вь1говорена

However, we shall see (page 97, paragraph 2) that it is important to know the in-
trinsic stress of the nonprefixed stem, even when dealing with а вы-prefixed per-
fective. For this reason, we not only place а stress mark on the вы- but also а
stress mark in parentheses <,> on whatever Ietter in the nonprefixed stem it would
naturally fall. We omit this second mark in the case of shifting stress, of course.
For example:
( ,)
if ставить then вь1ставить
(,)
if говорить then вь1говорить
if давить then вьщавить
if брать then вь1брать
(,)
if слать then вь1слать

1 Feminine past passive participle forms of n/sA stems with shifting stress do not, of
course, follow this rule, but as we have seen (р. 91), shifting stress is optional in the past pas-
sive participle, though mandatory in the past; hence, if we assume fixed stress in the past passive
participle, the rule is not broken. n/sA verbs with nonshifting stress, of course, follow the rule as
expected:
Fixed n/sA: послать: послан послана посланы
Shifting n/sA: собрать: собран собрана собраны (собрал собрала)
Note that this shifting stress is not prefixal, but merely shifting stress with nonfeminine forms
stressing the prefixal о in observance of the rule in paragraph 10 above. Cf. от/о/брать: отобран
отобрана отобраны with stress following the rule in paragraph 10.
96 SECTION 11: VERBS

12. The addition of ся (сь) to а stem, particularly if it is а resonant, n/sA,

or irregular type and common in the language, may alter its past tense stress pat-
tern. Shifting and ending stress are frequent patterns, and stress is frequently op-
tional. We may note the following examples:
( ,>1
начнутся: начался началась началось начались

займутс~) занялся(colloq занялся) занялась занялось занялись

собраться: собрался (obs собрался) собралась собралось
собрались
сдадутся: сдался сдалась сдалось сдались (coIIoq сдалось
сдались)

Formation of tl1e imperatice

The imperative is formed Ьу adding the ending -i to the verbal stem. As
usual, paired consonants are softened before an ending beginning with -i, and
А verbs show mutation here as well as in the present tense. The -i is replaced Ьу а
zero ending (which affects preceding consonants exactly like -i; cf. footnote 1,
page 41) if it is bot/1 unstressed and preceded Ьу а single consonant. For all
stems the imperative ending is stressed unless stress is marked on а stem vowel.
Thus
живут - ЖI\Bll but читай-ут - читай
кладут - клади ставить - ставь
колоть - колй давай- (давать)- давай
ведут- веди мазать - мажь (Note the spelling rule
писать - пиши requiting а phonetica\ly meaningless ь here
говорить - rоворй after а hushing.)
просить - просй
требовать - требуй
помнить - помни

Note that:
I. Verbs \Vhose present tense stem ends in j \ose -i (and have stem stress in
the imperative as а result) even when they are ending-stressed, except for ending-
stressed И verbs:
а. Primary stems in ОВА, which are ending-stressed:
ковать (куют)- куй (not *куй)

Ь. The verbs in the Ий type (which must then insert а vo,vel):

ш1й-ут > пьют (пь/й-ут) - п/е/й (not *пь11)

1 \Vhere ending stress is considered standard, \\·е п1ау mark the basic form ,vith stress in
parentheses оп -~я: Normal shifting stress is denoted, as usual, Ьу absence of а stress mark.
 VERB INVENTOR У 97

с. The irregular Й verb пойу-т (inf петь) - пбй (not *пои).

d. The ending-stressed verbs стоять, бояться, and смеяться: стой (not
*стон), and so forth, but
таить-таи
кроить - крой

2. The fact that the prefix вы- in perfectii-e verbs is always stressed does not
affect these rules; that is, if а stem normally keeps the ending -i, it will keep it
even when prefixed with вы. Thus
, ( ,) ,
выговорить - выговори since говорить - говори
вьщавить - вьщави since давить - дави
but
, ( ,) ,
выставить - выставь since ставить - ставь

Cf. paragraph 11, page 95.

3 Verb inventory
From а numerical standpoint, Russian verbs are not evenly distributed
over the twenty-three types in the taЫes. AII nonsuffixed stem types have ceased
to Ье productive, and the total number of nonsuffixed verbs (not counting pre-
fixed verbs) in ordinary use in modern Russian is well under one hundred. The
majority of the suffixed stem types have also ceased to Ье productive, although
they are somewhat better represented statistically. In contrast to the unproduc-
tive types are the И and ОВА types, each highly productive and including
thousands of verbs; the somewhat less productive but numerous НУ and ЕЙ
types; and the АЙ type, which has built, and is still building, thousands of de-
rived imperfectives.
The Verb lnventory оп pages 98-110 lists almost all common, unprefixed
stems within the unproductive types and representative examples from all the
productive types. Any subgroups within types are noted, and slight irregularities
are pointed out, but more drastically irregular verbs are listed separately at the
end of the Inventory.
Stems are given in unprefixed form whenever possiЫe. If а stem is never
used without а prefix, it is preceded Ьу а hyphen, and if it always or almost
always occurs with one prefix, this prefixed stem is given, together with its mean-
ing. The meanings we assign to unprefixed stems are as general as possiЫe and
are usually evident in prefixed stems as well; however, the student must learn to
anticipate various extensions and differentiations of meanings when he encount-
ers·prefixed examples later оп.
98 SECТION II: VERBS

The student should read through the lnventory now, \ooking at the informa-
tion given with the types, if any is given, but not attempt to memorize the verbs
or their meanings. The Inventory may Ье used frequently henceforth as а refer-
ence against which to check new stems that are encountered. This will Ье par-
ticularly important in analysis of prefixed stems, since а great many of these are
built with unproductive stems, almost all of which are in the Inventory.
After reading through it, the student should proceed to the exercises follow-
ing the Inventory, which will give some experience in using it.

VERBINVENTORY
NONSUFFIXED STEMS
SYLLABIC RESONANTS

в н

жив-ут live ден-ут put

плыв-ут swim стан-ут 1 stand
слыв-ут pass for за-стрян-ут get stuck (impf)
я > е (застревают)
стьш-ут become cold
Cf. сть1j-(ну)ть under (НУ) verbs.
й ОЙ ИЙ

rний-ут rot вбй-ут howl би-йут beat

дуи-ут Ыоw крбй-ут cover вий-ут twist, wind
-уй-ут shoe мбй-ут wash лий-ут pour
об-уй-ут put on нбй-ут ache пий-ут drink
раз-уй-ут take off рбй-ут dig ший-ут sew
по-чий-ут rest
NONSYLLABIC RESONANTS

/Р /М-/Н Й/М-НИМ
м/р-ут die ж/м-ут press -йм-ут - -ним-ут The general
п/р-ут push ж/н-ут reap meaning is "take"; cf. the
за-п/р-ут lock м/н-ут crumple irregular stem в/о/зь-/ м-ут -
от/о/-п/р-ут uпlock рас-п/н-ут 2 crucify в/з-я-ть.
т/р-ут rub на-ч/н-ут begin
рас-про-ст /р-ут stretch

1 Imperfective станов11ться (prefixed imperfective in -АВАЙ; see р. 110).

2 Ап expected moЬile vowel (*раз/о/пнут) does not materialize.
 VERBINVENTORY 99
OBSTRUENTS

д т

блюд-ут observe гнёт-ут (not used

брёд-утl wander in past tense) oppress
вёд-ут 1 Iead (prefixed iшpf мёт-ут sweep
in -водить) плёт-ут weave
гряд-ут соте (no past or inf) об-рёт-ут 1 find
клад-ут 2 place (iшpf deriv ivaj) при-об-рёт-утl acquire
крад-ут 2 steal (iшpf deriv ii·aj) из-об-рёт-утl invent
пад-ут 2 fall рас-свет-ут dawn
пряд-ут spin цвёт-ут Ыоош

з с

вёз-ут convey (prefixed iшpf нёс-ут carry (prefixed iшpf

in -возить) in -носить)
грыз-ут gnaw пас-ут graze
лез-ут с!iшЬ тряс-ут shake
полз-ут crawl
Б

Acts Iike З - С verbs, and б > с in the infinitive.

грёб-ут row, dig скрёб-ут scrape

г к

берёг-ут save, protect влёк-ут draw (tract)

прене-брёг-ут neglect пёк-ут bake
(,)
мог-ут Ье аЬ!е -рек-ут say
See р. 91. сек-ут chop, whip
-пряг-ут harness, strain тёк-ут fiow, course
Pronounced as if -прёг-ут.
стерёг-ут watch, guard
стриf-ут shear

NONSYLLABIC OBSTRUENTS

ж/г-ут: жечь жёг жгла жгли жёгший burn

-ч/т-ут: честь чёл -чла -чли -четший regard, count (iшpf deriv of
-ч/т-ут is -·ывают or -ают)

1 Basic root vowel о > е in the past active participle and past gerund.
- 2 Past active participle and past gerund are in -вш11й rather than -ш11ii; д is truncated.
100 SECTION 11 : VERBS

VERB INVENTORY
SUFFIXED STEMS

Productive-thousands. Tend to Ье transitive. Examples comprise one verb each for

every type of final stem consonant. 1
прос-и-ть ask, beg вин-и-ть accuse
воз-и-ть convey служ-и-ть serve
чист-и-ть clean уч-и-ть 2 teach, learn
креп-и-ть strengthen туш-и-ть extinguish
люб-и-ть love лощ-и-ть polish
став-и-ть stand (tran) стр6й-и-ть build
граф-и-ть make lines плат-и-ть рау

корм-и-ть feed за-прет-и-ть forЬid ChS

пил-и-ть saw глад-и-ть iron, pat
говор-и-п, speak, say за-род-и-ть engender ChS

About fifty. Mostly intransitive. А number of them denote sounds. Among the com-
moner are:
блест-е-ть shine (intr) гляд-е-ть look at
бол-е-ть hurt (intr) гор-е-ть burn (intr)
Do not confuse with бол-ей-ут 'Ье звен-е-ть ring (intr)
sick.' кип-е-ть boil (intr)
вел-е-ть order лёт-е-ть fly (intr)
(command) свист-е-ть whistle
верт-е-ть turn (intr) сид-е-ть sit
вид-е-ть see скрип-е-т1, squeak
не-на-вид-е-ть hate смотр-е-ть look at
об-ид-е-ть (об-fид) insult терп-е-ть bear, endure
вис-е-ть hang (intr) храп-е-ть snore
за-вис-е-ть depend (NB шум-е-ть make noise
stress)
1 Mutation of а nonfinal stem consonant occurs in а few cases:
у-мертв-и-ть 'kill' ChS I sg pres умерщвлю, past perfective participle умерщ­
влён, impf deriv умерщвляют
certain stems in -мь1сл-и-ть I sg pres -мь1слю but past perfective participle -мь1-
111лен, impf deriv -мышляют
2 -ч-11-ть < *-ц-11-ть exists in verbs like к611ч-и-ть 'end.'
 VERB INVENTORY 101

ЖА

About thirty. Like the Е type above, to which they are historically related (see page 48),
жа verbs are mostly intransitive and include many verbs denoting sounds. Among the
commoner are:
визж-а-ть squeak сль1ш-а-ть hear
ворч-а-ть grumЫe стуч-а-ть knock
держ-а-ть ho\d торч-а-ть protrude
дрож-а-ть tremЫe трещ-а-ть crackle
дыш-а-ть breathe лёж-а-ть lie
звуч-а-ть sound молч-а-ть Ье silent
крич-а-ть cry, shout мч-а-ть rush (along)
пищ-а-ть squeak
Two stems in ЙА 1
бой-а-ть-ся fear стой-а-ть stand (intr)

About sixty with mutation and two small subgroups without mutation. Among the
commonest are:2
WIТH MUTATION

алк-а-ть' hunger, crave двиr-а-ть (also двиr-ай-ут) move

бормот-а-ть mutter дрём-а-ть doze
брех-а-ть bark; (tel1) lies иск-а-ть seek
брь1зr-а-ть splash, sprinkle -каз-а-ть show
брьвr-ай-ут also exists. кап-а-ть drip (also кап-ай-ут)
вяз-а-ть Ьind, tie клевет-а-ть slander ChS
об-яз-а-ть (об-вяз) oЫige клик-а-ть call, hail
rлод-а-ть gnaw колеб-а-ть 4 shake
rрохот-а-ть crash колых-а-ть5 wave, swing
1 The basic forrns of the two ЖА verbs in -я- are orthographically identical with those of
the я suЫype of the А group below. The student rnust sirnply rernernber that these two verbs are
different; they are ЖА verbs and hence -ит verbs, whereas the я verbs are -ёт- verbs.
2 In the sterns below ~ indicates ё in the past passive participle and irnperfective deriva-
tion, but in the perfective present we have е; e.g.
при-чёс-а-ть: причёсан причёсывают but причешут
з Stress shifts to first syllaЬ\e before vocalic endiпg.
4 Stress shifts to е before vocalic endiпg апd past passive participle is -колеблен.
s Stress shifts to -ь1- before vocalic ending, but irnperative is ко.1ыхай, and preseпt gerund
is either коль1ша or колыхая.
102 SECTION 11: VERBS

крап-а-ть fall in fine drops ропт-а-ть murmur; grumЫe ChS

лепет-а-ть ЬаЬЫе свист-а-ть whistle
лиз-а-ть lick скак-а-ть jump, gallop
маз-а-ть smear скрежет-а-т ь gпash, grind (teeth) ChS
мах-а-ть wave (arm, etc.) сьш-а-ть strew, pour (impv сьшь,
мёт-а-ть (also мет-ай-ут) throw impf deriv -сыпают)
мурль1к-а-ть purr тёс-а-ть hew, cut
низ-а-ть string (as pearls) топт-а-ть tread, trample
пах-а-ть plow трепет-а-ть tremЫe ChS
пис-а-ть write ть1к-а-ть stick, jab
плак-а-ть weep хлёст-а-ть whip
плёск-а-ть splash хлопот-а-ть bustle, trouЬ!e oneself
пляс-а-ть dance хохот-а-ть laugh loudly, guffaw
полоск-а-ть riпse чёс-а-ть comb
прят-а-ть hide шёпт-а-ть whisper
рез-а-ть cut (impf deriv also aj) шекот-а-ть tickle
рокот-а-ть roar; murmur щип-а-ть pinch (impv шипи)
Note the Iarge пumber of stems in -тать denoting sound.

NO MUTATIO!',

жажд-а-ть thirst сос-а-ть suck

ор-а-ть yell стон-а-ть groan

А VERBS IN Я (Й-а)

блей-а-ть Ыеаt рей-а-ть hover

вей-а-ть Ыоw сей-а-ть sow
за-тей-а-ть plot, contrive (impf смей-а-ть-ся Iaugh
deriv in vaj) тай-а-ть melt
лай-а-ть bark чай-а-ть hope, expect
лелей-а-ть cherish, foster чуй-а-ть feel
на-дей-а-ть-ся hope, rely
n/sA

About fifteen. Many of these stems have irregularities \\'hich we will mention (see foot-
notes 1-7, р. 103) rather than listing the stems as irregular (see р. 87). Absence of
stress mark sigпifies shifting stress in the past; present stress is on eпding (cf. р. 91).
б/р-а-ть 1 take д/р-а-ть 1 flay
в/р-а-ть (tell) lie ж/д-а-ть wait
1 е inserted before voca\ic ending.
 VERБ INVENTORY 103

ж/р-а-ть gorge рж-а-ть neigh

з/в-а-ть 1• 2 call с/л-а-ть 2 , 4 send
лr-а-ть (tel1) lie ст/л-а-ть 5 , 6 , 7 spread, make bed
по-п/р-а-ть 3 trample; defy т/к-а-ть 2 , 8 weave
р/в-а-тъ 2 tear
ОВА

Productive-thousands. There is а small group of ОВА verbs which we may re-

gard as primary in the sense that ов is part of the root; the root varian t уй replaces it
before vocalic endings, and а is truncated as expected; these verbs are, in the strict
sense, А verbs: ков-а-ть (not к-ова-ть) - куй-ут. The primary verbs are distinguished
Ьу ending stress in the present tense, not found in other ОВА verbs.

блёв-а-ть \'Omit плёв-а-ть spit

жёв-а-ть chew снов-а-ть warp (textiles); scurry
клёв-а-ть peck (о-снов-а-ть 'found, base ')
ков-а-ть forge сов-а-ть poke, thrust
ln the vast majority of ОВА verbs, however, the ова is clearly an independent suffix
added to а root or stem. Some of these are of Slavic origin and form an essentially un-
productive group, but а far greater number are built with foreign stems, and the pro-
ductivity of this type is almost unlimited:
SLAVIC

бесед-ова-ть converse п6льз-ова-ть-ся use

вер-ова-ть Ьelieve при-сут-ств-ова-ть Ье present
rор-ёва-ть grieve след-ова-ть follow
дей-ств-ова-ть act со-вет-ова-ть advise
дн-ёва-ть 9 spend daytime толк-ова-ть interpret
жал-ова-ть-ся complain торr-ова-ть trade
здрав-ств-ова-ть Ье healthy треб-ова-ть require
ноч-ёва-ть spend nighttime чув-ств-ова-ть feel
от-сут-ств-ова-ть Ье absent

1о inserted before vocalic ending.

2 ы instead of и inserted before aj in imperfective derivation.
з Perfective present not used; past passive participle stress is shifting.
4 ела > шл' before vocalic ending. s е inserted before voca\ic ending.
6 Shifting stress in present. 7 .r1 > .ri' Ьefore endings in -и.
8 Only verb in standard Russian in which к does not become ч before· ending in -о.
9 Because it is disyllaЬic like the primary ОБА verbs, there may Ье а temptation to include
днёвать with these verbs. However, it is clearly derived (дн-ёва-); note that, like other
deriyed ОБА verbs, it is stem-strcssed in the present (днюют).
)04 SECTION 11: VERBS

FOREJGN 1

аннулйр-ова-ть annul модерниз-ова-ть modernize

арест-ова-ть arrest популяризир-ова-ть popularize
баст-ова-ть strike (labor) рекоменд-ова-ть recommend
дикт-ова-ть dictate специализйр-ова-ть specialize
дисквалифицйр-ова-ть disqualify утрйр-ова-ть exaggerate
классифицйр-ова-ть classify филос6ф-ств-ова-ть philosophize
консервйр-ова-ть conserve шторм-ова-ть ride а storm
ликвидйр-ова-ть liquidate экзамен-ова-ть examine

бор-о-ть-ся fight
кол-о-ть thrust, stab
мол-о-ть grind (See irregular stems, р. 112.)
пол-о-ть weed
пор-о-ть flog, rip

НУ (Productive)
The НУ suffix is the only Russian verbal suffix that begins in а consonant, and а
final root consonant, in older verbs, may Ье lost Ьefore it, so that the root appears to
end in а vowel; the consonant usually appears in related and derived imperfectives
which do not contain ну (see below and cf. Section 1, page 39).
The НУ type is also unique among Russian verbs in that the suffix, with four ex-
ceptions, builds perfective verbs. However, the ну not only has perfective meaning but
in most cases 2 gives the verb an additional "semelfactive " 3 meaning (expressing action
as instantaneous or single in occurrence, without repetition or continuation). Semel-
factive НУ verbs are unprefixed; the addition of а prefix normally voids semelfactive
meaning.
Within semelfactive НУ verbs we may isolate two types: an older unproductive
type and а newer productive type. Generally speaking, the older type (1) may have
either stem or ending stress; (2) may have а consonant disappearing before ну; and (3)
has one or more prefixed НУ verbs corresponding to it (i.e. in the same root):

1 А large number of verbs in -11рова- correspond to French verbs in -er or -ir and/or

German verbs in -ieren. These verbs include а fairly large group in -11311рова- based on French
-iser, German -isieren, or English -ize, and with the same meaning.
2 For example, вёрf-11у-ть 'return,' кос-11у-ть-ся 'touch,' and а few others may Ье re-

garded as simply perfective.

3 The semelfactive 11у suffix goes together with various prefixes in certain meanings; e.g.

(по for а short time, эа beginning of action) into а category we designate as suЬ!exical (see
р. 118).
 VERBINVENTORY 105

UNPREFIXED PERFECTIVES (OLDER ТУРЕ) 1

PERFECТIVE RELATED IMPERFECTIVE MEANING

гляj-ну-ть гляд-е-ть look at

двиf-ну-ть двиг-ай-ут or двиг-а-ть move
дёрf-ну-ть дёрг-ай-ут pull
дрбг-ну-ть дрож-а-ть shake
ду~-ну-ть дуй-ут Ыоw
ки,р:-ну-ть кид-ай-ут throw
крик-ну-ть крич-а-ть shout
плюj-ну-ть плёв-а-ть spit
прь1г-ну-ть прь1г-ай-ут jump
СУf!-ну-ть сов-а-ть thrust
т/к-ну-ть ть1к-а-ть jab
толк-ну-ть толк-ай-ут push
трбf-ну-ть трбг-ай-ут touch
шаг-ну-ть шаг-ай-ут step
The newer type, on the other hand, generally speaking, (1) has ending stress; 2 (2)
does not have а consonant disappearing before ну; and (3) does not have prefixed НУ
verbs corresponding to it. The verbs are much more obviously semelfactive than the
older verbs, and Soviet dictionaries consistently list them as such. Many of them have
а distinctly colloquial or popular flavor; compare the ану suffix, which has the same
meaning but а definite expressive and colloquial connotation.

UNPREFIXED PERFECTIVES (NEWER ТУРЕ)

бод-ну-ть бод-ай-ут butt риск-ну-ть риск-ова-ть risk

зёв-ну-ть зев-ай-ут yawn спекуль-ну-ть спекул-ир-ова-ть speculate
коль-ну-ть кол-о-ть prick стрель-ну-ть стрел-яй-ут shoot
кур-ну-ть кур-и-ть smoke хлёст-ну-ть хлёст-а-ть whip
рез-ну-ть рез-а-ть cut хлёст-ану-ть
рез-ану-ть

I Soviet dictionaries vary consid&aЬly, both among themselves and within а given dic-
tionary, in assigning semelfactive status (Russ однократный глагол) to verbs of the older type
and list many of them simply as perfective partners of related imperfectives. Yet most of them
are clearly more than simply perfectives, and all semelfactives are properly regarded as а separ-
ate suЫexical class. Space forЬids а more detailed treatment here.
2 Except for а special group with "acoustic" meanings, which usually have stem stress:

ах-ну-ть ах-ай-ут sigh

звяк-ну-ть звяк-ай-ут tinkle
скриn-ну-ть скрип-е-ть squeak
106 SECTION 11 : VERBS

UNPREFIXED IMPERFECТIVES

The four unprefixed imperfective НУ verbs in the modern, standard language are:
r/ф-ну-ть bend
ль/f!-Н)'-ТЬcling to
тор-ну-ть drown (intr)
Cf. топ-и-ть 'drown' (tran).
тяf-ну-ть pull

PREFIXED PERFECТIVES

We have already mentioned that prefixed НУ verbs do not normally have semel-
factive meaning. Most of them correspond to existing unprefixed НУ verbs of the older
type descriЬed above. Below we give examples corresponding to the unprefixed ex-
amples of that type. Derived imperfectives are listed in parentheses (note that conso-
nants lost before the ну are "recovered "):
за-вёрf-ну-ть за-вёрт-ывай-ут wrap
за-г/ф-ну-ть за-гиб-ай-ут bend up (or down)
вз-гляJ-ну-ть вз-гляд-ывай-ут glance
с-дви(-ну-ть с-двиг-ай-ут shift
от-дёрf-ну-ть от-дёрг-ивай-ут pull back
вз-дрог-ну-ть вз-драг-ивай-ут start
по-киj-ну-ть по-кид-ай-ут leave (tran)
при-кос-ну-ть-ся при-кос-ай-ут-ся touch
вс-крик-ну-ть вс-крик-ивай-ут shriek
при-ль/ф-ну-ть при-лип-ай-ут cling to
, (,)i
вы-плю -ну-ть вы-плёв-ывай-утl spit out
в-суf-ну-ть в-сов-ывай-ут 1 thrust in
на-т/к-ну-ть-ся на-тык-ай-ут-ся stumЫe on
от-толк-ну-ть от-талк-ивай-ут push away
за-троf-ну-ть за-траг-ивай-ут broach, touch on
за-тяf-ну-ть за-тяг-ивай-ут tighten
пере-шаr-ну-ть пере-шаr-ивай-ут step over

А number of prefixed НУ verbs have no corresponding unprefixed perfectives:

у-лыб-ну-ться у-лыб-ай-ут-ся smile
об-ма+-ну-ть об-ман-ывай-ут deceive
за-м/к-ну-ть за-мык-ай-ут lock
от/о/-м;к-ну-ть от-мык-ай-ут unlock

1 плюй > 1~лёв and cyii > сов before vowel (cf. discussion under ОВА verbs, р. 103).
 VERB INVENTORY 107

за-С/f!-НУ-ТЬ за-сып-ай-ут go to sleep

у-с/ф-ну-ть no impf go to sleep
про-с~-ну-ть-ся про-сып-ай-ут-ся wake up
ВЬr-ну-ть 1 вы-ним-ай-ут take out

Disappearing (НУ)

Mostly intransitive. The approximately sixty (НУ) verbs share two formal charac-
teristics: stress fixed on the root and the loss of ну in the past tense, past gerund, and
past active participle, though forms with ну are occasionally found in all ofthese forms;
e.g. сбх-(ну)-ть 'become dry' сбх сбхла сбхшн(й) are normal, but сохнул may also
Ье found. There are two types of (НУ) verbs:
r. U nprefixed imperfectives denoting some sort of changing state or becoming.
Such stems may Ье nonsemanticallyperfectivized Ьу prefixation, often with по- or о-;
in such cases, ну is a/ways dropped; i.e. ослеп, never ослепнул. The unprefixed stems
are somewhat rare in the past:

блёк-(ну)-ть fade, grow dim дох-(ну)-ть die (of animals)

вйс-(ну)-ть hang (on); droop Do not confuse with дох-ну-ть
вiф(ну)-ть вянут вянувши(й) •breathe.'
but вял вяла завядши(й) 2 зяб-(ну)-ть become cold, freeze
fade, droop кйс-(ну)-ть become sour
rас-(ну)-ть go out, decline креп-(ну)-ть become stronger
rйб-(ну)-ть perish лйп-(ну)-ть adhere/stick to
глох-(ну)-ть go deaf мёрз-(ну)-ть freeze, feel cold
rорк-(ну)-ть become rancid мерк-(ну)-ть grow dark

1 See р. 27.
2 It may Ье noted that when а (НУ) verb loses the ну, it in effect becomes an obstruent
stem and acts like one; e.g. loses the -л in the masculine past, except after а final root д or т,
which are truncated before endings in л; takes -ши(й) rather than -вши(й) in the past active
participle and past gerund; takes aj in imperfective derivation; builds verbal nouns in -ениё
with mutation of velars. Compare the following stems-a Г/К obstruent with а (НУ) vowel
stem:
GERUND VERBAL
PAST INFINПIVE PARТICIPLE IMPERFECТIVE NOUN
по-стриr-ут постриг постричь постригши(й) постригают пострижение
consecrate а постригла
monk/nun
до-стиr-(ну)-ть ДОСТИГ достичь достиrши(й) достигают достижение
achieve достигла (alt inf)
NOTE: Some stems, however, may form the past active participle Ьу adding -вший to ну; e.g.
ИС-ЧеЗ-( НУ )•ТЬ - ИСЧеЗН)'ВШIIЙ.
108 SECТION 11: VERBS

м6к-(ну)-ть become wet с6х-(ну)-ть dry (intr)

мяк-(ну)-ть become soft сть1f~.-(ну)-ть стьшут стынувший (or
ник-(ну)-ть droop сть1вший from the Н
This root is more important in the verbs stem сть1нут) сть1л
Iisted in paragraph 2 below. СТЬIЛЗ 1
пах-(ну)-ть smell (intr) become cold
пух-(ну)-ть swell тух-(ну)-ть go/die out; become
сип-(ну)-ть become hoarse rotten
слаб-(ну)-ть become weak хрип-(ну)-ть become hoarse
слеп-(ну)-ть go Ыind чах-(ну)-ть wither; pine (of people)

2. Stems which rarely occur in unprefixed form. Many of these verbs are of
Church Slavonic origin. Only а few of them have the "becoming" meaning of the
verbs in paragraph I above. Past tense, past active participle, and past gerund usually
drop ну but may retain it iг.. some forms. In imperfective derivation the ну is dropped
and the suffix aj is added. Here are some of the more common examples:

-бег-(ну)-ть ник-(ну)-ть droop

избег(ну)ть(also избежать) avoid вник(ну)ть go deeply into
прибег(ну)ть resort to возник(ну)ть arise, emerge
приник(ну)ть press close to
-верг-(ну)-ть
проник(ну)ть penetrate
изверг(ну)ть disgorge
низверг(ну)ть throw down -стиr-(ну)-ть (alt inf -стичь) 2
опроверr(ну)ть refute, disprove достиг(ну)ть achieve, attain
сверг(ну)ть overthrov.' застиг(ну)ть catch (Ьу surprise)
постиг(ну)ть understand; strike,
раз-верз-(ну)-ть open (arch)
Ьefall
воз-двиг-(ну)-ть raise, erect
ис-сяк-(ну)-ть run short; dry up
вос-крес-(ну)-ть rise from the dead
-тих-(ну)-ть
-вь1к-(ну)-ть
затих(ну)ть calm down; die away
отвь1к(ну)ть get out of the habit of притих(ну)ть grow quiet
привь1к(ну)ть get accustomed to
утих(ну)ть cease, fade away
по-rряз-(ну)-ть wallow in (sound)
ис-чез-(ну)-ть disappear
-т6рг-(ну)-ть
-м6лк-(ну)-ть вт6рг( ну )ться invade
зам6лк(ну)ть become silent оттбрг(ну)ть tear away
ум6лк(ну)ть become silent раст6рг(ну)ть cancel, annul
1 Cf. footnote 1, р. 98. 2 See footnote 2, р. 107.
 VERB INYENTORY 109
АЙ

Productive-thousands. There are two primary АЙ stems: знай-ут 1 'know' and

сияй-ут'shine' and а relatively small group of unprefixed stems in aj; for example:

брос-ай-ут throw мен-яй-ут change

rул-яй-ут take а walk нюх-ай-ут smell, sniff
дел-ай-ут do nрь1г-ай-ут jump
дёрг-ай-ут pull пуск-ай-ут let
дум-ай-ут think страд-ай-ут suffer
жел-ай-ут desire ступ-ай-ут step
игр-ай-ут play тер-яй-ут Iose
кашл-яй-ут cough хват-ай-ут grip
кид-ай-ут throw чит-ай-ут read

The great majority of АЙ stems, however, are imperfectives derived Ьу one of the
three suffixes: aj, vaj, or ivaj (for а full treatment of imperfective derivation see page
134):
по-втор-яй-ут derived from perfective по-втор-и-ть
о-де-вай-ут derived from perfective о-ден-ут
с-праш-ивай-ут derived from perfective с-прос-и-ть

The productivity of АЙ extends itself to at least one other category: the -н-ич-ай verbs
deri ved f rom -ей- ; see page 146.

ЕЙ

Productive. Mostly intransitive. 2 There is а small, unproductive group of ЕЙ stems,

some with the ей clearly separaЫe from а root (e.g. ум-ей-ут) and some which, for pur-
poses of the modern language, may Ье regarded as primary stems (e.g. спей-ут). Some
of the most common are:
влад-ей-ут own, possess прей-ут rot
гр-ей-ут heat рд-ей-ут glow (with red color)
жал-ей-ут pity, regret смей-ут dare
зрей-ут ripen спей-ут ripen
им-ей-ут have, possess тл-ей-ут rot; glimmer, smolder
млей-ут Ье thrilled ум-ей-ут know how
1 Imperfective derivation in АВАЙ, see р. 110.
2 Only греют 'heat,' жалеют 'spare,' and и:11еют 'have' are transitive. Of them, only
греют builds а past passive participle: -грет. Jn building the past passive participle with -т,
греют is acting like the Й resonant stems, to which ЕЙ verbs are c\osely related (note that, like
reso·nants, ЕЙ verbs use the vaj suffix for imperfective derivation).
l lO SECTION 11: VERBS

The productive ЕЙ stems, in which ей is added to а nominal or adjectival stem to

make а verb with the meaning "become," are much more numerous. This type is
treated in more detail on page 145. Here are а few examples:
боrат-ей-ут grow rich
красн-ей-ут redden, Ыush
камен-ей-ут harden into stone

АВАЙ

There are only three stems, but all of them have many compounds. All three form
imperfective verbs when prefixed; they are, in fact, in origin imperfectives built with
vaj from the corresponding stems which form the prefixed perfectives:
дай - дад - -да-вай: про-да-ть - про-да-ва-ть sell
> ,
по-да-ть - по-да-ва-ть serve
-стан - -ста-вай: у-стан-ут - у-ста-ва-ть get tired
пере-стан-ут - пере-ста-ва-ть stop
-знай - -зна-вай: у-знай-ут - у-зна-ва-ть find out
при-знай-ут - при-зна-ва-ть recognize

Irregular stems
The verbs listed here deviate in some way from the patterns in the Verb ТаЫе;
i.e. some oftheir forms are unpredictaЫe from the rules given there or exhiblt other un-
predictaЫe changes affecting more than one form. In almost all cases, however, we can
treat them as belonging to one of our types; we will note the discrepancies, and every-
thing else is regular in terms of the type to which we assign the irregular stem. For
example, клян-ут Н: infinitive клясть, shifting stress, imperfective derivation -клина­
ют; but in every other way it is like Н: кляну, клянут, кляни, клял, кляла, кляш1,
клявший, -клят; or сяд-ут Д- Т: я > е before С: сесть, сел, села, past active parti-
ciple севший (not *сядший), but in every other way it is а regular (stem-stressed) ob-
struent in Д - Т: сяду, сядут, сядь, past stress сел, села, etc. Only two verbs, дад-ут -
дать 'give' and ед-ят - ес-ть 'eat,' are regarded as completely anomalous.
Verbs with only isolated irregularities (а single form deviating in some way) are
not included here; such irregularities have in most cases been listed with the individual
verb in the Inventory. Nor do we list here the several rather irregular n/sA stems; the
divergences in those types were noted in that section. In addition, the two nonsyllablc
obstruents ж/г-ут - жечь 'burn' and -ч/т-ут - -честь •consider' are considered regu-
Iar and are given with the obstruents; the third nonsyllablc obstruent йд-ут 'go' has
several irregularities and is given below.
 YERB INYENTORY 111

RESONANTS
клян-ут н curse: inf клясть, shifting stress, impf deriv -клина.ют
брей-ут й shave: е > и before С: брить, брил, брила, бривший,
-брит; impf deriv -бривают
пой-ут й sing: о > е before С: петь, пел, пела, певший, -пет;
impf deriv -певают
возь-м-ут Й/М-НИМ take: возьм > в/зя before С: взять, взял, взяла,
взяли, взявший, взят
при-м-ут Й/М-НИМ receive: (при-йм-ут) shifting stress in pres приму, при­
мут

OBSTRUENTS
буд-ут Д-Т Ье: буд > бы
before С: бьпь, бьш, была, бьшо, бь1-
вший, -быт; stem stress in pres буду, будут, impv
будь, pres ger будучи, impf deriv -бывают
ед-ут Д-Т ride: ед > еха before С: ехать, ехал, ехала, ехавший,
impv поезжай, pres ger поезжая, prefixed impf in
-езжают (based on ездить)
йд-ут Д-Т go: (й > и in initial position) inf идти (instead of
*исти), шёл, шла, etc., шедший, ррр prefixal or
ending stress; e.g. найден, найдена, найдены ог
обойдён, обойдена, обойдень1
Note при-д-ут соте: (при-йд-ут) inf прийти; other prefixed perfective
in -йд, have inf also in -ити, and prefixed impf in
-ходить

сяд-ут Д-Т sit down: я > е before С: сесть, сел, села; рар севший
(not *седший); impf deriv -седа.ют
раст-ут Д-Т grow: раст > рос before all С except > рас before
-ти: рос, росла, росший, but расти
лягSj/тl Г-К Jie down: я > ё before С: лечь, лёг, легла, легли, stem
stress in pres лягу, лягут; impf deriv -легают
толк-ут Г-К pound: ол > ол6 before all С except -ла, -ло, -ли:
тол6чь,тол6к,толкла,толкл6,толкли,тол6кший

о-шиб-ут-ся Б make mistake: inf ошибиться

у-шиб-ут Б bruise: inf ушибить, ррр ушиблен

VOWEL STEMS
род-и-ть И give Ьirth: perf родил, родила, родило, родили (vs.
impf normal stress on ил throughout) .
род-и-ть-ся И Ье born: perf родился, родилась, родилось, родиш'tсь
(vs. impf normal stress on ил throughout)
1 See Excursus, р. 91, for discussion of stress mark on -Yt.
112 SECTION 11 : VERBS

чт-и-ть и honor: no mutation in I sg pres: чту (instead of *ччу)

рев-е-ть Е roar: before V acts like -ёт verb instead of -ит verb:
реву, ревёшь, ревут
хот-е-ть Е want: от > оч in 2/3 sg pres: хочешь, хочет
беж-а-ть ЖА run: 1 sg/3 pl pres бегу, бегут, impv беги, impf deriv
-бегают
г/н-а-ть n/sA chase: before V acts like И verb with shifting stress:
гоню, гонят, гони, гоня, imp deriv -гоняют
с/п-а-ть n/sA sleep: Acts like И verb before V: сплю, спишь, ... ,
спят, спи, inserts ы in impf deriv: -сыпают
мол-о-ть о grind: о > е before V: мелю, мелют, мели, меля

ANOMALOUS

дад-ут give: дам, дашь, даст, дадим, дадите, дадут; дай; дать, дал, дала, дало,
давший, дан, дана, дань,, impf deriv АВАЙ (see Verb Inventory)
ед-ят eat: ем, ешь, ест, едим, едите, едят; ешь; есть, ел, ела, евший, -еден, impf
deriv -едают

EXERCISES

Classification and conjugation drilf.l For the following sixty basic forms (pre-
fixes boldface):

1. Classify as to general type (as given in the Verb ТаЫе) and specific type (e.g.
кроют is а syllabic resonant, ОЙ (or мбй-ут) type).
2. For verbs marked "I" give the infinitive and masculine, feminine, and
plural of past tense.
3. For verbs marked "2" give the first and second singular and the third
plural of the present tense.
4. Give the imperative.

1 This exercise may Ье handled in various ways, depending оп how thoroughly the teacher

plans to do the verbs. For recognition and classification of type only, he may restrict himself to
assigning instruction 1, although it is recommended that, in addition, he ask for the infinitive or
third plura\ (disregarding stress), whichever the form isn't, so that the student сап make the
most important associations, even if he does not learn how to conjugate fully in terms of this
system. For complete mastery of the system, he assigns all instructions (1 to 6).
For testing how wel\ persons who already know Russian have mastered these systems, it
may Ье best to use hypothetical (nonextant) basic forms: e.g. *пр1шрёкут, *налузать, *от/о/
брут, etc. The same procedure may Ье followed in subsequent exercises as well.
 EXERCISES 113
5. For verbs given with а prefix give the masculine, feminine, and plural short
forms of the past passive participle. Omit this instruction for the items
marked t.
6. Give the past active participle. Omit this instruction for the item marked t.
зароют I 2 сдавить 2 отскрёбут r 2
nриплётут r 2 приший-ут 1 2 молчать 2
оплакать I 2 натягнуть 1 2 вспороть I 2
затро/нуть r 2 стёсать 2 роптать 2 ChS
, (,)
выдумают r сковать 2 передавай- r 2 t
глупеют I нагреют 1 жалеют 1
продиктовать 2 терпеть 2 начнут 1 2
остерёrут r 2 замрут 1 2 t отыграют 1
утратить 2 отвлёкут r 2 обма1нуть 1 2
с/о/жнут r 2 крадут I 2 t сознавай- 1 2 t
лететь 2 6бнимут I 2 охладить 2 ChS
, (,}
потрясут r 2 высмеять 1 2 запретить 2 ChS
дышать r 2 горёвать 2 загородить 2
об/лий-ут r 2 1 займут креп(ну)ть 1 2
залезут I 2 t прополоскать 2 порвать I 2
заслужить r 2 приставай- 1 2 t от/о/слать r 2
разгрызут I 2 расстроить 2 плывут 1 2
проник(ну)ть 1 2 ОЧИСТИТЬ 2 отдавай- I 2 t
врать 1 2 простоять 1 2 раз/вий-ут I 2
от/о/прут 1 2 вь1рубить 2 с/о/драть 1 2

ldentijication and recovery dri/1. The following words are forms of nonderived
imperfective and prefixed (prefixes boldface) perfective verbs. For each form
try to identify the verb type and recover the basic form (ignoring stress unless
it is inferaЫe from the form) as best you сап without resorting to the Inven-
tory, then check the Inventory for the correct basic form (Ье sure to suЬtract the
prefix when looking for а basic form) of all but the examples marked with the
symbol t, which belong to productive types and are not in the Inventory. Do
not forget to take into acc~unt vowel-zero alternations, particularly in pre-
fixes, when recovering the basic forms.
мести inf сшей impv измят ррр
торгуют З pl ньш m past пльпь inf
стеречь inf дерём r pl осуждён ррр t
пляшут З pl ограблен ррр t соблюли pl past
1 The actual third plural form here contains а moЬile о, since ий > ьй before the always
stressed vocalic endings of ИЙ verbs: раз/о/бьют. Cf. Verb ТаЫе, р. 86.
114 SECTION 11: VERBS

колют 3 pl толкнёшь 2 sg сокращу I sg t

скрипит З sg нюхали pl past ~астигший рар
,:
отмереть inf молодеть inf t '-к:и 3 pl pa~;t
сверг m past разлить inf печёшь sg 2
перенял m past приклеен РРР t дёрну sg
1
дел m past режьте impv слабей impv t
закинули pl past отнять inf жать inf
сьшлете 2 pl оторван ррр грь1з m past
таю 1 sg пёрла f past сдавая pres ger
таю I sg t привлечён РРР напасть inf
трещала f past перестают 3 pl лечу 1 sg

В ASPECT AND VERBAL DERIVATION

1 Simplex stems
An unprefixed verbal stem is called а simplex stem. The great majority of
simplex stems, whether primary or suffixed, belong to the imperfective aspect:
живут, нёсут, говорить, читают. But simplex perfectives deserve some mention.
There are the following groups:
1. The unprefixed НУ verbs. The imperfectives correlated 1 with the verbs
in this group are frequently АЙ verbs, but may Ье other types as well. Examples:
прь1гнуть - прь1гают jump
троfнуть - трогают touch
See the Inventory under НУ for other examples.
2. А sma/1 number o.f И verbs. Imperfectives are all in aj. The most impor-
tant are:
бросить бросают 2 throw
кончить кончают end
купить покупают2 buy
лишить лишают deprive

1 We have already observed (р. 104) that most simplex perfective НУ verbs should not Ье
regarded as forming true aspectual pairs with the correlated imperfectives, since they have an
additional, semelfactive meaning. The semelfactive ну suffix forms а separate suЫexical cate•
gory (cf. р. 118).
2 These simplex stems are unusual among И verbs in that their imperfectives do not show

mutation before the aj suffix. Those same stems, when prefixed, fail to mutate before the ivaj
suffix (where all other И stems mutate). For а more complete statement оп this phenomenon
see р. 136.
 SIMPLEX STEMS 115

простить прощают forgive

проститься прощаются Ьid farewell
пленить пленяют captivate
пустить пускают 1 , 2 Iet
решить решают decide
ступить ступают 1 step
хватить хватают 1 grip; suffice (imps)
ЯВИТЬСЯ являются appear; Ье
3. Six consonant stems. There are three semantically linked verbs with im-
perfectives built with И added to а different though related stem:
(,)
лягут
(лечь
, )- ложиться lie down
сядут (сесть) - садиться sit down
станут - становиться take а standing position; become (perf only)

and three verbs with imperfectives built from the same stem:
дадут (дать)- давать give
денут - девают put
падут - падают fall (perf often упадут)

4. А number of simplexes occur both as perfectives and as imperfectives :3

бежать in the meaning 'escape' only
велеть order, command
женить(ся) marry (get married)
казнить execute (put to death)
молвить say (obs, poet)
обещают promise
ранить wound
родить give Ьirth (cf. р. 111)

1 See footnote 2, р. 1 14. 2 ск a\ternating with ст is exceptional.

з Most simplexes listed in dictionaries and handbooks as "both perfective and imperfec-
tive" in fact have more limited possibllities than this implies, and both grammarians and native
speakers may differ as to what the possibllities are. The four-volume Soviet Academy diction-
ary and the Usakov Tolkovyj slovar' russkogo jazyka list бежать in the sense "flee, escape" as
both perfective and imperfective, and Usakov gives examples for both present (imperfective)
and future (perfective) and both perfective and imperfective past tense meanings. Обещают,
also given in both dictionaries as "perfective and imperfective," is listed in Usakov with perfec-
tive meaning only in the past: я обещаю would certainly rarely, if ever, have future meaning.
Орга11изовать is given as "perfective and imperfective" with "past tense perfective only" Ьу
both dictionaries. Арестовать is given as "perfective and imperfective" Ьу the four-volume
dictionary, while Usakov lists it as "perfective" but "present tense сап Ье used with future or
prese.nt tense meaning."
116 SECTION 11: YERBS

This group includes а very small number of stems in ОВА (mostly of Church
Slavonic origin):
даровать give, present образовать form
and а large number of foreign stems in ОВА:

абсорбировать absorb атаковать attack

абстрагировать abstract мобилизовать moЬilize
активизировать make n10re active организовать organize
анализировать analyze телефонировать telephone
арестовать arrest экспортировать export
There are, however, certain processes which work against this aspectual homon-
ymy which is so alien to the Russian pattern. An alternative derived imperfec-
tive in ivaj тау arise, or а prefix тау Ье added, to create а formal aspectual
distinction:
арестовать impf and perf; or арестовывают impf arrest
организовать impf and perf; or организовывают impfl organize
организовать impf and perf; or сорганизовать perf organize
фотографировать impf and perf; or сфотографировать perf photograph

2 Verbal prefixes
I. Prefixation and the question of aspect pairs
With certain limited 2 exceptions the addition of а prefix to а simplex im-
perfective stem perfectivizes that stem. In traditional analysis and most grammar
books а prefix is either "nonsemantic" or "semantic": if the former, it merely
perfectivizes the stem and is regarded as the perfective "partner" of the imper-
fective verb:
строить построить build писать написать write

1 Организовывать is listed in the four-volume dictionary as "the same as организовать

(imperfective)," but the seventeen-volume Academy dictionary says that the present tense
forms are not used.
2 А prefix added to а nondetermined verb stem does not, of course, ordinarily perfectivize

it; e.g. проходить 'go through.' А number of other verbs, many of them of Church Slavonic
origin (note prefixes) or calques from Western European Ianguages a\so remain imperfective;
e.g. состоять 'consist,' содержать 'contain,' nредв11деть 'foresee,' вь1г,1яАеtь 'look like,'
зав11сеть 'depend,' исследовать 'investigate,' содействовать 'assist,' принадлежать 'be-
long.' The prefix со-, а calque from the Latin со- 'со- (with),' also does not perfectivize а stem:
существовать 'exist' and сосуществовать •coexist' are both imperfective.
 VERBAL PREFIXES ll7

if the \atter, it not only perfectivizes but also alters the meaning of the stem and
does not have it as а partner. lfit is to have an imperfective, it must build its own
with an imperfectivizing suffix:

строить build устроить arrange (устраивают)

писать write записать write down (записывают)

А given prefix тау Ье nonsemantic for one stem but semantic for another:

делают do сделают do
просить ask (request) спросить ask (information) (спрашивают)

Most dictionaries and grammars also list verbs like читают and прочитают and
пий-ут and вьший-ут as aspectual pairs, even when noting the existence of derived
"second" imperfectives like прочитывают and выпивают. That verbs like
строить and построить and писать and написать are "perfective" pairs is taken
for granted, and the natural aspectual "pairedness" of Russian verbs in general
is assumed.
More recent and closer analysis suggests, however, that the actua\ relation-
s\1ip governing verbal aspect may Ье quite different and certainly more complex
than the above structure implies. For one thing, а strong argument against the
basic aspectual pairedness of all Russian verbs is the very large number of Rus-
sian verbs which are clearly unpaired impe1·fectives: лёжать, стоять, работают,
имеют, спать, курить, to say nothing of many verbs from Church Slavonic or
foreign origin (\oan translations) which are unpaired imperfectives even though
they consist of prefix plus а stem which does not end in an imperfectivizing
suffix: предвидеть, содержать, состоять, сосуществовать. For another,
statistically speaking, prefixation as а means of creating perfectives comЬining
to form pairs such as стро1пь - построить, писать - написать, and so оп, is
dwarfed Ъу imperfective derivation (устроить - устраивать, записать - записы­
вают), and the number of prefixes which тау serve as nonsemantic perfectiviz-
ers is very limited; по and с/ are the only prefixes which appear in what seems to
Ье а nonsemantic role with any regularity. Recent studies in fact have voiced
doubt as to whether even cases like строить - построить and делают - сделают
comprise true aspectual pairs, assigning to the prefixes in these cases "resu\ta-
tive" rather than purely perfective meaning. 1 This type of analysis considers that
prefixation never results in mere perfectivization but a\ways changes or modifies
the meaning and considers suffixal imperfective derivation to Ье the only process
producing true aspectua\ pairs.

1 ln particular, А. Isacenko, Die mssiscl1e Sprac/1e der Gegenwart, Halle, 1962, р. 363.
Isacenko's views оп aspect in general and оп Aktionsarteп are discussed оп рр. 347-418.
118 SECTION 11: VERBS

2. Prefixation: lexical and suЬ/exical (" Aktionsarten ")

Whether or not one agrees with this analysis to the point of considering
построить resultative instead of а purely perfective partner of строить (and
there may Ье compelling reasons, including pedagogical considerations, for not
accepting it), it is still clear that prefixation, essentially, must Ье regarded as а
process which involves some alteration in the meaning of the simplex stem. One
тау consider that there are two types of prefixation, lexica/ and suhlexical:
а. А /exical prefix introduces а new lexical element, usually related to one
of its physical meanings, or an abstract or qualitative meaning derived there-
from. Derived imperfectives, or in the case of certain determined simplex stems,
correlated imperfectives often based on the corresponding nondetermined stem,
are built:
нёсут сапу принёсут - приносить bring (сапу to)
писать write приписать - приписывать ascribe (write to)
йдут go
,
выидут
- (,)
- выходить go 0111
(,)
говорить ta\k вь1rоворить - выговаривают speak out, pronounce
Ь. А suhlexical prefix does not introduce а new lexical element but modifies
the action in some way, usually with respe~t to time or intensity. The types of
meaning involved here are often designated iп the literature Ьу the German term
Aktionsart 1 'type of action.' The term Aktionsart is also applied to various
suffixal types; e.g. the semelfactive ну, iterative icaj, and others, and we shall
designate these also as suhlexica/ categories. Verbs belonging to а suЬ!exical
type normally build no derived imperfective, but with certain prefixes diction-
aries may list them and native speakers тау use them in some cases. In general,
the more the new perfective is felt to have independent meaning and not just
aspectual or suЬ!exical, the greater the chances of its having а derived imperfec-
tive.
lf we accept the argument that certain prefixal perfectives are aspect part-
ners of simplex imperfectives, we may express prefixal perfectivization and
possiЬility of imperfective de1·ivation as follows:

PREFIXAL PERFECTIVIZAПON

ASPECTUAL SUBLEXICAL LEXICAL

написать пописать 1аписать

сделают проделают подделают

Do not build derived Some types may bui\d Do build derived im-
imperfective derived imperfectives perfectives
1 lsacenko, ор. cit., р. 359 and elsewhere.
 VERBAL PREFIXES 119

Note that certain prefixed perfectives may exist in both aspectual and sub-
/exical meanings:
, ,,,.Ahink (perf of думают) (aspectual)
подумают

~think for а while (suЫexica])

or in both /exica/ and suЬ/exical meanings:
/lose (lexical)
проиrрают
~play for а specific period (suЬlexical)
Other examples of suЫexical types (Aktionsarten) are:
rоворить say
наrоворить say а lot of things (often unpleasant)
на 1 ACTION IN QUANТIТY (ACCUMULATION)

плакать weep
заплакать start to weep
за BEGINNING OF ACTION (INCEPПVE)

писать \Vrite
пописать write for а while
по АСПОN FOR А (SHORT) ПМЕ

сидеть sit
просидеть sit for (through) а specific period
про ACTION FOR А SPECIFIC PERIOD OF ПМЕ

говорить talk
разrовориться warm to one's topic
раз+ -ся GROWTH OF ACTION (INТENSПY)

А given simplex imperfective verb, particularly one denoting uninterrupted

action, may build а very large number of suЫexical types. E.g. for кур11ть
'smoke' we may note just а few:
выкурить finish smoking, smoke
докуриться to smoke to а climax with some unpleasant result
закурить begin to smoke, light up
закуриться (рор) smoke too much, get sick from too much smoking
накуриться smoke one's fill, to one's heart's content
покурить smoke for а while

1 SuЫexical на is not to Ье confused with на . .. ся which designates satiation (see иа­

кур1нься belo\v).
120 SECTION 11: VERBS

прокурить smoke for а specific period of time

раскуриться (рор) begin to smoke without restraint

The question of suЫexical categories is а very complex one 1 and space for-
Ьids а more detailed discussion here. It may Ье added that suffixation, as well as
prefixation, plays а role in creating suЫexical categories: we have already men-
tioned one of the most important types, the semelfactive ну suffix, under НУ
verbs in the Verb Inventory and we may note, in addition, the iterative suffix ivaj
"action now and then (used mostly in the past tense)" and ivaj used with the
prefix по also with iterative meaning, but with а slight deintensification of the
action, often with а connotation of leisure or casualness.

курнуть (semel) (рор) take а puff (on а cigarette, etc.)

куривать (-ают) (colloq) smoke now and then
покуривают (colloq) smoke а little now and then, have а nice little
smoke from time to time

In addition, it should Ье remembered that many simplex imperfectives have

two or more meanings and may Ье perfectivized Ъу various prefixes according to
these meanings. For example:

/study, learn вь1учить

учить'---...
teach научить

Он учит слова. He's studying (learning) the words.

Он учит нас русскому языку. He's teaching us Russian.
Он вь1учит слова. Не will learn the words.
Он научит нас русскому языку. Не will teach us Russian.
/beat (tran), hit побий-ут
бий-ут-Ьеаt (intr; of bells, etc.) пробий-ут
'---...ьreak, smash раз/бий-ут

Она бьёт мальчика. She beats her Ьоу.

Чась1 бьют шесть. The clock is striking six.
Он часто бьёт чашки. Не often breaks cups.
Она сеrодня побила мальчика. She beat the Ьоу today.
Чась1 пробили шесть. The clock struck six (i.e. beat through six
gongs).
Иван разбил две чашки. Ivan broke two cups.
1 It may Ье noted that many suЫexical types, e.g. за ... ся на, на ... ся, are more frequent

in colloquial speech or at certain style levels than in standard or stylistically neutral language.
 VERBAL PREFIXES 121

In cases where the prefix introduces а change which is felt as lexical, а de-
rived imperfective may Ье built to correspond to the perfective. One might then
build the verbal "triangles":

вь1учить раз/бий-ут

учить / "" выучивают ,

бий-ут / "" разбивают

Note, however, that the real aspectual pairs are вь1учить - выучивают and
раз/бий-ут - разбивают. The вы added to учить is а lexical category (successful
conclusion: "learn" instead of "study "), and раз/ adds the lexical meaning of
dispersion, dis- (" break into pieces "). Hence one might better diagram the verbs
as follows:
учить ........ вь1учить бий-ут ........ раз/бий-ут
1 1
выучивают разбивают

where solid lines connect aspectual partners and dotted lines connect imperfec-
tives with lexical or suЫexical perfectives.
The perfectives научить and побий-ут may Ье regarded as "true perfectives"
(only, of course, for those particular meanings of учить and бий-ут) or as be-
longing to а "resultative" suЫexical category. Пробий-ут тау Ье considered
suЫexical prefixation if the action is regarded in terms of а specific time period
covered, or as lexical to the extent that the general meaning "through" is dis-
associated from time (notaЫy, in its purely spatial sense 'break through ').
Indeed, it is frequently diffi.cult to decide whether а given prefixed perfective
should Ье characterized as lexical or suЫexical. The possiЬility of formation of а
derived imperfective, which is sometimes adduced to prove the presence of а
new "independent" meaning is an unreliaЫe criterion, for many о bviously sub-
lexical types are сараЫе of forming derived imperfectives, whether or not dic-
tionaries list all of them. 1 In the case of many prefixes, suЫexical and lexical
meanings will seem to overlap, and one тау argue over whether а lexical change
has taken place or whether the action has merely been modified in some way
with respect to time or intensity. In the Prefix ТаЫе on pages 123-133 it will Ье
noted, however, that the English words given (like the Russian prefixes to which
they correspond) often include both lexical and suЫexical senses; for example:
1 In the case of suЬ\exical про-, for instance, dictionaries differ greatly as to whether they
list derived imperfectives and which ones they list. Native speakers readily accept derived im-
perfectives of про- types. The process of imperfective derivation is, in fact, so productive, that
speakers may easily create many types which might Ье regarded as theoretically "impossiЫe"
and not included in dictionaries.
122 SECTION II : VERBS

LEXICAL SUBLEXICAL

вз/ up (spatial) вз/о/йдут up (intense action) взболтают

про through (spatial) пройдут through (specific period of time)
просидеть

Here the lexical and suЬ\exica\ meanings are closely re\ated. When this is true,
we list both meanings together in the Prefix ТаЬ\е. In any case, pending а more
exact and convincing definition ofwhat \exica\ and suЬ\exical categories are, and
for pedagogical reasons as well, it seems best to emphasize the connections
between the various meanings of а prefix rather than iпsist on rigid distinc-
tions.

3. Latin prefixes
The meaning of а prefixed verb is sometimes brought into c\earer focus Ьу
translating the prefix into Latin. For example, it is often more useful to approach
а Russian verb prefixed with раз/ with dis- or de- in mind than with the English
ип- or with various words such as "disperse" or "divide" which attempt to sum
up the meaning. Observe:
рас-по-лож-и-ть dispose раз-дад-ут distribute
рас-крбй-ут disclose рас-стрбй-и-ть disturb

Similarly, one often gets c\oser to the meaning with trans- for пере or е-/ех- for
вы or 11з/ than with the English equivalents. Sometimes the Latin prefix may
suggest the meaning, even if the ultimate rendition does not actually contain
it:
пере-вёд-ут translate
пере-став-и-ть "trans-place" rearrange, transpose
из-вин-и-ть excuse
вь1-брать elect
раз-знакбм-и-ть-ся "dis-acquaint" break off with
раз-уч-и-ть-ся "de-learn" forget how to do

Translation ofthe prefix into Latin works particularly well, of course, in the
case of Latin ca/ques (discussed on page 19) consisting of root plus prefix. Such
words are ultimately from Latin, often through the medium of German, French,
etc. Examples:
в-вёд-ут introduce, (Fr) introd11i1·e, (Ger) einfii/,ren
в-ключ-и-ть include, (Fr) inclure, (Ger) einschliessen
со-в-пад-ут coincide, (Fr) coincider, (Ger) Zufa/1 'coincidence'
 VERBAL PREFIXES 123

4. Prefix tаЬ!е
Most verbal prefixes have primary meanings of а physical, directional, or
spatial nature, often close to the meanings of the prepositions, to which they are
historically related (except for вз/(воз), вы, низ/, пере (пре), and раз/, all the
verbal prefixes have corresponding prepositions). Besides these primary mean-
ings, however, many prefixes have one or, in some cases, several abstract mean-
ings, whose connection with the primary sense may vary from obvious or remote
to unestaЫishaЫe. The prefix на has а physical-spatial meaning in на-йд-j"т
•соте on/upon; (somewhat more abstract) find,' an abstract meaning in
на-стой-а-ть 'insist (stand оп)' and а sense quite remote from "оп" in на­
дед-ай-ут 'do (something) in quantity.'
The following pages give the most important meanings of the prefixes, to-
gether with examples. The primary meaning is given first (usually а verb in йд)
and then the more abstract meanings. Meanings which may Ье regarded as sub-
lexical, at least in the case of certain verbs, are so designated, but individual
verbs are not thus specified. Where appropriate, Latin meanings are given and
italicized, and in the English definitions of the examples, adverbs corresponding
to Russian prepositions are also italicized.

PREFIX Т ABLE

В/

in, into; in (еп), im, intro в/о/-йд-ут go in, enter

в-пис-а-ть inscribe
в-лож-и-ть insert, in(en)close
в-люб-и-ть-ся fall i11 love
ВЗ/1- ВОЗ

I. up: physical or вз/о/-йд/ут go ир

abstract вос-пит-ай-ут rear, bring ир
воз-буд-и-ть excite, rouse ир
intensity or вс-крйк-ну-ть utter а sudden shriek
suddenness вз-болт-ай-ут shake ир
(suЫexical) вз-дум-ай-ут(ся) get into one's head,
think of/up suddenly
2. re, back (воз only) воз-врат-й-ть return
воз-об-нов-й-ть renew
воз-род-й-ть restore to life, revive,
regenerate
Cf. возрождение •rebirth, renaissance.'
- 1 Note встанут 'stand up,' formerly *вз-стан-ут. Cf. вос-стан-)·т ChS 'revolt.'
124 SECTION 11: YERBS

вы

, .... (,)
r. out, ех вы-ид-ут go out, exit
,
вы-вед-ут
. (,)
lead out; deduce
вь1-пис-а-ть write out; extract
вь1-сказ-а-ть say out, express
вь1-бр-а-ть choose, elect
2. do or finish successfully вь1-игр~~й-ут win (out)
(idea "out" may Ье
, ( ,)
вы-дум-аи-ут
- invent
present) вь1-уч-и-ть learn Ьу heart
3. finish (suЬ!exical (also вьший-ут drink up
вь1 . .. ся) (idea "out" вьrкур-и-ть finish smoking
may Ье present)) вь1-сп-а-ть-ся sleep oneself out
ДО

r. reach а certain point до-йд-ут go as far as, reach

до-каз-а-ть prove
до-стиг-(ну )-ть achieve
2. finish (suЬ!exical) до-слуш-ай-ут listen to the end
до-пий-ут drink to the end
3. до ... ся do successfully до-звон-и-ть-ся reach Ьу telephone
до-говор-и-ть-ся agree on arrangements

ЗА

За is рrоЬаЫу the most versatile and difficult of the prefixes. Exhaustive analysis
results in а great many categories with greatly divergent meanings impossiЫe to group
under one or two broad but unifying concepts, as may Ье done with the other prefixes.
Here are some of the most common meanings, with examples:
1. with verbs of motion: за-йд-ут drop in (on the way)
alter course за-нёс-ут drop off (on the way)
за-ступ-и-ть-ся intercede, step in
за-йд-ут go far; go Ьeyond
(limits)
за-беж-а-ть run far, run ahead
2. fix or make permanent за-креп-и-ть fasten
Ьу some action за-нёс-ут record, enter
за-пис-а-ть write down
за-яв-и-ть declare, state
за-лож-и-ть found
 VERBAL PREFIXES 125
3. acquisition за-раб6т-ай-ут earn
за-служ-и-ть deserve
> -
за-им-ут take, occu ру
Cf. 4 below.
за-вой-ова-ть acquire/win Ьу conquest
за-хват-и-ть take, seize
4. close, Ыосk, fill за-кр6й-ут close
> -
за-им-ут occupy, take
Cf. З above.
за-дел-ай-ут stop up, close off
за-п6лн-и-ть fill up, fill out (as forms)
за-ключ-и-ть imprison; conclude
5. subject to extreme or за-дар-и-ть Ioad or overload with
excessive action gifts
за-корм-и-ть overfeed
за-хвал-и-ть praise excessively
за-цел-ова-ть cover with (too many)
kisses
6. за ... ся do very intense- за-дум-ай-ут-ся become Iost in thought
!у; overdo (suЫexical) за-уч-и-ть-ся study too much
за-сид-е-ть-ся sit for (over) long time
за-чит-ай-ут-ся get engrossed in reading
7. begin to (suЫexical) за-плак-а-ть begin to cry
за-rовор-и-ть begin to speak
за-пой-ут(-пе-ть) begin to sing

ИЗ/ (ChS) 1
I. out, ех ис-ход-и-ть originate, proceed from
(impf only)
из-беж-а-ть avoid
>
из-дад-ут puЫish
ис-п6лн-и-ть carry out, execute
2. do to an extreme, to из-бий-ут beat unmercifully
exhaustion (out) (sub- из-нос-и-ть wear out (clothes)
lexical) из-муч-и-ть torture, .exhaust

1 нз/ is the Church Slavonic equivalent of the Russian вы. This accounts for the near
identity of the meanings of the two prefixes and for the somewhat more abstract character of
verbs in из/.
126 SECTION 11 : VERBS

ис-пис-а-ть use up pencil or paper

Cf. ис-ход-и-ть: Он исходил Москву. (perf only) 'Не
walked all around Moscow.'
also из ... ся из-муч-и-ть-ся become exhausted
ис-пис-а-ть-ся write oneself out

НА

1. on, to, against на-йд-ут соте оп, find

на-крбй-ут set (а tаЫе)
на-лож-и-ть inflict on/against
на-стой-а-ть insist оп
на-стрбй-и-ть dispose, tune to
на-маз-а-ть smear/spread оп
на-род-и-ть-ся соте into being, arrive
оп the scene
на-ступ-и-ть step (tread) оп; соте
(оп), set in, ensue
на-ступ-ай-ут advance (troops, etc.)
(impf only)
2. do in quantity (often на-бр-а-ть collect quantity of
something bad); often на-дел-ай-ут make/do а lot of (usually
with partitive genitive something bad)
(suЫexical) на-rовор-и-ть say а lot of things
на .
.. ся do to satiation; to на-rовор-и-ть-ся talk one 's fill
one's fill (often something на-пий-ут-ся drink one's fill; get
bad) (suЫexical) drunk
на-смотр-е-ть-ся see one's fi/1 of

НАД

super, over над-пис-а-ть superscribe

над-сматр-ивай-ут supervise, oversee (impf
only)
над-дад-ут add (over and above)

НЕДО (не-до)

under, insufficiently недо-мер-и-ть give short measure

недо-стан-ёт Ье lacking, insufficient
недо-о-uен-и-ть underestimate
недо-плат-и-ть 1111derpay
 VERBAL PREFIXES 127
НИЗ/ (ChS)
de, down нис-ход-и-ть descend
с-низ/о/-йд-ут condescend
низ-лож-и-ть depose

ОБ/-0

1. around, circum 06/0/-йд-ут go around, circumvent

There are two senses: об/-лий-ут spill а\\ around
а. encompassing, об-ним-ут embrace
pervading
Ь. going around, о-смотр-е-ть inspect, look around
encircling о-пис-а-ть describe (а circle)
2. А more abstract idea of об-вин-й-ть accuse
encompassment: а об-дел-ай-ут finish, polish
transitive type meaning об-дум-ай-ут think over
approximately "sub- о-кур-и-ть smoke, fumigate
mi t" or "expose" to о-плат-и-ть рау for
the action or thing in о-свист-а-ть hiss
the root. Root may Ье об-суд-и-ть discuss
verbal or nominal. о-пис-а-ть describe; take inventory
о-смотр-е-ть examine
о-цен-и-ть evaluate, submit to
pricing
о-спор-и-ть contest
об-служ-и-ть serve
3. The action "submitted об-мер-и-ть give false measure to
to" is viewed as об-маv-ну-ть deceive
pejorative: the sense is об-дел-и-ть fleece out of one's share
"cheat, do badly Ьу (get
around)"
4. о . .. ся do badly о-говор-й-ть-ся make а slip of the
tongue
о-шиб-ут-ся err
(-й-ть-ся)

об/ - о is one of the two most common factitive prefixes and is a\so used to perfectiv-
ize certain verbs of "becoming" in the suffix ej. Both questions are treated in subsection
В 5 -Ье\оw.
128 SECTION II : VERBS

ОТ/

1. off, away from, dis, de от/о/-йд-ут step away/back

от/-бий-ут beat off
от-совет-ова-ть dissuade
от-став-и-ть dismiss
от-стой-а-ть defend, stand off
от-лич-и-ть distinguish
>
2. re, back от-дад-ут return, give back
от-плат-и-ть repay, рау back
от-нёс-ут relate
от-раз-и-ть reflect

3. finish (suЫexical) от-дел-ай-ут apply finishing touchcs

от-служ-и-ть serve out time

ПЕРЕ - ПРЕ (ChS)

Ia. trans, across, through, пере-йд-ут cross over, shift
over пере-вёд-ут transfer, translate
пере-ступ-и-ть step across
пре-ступ-и-ть transgress
>
пере-дад-ут hand over, pass
>
пре-дад-ут hand over, betray
пере-жив-ут experience, survive
пере-ноч-ёва-ть stay overnight (throug/1)
пере-rор-е-ть burn out (through)

1Ь. over (exceedingly or пере-плат-и-ть overpay

excessively), ех пере-иrр-ай-ут oi·erplay, overdo
( ,)
пере-вь1-полн-и-ть overfulfill
пре-вь1с-и-ть exceed
пре-у-велич-и-ть exaggerate
пере-о-цен-и-ть overestimate
Ic. interrupt пере-стан-ут stop
пере-хват-и-ть intercept
пере-бий-ут interrupt
nре-рв-а-ть interrupt
2. re, repeat пере-nис-а-ть rewrite
nере-дел-ай-ут redo
пере-род-и-ть regenerate
 VERBAL PREFIXES 129
3. пере ... ся reciprocal пере-пис-ывай-ют-ся correspond (impf only)
action (mostly with пере-говар-ивай-ут-ся exchange talk with
verbs of communica- (impf only)
tion)

4. action extended to all пере-лов-и-ть catch all of

of or а quantity of переловить всех птиц catch all the birds
something, one after пере-стрел-яй-ут shoot all of
the other (suЬ!exical) перестреляют все патроны shoot off all the cartridges
пере-мбк-(ну)-ть get completely drenched

по

1. with verbs of motion по-йд-ут start off (Ьу foot), go

and а few others: begin по-нёс-ут start off carrying
to (suЬ!exical) по-люб-и-ть come to love, become
fond of
по-знай-ут get to know
2. diminution of time or
intensity of action
(suЬ!exical)

а. do for а short time по-сид-е-ть sit for а while

по-кур-и-ть have а smoke
по-плак-а-ть have а cry
по-говор-и-ть have а talk
Ь. do somewhat, to по-весел-и-ть amuse somewhat
some extent по-леч-и-ть cure а little Ьit
по-пудр-и-ть powder а little Ьit
added to prefixed по-раз-влёк-ут amuse а little
perfectives in а по-ис-пбрт-и-ть spoil а little
similar meaning
с. по . .. ivaj по-кур-ивай-ут have а (little) smoke
do from time to time from time to time;
and/or with dimin- smoke at one's leisure
ished intensity unhurriedly
по-бай-ивай-ут-ся have slight apprehensions
по-rляд-ывай-ут glance from time to time
по-чит-ывай-ут read а little Ьit from
time to time
130 SECТION 11: VERBS

под

1. up to под/о/-йд-ут go ир to, approach

под-rотбв-и-ть prepare for, train ир to
2. under, sub под-держ-а-ть support
под-пис-а-ть sign, subscribe
под-ним-ут raise
под-лёж-а-ть Ье subject to (impf)

3. underhandediy (may под-куп-и-ть bribe

include idea "соте up под-дел-ай-ут counterfeit
to ") под-сказ-а-ть prompt
под-крад-ут steal ир to
под/о/-рв-а-ть undermine
4. add, supplement под-раббт-ай-ут earn extra
под-тверд-и-ть confirm
под-маз-а-ть touch up (make up)
5. а little, not completely под-леч-и-ть cure а little
(suЫexical) под-сбх-(ну)-ть dry а little
ПРЕ See ПЕРЕ

ПРЕД (ChS)
before, for(e); pre пред-вид-е-ть /oresee (impf only)
пред-лож-и-ть put forward, propose
пред-став-и-ть present, represent
пред-по-чт-ут prefer
пред is added to а number пред-о-предел-и-ть predetermine
of prefixed perfectives and пред-у-rад-ай-ут guess beforehand
has the same denotation.
ПРИ

I. to, ad (а-; in English ad при-*д-ут соте, arrivc

plus consonant usually при-бий-ут nail to
results in douЫe con- при-стрбй-и-ть attach, add to а building
sonant or loss of d), при-лож-и-ть attach, apply
add при-свбй-и-ть appropriate
при-jм-ут receive, accept, admit
при-rотбв-и-ть prepare for
при-rлас-и-ть invite
2. with а few prefixed при-под-ним-ут-ся raise oneself slightly
perfectives: slightly при-у-тих-(ну)-ть quiet down somewhat
(suЫexical)
 VERBAL PREFIXES 131

ПРО

1. through, Ьу, past, про-йд-ут go tl1ro11gh/past

(particularly with про-вёд-ут Iead t/1ro11gl1/past
произ), pro про-дблж-и-ть prolong, continue
про-сп-а-ть oversleep, sleep tl1roщ:h
про-из-вёд-ут produce
про-из-нёс-ут pronounce
2. through (in sense of про-пад-ут disappear, become Iost
Ioss or failure) про-пий-ут squander оп drink
про-вал-и-ть-ся collapse, fall thro11,1:l1,
fail exam
3. do for (or through) а про-б~д?т } stay, spend а specific
specific length of time про-вед-ут amount of time
(suЫexical) про-сид-е-ть sit for specific period
про-раббт-ай-ут work for specific period

РАЗ/t

1. dis, di, disperse, divide, раз/о/-йд-ут-ся disperse; differ (opinion)

spread; also раз . .. си раз-стан-ут-ся part with
(reciprocal) раз/о/-бр-а-ть analyze, dismantle
раз-дад-ут 1 distribute
рас-по-лож-и-ть dispose
2. dis, de, ип, annul раз-дум-ай-ут change one's mind
раз-люб-и-ть stop loving
рас-крбй-ут 1111cover, disclose
рас-стрбй-и-ть disturb, disarrange
With а few prefixed раз-у-вер-и-ть "1111convince," "decon-
perfectives: vince"
3. раз/ ... си раз-бол-ей-ут-ся Ьесоmе very iII
intensity, growth; раз-говор-и-ть-ся warm to one's topic
intensity or excess Cf. same verb with reciprocal meaning 'get into conver-
(suЫexical) sation with someone. ·
раз-ыгр-ай-ут-ся become frolicsome,
warm up
раз/о/сп-а-ть-ся have а deep Iong sleep
1 Раз/ usually emerges as роз in the very infrequent cases when it is stressed; e.g. раз-дад­
ут, розда.~, раздащi, роздаш1 'distribute,' and in а few nouns роспуск 'dismissal,' розыск
'search,' роспись 'wall painting.' But note the spelling-influenced variant form развит ррр
from раз/о/вьют. Because of the extreme infrequency of роз, we use раз in basic forms.
) 32 SECTION 11: YERBS

раз (without ся), com- раз-у-крас-и-ть decorate all up

blned with а few prefixed раз-об-ид-е-ть offend greatly
perfectives, denotes а simi-
lar intensification of action
(suЫexica]).

С/- СО (ChS)
1. down с/о/-йд-ут go down, descend
с-лож-и-ть ]ау down, put down
с-пуст-и-ть-(ся) lower (descend)
с-раз-и-ть strike down, kill
2. away, off (from) с-ним-ут take off
с-нёс-ут carry away/off
с-мест-и-ть displace
с-пуст-и-ть release, let away
3. together, соп (сот, со/, с/о/-йд-ут-ся 1 соте together
etc.) There are many с-нёс-ут bring together
verbs of ChS origin and с-лож-и-ть put/lay toкether, сот-
Western European loan pose
translations in со- со-бр-а-ть gather, co/lect
rather than с/. This со- со-зв-а-ть call together, convoke
often does not perfec- со-глас-и-ть-ся 1 agree, consent
tivize а stem but is со-в-мест-и-ть comblne
simply added to verbs со-в-пад-ут coincide
of either aspect. (Note со-стой-а-ть consist
also с . .. ся reciprocal: со-держ-а-ть contain
с/о/йд-ут-ся 'соте to- со-чув-ств-ова-ть sympathize
gether,' and others.) со-от-вет-ств-ова-ть correspond
со-сущ-е-ств-ова-ть coexist
4. Semelfactive meaning: Imperfective stems denoting actions or characteristics com-
posed of many single actions; the single action or manifestation of а characteristic
through а single action is then expressed Ьу semelfactive с/, just as а single shout is
expressed Ьу semelfactive -11у-: кр11к-11у-ть •shout once' vs. кр11ч-а-ть 'shout'
(general meaning or characteristic). Two verb types which frequently take semel-
factive с/ are:
а. -н-ичай-ут2 Ье,act the, play the (designating а frequent action or
characteristic-often pejorative)

1 Examples of С/ - СО with ся in reciproca\ meaning.

~ Yerbs in -1111чай-ут are treated in detail on р. 146.
 VERBAL PREFIXES 133

умн-ичай-ут act smart, try to show off one's intelligence

с-умн-ичай-ут say or do а thing trying to show off one's intelligence
оригинальн-ичай-ут Ье or attempt to Ье original
с-оригинальн-ичай-ут do or attempt to do something original
Ь. Nondetermined verbs: Imperfective designates motion in general, including the
idea of а normal trip, а single round trip, or many. The addition of с perfectivizes
the stem but in addition limits the actioa to а "single round trip":
ход-и-ть walk, go Ьу foot; go and return (опсе or more than опсе)
с-ход-и-ть make one round trip Ьу foot
лет-ай-ут fly; fly and return Ьу air (опсе or more than опсе)
с-лет-ай-ут make one round trip Ьу air
у

1. away у-йд-ут leave

у-нёс-ут carry away
у-бр-а-ть take/clear away
2. submit to the action or у-бий-ут kill
thing in the verbal or у-говор-и-ть persuade
nominal root. Meaning у-мер-и-ть moderate
is frequently "do suc- у-держ-а-ть restrain
cessfully" 1 ( cf. the verbs у-сил-и-ть strengthen
in о- with the same у-вер-и-ть convince
meaning, but without у-дад-ут-ся succeed
the connotation of suc- у-спей-ут succeed, do on time
cess). 2 у-строй-и-ть arrange
у is, in addition, one ofthe two most commonfactitive prefixes; see page 143.
The various meanings we have given under а single prefix are in many cases
close enough to each other so that а given example may include more than one

1 The derived imperfectives of some of those verbs (and of а few verbs in other prefixes
suggesting successful completion, as вы, до) may, in addition to their normal imperfective
meaning, i.e. "do successfully ," also have the sense "try to do successfully":
/persuade
уговорить persuade уговаривают
"-....try to persuade
/prove
доказать prove доказывают"-....
try to prove
Compare, for example, осмотреть 'examine fsubmit to looking)' with
2 усмотреть 'per-
ceive. (submit to looking successfully).'
134 SECTION II: VERBS

of the meanings given; e.g. вс-крик-ну-ть 'shriek' both "up" and "intensity of
action "; вь1-прос-и-ть 'wheedle' both "out" and "successful"; под-сказ-а-ть
'prompt' at least two or three of the meanings listed under под. As with certain
roots, the student gains with experience а certain intuitive grasp of the meanings
of the prefixes which aids him more than verbalization of" the meanings.
Many prefixed verbs are not worth analyzing, either because the prefix
defies categorization entirely, or because its categorization would make it neces-
sary to set up а prohiЬitively large number of meanings for the prefix (the prob-
lem we noted with за). Analysts тау differ as to whether а prefix in а given stem
is meaningful or not. Here are some verbs which are not worth analyzing in
terms of the above system:
изменить change заставить force
>
нальют pour покроют cover
>
продадут sell рассказать tell
приказать order показать show
(,)
спросить ask помогут help
забудут forget устанут get tired

Prefixation, we have seen, preeminently involves alteration in the meaning

of the simplex stem, even if we recognize that verbs like строить and построить,
писать and написать are aspectual pairs. From the standpoint of the language
as а whole, the creation of true aspectual pairs is synonymous ivith t/1e process of
impe1fective derivation, the subject to which we turn next.

3 lmperfective derivation
The addition of а prefix which alters а stem lexically raises the obvious
question of how to obtain а new imperfective to go with the new perfective. А
similar proЫem arises when we add а prefix other than по to the stem of а deter-
mined motion verb, in which case the new imperfective is obtained Ьу adding the
prefix to the stem of the corresponding nondetermined verb; e.g. вёдут - при­
вёдут - приводить. Here а different stem is used to make the imperfective. For
the overwhelming majority of stems other than determined motion verb stems,
however, Russian makes imperfectives from the same stem, extended Ьу one of
three imperfectivizing formants:

tij 'ii·aj vaj

The spelling of the initial vowel in cij and 'ivaj depends, of course, on the nature
of the precediпg consonant, which itself usually depends on whether or not mu-
 IMPERFECТIVE DERIVATION 135

tation has taken place (see paragraph I below). Note that all three formants
define the stress of the imperfectives they derive:
остави djut > оставляют
спроси 'ivaj-ut > спрашивают
оден vdj-ut > одевают

Hence the stress of an unamЬiguous derived imperfective need not Ье speci-

fied.
These three formants are added to the verb stem essentially as endings are
added, and with the same results: simple addition or truncation of а preceding
alike (СС, VV) and any other changes that occur when alikes are juxtaposed:

сберёг dj-ut > сбереrают save

запис~ 'ivaj-ut > записывают write down
одеf'- vdj-111 > одевают dress (tran)
умо, vaj-ut > умывают wash
допи~ vaj-llf > допивают finish drinking

except that with АЙ, НУ, and (НУ) stems, the entire verbal formant is truncated,
and any imperfectivizing formant is added directly to the root; for example:
передел# 'ivaj-ut > переделывают 1 redo
вздрогМ 'ivaj-ut > вздрагивают shudder
привь1к(,i) aj-111 > привыкают get used to

and ова is merely truncated to ов, rather than changing to уй:

арестов~ 'ii·aj-ut > арестовывают arrest

In addition, consonant mutation, vowel shift, and vowel insertion take
place in certain defined contexts:
I. Consonant mutation occurs regularly in И verbs; it does not occur in
verbs of other types:
оставить - оставляют leave
спросить - спрашивают ask
уговорить - уговаривать 2 persuade

1 Note that if the perfective basic form is in -яют rather than -ают, the derived imperfec-
tive is -ивают rather than -ывают:
разменяют разменивают change
2The -ивают (rather than -ывают) in imperfectives derived from verbs in -рить, -.111ть,
аnd--н11ть shows that mutation has occurred (cf. р. 46).
136 SECTION П: VERBS

but
записать- записывать write down
(,) ,
помогут - помогают help
отпороть - отпарывают rip off
А number оfИ stems do not mutate before 'ii·aj; notaЫy compounds ofthe five
simplex stems which did not mutate before tij (footnote 2, р. 114) but also а few
other И stems which build 'ivaj stems based оп nonmutated related simplex
verbs, usually in АЙ:
сбросить - сбрасывают throw down бросают throw
схватить - схватывают grasp хватают grasp
закусить - закусывают have а snack кусают Ьite
переломить - переламывают break in two ломают break
отскочить - отскакивают jump away скакать jump
вьпащить - вытаскивают pull out таскают pull
А handful of verbs built with tij also fail to observe mutation:
разрубить - разрубают cut, chop
Conversely, consonant mutation is very occasionally observed outside of И
stems:
просидеть - просиживают sit through
рассмотреть - рассматривают examine
2. Vон·е/ shift о > а. А final root vowel о shifts to а before the formant
'ivaj, but not before other formants:
спросить - спрашивают ask
вздрогнуть - вздрагивают shudder
переломают - переламывают break in two
but
( ,) ,
помогут - помогают help
умножить - умножают multiply
А few verbs, most of them rather bookish in character, resist this shift:
сосредоточить - сосредоточивают concentrate
обусловить - обусловливают stipulate; cause
обуславливают also exists.
This vowel shift does not take place in ОВА verbs:
арестовать - арестовывают arrest
сковать - сковывают forge
 IMPERFECТIVE DERIVATION 137

3. Vои·е/
insertion. Nonsyllabic stems insert i between consonants. Non-
syllaЬic resonants always have 11, and n/sA and nonsyllaЬic НУ stems have II or
ы (in this book we assume 11, unless ы is specified):
умрут - умирают die
пожмут - пожимают press
вь1брать - выбирают elect
назвать(ы} - называют name
прильфнуть - прилипают cling
замкнуть(ы) - замыкают lock
4. Stems in й/м - ним add tij to ним for both types; for example:

поймут - понимают understand

снимут - снимают take off

Distribution of the formants

Except for И stems, which take either tij or 'ivaj, 1 and Е stems, whose im-
perfective derivation is unsystematic, each stem type takes а specific imperfecti-
vizing formant. The tаЫе on pages 137-139 summarizes imperfective derivation
Ьу basic form type. The examples use the head verb forms where possiЫe (i.e.
where the head verb stems build derived imperfectives; вёд-ут and вёз-ут, for
example, do not, so that other examples for these types are chosen). The order
is the same as that used in the Verb ТаЫе, except that all nonsyllaЬic stems are
listed together, since they take the same suffix (tij).

IMPERFECTIVE DERIV А TION Т ABLE

SYLLABIC NONSUFFIXED STEMS

RESONANT STEMS: vrij

>
в проживут - проживают live, spend (time)
н оденут- одевают dress (tran)
й надуют - надувают inflate
ОЙ умоют - умывают wash
ИЙ вьший-ут - выпивают drink

1 Sometimes imperfectives exist in both dj and 'ivaj:

приготовить приготовляют or приготавливают prepare
простудиться простужаются or простуживаются catch cold
138 SECTION 11: VERBS

OBSTRUENT STEMS: aj

Д-Т нападут - нападают attack

3-С спасут - спасают save
Г-К перепёкут - перепекают overbake
Б отгрёбут - отгребают row off; rake away

SYLLAВIC SUFFIXED STEMS

И dj or 'ivaj
оставить - оставляют leave
спросить - спрашивают ask

Е dj, 'ivaj, vdj

сгореть - сгорают burn down/out (intr)
осмотреть - осматривают inspect
заболеть - заболевают 1 start to hurt

(НУ) dj
угас(ну)ть - угасают go out
привь1к(ну)ть - привыкают get used to

ЕЙ vaj
успеют - успевают have time
заболеют - заболевают fall ill

OTHER SUFFIXED SТEMS: 'ivaj

ЖА удержать- удерживают restrain

(ЙА) настоять
- настаивают insist
А записать - записывают write down
(ЙА) рассеять - рассеивают 2 disperse
ОБА истолковать - истолковывают interpret
о заколоть - закалывают stab

1 Compare with забо.1ев:iют below.

2 А number of stems in -еять act as if they were ЕЙ stems and build imperfectives in vdj,
which usually exist alongside forms in 'ivaj, occasionally with а semantic distinction. Diction-
aries list these forms inconsistently. Examples:
засеять засевают or засеивают sew
обвеять обвевают or обвеивают fan
 IMPERFECТIVE DERIVATION 139
НУ 1 вздрогнуть - вздрагивают start, flinch
АЙ переделают - переделывают redo

NONSYLLABIC STEMS: dj

NONSUFFIXED RESONANT STEMS

/Р утрут - утирают wipe away

/М-/Н пожмут - пожимают press
Й/М поймут - понимают understand
ним снимут - снимают take off

NONSUFFIXED OBSTRUENT STEMS

ж/г с/о/жгут - сжигают burn down (tran)

-ч/т с/о/чтут - считают consider
but cf. учтут - учитывают take into account (based on -читают)

n/sA
вь1брать - выбирают choose
назвать(ы)- называют name

НУ

прильфнуть - прилипают cling

замкнуть - замыкают Iock

1 Most prefixed perfective НУ verbs are built on simplex perfective (mostly semelfactive)
НУ verbs, like prefixed perfective И verbs built on simplex perfectives (сбросить built оп бро­
сить). Many corresponding imperfectives of these НУ verbs, like those of many И verbs, are
built оп correlated simplex imperfectives (like сбрасывают оп бросают, accounting for ab-
sence of mutation, cf. р. 136):
отдёрfнуть - отдёрrивают pull back (дёрrают 'pull ')
вьшАfdjiнуть - выплёвывают spit out (плёвать 'spit ')
прикоснуться - прикасаются touch (касаются 'touch ')
(note а instead of о)
See НУverbs in the Inventory for more examples.
In а few cases the presence of а simplex is necessary to explain а seeming deviation in the
derivational pattern (unexpected softening):
вь1швырн<g1гь - вышвиривают fling out (швыряют "fling")
NonsyllaЬic НУ stems, of course, build imperfectives in dj rather than 'ivaj (see under
NONSYLLABIC sтЕмs). But а few syllaЬic НУ stems are also (exceptionally) in dj:
сдвиfнуть - сдвигают shift
- улыбнуться - улыбаются smile
140 SECTION II : VERBS

The distribution of stem types according to imperfectivizing suffix and the

three accompanying processes discussed above may Ье diagrammed as follows:

IMPERFECТIVE DERIVAТION

vaj aj 'ii·aj
1 1 1

Sy~labic ЕIЙ 1
Obstruents (НУ)
1 1
NonsyllaЬic
11
И
1
All others ex-
resonants 1 1 cept Е, which
i inserted Consonant
has all three
in root mutation
1
root CoC-ivaj >
root CaC-ivaj

EXERCISES Build imperftctives from the following perfective stems:

наденут обделают сверг(ну)ть воскрес(ну)ть
согреют вспороть приобрётут сберёгут

затрут наймут ски*нуть дотроfнуть

доказать развлёкут отпечатают подмётут
(,)
вь1ждать вь1смеять привязать растолковать
>
отплывут надуют соблюдут отнимут

из/бий-ут из/о/мнут созреют с/о/слать (ы)

разжёвать накопают пригрёбут перекроют
просфнуться (ы)

'ivaj aj
уговорить упростить
оценить удалить
устроить оформить
окрасить исправить
накопить заключить
утратить возбудить ChS
обслужить прекратить ChS
Stem recoi·ery. Recovery of the underlying stem from а derived imperfective is
not always automatic, but knowledge of the rules of formation enaЫes the
student, after some experience, to obtain the correct stem or to make an excel-
Ient guess at it. From the following imperfective verbs try to estimate the
underlying perfective (you may use the lnventory to check stems of unproduc-
tive types, after you have attempted to recover them):
 SUPPLEТION AND OTHER IRREGULARIТIES IN ASPECTUAL PAIRS 141

процветают затихают сдавливают начинают

поживают запирают сдирают основывают

наказывают выпадают исчезают избаловывают

оспаривают выращивают отклеивают дозревают

распарывают разминают омывают притискивают

улаживают променивают натаптывают загнивают

остерегают дожидаются разгрызают обвиняют

проникают поправляют зарывают возмущают

нажимают поливают иссякают унывают

утверждают запрещают разбивают умаляют

NOTE: Occasionally we observe а derived imperfective built from а perfective

which по loпger exists, or at least по loпger exists iп the same meaпiпg; for
example:
разговаривают converse по corresponding *разговорить
уважают respect no corresponding *уважить
наблюдают observe по corresponding *наблюдут

4 Suppletion and other irregularities in aspectual pairs

Individual iгregularities in imperfective derivation of stems given in the In-
ventory are noted there. Iгregular stems at the end of the Inventory form imper-
fectives according to their type, unless otherwise specified; e.g. -будут is derived
Ьу vdj rather than dj: забудут - забывают' forget.' Examples of suppletive and
some other iгregular instances of aspect pairs and imperfective derivation are
noted as follows:
1. Suppletive aspectual pairs consist of verbs built from totally different
stems. There are only а very few such pairs; for example:
возьмут (взять)- брать take
положить - кладут put
сказать - говорить say
Поймают (по-йм) - ловить 'catch' is usually added to this group. Note
that in all four cases the imperfective is simplex.
Suppletion in imperfective derivation is even rarer; the only important
case is -ложить - -кладывают (parallel to положить - кладут above):
отложить - откладывают put aside, postpone
разложить - раскладывают spread out
сложить - складывают !ау te1gether, add, fold
142 SECTION 11: VERBS

Note a\so the related улягутся (-лечься) - укладываются, and compare

присядут (присесть)-присаживаютсяand similar examples.

2. Much more numerous are examples involving different variants of the

same root, unexpected stem elements or prefixes, and other irregularities.

IRREGULARIТIES INVOLVING SIMPLEX VERBS

вёрfнуть - возвращают return

повесить - вешают hang (tran)
посадить - сажают seat
(,) ( , ) ,
ляrут лечь - ложиться Iie down
сядут (сесть)- садиться sit down
станут- становиться take а standing position; become (perf only)
купить- покупают buy
упадут - падают fall (perf sometimes падут)
поклониться - кланяются bow
IRREGULARIТIES IN IMPERFECТIVE DERIVATION

-вёрfнуть - impf sometimes -вёртывают as expected, but sometimes

-ворачивают built on -воротить
повёрfнуть - поворачивают turn
завёрfнуть - завёртывают or заворачивают wrap

-ложить - лаrают ChS impf corresponding to Russ -кладывают (cf. above)

предложить - предлаrают propose
разложить - разлагают decompose; demoralize
Cf. разложить - раскладывают spread, lay out
-сох(ну)ть - -сыхают
, ( ,) ( ) ,
высох ну ть - высыхают dry (out)
-дохнуть - -дыхают
отдохнуть - отдыхают rest
NONSYLLABIC И STEMS
-помнить - (originally по-мн-)
-поминают
вспомнить - вспоминают
recall
затмить - затмевают darken
продлить - продлевают prolong

OTHER ISOLATED IRREGULAR ASPECT PAIRS

воскликнуть - восклиuают exclaim разинуть - разевают (рот) gape

Other cases where the prefixed imperfective stem appears to differ irregular-
Iy from the prefixed perfective stem may Ье explained Ьу the fact that the pre-
fixed imperfective was bui\t on the corresponding simplex imperfective; for
 OTHER VERBAL SUFFIXES 143
examples of this in derivation from prefixed perfective И verbs see page 136; for
examples from prefixed perfective НУ verbs see page 139.

5 Other verbal suffixes

Verbal suffixes, as we have seen, are primarily grammatical; that is, they
only make parts of speech (verbs) or indicate aspect within the verbal pair (e.g.
the imperfectivizing suffixes aj, i·aj, and 'ii·aj just discussed).
Nevertheless, the type of verbal suffix involved сап, and often does, suggest
some meaning for the stem. In the Inventory we discussed t\1e semelfactive
meaning of the perfective НУ suffix, and we separated а group of (НУ) verbs
which have the general meaning of changing state or becoming (page 107). We
a\so noted that certain suffixes tend to make transitive verbs (И) or intransitive
verbs (Е, ЖА, (НУ), ЕЙ). Within certain stem types, however, we may note а
few more meanings.

r. The suffix -11-. Factitives

Afactiti1:e verb has the meaning "to make Х Ье У or Y-er" where Х is the
direct object of"make" (hence a\l factitives are transitive) and У is the stem of
the verb exclusive of the II and the prefix. For example, объ-ясн-и-ть урок' make
the lesson clear' (яс/н-ый 'clear'). Factitives are formed from adjectival stems
Ьу adding ( 1) the suffix II and (2) the prefixes о - об/ or у; or, much less com-
monly, за, по, с/ - со. Stress is оп either the ending or the stem; it never shifts.
Not all verbs answering this description are factitives, but а great many are,
and the format should always suggest the possiЬility. The adjectival stem in-
volved is ordinarily а c\ear unit, whether it is primary or derived:
о-слаб-и-ть (СЛАБ weak) weaken, make weak(er)
об-общ-и-ть (ОБЩ general) generalize, make (more) general
or
о-бедн-и-ть (БЕД-н poor) impoverish, make poor(er)
о-сложн-и-ть (с-ЛОГ-н complex) make (more) complex
The suffix /к тау sometimes Ье omitted in the factitive, if its separation from
the root is c\ear in the underlying word:
ADJECТIVE

у-креп-и-ть strengthen root КРЕП креп-/к-ий strong

по-низ-и-ть lower root НИЗ низ-/к-ий low
The pr~fixes involved mean simply "factitive"; it is not necessary to look
for ~nother meaning. The meanings ofmost factitives are obvious from the stem:
144 SECTION 11 : VERBS

о-богат-и:-ть make rich бопiт-ый rich

у-лучш-и-ть improve лучш-ий better
А few are not readily obvious; о-дббр-11-ть 'approve' and у-дббр-11-ть 'fertilize'
are hardly predictaЫe from the root ДОБР 'good.'
The factitive meaning is somewhat related to the "expose" or "submit"
meaning in certain verbs in о - об/ and у- with nominal stems, when "submit-
ting" something to the noun is essentially the same as "making" it the corres-
ponding adjective (cf. Prefix ТаЫе):
о-свобод-и-ть Iiberate (expose to freedom), make free (делают свободным)
у-сил-и-ть strengthen (expose to strength, make strong) (делают
сильным)
об-услбв-и-ть stipulate (submit to conditions), make conditional (делают
условным)

А confusion of the two relationships seems involved in:

у-гост-и-ть (ГОСТ guest) treat (make а guest)
у-вбл-и-ть (ВОЛ will, freedom) grant а leave; dismiss (submit to
freedom)
But cf. the irregular impf у-вольн-.siй-ут (вбль/н-ый 'free ').
Note the following factitives with the general meaning "make without." о
is added to а compound element based on а prepositional phrase consisting of
без plus noun in genitive.

о-без-лес-и-ть deforest без лес-а without forest

о-без-оруж-и-ть disarm без оруж-и-я without arms
о-без-люди-ть depopulate без люд-ей .vithout people
о-бес-смерт-и-ть immortalize без смерт-и without death

EXERC/SES The following stems(includingsome in prefixes other than о-об/ or у) are

factitives. Estimate а meaning for each and check your result in the dictionary.
о-знакбм-и-ть о-без-ббл-и-ть у-дал-и-ть с-близ-и-ть
об-лёrч-и-ть о-без-лич-и-ть у-мнбж-и-ть ПО-ВЬIС-И-ТЬ
об-нов-и-ть у-един-и-ть у-дешёв-и-ть со-крат-и-ть
о-без-люд-и-ть у-свбй-и-ть у-худш-и-ть за-медл-и-ть
о-прав-и-ть у-четвер-и-ть у-скбр-и-ть за-трудн-и-ть

Do the same for the verbs:

о-немеч-и-ть о-бюрократ-и-ть об-уrл-и-ть
 OTHER VERBAL SUFFIXES 145

2. The suffix -ей-. Verbs of "becoming"

The suffix ей, added to an adjectival and, rarely, to а nominal stem, makes
а verb with the meaning "become" that adjective 1 or noun:
глуп-ей-ут become stupid(er) глуп-ый stupid
стар-ей-ут become old(er) спiр-ый old
син-ей-ут 2 become Ыue(r) син-ий Ыuе
камен-ей-ут tum to stone кам/е/нь stone
Verbs of this type are perfectivized Ьу adding the prefixes по or о to the
simplex stem. по tends to Ье used with adjectives denoting colors or physical or
mental characteristics of human beings; for example:
(по)-толст-ей-ут become fat(ter) т6лст-ый fat
(по)-умн-ей-ут become smart(er) ум-/н-ый smart
(по)-красн-ей-ут redden, Ыush крас/н-ый red
о is more likely with more abstract adjectives, and is the rule with nominal stems;
for example:
о-бедн-ей-ут become poor(er) бед/н-ый poor
о-пуст-ей-ут become empty пуст-ой empty
о-сирот-ей-ут become an orphan сирот-а orphan
о-камен-ей-ут tum to stone кам/е/нь stone
Verbs in ей prefixed Ьу о often have corresponding factitives ш о; for
example:
о-бедн-ей-ут become poor о-бедн-и-ть impoverish бед/н-ый poor
о-пьян-ей-ут become drunk о-пьян-и-ть make drunk пьян-ый drunk
And parallel to the factitives in о-без . .. и-ть is а fairly numerous group in
о-без . .. ей-ут (although in individual cases the ей or и partner may not exist)
with the meaning "become without"; for example:
о-без-лес-ей-ут 3 become deforested о-без-лес-и-ть deforest
о-без-люд-ей-ут become depopulated о-без-люд-и-ть depopulate
1 As with factitives, deadjectival -ЕЙ- \rerbs may have а comparative meaning in the
appropriate context; i.e. "become Х" or "become X-er." See the examples.
2 Verbs in -ей- with roots designating co\ors or darkness may have the meaning "Ье" or
"show" instead of "become"; e.g.
Небо синеет над нами. 'The sky is (shows, looms, etc.) Ыuе abo:ve us.'
Вдали чтб-то темнеет. 'Something dark is visiЬ\e in the distance.'

Such verbs occur in the imperfective only.

_ 3 Verbs in о-без . .. ей-ут differ from most ЕЙ verbs in that stress is normally not оп -ей-.
146 SECTION II: VERBS

3. -н-ич-ай

The suffix ей when added to stems in the agent suffix н11к produces а type
in н11чай-ут (*ник-ей > н11чай; cf. *дерг-е > держа, footnote 1, page 48) with
the meaning "Ье а, perform an activity" associated with the word in ник:
плотнич-ай-ут · Ье а carpenter, do плотник carpenter
carpentry
сплетнич-ай-ут gossip, Ье а gossip сплетник gossip
вз.я:точнич-ай-ут take bribes взяточник bribetaker
разбойнич-ай-ут rob, plunder разбойник robber, brigand
Two enlarged suffixes have developed from the н11ч-ай type: (н)-11чай built
on adjectives in /н with the meaning "Ье" the adjective; the connotation 1s
usually pejorative (often the sense is "play at being something"):
(н)-ичай

скромн-ичай-ут Ье excessively (or скром/н-ый modest

falsely) modest
любезн-ичай-ут act oЫigingly, рау любез/н-ый nice, polite
court to
скрьпн-ичай-ут Ье reticent/secre- скрьп/н-ый reticent,
tive secretive
великодушн-ичай-ут play at being великодуш/н-ый generous
generous
умн-ичай-ут philosophize, show ум/н-ый clever
off one's intelli-
g~nce
либеральн-ичай-ут play at being либераль/н-ый liЬeral
liberal
н11чай built on nouns with the general sense "Ье" the noun; in many examples
the connotation is "Ье the, act the":
-ничай-

слесар-ничай-ут Ье а metalworker слесарь metalworker

лакей-ничай-ут Ье а lackey лакей lackey
лентяй-ничай-ут Ье lazy лентяй lazy person
кокет-ничай-ут Ье (play, act) the кокет/к-а coquette
coquette (built on stem
without /к-)
попуrай-ничай-ут repeat others' ideas/ попуrай parrot
thoughts, Ье а parrot
 EXERCISES 147

EXERCISES
Verbal prefixes and suffixes and review of imperfective derivation. 1. Examine
the structure of the boldface verbs and, using the context of the sentences
(translating them orally), try to guess at the meanings of the verbs. Show how
you arrive at what you think the meaning is Ьу estimating the basic form and
the meaning of the root (including its Latin meaning, if it has one) and ex-
plaining prefixes (mention Latin and/or English counterparts, if appropriate)
and suffixes, if meaningful, and mentioning any other relevant points of con-
struction.
2. Give the corresponding imperfective, unless the symbol t appears after the
verb.

EXAMPLES

Я разлюбилt эту девушку.

Answer: раз-люб-и-ть dis(un)Iove: fall out of love, stop loving
я хочу вам всё ТОЧНО объяснить.
Answer: объ-ясн-и-ть Factitive suffix и and prefix об make clear: explain
объясняют

1. Чтобы нам леrче бьшо, мь1 думаем упростить (-ают) конструкцию

машины.
2. Я неправильно приписал этот рассказ Толстому.
3. Советские солдаты нападут на немцев через два дня.
4. Его приезд вьввал большую радость./Я вьввал (ы) его на дуэль.
5. Она одевается по-парижски, значит, м6дничаетt.
6. После того как он развёлся с женой, он запилt.
7. Мебель переместили (-ajut) в другой дом.
8. Он подговорил (-ivajut) меня на это неприятное дело.
9. Он всё время переедаетt; поэтому, не худеетt.
10. Сначало хотели преступника обезглавить (-ivajut), а потом решили
сослать (ы) его в Сибирь. ,:
11. Работая над словарём, я сотручничалt с Белым.
12. Дочь упросила (-ivajut) отца согласиться (-ajutcя) на её решение.
13. Недавно проложили (-кладывали) дорогу в Харьков.
14. я хочу воспроизвести этот рассказ так, как я его сль1шал.
15. Они возьмут деньги из банка и закопают их.
16. Мь1 хорошо знали дороrу и, поэтому, ни разу не оступились (-паются).
17. Чтобы добиться цели, надо приступить к делу теперь же.
18. Мь1 вставили (-ajut) ЭТО слово в текст.
19. Молодой человек засмотрелся (-ivaj11tcя) на красивую девушку.
20. Студент накупил (-пают) книг.
148 SECTION II : VERBS

21. Он нач11тался военных романов и теперь всё время играет в войну.

22. Надстроил~~ (-ivajut) наш дом.
23. Наполеон хотел окружить (-ajut) наш город, но ему недодали 5000
солдат.
24. Он собирался посетить музей, но гид отговорил (-ivajut) его от этого.
25. Они потанцевалиt и побежалиt домой.
26. Я поправил (-ajut) все его грамматические ошибки.
27. Нам нужно подхватить (-хватывают) инициативу советских космо-
навтов.
28. Вь1 должнь1 предчувствоватьt, что вам предстоитt.
29. Ему неудобно говорить сидя, он привста.ТJ.
30. Себялюбивый человек хочет привлечь внимание только к себе.
31. Эту улиuу недавно переименовал11, но новое название ещё не занесли в
адресную книгу.
32. Вор обезденежелt; ему опять придётся у кого-нибудь забрать коше­
лёк.

33. Мы устанавл11ваем связь с этим генералом, но до сих пор не установ-

илиt.
34. Он весь день про11скал её адрес.
35. Я расхотелt есть.
36. Он пересказал историю о преступлении, но преуменьшил (-ajut) свою
роль в нём.
37. Я подвергну его выступление сильной критике.
38. Он сидел, свесив (-ivajut) ноги.
39. Эта пьеса мне сначала понравилась, но её с тех пор за11грал11.
40. Рабочий вь1служил (-ivajut) пенсию.
41. Мой СЬIН только что окончил (-ivajut) университет и сейчас всё время
важничает.
42. Воду несколько подогрели.
43. Наши учёные недавно состав1ши (-ajut) словарь.
44. Его соседи ПОГОвариваютt О ТОМ, ЧТО ОН СЛИШКОМ МНОГО играет В
карты и скоро проиграет все свои деньги.
45. Надо пр11знаться, что наши две системы всё-таки могут сосущество­
вать t.
46. Мой отец ДОЛГО сапожн11чалt в этой деревне в надежде стать хорошим
сапожником. Надеюсь, что он осуществ11л своё желание.
47. Через несколько минут костёр разгорелся (-аются) как следует./Раз-
горелся спор.
48. Она уже пр1шь1кла к купuам; значит, её трудно обвесить (-ivajut).
49. Вспахать-это обработать землю плугом.
50. Он поблед11елt, разговор взвол1ювалt его.
 111
NOUNS

А large number of Russian nouns are nonderived, that is, consist only of root
or base plus ending; for example:
дбм house мбре sea
книга book окнб window
А great many other Russian nouns are derived Ьу prefixation, suffixation,
or comЬination.

PREFIXA TION

А SIMPLE ADDIТION OF PREFIX ТО NOUN

Compared with suffixation, prefixation plays а very minor role in formation
of nouns. 1 The following prefixes (including some foreign prefixes) are simply
added to independent nouns; they have а varying, low degree of productivity:

- 1 Cf. Section J, рр. 20-21.

149
150 SECTION 111 : NOUNS

анти- anti-:
антивирус antivirus антифашист anti-Fascist
не- поп-, ип- (opposite):
незнание ignorance несчастье unhappiness
под- sub-:
подгруппа subgroup подпочва subsoil
со- со-:

соавтор coauthor сотоварищ associate

пред- pre-:
предыстория prehistory предосторожность precaution
при- addition, attachment:
пригород suburb привкус aftertaste
про- pro-:
профашист pro-Fascist прокоммунист pro-Communist
раз- inteпsification of meaning:
раскрасавица v~ry beautiful woman

The following prefixes are unproductive:

пра- "original, ancient; (in familial' context) great-":
прадед great-grandfather праязь1к protolanguage
правнук great-grandsoп прародина original homeland
па- obsolete nominal prefix corresponding to verbal по-:
пагуба ruin (cf. погубить 'ruin ')
память memory (cf. помнить 'remember')
су- obsolete nominal prefix corresponding to verbal со-:
сумрак dusk (cf. мрак 'darkпess')
супесь sandy loam (cf. пес/о/к 'sand')

For purposes of the modern language, па- and су- are по longer separaЫe as
prefix-noun.

В PREFIXED SUFFIXAL NOUNS DERIVED

FROM PREPOSIТIONAL PHRASES
А totally different type of prefixed noun is formed not Ьу simple addition of
а prefix to an independent noun, but Ьу а suffix from а stem based оп а prep-
ositional phrase. For example, whereas in подгруппа 'subgroup' above the
prefix под- was simply added to the iпdependent noun группа 'group,' in а noun
like подполье 'underground' the suffix -/й- builds the word from the phrase под
полем 'under the field.' That is,
 SUFFIXATION 151

подгруппа is simply под- plus групп-а

but
подпольё is под-поль- plus -/й- plus -о

The suffix -и-ё (-ь/-ё) is the most frequent suffix in the formation of these
nouns. Among the preposition-prefixes без- is especially productive. Examples:
без смерти without death бессмертие immortality
без силы without strength бессилие feeЫeness,
impotence
без работы without work безработица unemployment
без дела without something безделье inactivity
to do
за рекой beyond the river заречье land оп the other
side of the river
на персти оп the finger напёрст/о/к thimЫe
(персть 'finger'
poet)
на лицо, налицо present, on hand наличие presence
по береrу along the shore побережье coast
под полем under the field подполье underground
против яда against poison противоядие 1 antidote

EXERCISE Give the meanings of the following nouns and recover the prepositional
phrases from which they are derived:
бессмь1слие безумие безобразие бессонница
застенок Забайкалье полесье междурядье
предгорье 2 подлесок приморье согласие

SUFFIXA TION
А great many more Russian nouns, however, are derived Ьу suffixation. А
great many different suffixes participate in making nouns, and we may organize
these suffixes into the following general semantic classes: (а) abstract nouns,
{Ь) nouns denoting persons, (с) nouns denoting animals, {d) nouns denoting ob-
jects, (е) nouns denoting places, and (f) nouns with collective meaning.
1 Против acquires а connecting vowel о when comblned with another element.
2 When (Russian) перед becomes а prefix, it automatically becomes (Church Slavonic)
пред-.
152 SECTION III: NOUNS

These six categories must Ье distinguished from nouns built with suffixes
which modify or add а shade to the meaning already present but do not create а
new meaning, e.g. augmentatives, diminutives, pejoratives, etc. We will consider
these nouns separately under (g) nouns built with suffixes not creating new inde-
pendent words.

А ABSTRACT NOUNS
Abstract nouns are generally distinguishaЫe from nouns designating con-
crete objects, although there may Ье cases where classification would Ье difficult.
Rather than worrying about such cases, however, it is more useful to recognize
that, just as а concrete noun сап acquire an abstract meaning-e.g. дом' house,'
but also 'home' (with approximately the same connotation as the English
word), 'household,' and 'dynasty' (e.g. Дом Романовых 'House of Romanovs ')
-abstract nouns сап acquire quite specific or concrete meanings. Since we will
Ье referring to this process of concretization fairly often in this section, we will
give it а name: hypostasis (verb: hypostasize). For example:
ABSTRACT HYPOSTASIZED
вход going in, entrance (action) entrance (place)
покуп/ка buying, purchasing (action) purchase (thing)
редкость rarity (quality) rarity, curiosity (thing)
крепость strength (quality) stronghold, fortress
In the case of deverbative abstract nouns hypostasis most frequently entails а
generalization of the action to the result of the action, which тау or тау not Ье
а concrete physical object, often depending on the meaning of the verb:

крик cry обман deceit

уль16/ка smile рост growth, height, stature
перевод translation привь1ч/ка haЬit

Many suffixes build abstract nouns, but only а few are really productive.
These are -11-ё (-ь/-ё) for deverbatives, -/к-а for deverbatives, -ств-о for de-
nominatives, -ость for deadjectivals, to some extent -щ1ша and the foreign
suffixes -юм and -ац11-я. Other suffixes are either unproductive or only slightly
productive. However, as we saw in the case ofverbs, an unproductive suffix тау
build а fairly large number of important nouns.
The most important abstract nouns are the dei·erbatii·es: nouns of action
and/or (Ьу hypostasis) resu/t or product of action. Of these the most important
are nouпs in -11-ё (-ь/-ё), -#-# (zero-suffix buildiпg masculine nouпs), and -/к-а.
Tl1e less importaпt types апd, to а certaiп exteпt, nouns in -#-# апd -/к-а tend
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 153

toward hypostasis; i.e. may have as one or as their only meaning а result or pro-
duct of the action, rather than the action itself.

1 Verbal nouns in -и-ё (-ь/-ё)l

Ву far the most important abstract noun of action/result in Russian is а

neuter noun built with the suffix -ий- (-/й-). Because of its numerical importance
and because it is correlated with а conjugated form of the verb rather than de-
rived directly from the verbal stem, as other deverbatives are, we may properly
call this noun the verbal поип. It is formed Ьу the addition of -ниё, -ениё, -тиё to
the verbal stem according to the same rules ¾>hich guide the formation of past pas-
sive participles. 2 Whereas past passive participles, however, are restricted to
transitive perfective stems, stems underlying verbal nouns may belong to either
aspect and need not Ье transitive; they may even Ье ся verbs:
I. -тие to RESONANTS. О stems and НУ stems, which also form past passive
participles in -т, do not form nouns in -ij- :3
закроют close закръп закръпие closing
займут occupy занят занятие occupation
пожмут press пожат пожатие pressing, handshake
>
проживут live прожит прожитие living, livelihood
Бь1ть and its compounds also form verbal nouns in -тиё (-тьё); for example,
прибьпь 'arrive,' прибь1тие 'arrival' (cf. past passive participle in -быт: забь1т).
2. -ение to OBSTRUENТS, (НУ) stems, and И stems:
введут introduce введён введение introducing (-tion)
вёдут conduct ведение conducting
падут fall падение fall(ing), downfall
совпадут coincide совпадение coincidence
отвлёкут distract отвлечён отвлечение distraction
1 The comblnation нй automatically Ьecomes ьй when it precedes а stressed ending;
hence, решение, but мытьё. Cf. the same phenomenon in ИЙ verbs (р. 86, footnote 1).
2 The distribution Ьу stem type is the same as for past passive participles, except that (НУ)
stems lose ну and are treated as obstruents (e.g. достиг(ну)ть, достигнут but достижение
'achievement'; cf. footnote 2, р. 107). One or two НУ stems also do this: двнfнуть 'move,'
движение • movement'; протяfнуть 'extend,' протяжение •extent.'
3 Except for а single О stem which forms а noun in -ь/-ё: колоть 'prick, thrust,' колотьё

'stitch' (pricking pain in side or chest), and the НУ stems mentioned in the footnote above.
Note also the ecclesiastical term успение' Assumption,' а loan translation based on усfшуть 'go
to-sleep.'
154 SECTION Ш: NOUNS

сверг(ну)ть overthrow свергнут свержение overthrow(ing)

воскрес(ну)тьrise from dead воскресение resurrection
решить decide решён решение decision, deciding
пригласить invite приглашён приглашение invitation
согласиться agree соглашение agreement, agreeing
вь,ступить perform выступление performance
посетить ChS visit посешён посещение visit
служить serve служение serving, service

3. -ние to al\ other stems:

кипеть boil кипение boiling
рассмотреть examine рассмотрен рассмотрение examination
молчать Ье silent молчание silence
писать write писание writing
собрать collect собран собрание collection; meeting,
собраться meet, gather gathering
требовать require, demand требование requirement,
demand
желают wish, desire желание wish, desire
пожелают wish, desire пожелание wish (best wishes,
etc.)
стараются try старание endeavor
страдают suffer страдание suffering
умеют know how умение knowing how,
aЬility
вставать get up вставание getting up

Stress
The stress generally falls оп the vowel i11 the syllaЫe directly preceding
-11-ё, except for derivatives from stem-stressed verbs with infinitives i11
-at', where
stem stress does not coincide with this vowel авуwау, as i11 де:1ают - де:1ан11е.
Examples:
представить (re)present представление (re)presentation
займут occupy занятие occupation
откроют open открьпие opening
ввёдут introduce введение introduction
but
прь1rают jump прь1rание jumping
требовать demand тр~бование demand
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 155

Types in -ь/-ё

Uпp,-efixed 1·esonant and most n/sA stems build verbal nouns in а special
end-stressed type: -ь/-ё. Such nouns may have а some\vhat colloquial flavor.
Examples:
живут Iive жить/ё life
пьют driпk питьё drinking
мбют wash мытьё washing
врать lie враньё lying (telling of lies)
ткать weave тканьё Y,eaving
Sometimes certaiп verbal nouns are spelled -ье iпstead of -ие, sigпifyiпg а
shortened proпuпciatioп characteristic of colloquial speech. For example, the
verbal nouns in the sayings Повторенье-мать ученья· Repetition is the mother
of learning' and Сиденье:\1 города не берj·т 'You can't take а city Ьу sitting'
would Ье in -ие in normal literary usage. In an earlier period the two spellings
alternated without any real significance, except for poets, for whom the differ-
ence could Ье important metrically: знание (three syllaЫes) vs. знанье (two
syllaЫes). Lexical douЫets, for example, воскресение 'resurrection' vs. вос­
кресенье 'Sunday,' are rare. The proпunciation distinctioп between -нье and
-ние is in any case slight. and in rapid speech -111,е usually emerges as mono-
syllaЬic [-n'::i].

Umitations оп formation
For а\1 their abundance, verbal nouns iп -и-ё (-ь,1-ё), as noted above, are
very rarely formed from at least two verbal types (О stems, НУ stems) and are
not formed from а great number of other verbs as well. For practical purposes
it is best to state that one cannot assume formation of such а noun from а given
stem, but that one should have а high degree of expectancy for their formation; 1
that is, know how to recognize them and make them, at least theoretically. Pre-
fixed perfective И stems and obstruents are quite likely to form nouns in -11-ё; so
are derived imperfectives in ii·aj and i-aj, but not, however, derived imperfectives
in aj. Certain other generalizations may suggest themselves as one encounters
more and more examples.

1 Ordinary dictionaries often do not list all the nouns which may actually Ье in use. E.g.
чнтаm1е and говорен11е are recorded only in the very largest dictionaries, though one finds
examples like К че~•У бь,.'lо всё это ч1паm1е, писание, говорен11е 'What was the use of all this
reading, writing, and talking?' (Note that the English word "reading" is usually not ч1паm1е
but чтение.) Verbal nouns, like derived imperfectives, are readily created Ьу Russian speakers,
w!iether or not the dictionary happens to list them.
156 SECTION 111: NOUNS

"Historical" or exceptional types

At the same time one must note the existeпce of а number of nouns derived
from verbs which in modern Russian have become obsolete, either altogether or
in the meaning from which the verbal noun in question was derived:
наблюдение (< наблюдут obs in meaning 'observe'; observation
impf only наблюдают 'observe ')
уважение (< уважить obs in meaning 'respect'; impf respect
only уважают 'respect ')
мнение (< *мнить 'think'; cf. помнить) opinion
чтение (< *чтут, now used only with prefixes) reading
зрение (< the obsolete stem зреть 'see ') vision
окончание (< *окончают; cf. modern end, ending
окончить - оканчивают)

А small number of (НУ) stems and prefixed НУ stems add -новение rather
than -е1111еto the truncated stem:
исчез(ну)ть disappear исчезновение disappearance
возник(ну)ть emerge возникновение emergence
столкнуться col\ide столкновение collision
прикоснуться touch прикосновение touch

Note the exceptional пение 'singing'; despite (c)noii-yт, past passive parti-
ciple спет, and восстание 'revolt, uprisiпg' < восстанут 'revolt, rise up.'

Meaning of the verbal поип in -11ё (-ь/-ё)

The meaning of the verbal noun in -11-ё is usually the name of the actioп,
process, or state denoted Ьу the verbal stem (here an English word in -ing often
corresponds) and/or the result or product of the action (in which case another
English word is often used). Thus реше1111е means both the "process of decid-
i ng" and the "result of deciding"; that is, "decision." Note:

Комиссия занята реше1111ем The commission is occupied with (the pro-

этих вопросов. cess of) deciding these questioпs.
Комиссия приняла решс1111е. The coп1mission came to а decision.
We see from this that the verba\ пoun has no aspect; hence решение is the
110ш1 for both рсш11ть and решают. There are cases, however, where пouns
from both vcrbs of an aspect pair exist, and \1ere the "imperfective" variant
usually rcfcrs to t\1e actioп or process itself, wl1ile the "perfective" variant de-
пotcs t\1c rcsult or product of the action, which may Ье something fairly dis-
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 157

tinct, and often not predictaЫe, from the meaning of the verb. Note the follow-
ing examples:
писание act/process ofwriting
написание spelling, manner in which something has been written

собирание collecting (process: собирание rрибов 'gathering of mush-

rooms ')
собрание collection (result: собрание марок 'stamp collection')

настаивание act/process of insisting

настояние insistence, urgent request

желание wish, desire

пожелание wish (as in "best wishes," etc.)

Still other "perfective" nouns, though unopposed to "imperfective" partners,

designate the result of an action, rather than the action itself; for example:

положение position, situation < положить 'put, Iay'

название name, title < назвать 'name, call'

EXERCJSES Form verbal nouns in -и-ё (-ь/-ё) from the following stems. Mark stress
and try to give the meaning, without using the dictionary.
спасут save слушают Iisten
пёкут bake надевают put оп
лёжать lie посетить ChS visit
значить mean увеличить increase
с/о/жмут press снимут take off
очистить clean рассмотреть examine
роют dig уставай- get tired
укроют cover пользоваться use
ший-ут sew высказывают express
приобрётут acquire стеснить restrain
приспособить adapt вторr(ну)ться invade
переживают experience просветить ChS enlighten
ликвидировать Iiquidate родить(ся) ChS give Ьirth (Ье born)
входить ChS enter
Try to estimate the underlying basic form for the following. Disregard stress.
позволение удивление имение предпочтение
поднятие пролитие обсуждение опровержение
замечание плавание регулирование расходование
158 SECTION 111: NOUNS

нытьё окружение проникновение заражение

течение крепление вырабатывание приказание

сдавание прекращение произношение понятие

обещание сдваивание произнесение объятие 1
послание раздутие

2 Other deverbative nouns of action/result

General
Other nouns of action/result are made Ьу adding various nominal suffixes
to а prefixed or unprefixed verbal root. The most important suffixes are -#-#
(zero-suffix building masculine nouns) and -/к-а. The existence of these nouns is
less "predictaЬ!e" than in the case of the verbal nouns treated above, but they
represent the verb in the same sense. For example:

оценить evaluate noun: оцен/ка evaluation (*оценениё does

not exist)
допросить interrogate noun: допрос interrogation (* допрошение
does not exist)

Sometimes one (and rarely more) ofthese other types ofnoun coexists with
а verbal noun in -и-ё; in such cases the meanings are usually distinct. The verbal
noun in -и-ё тау designate the action, while the other deverbatives, in conform-
ity with а tendency toward hypostasis, тау have а more concrete meaning,
designating а result or product of the action. Or each noun тау represent а
different meaning of the verb. Here are some examples:

составить - составляют: compose, compile, make up, comprise

составление composition, compiling, making up (action
more strongly felt)
состав composition, makeup; staff, membership
(result more strongly felt; note also
specialized meanings)
поддержать - поддерживают: support, maintain
поддерживание supporting (emphasis on process)
поддержание maintenance, conservation
поддерж/ка support (emphasis on result, more concrete)
1А nuniber of verbal nouns from the type -ймут - -нимут are in -ятие, rather than the
expected -11ятис.
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 159

поступить - поступают: enter, enroll; act

поступление entering, enrollment
поступ/о/к act
рассказать - рассказывают: tel1, narra te
рассказывание telling, narration (action)
рассказ tale, story (result)
завёдут - заводить: lead (various motions); introduce, estab-
lish; wind up (watch); start (motor,
machine, etc.)
заведение estaЫishment, founding, institution
завод factory, winding up; winding mechanism
(watches, etc.)
заводка winding up (watch), starting (motor) (col-
loq)

Examples in which the meanings differ less sharply (the nouns are not
altogether synonymous but may Ье more or less interchangeaЫe in certain
cases):
возвратить - возвращают ChS: return
возвращение return } (almost no difference in mean-
возврат return ing)
растворить - растворяют: dissolve
растворение (dis)solution (action emphasized)
раствор solution (product emphasized)

In the case of nonsyllaЬic roots, а syllaЬic variant of the root is chosen;

usually an о or an i stands between the two consonants (cf. Section I, pages 75
and 76).
вь1брать - выбирают choose вь1бор choice
убрать - убирают harvest убор/ка harvest
вь1звать - вызывают challenge ВЬIЗОВ challenge
Cf. призвать - призывают appeal призьш appeal
затрут - затирают jam, obstruct затор jam, obstruction
стирают (impf only) wash, launder стирка washing, laun-
dering
наймут - нанимают rent на/ё/м rent (gen
найма)

поднимут - поднимают raise подъём raise, rise

послать - посылают send посьш/ка package
160 SECTION III : NOUNS

учтут - учитывают take account of учёт account

под/о/жгут - поджигают set fire to поджог arson
напрут - напирают press напор pressure
Roots of the verb type ИЙ also are in either о or i, and roots of the verb
type ОЙ also occur in root variants in i as well as о. In addition, the roots of
both of these verb types, and also of the verb type Й, frequently have root
variants ending in -в rather than in -й 1 (cf. Section I, page 50), particularly ifthe
root vowel is i rather than о:
раз/бий-ут - разбивают smash; Iay out разбой robblng, brigandage
разбивка Iaying out
ший-ут sew ш/о/в seam
наший-ут - нашивают sew on нашив/ка stripe, tab
моют wash мойка washing
размоют - размывают wash away/out размьш wash out, erosion
покроют - покрывают cover покров cover
, (,) ,
выдуют - выдувают Ыоw out вьщувка Ыowing (out)
обуют - обувают put shoes on обувь footwear
someone
In the case of motion verb roots, the variant chosen is always that of the
nondetermined type:
, ~ (,)
выидут - выходить go out ВЬIХОД exit, going out
увёдут - уводить withdraw увод withdrawal
(по )едут - ездить go Ьу vehicle поезд/ка trip
Finally it should Ье noted that а suffix forming а deverbative noun from а
given root is likely to Ье used in other deverbative nouns from the same root,
though this does not exclude the possiЬility of formations with other suffixes.
Examples:
1. Verbs in ХОД' go' frequently have -#-# (masculine):
ход motion исход outcome
вход entrance отход departure
ВЬIХОД exit переход transition
ДОХОД income подход approach
But note: вь1ход/ка 'trick,' 11аход/ка 'find,' хожде1111е, ходьба 'walking.'
1 Root variants in -в corresponding to verbal roots in -й are found not only among non-
suffixed stems (Й, ОЙ, ИЙ) but also among а few verbs of the й-а subtype of А verbs:
по-ссй-а-ть sow по-сев sowing
чуй-а-ть feel чув-ств-о feeling
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 161

2. Verbs in СТАВ 'place' frequently have -/к-а; for example:

став/ка rate, stake достав/ка delivery
встав/ка insertion отстав/ка retirement
вь1став/ка exhiЬition подстав/ка support
But note состав 'composition,' устав 'code,' and many nouns in -ставление
and -станов/ка.
3. Verbs in МЕН 'change' frequently have -#-а (feminine):
мена change измена betrayal
замена replacement смена shift
4. Verbs in ПИС 'write' comprise many of the relatively few examples of
-#-# (feminine third declension):
запись record перепись census
бпись inventory подпись signature
But note also
запис/ка note перепис/ка correspondence
опис/ка slip of the pen подпи:с/ка subscription
описание description
built from the same verbs as the examples above.
5. Verbs in ДАЙ-ДАД 'give' have nouns built on ДАТ with а -#-а suffix
and а mutated final root consonant; for example:
дача giving отдача giving up/back
вьщача issue передача transmission
задача task раздача distribution
Cf. задание assignment удача success
А similar noun, built on ДАД is продажа 'sale.'

The types themselves

Here are the various types ofabstract deverbative nouns with examples. The
verbs with which the nouns are correlated are given on the left, the nouns them-
selves on the right.
Masculine zero-suffixed -#-#:
бий-ут beat, strike бой batt\e, beating
взгляJнуть - взглядывают glance, look at взгляд glance, \ook
в/о/йдjт - входить enter вхбд entrance
162 SECTION III: NOUNS

заказать - заказывают order (tickets, заказ order (tickets,

etc.) etc.)
крикнуть shout (perf semel)
крик shout
кричать shout (impf)
обмар.нуть - обманывают decei\·e обман deceit
осмотреть - осматривают inspect, examine осмотр inspection, ех-
amination
ответить - отвечают ans\•,er ответ answer
отдохнуть - отдыхают rest отдых rest (different
root variant)
nеревёдут- переводить translate перевод translation
>
подниыут - поднимают raise подъём raise, rising
Cf. поднятие.
раз/о/брать - разбирают analyze разбор analysis
распадут - распадают decay, распад decay, dis-
disintegrate integration
растут (root is РОСТ) grow рост growth
(по)строить build строй system, order
разговаривают conveгse разговор conversation
с/о/чтут- считают calculate счёт calculation
съедутся - съезжаются соте together съезд congress
(meeting)
А number of zero-suffixed nouns have acquired quite specialized meanings.
Sometimes their relation to the extant verbal root or prefix plus root is rather
remote:
ворот collar root ВОРОТ 'turn'; cf. воротить 'turn'
стол tаЫе root СТ/Л ·spread'; cf. стлать 'spread'
понос diarrhea root НОС 'сапу'
запад west root ПАД 'fall': а calque created on the idea of •· fall be-
hind" (ofthe sun in the \\'est). Cf. западут 'fall behind.'
Feminines in -/к-а. Some examples other than those above:
догадаются - догадываются guess, con- доrад/ка guess, con-
jecture jecture
подготовить - подготовляют prepare подготов/ка preparation
заметить - замечают notice за:-.1ет/ка note, mark,
notice
нападут - нападают attack напад/ки attacks (usually
(pl only) \'erbal)
ошибутся - ошибаются make а ошиб/ка mistake
mistake
 АВSТRАСТ ~OL~S 163
заm1сать - запйсывают "rite do\\11 зam'i:c,'.t...i note (short
message)
поправить - поправ:1яют correct поправ/ка correction
привьIК(ну)ть - привыкают get used to привьrч'ка haЬit
причесать - причёсывают comb причёс ка combing;
coiffure
чйстить clean чист ка cleaning; purge
улыбнуться - у.~:ыбаются smile У:IЬiб'ка smile

::-;оп: Verbs in ОВА add -. 1.-а to the root plus ов from the ,·erbal suffix:
.:mктовать dictate ,:mктбв 'ка dictation
(за)бастовать (go on) strike забаст6в .t...i strike
ко:1.1ан;:шрова ть send on а business trip ко:1.1ан.:шр6в ка business tri р
This type is Yery producti,·e. particularly for Yerbs in -ировать. In addition, а
number of ,·erbs in -ставввитъ haYe correlated nouns in -станбв1.а:
остановить - останав.;швают stop останов 'ка stop
установить - устанав:швают place; establish vстан6в ка placing

And note that а numЬer of compounds in -став1ПЪ haYe correlated nouns in

-стаиов1.а, 1 rather than in -став1.а:

переставить - перестав.~:яют transpose перестанбв •ка transposition

расставить - расстав.~:яют arrange, расстан6в ка arrangement,
place placing

Feminine =ero-suffixed nouns are consideraЫy less common. Тhеу are of

t\\·o types: second declension nouns (-=:=-а) and third declension nouns (-=-;=):

Second declension (-#-а):

(по)верить Ьelieve вера faith, Ьelief

(съ)елят eat е.:та meal, eating; food
за:1.1енитъ - за:1.1еюiют replace за:1.1ена replacement
из:1.1еюпь - из:1.1еняют change; Ьetray из:1.1ена Ьetrayal, infidelity
(dat)
(по ):1.1ешают disturb, hinder по:1.1еха hindrance, obstacle
:\.f)'ЧИТЪ torture, :l.l)"J.a torture, torment
torment
пr/нуть pull тяга draft (in а chinшey);
traction: cra,ing

_ 1 Cf. пе~ and ,расстШЮ111ПЬ, popular Yariants of оерест.iаип. and раСС'J'НМЪ.

164 SECTION III: NOUNS

Third declension (-#-#):

связать - связывают bind together, tie связь tie, bond,
connection
записать - записывают write down запись writing down,
record
переписать - переписывают rewrite; make а перепись census
list
накипеть - накипают form а scum накипь scum

NOTE: А very few feminine zero-suffixed nouns show mutation in the final root
consonant. Among nouns in -#-а, the (-)дача - -дажа nouns mentioned on page
161 have mutated from root variants ДАТ - ДАД; for example:

раздадут - раздавать distribute раздача distribution

продадут - продавать sell продажа sale

Among third declension zero-suffixed nouns we note:

<,>
могут Ье аЫе мочь
power (colloq) 1
мощь
power (note ChS alternation)
-рекут - -рекают say речь speech
(in prefixed verbs; e.g. изрёкут - изрекают 'utter')
Other types of abstract deverbatives build even smaller groups, and many
of the nouns have hypostasized and designate the concrete result or product,
rather than the action.
Neuters in -ств-о:

бежать run; flee бегство flight, escape

произвёдут - производить produce производство production
(factory)
Cf. произведение 'produc-
tion' (theater, etc.).
руководить lead, manage руководство leading,
managing
устроить - устраивают arrange, устройство arrangement,
organize device
убий-ут - убивают kill, murder убийство murder
There is at least one important enlarged suffix, -тельств-о, which is added
to the infinitive stem of а number of verbs:
1 The unusual altemation Г - Ч is discussed on р. 50.
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 165
доказать prove доказательство proof
учить teach учительство teaching activity 1
представить represeпt представительство representation
дать закон(ы) legislate законодательство legislation

Neuters in -11-ё:

отличить - отличают distinguish отличие distinction

услбвить - услбвливают aпange, settle условие coпditioп,
agreement
доверить - доверяют entrust, доверие trust,
confide confidence
соrласиться - соrлашаются agree, consent соrласие consent,
agreement
противоречить contradict противоречие contradiction
This suffix makes а number of nouns correlated with verbs in ствовать;
it is added to the root plus the suffix -ств-:
действовать act, operate действие action, operation
противодействовать oppose противодействие opposition
содействовать cooperate содействие cooperation
отсутствовать Ье absent отсутствие absence
присутствовать Ье present присутствие presence
соответствовать correspond соответствие correspondence

-ац11-я: This suffix offoreign origin is somewhat productive for nouns ofaction/
result from verbs in (11з)11ровать; for example:
конкретизировать make concrete конкретизация makiпg concrete,
"concretization"
советизировать sovietize советизация sovietization
военизировать militarize военизация militarization

The remaining types are totally unproductive and have very few examples
each:
-/о/к:
(по)звонить ring звон/6/к ring bell
поступить - поступают act (take а step) поступ/о/к act
прь1rнуть jump (perf semel)} /, /
. С прыжок jump
прь1rают Jump 1mpf)
1 Учительство also has the collective meaning 'body of teachers' (cf. р. 194), but here we
have the collective -ств-added to the noun учитель.
166 SECTTON 111 : NOUNS

-ёж:

делить share делёж sharing

платить рау платёж payment
-ель (f):
(по)гиб(ну)ть perish гибель ruin
-/н-я (usually pejorative):
мазать smear мазня bad painting (colloq)
возиться fuss возня fuss, racket
-/б-а: Root final paired consonants are soft (velars, of course, mutate):
(по)просить request просьба request
бороться struggle борьба struggle
служить serve служба service
-знь (f): Added to infinitive stem:
живут - жить live жизнь life
болеют - болеть Ье sick болезнь sickness
-тв-а: Added to infinitive stem:
жнут - жать reap жатва harvest
-отн-я:

бегают (nondet) run беготня (colloq) running about

-ть (f):
ненавидеть hate ненависть hate (-д-ть > -сть)
ведают know (obs) весть piece of news (-д-ть > -сть)

EXERCISE Look up and comment on and/or compare the following v.·ords and
groups of words:
вздор расстройство развод - разводка
совет обстановка отступ - отступлениё
стук оркестровка роспись - расписка - расписание
оборот сволочь пример - примерка
обоз боязнь объём - объятие - обнимка
нажим дар - подарок произношение - произнесение
помощь плата - платёж согласие - соглашение
опора клад-кладь просьба - прошение
народ шов-шитьё описание - опись
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 167

3 Other abstract nouns

Productive types
-ств-о: е is inserted after stems or stem variants in hushings (cf. page 63).
Productive for noun stems, particularly those built with an agent suffi.x, but
has little or по productivity with adjective stems and verb stems. Examples:

DENOMINATIVES

брат brother братство brotherhood (-liness)

товарищ comrade товарищество comradeshi р (-liness)
консул consul консульство consulate
герой hero геройство heroism
дилетант dilettant дилетантство dilettantism
хулиган hooligan хулиганство hooliganism
славян-ин Slav славянство Slavdom
крестьян-ин peasant крестьянство peasant class
With agent suffi.xes:
народник populist народничество populism
куп/е/ц merchant купечество merchant class
разбойник robber, bandit разбойничество robbery, banditry
чудак eccentric (man) чудачество eccentricity
государь sovereign государство state

Note also some nouns formed Ьу adding -ств-о to compound agent пouns coп­
sistiпg of а пominal root, а connecting vowel, а verbal root, апd а zero-suffi.x
(cf. pages 204-205):
коновод horse breeder коноводство horse breeding
людоед cannibal людоедство cannibalism

DEADJECТIV ALS

богатый rich богатство wealth

великий great величество majesty
единый united единство unity
общий general общество society
сущий real (old рар of "Ье ") существо being
А few nouпs in -ств-о are made from pronominal and numeral stems:
как how качество quality
*колик (variant of сколько) how much количество quantity
) 68 SECTION III: NOUNS

мноr- much множество multitude

свой one's own свойство characteristic
-ств-о a\so builds а number of enlarged suffixes:
-енств-о: первый first первенство superiority; championship
-шеств-о: новый new новшество innovation, novelty
-инств-о: больший larger большинство majority
-ость (f): This is Ьу far the most important suffix for making abstract nouns of
quality, state, or condition from adjectives (including participles). It has almost
unlimited productivity. It might Ье compared to the English suffix -ness.
старый old старость age, oldness
решитель/ный decisive решительность decisiveness
извест/ный well-known известность fame, "well-knownness"
сдержанный restrained сдержанность restraint
Occasiona!!y а noun in -ость may hypostasize:
ред/кий rare редкость rarity, rareness; а rare thing
жид/кий liquid жидкость liquid (state or substance)
-ость has а regular variant -ность after а stem final -щ:

общий general общность generality

будущий future будущность future
-ность may Ье considered autonomous (i.e. as an enlarged suffix) only in one or
two words:
готовый ready готовность readiness
горячий ardent горячность ardor
NOTE: In almost all cases -ость is added directly to the full stem (root plus form-
ant(s)). In а few cases, however, -ость has been added directly to а root, whereas
the corresponding adjective is suffixed:
роб/кий timid робость timidity
ленивый lazy леность laziness
-1ш1: This suffix is used primarily with words of foreign origin, although it is
occasionally added to а Russian stem; e.g. русйзм 'Russism,' лен11н11зм 'Lenin-
ism.' А word in -1вм almost always corresponds to an English word in '-ism.'
Correlated words in -11ст '-ist' frequently coexist. Examples:
социализм socialism социалист socialist
коммунизм communism коммунист communist
 ABSTRACT NOUNS 169

туризм tourism турист tourist

альтруизм altruism альтруист altruist

-1111-а: This suffix is joined to relationaJl adjectives in -ск- (ск > щ before 11) to
form nouns designating а system, а collectivity of customs and haЬits, а culture,
or, sometimes, the people involved, often with а negative connotation:

полицейский police (adj) полиuейшина police repression/system/

regime, etc.
Достоевский Dostoevsky достоевщина Dostoevskian style
The enlarged suffix -щ11н-а is more productive:
иностранный foreign иностранщина foreign things, culture, etc.
Обломов2 OЬlomov обломовщина OЬlomovism
военный military военщина militarist circles/mentality,
etc.
групповой group (adj) групповщина groupism, clique system

Slightly productive or unproductive types

These suffixes are primarily deadjectivals. In а few cases the suffix is added
directly to the adjectival root, though the corresponding adjective is suffixed.
Examples:

-изн-а:

белый white белизна whiteness

новый new новизна newness, novelty
крутой steep крутизна steepness

Enlarged -ов11з11-а:

дорогой expensive дороговизна high cost, expensiveness

-от-а:

высокий high высота height, elevation

широкий wide, broad широта width, broadness; latitude
густой dense густота denseness
бь1стрый quick, rapid быстрота rapidity

1 "Relational" and "qualitative" adjectives will Ье discussed in Section IV, рр. 209-211.
2 А character in Russian literature whose name became а symbol for inertia and good-
nat-ured sloth.
170 SECTION 111: NOUNS

-ин-а:

длинный long длина length

широкий wide, broad ширина width (physical only)
тихий quiet тишина silence, quietness

-и-ё (-ь/-ё):

великий great величие greatness, grandeur

здоровый healthy здоровье health
весёлый merry веселье merriness

-ын-я:

пустой empty пустьшя desert

святой holy СВЯТЬIНЯ sacred/holy thiпg
твёрдый firm твердь1ня stroпghold

Built from а noun stem is

милость favor, grace милостыня charity
-ть (f):
сладкий sweet сласть sweetness (colloq)
сласти sweetstuff, sweets
-аж: This foreign suffix has limited productivity within Russian:
пилот pilot пилотаж pilotiпg
подхалим toady подхалимаж toadyism

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following пouns are derived and ideп­
tify the suffixes and their meanings. Discuss апу special proЫems pertaiпing to
the derivation.
соседство свежесть аристократизм
дурачество щекотливость расизм
равенство разборчивость славянизм
овцеводство поверхностность белогвардейщина
издательство узость маниловщина
миссионерство проходимость прямизна
мастерство пассивность прямота
свинство живность простота
франтовство откровенность старина
грубость
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS \ 71

В NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS

Just as with abstract nouns, so with nouns denoting persons there are а
great number of suffixes, only а few of which are really productive. Productive
suffixes building masculine nouns, with the productive suffixes building their
most usual feminine counterparts in parentheses, are:
SUFFIXES IN -ИК (-иц-а)

-тель (-тельниц-а) -ант (-ант/к-а) -ик (-иц-а) 1

-/е/ц (-/к-а) -анин (-ан/к-а) and en- -ник (-ниц-а)
-ист (-ист/к-а) larged -чанин (-чан/к-а) -щик (-щиц-а)

In addition, the feminine suffix -ш-а is productive in building nouns designating

female persons; the noun designating the male counterpart is often nonsuffixed. 2
Also, some ofthe above suffixes may build enlarged suffixes, productive and
unproductive or slightly productive.

1 Productive masculine suffixes

-тель (m): This deverbative suffix is the most important Russian agent suffix
(an agent suffix designates the doer ofthe action; e.g. English -er, -or). lt is added
to the infinitive stems ofverbs with infinitives in -ить or ать - ять; i.e. primarily
И, А, ОВА, and АЙ (including verbs in the imperfectivizing suffixes aj, vaj, and
ivaj) and АВАЙ verbs:
учить teach учитель teacher
писать write писатель writer
читают (-ать) read читатель reader
исследовать investigate исследователь investigator
преподавать teach преподаватель teacher
подделывают (-ать) forge подделыватель forger
поджиrают (-ать) set оп fire поджиrатель instigator
Note that -тель and other agent suffixes may, Ьу extension, соте to designate
inanimate nouns:
указать indicate указатель indicator
проигрывают (-ать) play through проигрыватель record player

Such nouns are treated оп pages 187-188. Note also enlarged suffix -11тель:

спасут save спаситель savior

1 The suffix -11ц-а is more productive than -11к and frequently exists independently of it:
царь 'tsar ,' цар-иц-а ' tsarina.'
_ 2 The feminine suffixes are treated below (рр. 180-1 84).
172 SECTION III: NOUNS

-/е/ц:
This suffix builds nouns from nominal, adjectival, and verbal stems. For
example:
DENOMINAТIVES

гора mountain горец mountaineer

Ленин Lenin ленин/е/ц Leninist
Канада Canada канад/е/ц Canadian
Австрия Austria австри/е/ц Austrian
Корея Korea коре/е/ц 1 Korean

DEADJECТIV ALS

rлуnый stupid глуп/е/ц stupid person

храбрый brave. храбрец 2 brave man
слеnбй Ыind слеп/е/ц Ыind man

DEVERBATIVES

жнут reap жнец 2 reaper

куnить buy куп/е/ц merchant
бороться fight бор/е/ц fighter
There is, in addition, а type built on verbal nouns in -ениё:

переселение migration переселен/е/ц migrant

примирение (re)conci\iation примирен/е/ц conciliator
просвещение enlightenment, education просвещен/е/ц educationist
Some enlarged suffixes аге:

-ов/е/ц:

рабфак "raЬfak" (workers' school рабфаков/е/u student at а

рабочий факультет) "raЬfak"
Гитлер Hitler rитлеров/е/ц Hitlerite
-ен/е/ц:

бежать run, flee бежен/е/u refugee

первый first nервен/е/u firstborn
1 А few nouns in -е./е/ц correspond to nouns in -ня: грардня · guard,' гварде;е/ц • guards-

man.' The alternation of stressed е with unstressed н before jot is not uncommon in Russian
(cf. р. 72). The difference is purely orthographical; *гвардея would have the same pronuncia-
tion as rвар,111я, but Russian spelling rules exclude -ея after stress.
2 In certain nouns in which the zero alternate produces а difficult or impossiЫe consonant

cluster, thc "nюbile" е is retained throughout the paradigm; i.e. жнец, жнеца; храбрец,
храбреца.
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 173

-е/е/ц:

Европа Europe европе/е/ц European

-ин/е/ц:

пехота infantry пехотин/е/ц infantryman

Suffixes in -11к

-ик: -ик Ьу itself is а productive element in the formation of nouns from adjec-
tives in -/н- and -ов-:
родственный related родственник relative (noun)
глазной еуе(adj) глазник еуе specialist
фронтовой frontline (adj) фронтовик 1 frontline soldier
передовой foremost передовик 1 foremost (leading)
горловой throat (adj) горловик throa t specialist

Elsewhere -ик is mostly unproductive and builds only а few isolated words; for
example:
старый old старик old man
поручить entrust with а task поручик lieutenant (obs)

-ник: This enlarged suffix is productive and important in designating persons

with respect to their relationship to а base noun:
помощь help помощник helper, assistant
путь way, route путник traveler, wayfarer
весть piece of news вестник messenger, herald
зависть envy завистник envious person
юб/ка skirt юбочник skirt (woman) chaser
лод/ка boat лодочник boatman (ferryman)
школа 2 school школьник schoolboy
1 Many such words are originally based оп adjective plus а more or less specific noun:
фронтовик - фронтовой солдат
передовик - передовой человек, etc.
2 ln cases where an adjective in -/и exists as well, the question of whether а noun is •IПIK
or -н-нк is, of course, а matter of the semantic relationships in the modern language and, hence,
may depend on what kind of semantic association а speaker makes in а given instance. In the
case of школьник, the association is almost certainly directly with школа 'school' rather than
with школьный 'school (adj).'
174 SECTION III: NOUNS

А less productive type designates persons with respect to some action; such
nouns are correlated with verbs or deverbative nouns. For example:
работают работа work работник worker
защитить защита defend, defense защитник defender
изменить измена betray, treachery изменник traitor
-щик (variant -чик after stems ending in т, 1 д, с, з). This suffix builds nouns
from nouns and verbs and is extremely productive for both types:
DENOМINATIVES

атом atom атомщик atom-warmonger

барабан drum барабанщик drummer
каламбур pun каламбурщик punner
rазета newspaper газетчик newsman
мебель furniture мебельщик furniture maker
бетон concrete бетонщик concrete worker
моrила grave моrильщик gravedigger
nулемёт machine-gun пулемётчик machine gunner
тюрь/ма jail тюремщик jailer
DEVERBAТIVES2
,(,)
выдумают invent вьщумщик inventor
грузить load rрузчик loader
подписать subscribe подписчик subscriber
вкладывают deposit вкладчик depositor
с/о/чтут count счётчикз counter (as in census)
рассказать narrate, tel1 рассказчик narrator, storyteller
а story
ДОНОСИТЬ inform, tel1 on ДОНОСЧИК informer
Verbs in ОВА build nouns Ьу adding -щик to ов-; for example:
копировать сору копировщик copyist
сортировать sort сортировщик sorter
забастовать go on strike забастовщик striker
танцёвать dance танцовщик dancer
1 -щик occurs afterт in а handful of words: ко~п,1иl\1ент 'compliment,' комn.'lиментщик
'complimenter.'
2 In some cases when а deverbative noun with а zero-suffix exists, it may Ье difficult to say

whether а noun in -щик is derived from this noun or from the verb; e.g. вкщiдчик from вктiд
or вкшiдывают, рассказчик from рассказ or рассказать.
3 Cf. the same \•;ord designating an object ('meter') rather than а person (р. 191).
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 175

Note the enlarged suffixes:

-овщик (with noun stems):
лампа lamp ламповщик lampmaker
чась1 watch часовщик watchmaker
рост growth ростовщик usurer
-льщик (added to infinitive stems of various verbs):
носить сапу носильщик porter
рисовать draw рисовальщик graphic artist
купают(ся) (-ать(ся)) bathe (oneself) купальщик bather
строгают (-ать) plane строгальщик planer
плакать weep плакальщик weeper, complainer
-ист: This suffix builds nouns primarily from nominal stems, most of them
foreign. An English word in -ist is often the best translation. -ист designating
individuals belonging to а certain group, movement, direction, and so оп, may
have correlated words in -изм and/or English -isrn (cf. page 168).
металл metal металлист metalworker
машина machine машинист machinist
гитара guitar rитарист guitarist
тур,туризм tour, tourism турист tourist
коммуна, коммунизм commune, коммунист communist
communism
социал-, социализм social-, социалист socialist
socialism
SLAVIC STEMS

очерк essay очеркист essayist

связь communications связист signaler
-ант:This suffix builds nouns from foreign stems only, but it is productive with-
in Russian; that is, it may build words which have no corresponding foreign
noun in -ant (though many words in -ант are direct borrowings). The suffix is
autonomous in words like:
курс course курсант student
экспатриировать expatriate экспатриант expatriate
спекуляция speculate спекулянт speculator
диверсин sabotage диверсант saboteur
-а(я)нин: This is the suffix par excellence for designating а single member of а
.geographical group, and it is also used in а number of nouns designating mem-
176 SECTION III: NOUNS

bers of ethnic or sociological groups. The plural stem lacks the ин, 1 and the
nominative and genitive endings are special (nominative plural -е, genitive plural
-#). Consonants preceding the suffix are frequently, but not a\ways, palatalized,
and consonant mutation occurs sporadically:
север north северянин northerner
юr south южанин southerner
Лютер Luther лютерянин Lutheran
Mohican могиканин Mohican
Киев Kiev киевлянин Kievan
город city горожанин city dweller
Cf. ChS град city гражданин citizen
СЛАВ Slav славянин Slav
Егиn/е/т Egypt египтянин Egyptian
Армения Armenia армянин Aгmenian
двор court дворянин noЫeman

Enlarged suffixes are:

-чанин (productive):
Харьков Khar'kov харьковчанин resident of Khar'kov
Подольск Podol'sk подольчанин2 resident of Podol'sk
Датска older name associated датчанин Dane
with Denmark
Англия England англичанин 3 Englishman
-JIЗHIIH - ·ЬЯНIIН:

Марс Mars марсианин Martian

Христос gen Христа Christ христианин Christian
Influence of крест cross крестьянин peasant
and Христос Christ
The fo\lowing foreign suffixes have some independence in building new
words:
-ёр correlated with French -eur and/or English -er/-or in words like
актёр Fr 'acteur' Eng 'actor · импортёр Eng 'importeг·
режиссёр Fr 'regisseur'
1 This productive suffix is con1posed of ан plus the "singulative" suffix ин (which, appro-

priately, disappears in the plural); see -1111, р. 179, -ин-а and -ин/к-а, рр. 189-190.
2 -ск and certain other suffixes building place-names are omitted before -чаm,н and certain

othcr suffixcs denoting persons.

-1 Final jol is truncated before the suffix.
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 177

is independent in words like

киоск kiosk киоскёр kiosk minder
шум sound шумёр sound-effects man
шахта (coal) pit шахтёр (coal) miner

-атор correlated with French -ateur and (less often) English -ator in words like
реформатор Fr 'reformateur'
организатор Fr •organisateur'
администратор Fr 'administrateur' Eng 'administrator'

is independent in words like

стилизовать stylize стилизатор stylizer
популяризовать popularize популяризатор popularizer

NOTE: In analyzing the productivity of foreign suffixes within Russian, one

should recognize that the existence of the corresponding word in the foreign
language does not necessarily mean that the word was not created entirely with-
in Russian; for example, организатор 'organizer' does not have to Ье а direct
borrowing from Frencl1 'organisateur,' but тау have been built directly from
the verb организовать •organize' and the productive suffi.x -атор. In this sense,
it is as independent as стилизатор or популяризатор, which have no correspond-
ing French words in -ateur.

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following nouns are derived and iden-
tify the suffixes and their meanings. Discuss any special proЫems pertaining
to derivation.
житель младенец угольщик германист
водитель вузовец вь1борщик уклонист
воспитатель армеец натурщик фрейдист
завоеватель батареец оценщик правдист
получатель массовик лётчик адресант
создатель тыловик раздатчик докторант
держатель народник переводчик коммерсант
искатель пожарник зимовщик магометанин
хитрец западник расшифровщик лютеранин
делец ЛЬ\ЖНИК газовщик тарусянин
боец взяточник подавальщик кировчанин
македонец дачник чистильщик бракёр
178 SECTION III: NOUNS

2 Slightly productive or unproductive masculine suffixes

Slightly productive types

-ач: Nominal, adjectival, and verbal stems:

борода beard бородач bearded man

скрип squeak скрипач violinist
сила strength силач strong man, athlete
лов/кий adroit, deft ловкач adroit, resourceful man
толкают push толкач pusher, go-getter
рвать tear рвач self-seeker, grabber

-ак: Nominal, adjectival, and verbal stems. А final stem paired consonant
frequently appears soft:
море sea моряк sailor
Сибирь Siberia сибиряк SiЬerian
ТОЛСТЫЙ fat толстяк fat man
добрый good, kind добряк good, kind fellow
простой simp]e простак simp]eton
резать cut резак slaughterhouse worker
ВОДИТЬ \ead вожак \eader
(note mutation)

Enlarged suffix -чак:

Крь1м Crimea крымчак Crimean

весёлый merry весельчак merry fellow

-ун: Makes primarily nouns of agent from verbal stems. The nouns often have
an "expressive" meaning:

rоворить ta\k rоворун talker, chatterer

пой-ут ПОЙ - ПЕВ sing певун songster
Cf. more neutra] пев/е/ц 'singer.'
беrают run беrун runner
лrать lie лrун liar

-ыш: Adjectival and verbal stems. Many have "expressive" meaning and а col-
loquial flavor:

rлупый stupid rлупь1ш silly (littJe) feПow

последний last последыш \ast-born child
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 179

малый small маль1ш small child, kiddy

заморить underfeed заморыш starveling
об/о/рвать tear оборвыш ragamuffin

Unproductive types
-ан: Nominal and adjectival stems and verbal stems (variants -яьн and -11ян).
The nouns often have "expressive" meaning and а colloquial or popular flavor:
брюхо ЬеПу брюхан person with а large belly
великий big, great великан giant
смутить trouЫe, confuse смутьян trouЫe maker
грубить Ье rude грубиян rude fellow, boor

-яр: Nominal stems:

стол desk столяр cabinetmaker
школа school школяр pupil (obs, iron)

-арь (m): Nominal and verba\ stems:

аптека drugstore аптекарь druggist
библиотека library библиотекарь librarian
пуш/ка cannon пушкарь guпner

писать write писарь scriЬe, clerk

пёкут bake пекарь baker

-ин: This suffix has "singulative" meaning and builds primarily nouns designat-
ing а single member of а geographical, ethnic, or sociologica\ group. The suffix
is usually, but not always, lost in the plural (cf. the productive sнffix -ан11н with
а singular meaning, pages 175-176).

болгары Bulgarian (nom pl) болгарин Bulgarian (nom sg)

бояре boyar (nom pl) боярин boyar (nom sg)
хозяева master (nom pl) хозяин master (nom sg)
грузины Georgian (nom pl) грузин Georgian (nom sg)

-ок: Builds а few nouns, mainly deverbative:

играют play игрок player
ездить ride ездок rider

NOTE: the о in this suffix is not moЬile; the genitive singular is -ока. Do not con-
fщ;e -ок with -/о/к as in плат/6/к, genitive singular плат/ка.
) 80 SECTION III: NOUNS

Su_ffixes in -11ч naming persons Ьу origin

-ич: Examples:
Москва Moscow москвич Muscovite
Томск Tomsk томй:ч 1 resident of Tomsk

The enlarged suffix -ович (-евич) builds patronymics of а very few nouns:
поп priest попович son of а priest
король king королевич prince (son of а king)
This suffix is productive and much more important for building patronymics
from first names. For example:
Иван Ivan Иванович son of Ivan
Самсон Samson Самсонович son of Samson

-ён/о/к: This suffix builds а few nouns designating young human beings, though
it is commoner with nouns denoting animals. For example:

чёрт devil чертён/о/к little devil

октябрь October октябрён/о/к school child (first three
grades)
*роб 2 old word meaning ребён/о/к child
'sla ve, servant'
(роб- > реб-)

EXERCJSE Recover the words from which the following nouns are derived and
identify the suffixes and their meanings. Discuss any special proЬ!ems
pertaining to derivation.
слухач левак горлан магометанин
рифмач крикун лекарь едок
холостяк ГОЛЬIШ вратарь дьяволёнок

3 Productive feminine suffixes

Generally speaking, the suffixes above designate only male persons. Words
designating female persons are usually correlated \Vith and often formed directly
from the corresponding masculine nouns Ьу means of special feminine suffixes.
Most of these feminine suffixes are productive; they build feminine counter-
parts to the productive masculi11e types (see page 171 ), including enlarged suf-
1 Cf. footnote 2, р. 176. 2 Cf. Church Slavonic borrowing раб 's\ave.'
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 181

fixes, and to а number of less productive or unproductive masculine types as

well. 1 They may also build feminine counterparts ofunsuffixed male nouns and,
finally, may build feminine nouns which have no masculine counterparts. 2
When listing feminine counterparts of the masculine types discussed above
we will, for purposes of comparison, use as far as possiЫe examples given under
the masculine types.
-/к-а: Builds feminine counterparts to nonsuffixed masculine nouns and mascu-
line nouns in -/е/ц, -ист, -ик (nouns in -ов11к only), -ант, -анин, 3 -ач, -ак, -11н,
-ич:

сосед neighbor (m) сосед/ка neighbor (f)

шпион spy (m) шпион/ка spy (f)
пенсионер pensioner (m) пенсионер/ка pensioner (f)
миллионер millionaire миллионер/ка millionairess
канад/е/ц Canadian (m) канад/ка Canadian (f)
нем/е/ц German (m) нем/ка German (f)
бежен/е/ц refugee (m) бежен/ка refugee (f)
европе/е/ц European (m) евро пей/ка European (f)
турист tourist (m) турист/ка tourist (f)
связист signaler (m) связист/ка signaler (f)
большёвик Bolshevik (m) большёвич/ка Bolshevik (f)
курсант student (m) курсант/ка student (f)
демонстрант demonstrator (m) демонстрант/ка demonstrator (f)
северянин northerner (m) северян/ка northerner (f)
анrличанин Englishman англичан/ка Englishwoman
датчанин Dane (m) датчан/ка Dane (f)
египтянин Egyptian (m) египтян/ка Egyptian (f)
крестьянин peasant (m) крестьян/ка peasant (f)
скрипач violinist (m) скрипач/ка violinist (f)
сибиряк Siberian (m) сибиряч/ка Siberian (f)
болгарин Bulgarian (m) болгар/ка Bulgarian (f)
москвич Muscovite (m) москвич/ка Muscovite (f)

1 Not all masculine nouns denoting persons have feminine counterparts. The probability

for the existence of а feminine counterpart is lower in some types than in others, or existence
of а feminine may Ье precluded Ьу semantic considerations:
юбочник skirt chaser no corresponding *юбочница
бородач bearded man no corresponding *бородач/ка

Semantic considerations may preclude the existence of а corresponding masculine noun;

2

see examples below. 3 Singulative -ни in masculine is not repeated in feminine.

182 SECTION III: NOUNS

Enlarged suffixes. Examples are very few:

-ов/к-а: вор thief (m) воров/ка thief (f)
-ан/к-а: rрек Greek (m) rречан/ка 1 Greek (f)
-ен/к-а: француз Frenchman францужен/ка 1 Frenchwoman

There is no masculine counterpart to words Iike:

амазон/ка Amazon
rувернант/ка governess
кокет/ка coquette
проститут/ка prostitute

-ица: Builds feminine counterparts to а few nonsuffixed masculine nouns and

to masculine nouns in -11к:
царь tsar царица tsarina
император empcror императрица empress
родственник relative (m) родственница relative (f)
помещик landowner (m) помещица landowner (f) (or land-
owner's wife)

There is no masculine counterpart to

девица maiden
-ниц-а: Builds feminine counterparts to masculine nouns in -н11к and -тель (it is
added to -тель forming nouns in -тельн1щ-а):
помощник assistant (m) помощница assistant (f)
путник traveler (m) путница traveler (f)
работник worker (m) работница worker (f)
учитель teacher (m) учительница teacher (f)
писатель writer (m) писательница writer (f)
поджигатель instigator (m) поджигательница instigator (f)
-щ11ц-а - -чиц-а: Builds feminine counterparts to masculine nouns in:
газетчик newspaperman газетчица newspaperwoman
тюремщик jailer (m) тюремщица jailer (f)
подписчик subscriber (m) подписчица subscriber (f)
танцовщик dancer (m) танцовщица dancer (f)
ламповщик lampmaker (m) лапмовщица lampmaker (f)
купальщик bather (m) купальщица bather (f)
1 Note the isolated consonant mutations in these words.
 NOUNS DENOТING PERSONS 183

-ш-а: Builds feminine counterparts to а handful of nouns in Russian suffixes

and to many masculine nouns of foreign origin, mostly nonsuffixed or ending
in -ёр, атор, etc. It ordinarily designates females of а profession and sometimes
the ,vivesl of males of а profession, occasionally both. Nouns in -ш-а (par-
ticularly when they designate wives) are often colloquial and may not Ье listed
in dictionaries:
великан giant (m) великанша giant (f)
оnекун guardian (m) опекунша guardian (f)
генерал general генеральша general's wife
майор major майорша major's wife (collog) or
major (f) (рор)
профессор professor (m) профессорша professor's wife or female
professor
инженер engineer инженерша engineer's wife
репортёр reporter (m) репортёрша reporter (f)
лифтёр elevator Ьоу лифтёрша elevator girl
литератор writer (m) литераторша writer's wife or writer (f)
организатор organizer (m) организаторша organizer (f)
There is no masculine counterpart to
маникюрша manicurist
:\1ан11юор means not 'male manicurist' but 'manicure.'

4 Slightly productive or unproducti,·e feminine suffixes

-ь/-я:Builds feminine counterparts to masculine nouns in -ун and а handful of
nonsuffixed masculine nouns:
говорун chatterer (m) rоворунь/я chatterer (f)
бегун runner (m) бегунь/я runner (f)
певун songster (m) певунь/я songstress
гость guest (m) гость/я guest (f)
сват father of son-in-law свать/я mother of son-in-law

1 The suffix -/к/ builds at least one noun designating the wife of а шаlе in а profession:
со.цат 'soldier,' со.1датка 'soldier's \\·ife.' But сошраrе м11.1шюнер 'шillionaire,' м11.1.111онер/
ка 'шillionairess' with м11.1:111онерша 'шillionaire·s• \\·ife' (or, colloquially, 'шillionairess');
i.e. :ша, not -/к-а, ordinarily builds the noun designating the wife.
184 SECTION III: NOUNS

-ын-я: Builds counterparts to male nouns (normally nonsuffixed):

раб slave (m) рабь,ня slave (f)

rосударь sovereign (m) государыня sovereign (f)
бог god богиня goddess
герой hero героиня heroine
-их-а: Builds feminine counterparts to а few nonsuffixed and suffixed masculine
nouns:
трус coward (m) трусиха coward (f)
повар cook (m) повариха cook (f)
портной tailor (m) портниха tailor (f)
куп/е/ц merchant купчиха merchant's wife

-11н-а: Builds а handful of nouns from adjectives in -ск-:

мужской male мужчина (m) man

женский female женщина woman
деревенский country, rural деревенщина (m and f) country bumpkin
Exceptions to the usual correspondences between masculine and feminine
types are not numerous but do occur:
продав/е/u salesman but продавшиuа saleslady (built оп obsolete
продавщик)
старик old man but старуха old lady (not *старица)

А number ofmasculine words may designate females as well as males; врач

• physician,' человек •person,' товарищ •comrade.' Such words do not ordinarily
have feminine counterparts, but note that секретарь (m), which may designate
а male or female secretary, exists beside секретарша 'secretary (f),' used collo-
quially.

EXERCISE Discuss the formation ofthe following feminine nouns denoting persons
and give the corresponding masculine noun, if one exists.
еврейка землячка автоматчица парикмахерша
шведка католичка разведчица кассирша
испанка бесстьщн иuа оценщица врунья
террористка наследница болельщица боярыня
машинистка приятельница султанша ткачиха
аспирантка посетительница премьерша певица
девка
 NOUNS DENOT~G ANIMALS 185

5 Second declension nouns of common gender

Second declension nouns of common gender are formed Ъу а number of
different suffixes, each of ,,·hich, ho,,,ever, builds only а fe,v nouns, though а fe,v
types have а Yery slight producti\'ity in colloquial or substandard speech. For
example:
-ак-а (m/f) Expressi,,e: nисать write писака scribЫer, ,vriter
of trash
служить serve служака (old) campaigner
-:1-а(m/f) Added to меняют change меняла (money) changer
infinitive stems: кутить carouse кутйла carouser
-1щ-а (m/f): тупбй dull тупiша dullard
у~1/ный smart умниuа intelligent person
-яг-а (m/f) Expressive: бед/ный poor бедняга poor fello,v/girl/
,,·oman
работают ,,·ork работяrа hard ,,·orker,
plodder
Others are: -ён-а, -он-я, -х-а, -ош-а, -с-а, -уш-а, -у:1-я, -уг-а, -юк-а, -ыг-а, -ц-а,
-ух-а.

с NOUNS DENOТI~G ANIMALS

Nouns denoting animals differ sharply from nouns denoting persons in that
they lack special suffixes \\'hich build them alone and lack regular correspond-
ences bet,,·een the masculine and the feminine. The male of а species is typically
nonsuffixed, the corresponding female is built ,vith а feminine suffix, often -иц-а
or -их-а:
медведь bear медвешша bear (f)
вблк \\'Olf волчйuа or волчйха ,volf (f)
л/е/в lion львиuа lioness
верблюд camel верблюдиuа camel (f)
сбкол falcon соколиuа or соколйха falcon (f)
слбн elephant слониха elephant (f)
Other suffixes are less common. Rarely, the noun denoting the male is also
suffixed. Sometimes the v,ords denoting the male and female ha,'e different
stems or altogether different roots (like English 'bull - co,v '). Usually one of the
nouns (among common domestic animals it is often the feminine) is the generic
term designating the species as а ,vhole, ,,·ithout reference to sex, in addition to
its. more specialized sense:
186 SECTION III: NOUNS

гусь goose гусь1ня goose (f)

вороб/е/й sparrow воробьиха sparrow (f)
бь1к bull корова cow
п/ё/с dog (m) собака dog
петух rooster курица (pl куры) hеп, chickeп (general)
коз/ё/л goat (m) коза goat
баран ram ов/ца sheep
кот cat (m) кош/ка cat
конь horse (m) лошадь horse

In some cases а single word designates both sexes of а species. Here no

special pattern presents itself; various suffixes may Ье used:
грызун rodent глухарь wood grouse
ут/ка duck червь or червяк worm

The suffix -ён/о/к (nominative plural -ят-а, genitive -ят, etc.), designates
young animals. Final paired consonants are soft before this suffix. Formation
is from the masculine stem, if а pair exists, but many stems do not build these
types. Examples:
гусь goose гусён/о/к gosling
коз/ё/л goat козлён/о/к kid
волк wolf волчон/о/к wolf cub
медведь (m) bear медвежон/о/к 1 bear cub
медвежата

Much less common is the suffix -ёныш. lt designates the young, often with
an affectionate connotation, and has а colloquial flavor:
ут/ка duck утёныш 2 little duck
гусь (m) goose гусёныш little goose
The general word is детёныш 'young (of any) animal.'

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following nouns are derived and give
the suffixes. Discuss any special proЫems pertaining to derivation.
тигрица ежиха зайчонок змеёныш
соловьиха котёнок бобрёнок

1 д also mutates in this example and верблюд 'camel,' верблюжон/о/к, but cf. .JJебедь
'swan,' .1ебедё11/о/к.
2 Suffix is added to an abbreviated stem ут-.
 NOUNS DENOТir-.-G OBJECTS 187

D ~ou~s DE~oп~G oBJEcтs

1 ProductiYe suffixes
The most productive suffixes forming nouns denoting objects are built ,vith
agent suffixes ,vhich ordinarily denote persons; the agent meaning is transferred
to the object. The most important suffixes are -те.1ь, -.1ьн11к, -.1/к-а, and -ник.
The first three suffixes form nouns from infinitiYe stems of verbs ,vith infinitives
in -1пь, -ать, -еть; -ник forms nouns from other nouns (deverbals and denomina-
tives). Like the agent nouns designating persons, these nouns also often corres-
pond to English \\'ords in the agent suffix -er (-or):

-те.1ь (m):
указать indicate указатель indicator, index
проигрывают (-ать) play through проигрыватель record player
двигают (двигать) move двигатель motor, engine
растворить disso!Ye растворитель so!Yent
(,)
вьшрячить rectify выпря:-.1итель rectifier
(electricity) (electricity)
глушить silence. muffie глушитель silencer, muffier
-.1ьн11к:

умывают (-ать) ,vash у:.1ывальник washstand

холодить cool холодильник refrigerator
будить ,vake будильник alarm clock
светить shine светильник lamp (gas. kerosene)

-.1/к-а:

зажиrают (-ать) Iight up зажиrал/ка cigarette Iighter

греют (-еть) heat (tran) грел/ка hoнvater bottle
сеять SO\V сеял/ка seeding machine
копить accumulate копил/ка money Ьох
вешают (-ать) hang вешал/ка stand (for hanging coats, etc.)

-н11к: This type is more numerous than the others:

приём reception приё:-.1ник receiver (set)
подъём raising, lifting подъё:-.шик elevator, hoist
:-.1есяц month :-.1есячн11к month's campaign
As in месячник дружбы •friendship month'
ПЬlЛЬ dust ПЬlЛЬНИК duster (raincoat) (colloq)
градус degree rрадусник thermometer (colloq)
188 SECTION III: NOUNS

This suffix builds а large number of nouns designating а carrier or container 1 for
the thing named in the stem:
игла (gen pl игл, needle but игольник needle holder
not иг/о/л2)
вопрос question вопросник questionnaire
задача proЫem задачник proЬ!em book
слово word словник glossary
слив/ки cream сливочник cream pot
киш/ка intestine кишечник intestines
сбор collection сборник collection (of songs, poems,
etc. in а book)

-/о/к: This suffix builds а number of deverbative nouns usually designating

products ofthe action described Ьу the correlated verb. The suffix is often added
to а root variant comprehending а past passive participle т (cf. the meanings of
the nouns "that which has been X-ed ") whether or not the correlated verb
actually has а past passive participle in -т or а past passive participle at all:

снимут photograph сним/о/к photograph

растут ( root РОСТ) grow рост/о/к sproнt,shoot
вий-ут (-вит) wind вит/о/к spire
зачнут (зачат) conceive зачат/о/к rudiment, embryo
с/лий-ут (слит) pour together слит/о/к ingot
останутся (-стат) remain остат/о/к remnant

А productive subgroup of this type is formed Ьу nouns designating pieces or

fragments of things and frequently occurring in the plura\. 3 These nouns are
most often correlated with verbs in о (об/- with the meaning "submit"):
об/о/рвать tear обрь1в/о/к scrap (something torn)
обломают break облом/о/к fragment (something broken)
обломки debris

1 The suffix -ник in this n,eaning includes а nun,ber of nouns which may Ье regarded as

denoting place; we will include this type under subsection Е, р. 193.

2 Cf. р. 61.

3 Tl1cre аге а fairly large nun,bcr of plural only (pluralia tantum) nouns which designate

leavings ог rcfusc of some k ind. Gender is usually masculine (gen pl -ков) but may Ье feminine
(gen pl -/о 'к):
объсдю1, объедков leavings (fron, eating)
оч11стки, очtiстков peelings (vegetaЬle, etc.)
оп11в/ки, опt"tвок leavings (fron, drinking)
 NOUNS DENOТING OВJECTS 189

обрубить chop обруб/о/к stump

осадить precipitate осад/о/к sediment, deposit
осадки (pl) (atmospheric) precipitation
The only other importantly productive suffix building nouns designating
objects is -/к-а. The great majority of these nouns are built on two words,
usually adjective or numeral plus noun, with the noun "dropped" and replaced
Ьу the adjective, sometimes minus an adjectival suffix like -/н-, plus -/к-. For
example:
пятилетний план пятилет/ка five-year plan
зенитное орудие зенит/ка antiaircraft gun (colloq)
многотиражная газета мноrотираж/ка plant newspaper with
large circulation (colloq)
тушёное мясо тушён/ка (canned) stewed meat
десятилетняя школа десятилет/ка ten-year school
подземная железная дорога подзем/ка subway system (colloq)
открьпое письмо открьп/ка postcard
дежурная комната дежур/ка room for persons оп duty
(colloq)
керосиновая плит/ка керосин/ка kerosene stove
Elsewhere as а suffix building nouns designating objects, -/к- is unproduc-
tive, though not unimportant. lt builds many denominative nouns which were
originally diminutives (these will Ье discussed on page 199). In addition, -/к- is
found with а number of foreign stems where no diminutive is involved:
таблет/ка taЫet
салфет/ка napkin
Note the enlarged suffix:
-уш/к-а:

верх top верхуш/ка top, summit; leaders (collec)

играют play иrруш/ка toy

2 Less productive and unproductive suffixes

-ин-а: Added to the nominal, adjectival stems and verbal roots, makes nouns
denoting objects related to the stem or root in various ways. Unproductive ex-
cept for those described in paragraph 1 :
1. Unit or part of some larger unit or mass (slightly productive--cf. per-
son_al suffixes -ан1ш, -ин, pages 175 and 179-with singulative meaning):
190 SECTION III: NOUNS

виноград grapes виноградина grape

град hail градина hailstone
горох peas горошина реа

л/ё/д ice льдина ice floe

Enlarged suffix: -11н/к-а has diminutive force, means а single, small thing:
волос hair волосин/ка small hair
кровь Ыооd кровин/ка drop of Ыооd
пес/о/к sand песчин/ка grain of sand
2. Flesh of animals:
баран ram баранина lamb (meat)
конь horse (m) конина horsemeat
осётр sturgeon осетрина (flesh of) sturgeon
Suffix added to the plural stem:
коз/ё/л goat козлятина goat meat
(козлён/о/к, козлята)
медведь bear медвежатина bear meat
(медвежон/о/к, -жата)

3. Concretization of meaning:
верх top вершина summit
кон/е/ц end кончина decease, demise
СЕРЕД-СРЕД root 'middle' середина middle
дол dale (poet) долина valley
With verb stems the noun тау Ье the result of the process, sometimes а mark or
аspot:
развалиться collapse развалина ruin (of а person), (pl) ruins
царапают scratch царапина scratch
отметить note, mark отметина mark (on animal, etc.)
А few nouns denoting trees or bushes and/or their fruits:
МАЛ root 'small' малина raspberry bush, raspbe,ries
масло oil маслина olive tree, olive
-л-о: Added to infinitive stem or, with а very few consonant stems, to the basic
stem. Normally denotes instrument performing the action described Ьу the verb:
моют (мьпь) wash мьшо soap
дуют (-уть) Ыоw дуло muzzle
 NOUNS DENOТING OBJECTS l9l
поддувают (-ать) Ыоw from поддувало ashpit
underneath
покрывают (-ать) cover покрывало shawl, bedspread
точить sharpen точило whetstone
н~чнут (начать) begin начало beginning
пёкут bake пекло scorching heat, hell
СЕД - СЯД - СИД sit седло saddle
(root)
-щик (variant -чик after stems ending in т, д, с, з):

бомбардировать bombard бомбардировщик bomber (plane)

уг/о/ль coal угольщик collier, coal ship
счёт с/о/чтут count счётчик meter (electric, gas, etc.)
-ик (based on adjectives in -ов- and -/н-):

штурмовой storm (adj) штурмовик attack plane

грузовой Ioad (adj) грузовик truck
черновой rough-draft (adj) черновик rough draft/copy
ручной haпd (adj) ручник hand towel
ночной night (adj) ночник night lamp
нуж/ный necessary нужник latrine, lavatory (рор)
-иц-а:

кора rind корица cinnamon

пет/ля buttonhole loop петлица buttonhole
УЛ root 'street' улица street
Cf. переул/о/к 'alley.'
-ниц-а: Builds а number of nouns designating containers (cf. -ник, page 188):
сахар sugar сахарница sugar bowl
мь1ло soap мьшьница soap dish
кап/ля drop капельница dropper
пеп/е/л ash пепельница ashtray

-арь (m):
слово word словарь dictionary
буква letter букварь АВС book

-/е/нь (m):
лий-у pour лив/е/нь cloudburst
ров/ный РОВ even уров/е/нь level
грёбут row, rake греб/е/нь comb
192 SECTION III : NOUNS

-ак: Paired consonant may Ье soft before suffix:

тёсать hew тесак broadsword
синий dark Ыuе синяк bruise
-в-о (enlarged -11во, -ливо, -ево, -ово): Added to а few verb and noun stems to
make nouns designating the result of some action or being subjected to some
action:
оr/о/нь fire огниво stone/steel for striking fire
ТОПИТЬ heat топливо fuel
пий-ут ПЬ/Й - ПИЙ - ПИВ drink пиво beer
жнут reap жниво stubЫe
круг circle кружево !асе

-ик-а: Makes а few nouns denoting plants:

голубой Ыuе голубика Ыueberries
земляной eartl1en земляника strawberries
-ель (f):
мётут sweep метель snowstorm
капают drip капель dripping snow
-ыш:
(,)
вьшrрают win вьшrрыш winnings
вкладывают insert вкладыш inset
выки
, (,f нуть throw out ВЬ!КИДЫШ miscarriage, abortion
Other unproductive suffixes denoting objects are -/е/ц, -няк, -овин-а, -11щ-ё,
-овищ-ё, -ач.

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following nouns are derived and give
the suffixes. Discuss any special proЫems pertaining to derivation.
делитель бумажник безрукавка rрь1зло
показатель багажник пятирублёвка тяrло
переключатель песенник восковка дневник
светильник справочник веснушка капельница
доильник свёрток снежинка сухарь
сушилка цветок телятина трояк
сажалка обрезок лучина перст/е/нь
цедилка пилотка ныряло месиво
разрядник жестянка мерило отыгрыш
 NOUNS DENOТING PLACES 193

Е NOUNS DENOТING PLACES

There are only а small number of suffixes, and only two may Ье considered
really productive: -ль/и-я and -л/к-а.

1 Productive suffixes
-ль/и-я: Added to infinitive stem:
раздеваются (-аться) take off coat раздеваль/ня cloakroom
читают (-ать) read читаль/ня reading room
сушить dry сушиль/ня drying room
купают(ся) (ать(ся)) bathe (self) купаль/ня bathhouse
А more colloquial suffix building the same type of noun is -л/к-а. Added to
infinitive stem:
раздеваются (аться) take off coat раздевал/ка cloakroom (colloq)
читают (-ать) read читал/ка reading room (colloq)
сушить dry сушил/ка drying room (colloq)

2 Slightly productive or unproductive suffixes

-ник (cf. the same suffix designating objects, small containers, etc. on page 188):
пчёла Ьее пчельник Ьее garden, apiary
корова COW коровник cowshed
руда ore рудник mine
-иц-а: Nouns in this suffix are deadjectival:
больной sick больниuа hospital
тём/ный dark темниuа dungeon (obs)
тёп/лый warm теплиuа hothouse
-ищ-ё (enlarged suffixes -бищ-ё and -лищ-ё):

пожар fire пожарище site of fire

город city городище site of ancient city
дно bottom днище bottom of ship, Ьапеl, etc.
убежать flee убежище shelter
стрельба shooting стрельбище shooting range
мольба entreaty; мольбище prayer ground
prayer (obs)
194 SECTION 111; NOUNS

-бищ-ё:

кладут Iay кладбище cemetery

стоять stand стойбище camp of nomads
-лищ-ё: Added to infinitive stem. Slightly productive:
хранить keep хранилище storehouse, depository
учиться study училище academy
живут (жить) live жилище living quarters
влагают (влагать) insert, lay in влагалище vagina

-овь/-ё:

зима winter зимовье winter hut

верх top верховье upper reaches
низ bottom низовье lower reaches
гнёздо nest гнездовье nesting place
-/н-я:

пивовар brewer пивовар/ня brewery

пекарь (m) baker пекар/ня bakery
СХОДИТЬ go down сход/ня (сходни) gangplank
бой fight, battle бой/ня slaughterhouse

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following nouns are derived and give
the suffixes. Discuss any special proЫems pertaining to derivation.
красильня караулка глинище колокольня
спальня цыплятник чистилище

F NOUNS WIТH COLLECТIVE MEANING

We have already noted (pages 179, 189, 190) the suffix -ин- which has
singulative meaning. In addition, there are а number of suffixes which have а
collective meaning. Most important and productive are -ств-о and -ь-ё:
-ств-о: This suffix, with а primarily abstract meaning, often designates not only
the abstract idea itself but also the group of people associated with it, frequently
the body of people in some profession:
учитель teacher учительство teachers (collec); profession or duties of
а teacher
 NOUNS WIТH COLLECТIVE MEANING 195
офицер officer офицерство officers (collec); rank of officer
юнкер Junker юнкерство Junkers (co\lec); rank or status of Junker

-ь-ё: The meaning is usually pejorative, and the words are usually colloquial:
баба woman (pej) бабьё women (pej, рор)
зверь (wild) beast, brute зверьё (wild) beasts, brutes (also fig,
(also fig) colloq)
офицер officer офицерьё officers (pej, рор)
сырой raw сырьё raw material(s)
старый old старьё old things, junk (colloq); old
people (pej, рор)
Other suffixes are:
-няк: дуб oak tree дубняк oak grove
-ник: берёза Ьirch tree березник (or березняк) Ьirchwood
-тв-а: лист leaf листва foliage
-ур-а: This suffix, added to foreign stems, mostly in -ант or -ент is similar to
-ств-о in making nouns that designate а profession or activity and also the col-
lective body engaged in the profession or activity:
аспирант graduate student аспирантура graduate students (co\lec);
graduate course
агент agent агентура agents (collec); secret service
адвокат lawyer адвокатура the bar (collec); Iegal
profession
The suffix -ур-а is distinct from the element -ур-а in boпowings from Western
European words in -ura/-ure; for example, литература 'literature,' архитектура
'architecture,' etc. from which the suffix is derived.
Finally, there are а few words in -/н-я denoting small groups of more than
one:
ЧЕТВЕР four (collec) четверня quadruplets
ДВОЙ two (collec) двойня twins
двор court дворня domestics, servants; petty bureaucrats
(obs)

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the fo\lowing nouns are derived and give
the suffixes. Discuss any special proЫems pertaining to derivation.
рьщарство дурачьё клиентура
тряпьё липняк аппаратура
196 SECTION III: NOUNS

G NOUNS BUILT WIТH SUFFIXES NOT

CREAТING NEW INDEPENDENT WORDS

А number of suffixes, when added to nouns, do not create new, independent

words but merely modify the meaning of the original noun in some way. Such
suffixes тау impart а diminutive or augmentative (physical) meaning and fre-
quently, in addition and sometimes to the exclusion of the physical meaning,
convey а subjective or emotional attitude on the part of the speaker; the attitude
may Ье favoraЫe and express affection and endearment, or unfavoraЫe (pejora-
tive) and express depreciation. Diminutive suffixes may express either attitude;
augmentative suffixes do not ordinarily express affection.
The suffixes \vhich build nouns with diminutive, augmentative, and sub-
jective meanings in most cases coincide formally with suffixes which create new
independent words, described in subsections А to F above. They differ funda-
mentally, however, in that they are, in general, used only with nouns oftheir own
gender, and where they are not, the resulting word normally assumes the syn-
tactic gender of the base noun (e.g. гб.'lос 'voice': го.'lосиш/ко and голосище are
masculine and not neuter; гброд 'town': городиш/ко-скверный городишко
• nasty godforsaken little town '), whereas normal, derivational suffixes do not
have this restriction. In general, these suffixes approach the status of endings;
rather than themse\ves conditioning the gender of the resulting derived words,
their se\ection (i.e. whether а mascu\ine, feminine, or neuter suffix is chosen) is
conditioned Ьу the gender of the noun they derive. In this sense, and given the
fact that the meaning has only been modified rather than changed, а diminutive
or augmentative is really like а form of the noun from which it is built. 1

1 Diminutive suffixes
Diminutive suffixes comprise а much larger and more diversified group than
augmentatives. The chief suffixes are: (а) suffixes iпcluding the consonant к, pro-
ductive for masculine and feminine nouns but uпproductive for neuter; and (Ь)
suffixes including the consonant ц, productive for neuter nouns but less usual and
less productive for masculine and feminine nouns.

1А somewhat special status for diminutives is also suggested Ьу certain phonologica\

facts. For instance, certain consonants \vhich normally occur only hard before suffixes begin-
ning "ith к тау occur both hard and soft before the din,inutive /к:
Нина - Нинка Nina Ваня - Ванька Vanja
Ларi1са - Ларйска Larisa Вася - Васька Vasja
пчёл{1 - пчёл/ка Ьее кастрюля - кастрюль/ка saucepaп
 \VIТН SUFFIXES NOT CREAТING NEW INDEPENDENT \VORDS 197

Suffixes including к
:l,IASCULISE

-/о/к: СЬIН son сын/о/к son (dim)

час hour час/о/к hour (dim)
зверь Ьeast звер/ё/к beast (dim)
человек person человечjе/к person (dim)
друr friend друж/о/к friend (dim)
·lln.: нос nose носик nose (dim)
халат robe халатик rоЬе (dim)
стол tаЫе столик tаЬ!е (dim)

-ч11n.: стакан glass стаканчик glass (dim)

чемодан suitcase чемоданчик suitcase (dim)
FЕмr:-;г.-Е

-/к-а: ко:.1ната room ко~1нат/ка room (dim)

река river реч/ка river (dim)
идея idea идей/ка idea (dim)
книга book книж/ка book (dim)
~'EUТER

-/к-о: МОЛОКО milk молочко milk (dim)

коль/цо ring колеч/ко ring (dim)
-11n.-o: лицо face личико face (dim)

Suffixes including 11

SEUТER

-/ц-о: Variants -ец-б (ending stressed) and -1щ-е (ending unstressed) if the
noun ends in а consonant cluster:
ВИНО wine винцо v.'ine (dim)
пись/мо letter пись~1еuо letter (dim)
платье dress платьице dress (dim)
дело business дель/це business (dim)
слово \vord слов/цо \vord (dim)
мнение opinion мненьице opinion (dim)
(мненье)

MASCULI:-.'E

-/е/ц: брат brother брат/е/ц brother (dim)

материал material матершiл/е/ц material (dim) (рор)
198 SECПON Ш: NOUNS

FEMININE

-/ц-а: Variant -иц-а:

дверь door двер/ца door (dim)

вода water водица water (dim)

The types above represent the first gradation of diminution and may Ье
called diminutives of the first degree. The suffixes may express diminution, but
often the emphasis is on the emotional connotation of affection or humor. ln
diminutives of the second degree the emotional connotation almost entirely
supplants the diminutive meaning, which is subordinate or totally absent.
Diminutives of the second degree are formed Ьу adding а second diminutive
suffix (-/к-) to а diminutive ofthe first degree. In the frequent cases that the pre-
ceding suffix also contains а vowel-zero alternation so that the vowel-zero-con-
taining elements are juxtaposed, it acquires а vowel before it (cf. page 68) in the
resulting compound suffix, as may Ье noted in the first two examples below:
-/к- plus -/о/к > -оч/ё/к: друж/о/к дружбч/ё/к friend (dim affec)
-/к- plus -/к-а > -оч/к-а: книж/ка книжёч/ка book (dim affec)
-иц- plus -/к-а > -ич/к-а: водица водичка water (dim affec)

Enlarged diminutive sujjixes

-оч/к exists as an enlarged suffix building diminutives of the first degree in
а few words:
лента tape ленточ/ка tape (dim)
карта card карточ/ка card (dim)
Other enlarged suffixes building diminutives of the first degree are:
-ень/к-а: мама mama мамень/ка mama (dim)
дороrа road дорожень/ка road (dim)
-уш/к-а: корова cow коровушка cow (dim)
дядя uncle дядюшка uncle (dim)
-уш/к-о: rope woe rорюшко woe (dim)
поле field nолюш/ко field (dim)
-ур/к-а: дочь daughter дочур/ка daughter (dim)
печ/ка stove печур/ка stove (dim)
-ыш/к-о: rорло throat rорлыш/ко throat (dim)
пят/но stain шiтныш/ко stain (dim)
Suffixes which usually connote depreciation rather than affection are:
 WIТH SUFFIXES :КОТ CREAТING NE\V IN'DEPHШENT \VORDS 199

-иш/к- (used \\'ith nouns of all genders): Ending is -а for all feminines and for
masculines designating persons or animals and -о for neuters and masculines
designating objects. Syntactic gender is that of base noun (cf. page 196):
квартира apartment квартириш/ка apartment (dim pej)
петух rooster петушиш/ка rooster (dim pej)
город city городиш/ко city (dim pej)
куп/е/ц merchant купчиш/ка merchant (dim pej)
зем/ля land зеыmiш/ка land (dim pej)
молоко milk молочишко milk (dim pej)
здоровье health здоровьишко health (dim pej)
-ён~'к-а:

изба hut избён/ка hut (dim pej)

корова CO\V коровён/ка co\v (dim pej)
лошадь horse лошадён/ка horse (dim pej)
книга book книжон/ка book (dim pej)
А large number of suffixes, including some noted above, are used to make
diminutiYes (nicknames) of Christian names; the stem of the name is often re-
duced to а single (often the first and/or the stressed) syllaЫe:
-ш-а: Саша Александр, Александра
Маша Мария
Глаша Глафира

-уш-а: Андрюша Андрей

Груша Аrрафена

-н-я: Соня Соф11я

Таня Татьяна
Сеня Арсений, Се\1ён

Diminutii·es ivl1icl1 lose tl1eir force

DiminutiYe \Yords may lose their diminutiYe force Ьу replacing the \\·ords
from \Vhich they \\'ere derived (the base \\'ord, if it sun·i\'es, may become
augmentatiYe or Ье retained in certain usages):
буть1л/ка bottle бутьшь (\·ery large) bottle
\1олот/б/к hammer \tблот sledgehammer, large Ыacksmith's
hammer
девуш/ка girl дева maiden, girl
(poet)
or, in.many more cases, Ьу acquiring а ne\v or specialized meaning:
200 SECTION III: NOUNS

булава mace булав/ка pin

крыло wing крыль/цо porch
кора crust (earth) кор/ка crust (pie); rind, peel
мех fur; water меш/о/к bag
bag of skin
ПЬIЛЬ dust пыльца pollen
чаша goЫet чаш/ка cup
палата chamber, палат/ка tent
ward

Sometimes а word built with а diminutive suffi.x has both а diminutive

meaning and an independent, specialized meaning:

руч/ка hand (dim) but also handle, knob

нож/ка leg (dim) but also stem (mushroom), leg (chair), etc.

EXERCISE Discuss the following words with respect to nondiminutive and/or

diminutive meaning:

стрелка губка порошок

блюдце значок бабушка

2 Augmentative suffixes
There is only one important augmentative suffix:

-11щ-ё - -11щ-а:The ending is -а for feminine and -ё for masculine and neuter
nouns. This suffix is sometimes pejorative. Examples:
нос nose носище nose (aug)
друг friend дружище friend (aug)
борода beard бородища beard (aug)
дом house домище house (aug)
вино wine винище wine (aug)
рука hand ручища hand (aug)

The suffix -1111-а is used with а few words; for example:

дом house домина house (aug)
волк wolf волчина wolf (aug)
As ,vith diminutives, syntactic gender is that of the base noun.
 COMBINATION 201

COMBINA TION
Though less important than suffixation, combination plays an important
role in nominal word-formation, and compound words (the resu1t of comЬination)
comprise а number of numerous and productive types.
There are two relationships possiЫe between the two stems which make up
а compound word: coordination and subordination. Coordination involves the
simple addition of independent elements, which are ordinarily joined Ьу а
hyphen. This type of compound forms а small but productive group:

А COORDINAТION
диван-кровать couch bed
язьrк-основа language base
пила-рьrба sawfish
мать-героиня hero-mother
самолёт-снаряд flying bomb

В SUBORDINAТION
Much more often some kind of subordination is involved. А hyphen is
ordinarily not used. Elements may Ье joined directly or linked Ьу а connecting
vowel, normally -о- (-е-). The latter type of formation is much more important
than the former.

1 Elernents joined directly

These nouns comprise only а few isolated types: cities in -град, полу- 'half,'
and аtype with various foreign words as the first element:

Ленинrрад Leningrad
Волгоrрад Volgograd
полубог demigod
полусон half-asleep
кинотеатр movie theater
псевдонаука pseudoscience

and exceptional single examples like сорвиголова 'madcap, daredevil' (consist-

ing Qf сорви imperative of с/о/рвать and голова).
202 SECTION III: NOUNS

2 Elements joined Ьу а connecting vowel о

The most important types are:

1. Ти·о nouns connected. Nouns of all gender тау Ье involved, covering а
broad range of meanings, and including various types of relationships between
the connected words, but in all cases two independent nouns are connected:
лес forest парк park лесопарк forest park
нос nose рог horn носорог rhinoceros
масло butter завод factory маслозавод creamery
снег snow задержание retention снегозадержание snow retention
бетон concrete мешал/ка mixer бетономешал/ка concrete mixer
рельс rail укладчик Iayer рельсоукладчик rail layer
вода water хранилище depository водохранилище reservoir
тепло heat техник technician теплотехник heat engineer
танк tank строение building танкостроение tank building
железо iron бетон concrete железобетон reinforced con-
crete
море sea плавание riding on морёплавание 1 seafaring
water
уг/о/ль coal добьrча output уrлёдобьrча r coal output

2. The pronoun сам 'self' connected to independent words:

защита defense самозащита self-defense
определение determination самоопределение self-determination
критика criticism самокритика self-cri ticism

The remaining types involve suffixation in addition to combination.

3. Adjective or numeral or pronoun stem connected to noun stem plus suffix.
The suffix is frequently -11-ё (-ь/-ё) if the noun is abstract or collective:
глубокий deep мьrсль thought глубокомьrслие profundity, depth of
thought
простой simple речь speech просторечие popular speech
великий great дух spirit великодушие magnanimity
душа soul
благой (obs) good род family благородство nobility, noЫeness

1 The connecting vowel о is, of course, spelled е after soft paired consonants and hushings.

If а final paired consonant of the first word is soft when the word stands alone, it is normally
soft in the compound as well, though there are exceptions:
крбвь Ыооd пролитие spilling кровопролитие Ыoodshed
But cf. кровебоязнь 'fear of Ыооd.'
 COMВINATION 203
свой own образ form своеобразие originality
разный various образ form разнообразие diversity
чёрное Ыасk море sea черномор/е/ц sailor of the Вlack Sea
fleet
ред/кий sparse лес forest редколесье sparse growth of trees
The numerals 100 and 1,000 are joined to noun stems Ьу the connecting
vowel о, but most other numerals occur in the genitive form in these compounds.
For the numeral 2 the genitive двух- is often reduced to дву-. For 2 to 4 the col-
lectives двой-, трой-, четвер- with the connecting vowel о тау Ье used instead
of the genitives:
сто лет years
100 столетие 100 years (anniversary)
ть1сяча лет 1,000 years тысячелетие 1,000 years (anniversary)
шестьдесят лет 60 years шестидесятилетие 60 years (anniversary)
сорок лет 40 years сорокалетие 40 years (anniversary)
десять лет 10 years десятилетие 10 years (anniversary)
два, три, 2, 3, 4 years двух (трёх-, четы- 2, 3, 4 years (anniversary)
четь1ре рёх-) -летие

два-две 2 ОКИСЬ oxide двуокись dioxide

двой- 2 (collec) брак marriage двоебрачие bigamy
четвер- 4 (collec) стих line (of verse) четверостишие quatrain

4. Noun or pronoun or adjectil:e stem connected to 1.:erb root plus suffix. The
suffix -11-ё (-ь-ё) is common with abstract nouns:
зем/ля land ДЕЛ do, make земледелие agriculture
труд work ЛЮБ love трудолюбие industry, diligence
себя self ЛЮБ love себялюбие self-love
лёг/кий easy ВЕР believe лекговерие credulity
nись/мо letter нос carry письмонос/е/ц letter carrier
яс/ный clear вид see ясновид/е/ц clairvoyant
закон law ДАЙ give законодатель legislator
А number of types in -и-ё (-ь/-ё) and а few types in other suffixes тау achieve а
certain autonomy and build families of words:
-мыслие: свободомь1слие легкомь1слие разномь1слие единомь1слие
-душие: бездушие слабодушие равнодушие добродушие
простодушие
-лесье: подлесье перелесье безлесье малолесье чернолесье
-нос/е/ц: броненос/е/ц рогонос/е/ц орденонос/е/ц
-вид/е/ц: очевид/е/ц сновид/е/ц
_ -датель: работодатель залогодатель
204 SECTIO::\' III: KOUNS

5. ;\fasculine 11ou11s of agent 11·it/1 а zero suffix. These nouns may designate
persons or objects. The most important type consists of а noun stem connected
to а ,·erb stem ,,·ith the noun а direct object or other component ofthe verb. IfX
is the noun and У the Yerb, the resulting component has the general format
"X-Y-er":
лю.:щ people едят-есть eat :1юдоед cannibal (people
eater)
л/ё/д ice колоть stab .1е.1окол icebreaker
ПЬ!ЛЬ dust сосать suck пылесос vacuum cleaner
рь1ба fish ловить catch рыбопов fisherman
ЯЗЬIК language ведают (obs) kno,v языковед linguist
вода ,,·ater проводить conduct водопровод ,,·ater pipe
пар steam хо,:ппь go пароход steamer
пуля bullet :-.1етать thrO\\' пуле:-.1ёт machine-gun
вода ,,·ater лазить cra,vl во.:юлаз diver
In а Yery fe,v cases the order is reYersed; the Yerb precedes the noun:
шёлкают click перо pen шепкопёр (obs) pen-pusher
лизать lick б:1юдо plate лизоблюд (рор) lickspittle
Cf. archaic блюдолиз.

А number of\'erbal roots may become autonomous in building agent nouns

and function like productiYe suffixes \\"ith their various meanings. The meanings
of most of the ,vords belo,v are readily determinaЫe from their parts:
-ВЕД expert (kno,,·er) языковед ИСl\jССТВОВед собаковед
-ВОД raiser, cultivator: скотовод песовод экскурсовод
leader
-ДЕЛ maker винодел маслоде:1 бракодел
-ЛОВ catcher рыболов зверолов
-МЕР measurer водо:-.1ер зе:-.шемер
-МЁТ thro,,·er :-.шно:1-1ёт огне:-.1ёт пуле:-.1ёт
-про-ВОД conductor во,:юпровод газопровод
-РЕЗ cutter волнорез хлеборез

Nouns denoting the field or activity associated ,vith the agent are built Ьу
adding а bstract suffixes to the nouns: 1
1 These nouns in themsel,·es, considered as activities performed Ьу the agent compound

nouns, are not compound; i.e. they ha,·e the structure с~-отовб.:1-ств-о, язы~.ове.:1-ени-е. Ho,,·-
e,er, the acti,·ities (raising, kno,,·ing) may easily become associated directly ,,·ith the noun, by-
passing the agent stage, and this semantic change produces the enlarged "suffixes" -во.:1ств-о,
-ве.1еm1-е.
 COMBINAТION 205
-вод-ств-о: скотовод са ttleraiser СКОТОВОДСТВО cattle raising
-лов-ств-о: птицелов Ьirdcatcher птицеловство Ьird catching
вед-ени-ё: языковед linguist языковедение linguistics
-дел-и-ё: винодел wine maker виноделие wine making
Foreign agent ,vords in -граф, -.1ог, -скоп, -фи.1, -фоб, etc. are analogous
to the Russian type. In these ,vords the first element is subordinated to the second
(often verbal idea from the Greek) element, and the nonsuffixed agent stem
noun has а corresponding noun built with а suffix (often -11-я or -ств-о) which
denotes the field or activity associated with the agent (corresponding English
words should Ье clear):
-rраф- -rрафия: reorpaф - rеоrрафия библиограф - библиография
-лоr- -лоrия: биолог - биология диалектолог - диалектология
-фил - -филъство: англофйл - англофйлъство
славянофйл - славянофйлъство
-фоб - -фобство: англофоб - англофобство
rерманофоб - германофобство
-скоп: спектроскоп термоскоп микроскоп

Other types of zero-suffixed agent nouns are much Iess common:

Adjectii·e stem connected to ,:erb root (ad1:erb modifies rerb):
тяжёлый heavy ДУМ think тяжелодум slow-witted person
везде everywhere ход go вездеход cross-country vehicle
сухой dry СТОЙ stand сухостой deadwood, dried-up
trees or bushes
The pronoun са,1 connected to i·erb root:
САМ (self) ЛЁТ fly самолёт airplane
САМ (self) Г/Н chase; distill самогон home brew
САМ (self) ВАР boil самовар samovar
Verb root connected to i·erb root:
вертеть tum ЛЁТ fly вертолёт helicopter
6. One or two other zero-suffixed types exist, with а handful of examples
each:
Adjective stem connected to поип root (adjectire modifies поип):

частый frequent КОЛ stake частокол fencing, paling

чёр/ный Ыасk ЗЕМ earth чернозём Ыасk earth
_ сухой dry ДОЛ valley суходол dry valley
206 SECTION III: NOUNS

Noun stem connected to verb root (paral/e/ to subject-predicate construction):

вода water ПАД(ает) falls водопад waterfall
солн/це sun ПЁК (> ч)ёт bakes солнцепёк very hot place

EXERC/SE Discuss the derivation of the following words:

весновспашка семилетие рогонос/е/ц паровоз
самоуважение восьмигранник стенопис/е/ц тяжеловоз
малолюдье троежёнство баснопис/е/ц литературовед
своеволие единоборство ВОДОНОС птицелов
разноязьrчие единовер/е/ц клопомор труборез

3 Compound abbreviated words

Most compound abbreviated words are of fairly recent origin and are par-
ticularly characteristic of the Soviet period and of Soviet administrative termi-
nology. Неге are the most important types.
I. An adjective reduced to one (or rarely two) of its syllaЫes and joined to
an entire word (the noun the adjective modifies):
профессиональный союз профсоюз labor union
стенная газета стенгазета wall newspaper
партийное собрание партсобрание party meeting
физическая культура физкультура physical training
сберегательная касса сберкасса sa vings bank
зоологический парк зоопарк zoo, zoological park

2. Both elements of the compound are reduced to one or more syllaЫes:

коллективное хозяйство колхоз collective farm

советское хозяйство совхоз state (Soviet) farm
партийный комитет партком party committee
универсальный магазин универмаг department store
рабочий факультет рабфак workers' high school
Коммунистический Союз комсомол Komsomol, Communist Youth
Молодёжи League

3. The initials of each word spell out а word:

Государственный универсальный ГУМ GUM, State Department Store
магазин
 COMBINA TION 207

вь1сшее учебное заведение вуз higher educational institution,

university
Завод имени Лихачёва ЗИЛ ZIL automobile (produced at
the Likhachev Plant)
Соединённые Штаты Америки США United States of America
(pronounced as one syllaЫe [ssa])
4. The initial letters themselves are pronounced consecutively. In speech
they may Ье pronounced quite rapidly and slurred:
Коммунистическая Партия КПСС [ka-pe-es-es] Communist Party of the
Советскоrо Союза Soviet Union
Союз Советских СССР [es-es-es-er] Union of Soviet Socialistic
Социалистических Республик RepuЫics
Московский rосударственный МГУ [em-ge-u] Moscow State University
университет
Комитет rосударственной КГБ [ka-ge-Ьe] Committee for State
безопасности Security
5. А mixture of syllaЫes and pronounced letters. For example:
областной отдел народного облоно [оЫоnо] regional department of
образования pu Ыiс education (colloq)
заведующий учебной частью завуч [zavuc] director of studies
Other types and combinations of abbreviations exist, but examples are not
numerous.
 IV
ADJECTIVES

А QUALIТAТIVE AND RELAТIONAL ADJECТIVES

In dealing with adjectives, it is useful to distinguish two fundamentally
different types: qualitative and relationa/. Qualitative adjectives designate а trait
or а quality characteristic of the noun modified:
белый дом white house плохой писатель bad writer
Relational adjectives designate а relationship which characterizes the noun
modified as being of, from, or connected with something or someone; for
example:

деревянный дом wooden house, house of wood

французский писатель French writer, writer from/of France
звуковой фильм sound film, talkie

А relationship, а place, or substance of origin is expressed.

The distinction is semantic but has certain formal implications as well.
Qualitative adjectives, but not relational adjectives, may have short forms and
209
210 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

comparatives; something can Ье "whiter," but not "more of wood" ("more

wooden" is possiЫe only metaphorically, i.e. when the substance wood is not
actually involved); а writer can Ье "worse," but not "more of France" (and not
"more French," except metaphorically). Qualitative adjectives тау build ad-
verbs (usually coinciding with the neuter short form of the adjective); relational
adjectives do not ordinarily form adverbs. Qualitative nouns, but not relational,
тау build abstract nouns denoting their quality with such suffixes as -ость, -от-а,
-изн-а, etc. :

храбрый brave храбрость bravery

тёп/лый warm теплота warmth
белый white белизна whiteness
As the metaphorical examples ("more wooden, more French ") above
suggest, relational adjectives тау acquire qualitative meaning, and then two
meanings, one literal and the other more or less metaphorical, тау coexist:
сердечная болезнь heart disease (relational)
сердеч/ный человек cordial, warmhearted person (qualitative)
книжный магазин bookstore (relational)
книжный ЯЗЬIК bookish Ianguage (qualitative)
музыкальная школа music school, school of music (relational)
музыкаль/ный ребён/о/к musical child (qualitative)
золотое коль/цо gold ring (relational)
золоть1е кудри golden curls (qualitative-color)
ЗОЛОТОЙ век golden age (qualitative-metaphorical)
The suffix -/н- builds both qualitative and relational adjectives, but other
suffixes build almost exclusively either qualitative or relational adjectives. The
opposition of various suffixes тау Ье used to express а distinction between
qualitative and relational adjectives built from the same noun stem. For ex-
ample:
вкус taste вкус/ный tasty (qualitative; -/н- builds both
types)
вкусовой taste (adj) pertaining to taste
(suffix -ов- builds only
relational adjectives)
Compare: вкус/ный обед tasty dinner
вкусовое ощущение sense of taste
серебро silver серебристый silver(y) (qualitative; -ист- builds
only qualitative adjectives)
серебряный silver (adj) (relational; -ян- builds
only relational adjectives)
 NONDERIVED ADJECТIVES 211

Compare: серебряная руда silver ore

серебряная лош/ка silver sрооп
серебристый иней silver hoarfrost
серебристая проседь silver streaks of (gray) hair
серебристый тополь silver poplar
серебристый смех silvery \aughter

The urge toward metaphor, however, сап cause еvеп а fundamentally rela-
tional adjective to Ье used figuratively. Hence:

серебряный иней silvery hoarfrost

серебряный смех silvery \aughter

And in а figurative-relational sense:

серебряная свадь/ба silver wedding anniversary

However, when the meaning has to do with the substance of si\ver, only серебря­
ный may Ье used.
А qualitative adjective, of course, is not necessarily metaphorical, but it
always deals with the quality of а noun, rather than its direct re\ationship to
something:

ДЬIМ smoke дь1мная комната smoky/smoke-fil\ed room

дымовая труба smokestack

EXERCISE Using а dictionary, give and compare meanings of the following qualita-
tive and re\ationa\ adjectives. It may Ье useful to find or construct expressions
or sentences in which they are used.
звучный - звуковой трудный- трудовой сильный - силовой
вечный- вековой кровный - кровяной плодовитый - плодовый
водный - водяной

В NONDERIVED ADJECТIVES
There are between two and three hundred adjectives in Russian which from
the point of view of the modern \anguage are nonderived. The hard core of these
are qualitative adjectives with simple descriptive meanings:
молодой young пустой empty плохой bad белый white
2] 2 SECTION IV: ADJECТIVES

Many of these nonsuffixed types are historically derivatives; i.e. they are fused
adjectival roots. -/и- and -/к- are frequently the elements fused. For example:
добрый good, nice доб-р root ДОБ convenience
богатый rich бог-ат root БОГ god; rich
разный various раз-и verb prefix раз- dis-, distribute
блед/ный pale блед-н cf. блiдий pale (Ukrainian)
яр/кий bright яр-к cf. ярый ardent; violent
Cf. page 29 for other examples and discussion of fusion.
The majority of Russian adjectives, however, are derived Ьу suffixation,
prefixation, or comЬination, or Ьу more than one of these three processes.

PREFIXA TION

А SIMPLE ADDП ION OF PREFIX ТО ADJECТIVE

Compared with suffixation, prefixation plays а minor role in the formation
of adjectives. Simple prefixation, i.e. the simple addition of а prefix to an inde-
pendent adjective is quite Iiшited, both as to number of prefixes taking part in
the process and their productivity. The only important type is the negative pre-
fix не- (which has almost unlimited productivity):
хороший good нехороший not good, bad
высокий high невысокий not high, low
грамот/ный literate неграмот/ный illiterate
точ/ный accurate неточ/ный inaccurate
The prefix без- is occasionally added directly to adjectives; it carries the same
meaning as не-:
нравствен/ный moral безнравствен/ный immoral
ударный accented безударный unaccented
опас/ный dangerous безопас/ный safe
Other prefixes are consideraЫy less productive or they are foreign:
а- а-: мораль/ный moral амораль/ный amoral
а11п1- anti-: советский Soviet антисоветский anti-Soviet
пра- proto-: славянский Slavic праславянский proto-Slavic
11ро- pro-: американский American проамериканский pro-American
со- со-: причаст/ный part1c1pating сопричаст/ный (со )partici pating,
in, involved implicated
in
 ADJECТIVES DERIVED FROM PREPOSIТIONAL PHRASES 213

Still other prefixes which are simply added to adjectives merely intensify the
meaning and do not create new words. Included are both native and foreign
prefixes:
пре-: добрый kind, nice предобрый extremely kind/nice
раз-: весёлый merry, gay развесёлый extremely merry/gay
сверх-: бь1стрый fast сверхбь1стрый extremely fast
наи- (used with comparative adjectives):
ВЬIСШИЙ higher наивь1сший highest
архи-: нелепый absurd архинелепый utterly absurd
ультра-: правый right ультраправый ultraright

В PREFIXED SUFFIXAL ADJECТIVES DERIVED

FROM PREPOSIТIONAL PHRASES
The most productive type of prefixed adjective is formed not Ьу simple
addition of а prefix to an independent adjective but Ьу а suffix from а stem
based on а prepositional phrase. 1 For example, whereas in безошiс/ный 'safe'
the prefix без- was simply added to the independent adjective ошiс/ный 'danger-
ous,' in an adjective like безошибоч/ный 'errorless' the suffix -/11- builds the
word from the phrase без ошибки 'without error.' That is:
безопасный is simply без- plus опас/ный
безошибоч/ный is без-ошиб/к- plus -/н- plus ый

Whereas не- is the only productive type in simple-prefixed adjectives, about

fifteen prepositions participate actively in the formation of prefixed suffixal ad-
jectives. The suffix building these adjectives is usually -/11-. There is ordinarily no
connecting vowel:
без ценьI without price бесцен/ный priceless, in-
valuaЬ\e
вне плана outside the plan внеплановый not in the plan
внутри партии inside the party внутрипартийный inner-party (adj)
до революции before the дореволюционный prerevolution-
revolution ary
за рекой beyond the river заречный across the river
(adj)
между народами between peoples международный international
Note also the prefixal variant меж-:
между планетами between planets межпланетный interplanetary
- 1 This type is analogous to the nouns derived from prepositional phrases (see р. 150).
214 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

на столе on the tаЫе настольный tаЫе (adj)

над строкой above the line надстрочный diacritical
от глагола from а verb отглагольный deverbative
по часам Ьу hours почасовой hourly
после войнь1 after the war послевоенный postwar
под Москвой around Moscow подмосковный around Moscow
(adj)
против закона against the law противозаконный illegal
Note that adjectives in против- have the connecting vowel.
при море Ьу the sea приморский seaside (adj)
перед рассветом before dawn предрассветный predawn (adj)
The preposition is перед; the prefix is always the Church Slavonic пред-.
с пределом with the сопредель/ный contiguous
boundary
Adjectives in this type are always in со-.
Occasionally another element is combined in the prepositional phrase:
ни к чему good for nothing никчёмный good-for-
nothing (adj)
по ту сторону on the other side, in потусторонний the otherworld
the otherworld (adj)

EXERC/SE Give the meanings of the following adjectives and recover the preposi-
tional phrases from which they are derived:
бессильный досрочный посильный приозёрный
закавказский межрайонный надклассовый подзащитный
бездонный наземный подворный безногий
внебрачный отымённый посмертный противолихо-

современный предпраздничный послеоктябрьский радочный

SUFFIXA TION
Suffixation plays Ьу far the most important role in the formation of adjec-
tives. While the number of adjectival suffixes is not so great as that of nominal
suffixes, the more important adjectival types build substantially more words
than the important nominal types.
We shall treat adjectival suffixes under the following five headings: (а) the
suffix -/11-; (Ь) suffixes ,vhich build relational adjectives; (с) suffixes which build
qualitative adjectives; (d) suffixes of participial origin; and (е) diminutive and aug-
mentative adjectival suffixes.
 ТНЕ SUFFIX -/Н- 215

А ТНЕ SUFFIX -/н-

-/н- is the most important adjectival suffix. lt builds both qualitative and
relational adjectives; it is the chief suffix for the formation of adjectives from in-
animate nouns and also builds adjectives from verbs and certain other parts of
speech. lt is not normally used to make adjectives from animate nouns; this role
is reserved for the relational suffix - ск- to Ье treated below. -/н- is also the
principal suffix in compound adjectives (see page 238).
The following rules of combination, given for СС in Section 1, pages 35-
36, and for juxtaposed consonantal elements in vowel-zero alternations in
Section 1, pages 67-69, respectively, may Ье mentioned again here:
1. Final stem paired consonants occur only hard, except л, which occurs
only soft; velars and ц mutate:

чай tea чайный tea (adj)

место place местный local
грусть sadness груст/ный sad
культура culture культур/ный cultural
школа school школьный school (adj)
автомобиль automobile автомобильный automobile (adj)
наука science научный scientific
дорога road дорожный road (adj)
успех success успеш/ный successful
месяц month месячный monthly

2. Nonsyllabic -/н- conditions а mobile vowel in а preceding element which

contains а vowel-zero alternation at the derivational level (whether or not the
element contains а vowel-zero alternation at the inflectional level):

вод/ка (вод/о/к) vodka водочный vodka (adj)

кон/е/ц (кон/ца) end конечный final
день/ги (ден/е/г) money денежный financial
семь/я (сем/е/й) family семейный family (adj)
игра (gen pl игр) play; game игорный play(ing), gaming (adj)
(no alternation at inflectional level, but at derivational level ИГ/Р)

EXERCISE Build adjectives in -/н- from the following nouns:

карман МЬIЛО ружь/ё грех смерть идея
опера вторник гараж пес/ня адрес тетрад/ка
структура поясница ошиб/ка уг/о/л афиша
216 SECTION IV : ADJECТIYES

In addition to making relational adjectives, for example:

уличный street (adj) баскетбольный basketbal\ (adj)
and qualitative adjectives, for example:
вкус/ный tasty крас/ный red
the suffix -/н- builds many adjectives which may have both relational and qualita-
tive meanings. The examples on page 210, сердечный, книжный, and музыкаль­
ный all built with -/н-, are good examples. Sometimes an adjective in -/н- Ioses
its relational meaning entirely and becomes exclusively qualitative; e.g. плбт/
ный 'compact, dense' used to mean 'carnal, of the flesh' (derived from плоть
'flesh '), but has been replaced in this sense Ьу the relational adjective плбтск11й
(note the relational suffix -/ск-).
А large number of adjectives in -/н- are stressed on the ending. These adjec-
tives in -нбй tend to Ье relational:
лес forest лесной forest (adj)
река river речной river (adj)
стена wall стенной wall (adj)
область region областной region (adj), regional
An adjective in -ный may coexist with an adjective in -нбй built from the
same root; the meanings are distinct, and the adjective in -нбй almost always
has а more "relational" meaning than the adjective in -ный:
лицо face; person личной face (adj), personal
личный personal
время time; (verbal) tense времен/ный temporary
временной temporal (pertaining to time);
tense (adj)
Enlarged suffixes in -/н-

•енн(ый) (often correlated with nouns in -ство, -ствие):

правительство government правительственный government (adj)

государство state государственный state (adj)
чувство feeling чувствен/ный sensual
следствие investigation следственный investigatory
чис/ло number численный numerical
жизнь life жизненный life (adj)
болезнь sickness болезненный sickly, morЬid
-01111ый (а borrowed suffix, corresponding to foreign words in -11я, often
-щ1я - -щ101111ый, English equivalent -ional, -ionary):
 ТНЕ SUFFIX -/Н- 217
революция revolution революционный revolutionary
организация organization организационный organizational
ревизия revision ревизионный revisory
Other types are:
-овн-: верх summit, height верховный supreme
-ичн-: год year ГОДИЧНЫЙ а year's
-очи-: карта card карточный card
-ебн-: врач physician врачебный medical
-есн-: слово word словесный verbal, of words
Note the isolated -ель/и- in смерть 'death,' смертель/ный 'deadly.'
Deverbatives. -/и- also builds adjectives corresponding to а number ofverbal
stems:
берёгут save, guard береж/ный careful
отличить distinguish отлич/ный excellent
СХОДИТЬСЯ to Ье similar to сход/ный similar
строить build строй/ный well-formed
переносить transfer переносный portaЫe
заметить notice замет/ный noticeaЫe

Two enlarged suffixes are added to infinitive stems of verbs:

-льн- added to infinitive stems of verbs in -ить:

холодить cool холодильный cooling (adj)

гладить press гладильный pressing (adj)
-тельн- added to infinitive stems of verbs with infinitives in -1пь, -ать: This
suffix is very productive and important:
разделить divide разделительный dividing (adj)
описать describe описательный descriptive
указать indicate указательный indicative
замечают (-чать) remark замечательный remarkaЫe

Other types of adjectives in -/н-

-/н- may build adjectives from still other parts of speech:
PREPosпюN: против against против/ный repulsive, distasteful
ADVERB: -наруж- (наружу, снаружи) outside, ex(erior (adj)
Unlike foreign nouns, which are frequently borrowed into Russian directly,
without any Russian suffix, foreign adjectives borrowed into Russian must Ье
buiH with а Russian suffix. This suffix is usually -/и-:
218 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

productive (Ger produktiv, Fr productif) продуктив/ный

conservative (Ger konservativ) консерва тив/ный
staЫe (Ger stabll) стабиль/ный
serious (Fr serieux, -se) серьёз/ный

Finally, а large number of adjectives are built Ьу adding -/н- directly to а

foreign noun:
атом atom атомный atom(ic)
билет ticket билетный ticket (adj)

В SUFFIXES WHICH BUILD RELAТIONAL ADJECТIVES

The two most important suffixes building relational adjectives are -ск- and
-ов-.

1 -ск- (-еск-)

This highly productive suffix is the most important relational suffix. It

bui\ds adjectives from both animate and inanimate nouns. If -/н- is the all-pur-
pose suffix for inanimate things, -ск- is the all-purpose suffix for persons and
also for other proper (ethnic and geographical) names. lt also builds adjectives
from nouns denoting social institutions and technica\ and abstract terms.
The following rules of comЬination, given for СС in Section 1, pages 35-
36, and for juxtaposed consonantal elements in vowel-zero alternations in
Section 1, pages 67-69, respectively, may Ье mentioned again here:
I. Paired consonants other than л occur only hard before -ск- (except for
five adjectives derived from months: four in -рь and one in -нь):

царь tsar царский tsar (adj), imperial

конь horse конский horse (adj)
Русь Russia (old name) русский Russian
Ленин Lenin ленинский Lenin's, Leninist
брат brother бра-rский brotherly
Киев Kiev киевский Kiev (adj), Kievan
май Мау майский Мау (adj)

But поtе сентябрь/се11тябрьск11й, октябрь/октябрьский, ноябрь/ноябрьский,

декабрь/декабрьский, IIJ(ШЬ/111оньсю1й.
2. А fiпa\ root л is always soft before -ск-, and velars usually mutate. The
suffixal variant -еск- is the rule after ч and is found after ж and ш, particularly
if the word is derived from а person, whereas -жский and -шский are normal
 SUFFIXES WНICH BUILD RELATIONAL ADJECТIVES 219

if it is derived from а place, name, or person designated Ьу nationality (cf.

page 63):
Тула Tula тульский Tula (adj)
адмирал admiral адмиральский admiral's
апрель April апрельский April (adj)
человек human being человеческий human; humane
логика logic логический logical
супруг, супруга spouse супружеский matrimonial, conjugal
друг friend дружеский friendly
монах monk монашеский monastic
юноша youth юношеский youthful
But note:
Рига Riga рижский Riga (adj)
Париж Paris парижский Parisian
чех Czech чешский Czech (adj)
лать1ш Latvian лать1шский Latvian (adj)

А final stem ц may mutate, giving -ческий but sometimes does not mutate,
giving -цкий (the с of the suffix is lost in the spelling):
от/е/ц father отеческий fatherly, paternal
младен/е/ц infant младенческий infantile
нем/е/ц German немецский German (adj)
молод/е/ц valiant, brave молодецкий valiant, brave
young man
In relatively recent foreign stems, velars may Ье retained:
Нью-Йорк New York нью-иоркский New York (adj)
Страсбург Strasbourg страсбургский Strasbourg (adj)
казах Kazakh казахский Kazakh (adj)
The comЬination -к-ск- results in -цк- in а number of adjectives derived
from nouns denoting persons (particularly in the suffixes -ак and -11к); for
example:
дурак fool дурацкий foolish
казак Cossack казацский Cossack (adj)
холостяк bachelor холостяцкий bachelor's
мужик peasant (obs) мужицкий peasant (adj) (obs)
покойник dead, deceased покбйниuкий dead, lifeless, like а dead
person person
220 SECTION IV: ADJECТIVES

3. NonsyllaЬic -ск- (and also syllaЬic variant -еск-; see page 218) condi-
tions а moЬile vowel in а preceding element which contains а vowel-zero alter-
nation at the derivational level (whether or not the element contains а vowel-
zero alternation at the inflectional \evel:
судь/я (gen pl суд/е/й) judge судейский judge's; judicial
жить/ё (gen pl жит/е/й) life житейский life's, of life
Москва (no pl, but at Moscow московский Moscow (adj),
derivational level: моск/в) Muscovite
Литва (no pl, but at Lithuania литовский Lithuanian
derivational level: лит/в)
4. Place-names in -пи may add • ск- directly to the whole stem :1
Анrлия England анrлийский English
Австрия Austria австрийский Austrian
or to the stem minus -ий; for example:
Албания Albania албанский Albanian
Финляндия Finland финляндский Finnish
5. Stress on the ending is less common than stem stress in adjectives in
-ск-, and adjectives in -ской, like those in -ной, tend to Ъе relational:
море sea морской maritime, naval
rород city городской city (adj), municipal
Дон Don донской Don (adj)

Enlarged su.ffixes in -ск-

-ическ-: This is the most important enlarged suffix. Based on the type логик(а)/
логичесю1й, ф11з11к(а)/ф11зичесю1й, etc., -ическ- is autonomous in words like:
герой hero rероический 2 heroic, а hero's
сцена stage сценический stage (adj)
биология Ьiology биологический biological
биолог Ьiologist
фотография photography фотографический photographic
фотограф photographer
1 Note that а nun1ber of nouns in -11я
build adjectives in -ейск11й rather than in -ийскнй;
e.g. ар:ш1я/ар:wейсю1й, 11ол1щ11я/11отщейск11й,etc. Cf. Инд11я: 11ндийск11й '(East) lndian,'
11ндсйск11й '(American) lndian.' The alternation of stressed ей with unstressed нй was dis-
cussed оп р. 72; see also р. 172, footnote 1.
2 Cf. the adjective in unenlarged -ск-: геройск11й, with essentially the same meaning:
rсрбiiск11й or героичссю1й 11бдв11r 'heroic exploit.'
 SUFFIXES WНICH BUILD RELA TIONAL ADJECТIVES 221

коммунист communist коммунистический communist (adj)

коммунизм communism
социалист socialist социалистический socialist (adj)
социализм socialism

Other enlarged suffixes are:

-овск-: март March мартовский March (adj)
-инск-: Куба Cuba кубинский Cuban
-енск-: Рождество Christmas рождественский Christmas (adj)
-анск-: Америка America американский American
-ийск-: Альпы Alps альпийский Alpine
-ейск-: Европа Europe европейский European

Productii·ity of -ск- 11·ith agent nouns. -ск- is especially productive ш

building adjectives from nouns built with agent suffixes, both Russian: -тель
(extremely productive), -(н)11к, -ак:
учитель teacher учительский teacher (adj)
водитель driver водительский driver('s) (adj)
мученик martyr мученический martyr('s) (adj)
рыбак fisherman рыбацкий fisherman('s) (adj)

and foreign: -11ст (extremely productive), -ант, -ент, -ор, -ер, ёр:

марксист Marxist марксистский Marxist (adj)

расист racist расистский racist (adj)
эмигрант emigrant эмигрантский emigraпt (adj)
корреспондент correspondent корреспондентский correspondent (adj)
эксплуататор exploiter эксплуататорский exploiter (adj)
пенсионер peпsioner пенсионерский pensioner (adj)
актёр actor актёрский actor (adj)

Relational 1:s. qualitatii·e meaning in adjectii·es in -ск-. Adjectives in -cк­

and its enlarged types may acquire а qualitative shade of meaning; i.e. more
allegorical than directly relational. For example:

герой hero героический heroic, а hero·s

дурак fool дурацкий foolish, а fool's
рай heaven райский of heaven, heavenly
учитель teacher учительский а teacher's, like that of а teacher
Cf. учительская деятельность teacher's profession (relational)
Он говорил учительским Не spoke with а teacher·s tone (tone like
тоном. а teacher--qualitative).
222 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

However, even in these examples the relation to the noun remains clear. The
essential "relationality" of -ск- may Ье illustrated Ьу comparing certain adjec-
tives in -ск- with the corresponding adjectives in -/н-. Though such adjectives
are sometimes very close or identical in meaning, often the type in -ск- has а
relational or relational-qualitative meaning, while the corresponding type in
-/11- normally has а qualitative meaning and does not normally have relational
meaning. For example:
изобретатель inventor изобретательский inventor's; inventive
изобретатель/ный inventive, resourceful
воспитатель educator воспитательский educator's
воспитательный educational, educative
проситель petitioner просительский petitioner's
просительный pleading (adj) (glance, etc.)
поэтика poetics поэтический poetic (pertaining to poetry)
or poetic (fig)
поэтич/ный poetic (fig)

EXERCISES Using а dictionary, give the meaning of and compare, where appropri-
ate, the following adjectives:
теоретический- теоретичный симпатический - симпатичный
этический - этичный дипломатический - дипломатичный

Estimate the nouns from which the following adjectives in -ск- are derived:
норвежский повстанческий калмьщкий
библейский исландский австралийский
орфографический банковский пророческий
педагогический писарской пастушеский
нигилистский посольский баскский
словацкий олимпийский

2 -ов-

-ов- is the other major and productive relational suffix. Unlike -ск-, it does
not build adjectives from nouns denoting persons but is very common with
nouns \Vith а concrete or physical meaning:
бензин gasoline бензиновый gasoline (adj)
666 bean бобовый bean (adj)
мёд honey медовый honey (adj)
 SUFFIXES WНICH BUILD RELA TIONAL ADJECТIYES 223
двор/е/ц palace дворцовый palace (adj)
слон elephant слоновый elephant (adj)
сода soda содовый soda (adj)
кит whale китовый whale (adj)
берёза birch берёзовый Ьirch (adj)

Stress may Ье on the ending:

голос voice голосовой voice (adj)
час hour часовой hour(-long)
горло throat горловой throat (adj)
край region (USSR) краевой regional (USSR)
пить/ё drinking питьевой drinking (adj), drinkaЫe
-ов- builds many relational adjectives corresponding to adjectives in -/н­
which have qualitative meaning:
вкус taste вкусовой taste (adj), gustatory
вкус/ный tasty
сила power силовой power (adj) as in силовая станuия 'power
station'
силь/ный strong
rруз load, cargo грузовой cargo (adj)
rруз/ный heavy, cumbersome

3 Unproductive or slightly productive relational suffixes

-ян-: This suffix builds adjectives from nouns usually denoting some material or
substance:
кровь Ыооd кровяной Ыооd (adj)
жесть tin жестяной tin (adj)
серебро silver серебряный silver (adj)
кожа leather кожаный leather (adj)
р/о/жь rye ржаной rye (adj)
ln а few words this suffix is spelled -янн- under the inf\uence of the douЫe н of
participial types. For example:
дерево wood деревянный wooden, wood (adj)
стекло glass (substance) стеклянный glass (adj)
-/н'-: This unproductive suffix forms а small but important group of adjectives
from nouns, nominal and adjectival roots, adverbs, and prepositions mostly
having to do with time or place. л occurs only soft, the mutation in velars is in-
224 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

consistent (лих/лишний, but верх/верхю1й), and note that з and с mutate before
this suffix. Meanings are strictly relational except in а very few examples which
may have or acquire а qualitative meaning; e.g. крайний, средний, искренний:
вечер evening вечерний evening (adj)
лето summer летний summer (adj)
сосед neighbor соседний neighboring (adj)
край edge крайний extreme, last
СЕРЕд/СРЕД middle, as in средний middle (adj), cen-
середина, tral; average
среда
rод year -rодний: ежеrодний yearly
прошлогодний last year (adj)
новогодний New Year (adj)
позд late, as in поздний late
опоздают 'Ье
late'
вые high, as in вы- вь1шний higher
сокий 'high'
низ low, as in нижний lower
низ/кий 'low'
здесь here здешний from here, local
перед front передний front (adj)
Cf. isolated mutation of д in:
ПРЕД front прежний previous
вес/на spring весенний spring (adj)
Cf. вешний spring (adj) (poet)
ДАВ ago, as in давеча давний long ago (adj)
'recently' (colloq)
The enlarged suffix -шн'- builds а number of adjectives directly from adverbs, 1
including some older variants no Ionger current:
сеrодня today сегодняшний today's
вчера yesterday вчерашний yesterday's
тогда then тогдашний of that time
тамо (old form) there тамошний of that place
нь1не now ньrнешний present (of now)
дома at home домашний house, home (adj)
теnсре (old form) now теперешний present, of now
1 Since nюst of these adverbs end in vowels, а situation is created which is very unusual

in denon1inative and deadjectival derivation: the addition of а suffix to а vocalic stem.

 SUFFIXES WHICH BUILD RELA TIONAL ADJECТIVES 225
вне (prep) outside of внешний exterior
будни workdays буднишный or, more commonly, everyday;
будничный humdrum
The enlarged suffix -енн'- builds:
внутрь inside внутренний internal
утро morning утренний morning (adj)
А few adjectives in -/н'- have meaning not related to time or place, including
а number of words expressing familial relationship:
ЛИХ excess лишний superfluous
замуж(ем) married замужняя (женщина) married woman
сьш son сыновний (-овн'-) filial
дочь (дочер-) daughter дочерний daughter's, filial
Derived from из- •from' plus an element
related to КОР/Н 'root' искрен/ний sincere

4 Possessive and relational-possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives in -ов and -ин and relational-possessive adjectives in
-/й- comprise а special class of relational adjectives not only because of their
possessive meaning but because of their mixed de1,;Jension; they have short forms
in the nominative and accusative cases of both numbers and long forms in the
oЫique cases. 1 The declension of the relational-possessive type -ин- is normal.
Possessii·e adjectii·es in -ин and -ов. Adjectives in -ин are built from nouns
in -а denoting persons (usually words indicating kinship) and from the diminu-
tives (nicknames) of Christian names in -а. Nouns and names тау Ье masculine
as well as feminine:
сестра sister сестрин sister's
бабуш/ка grandmother бабушкин grandmother's
дядя uncle дядин uncle's
Саша Sasha (m or f) Сашин Sasha's
Гриша Grisha Гришин Grisha's
Possessive adjectives in -ов are from masculine nouns or full (nondiminutive)
masculine Christian names. For example:
от/е/ц father отцов father's
Олег Oleg Олеrов Oleg's

1 Except that the type in -ов (and in older usage the type in -11н) has the short form in the
masculine neuter genitive singular and dati\'e singular also.
226 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

The type in -1111 is still in some use; the type in -ов is definitely archaic. Both
would Ье normally avoided Ьу Russian speakers in favor ofthe genitive; that is,
Sasha's son сын Саши rather than Сашин СЫН
Oleg's wife жена Олега rather than Олеrова жена

Both types occur in а few fixed expressions:

адамово яблоко Adam's apple
ахиллесова пята Achilles' heel
анютины глазки pansies
чёртова дюжина baker's dozen
including scientific terms:
торричеллиева пустота Torricelli's vacuum
базедова болезнь Bazedov's disease
Relational-possessive adjectii·es in -/й- and -1111-. Adjectives in -/й- are built
mostly from nouns denoting animals but are also occasionally formed from
nouns denoting persons. In addition to velars and ц, д and т also sometimes
mutate before the suffix.
Animals:
рь1ба fish рьrб/и/й fish (adj)
собака dog собач/и/й dog (adj), dog's
коза goat к6з/и/й goat (adj), goat's
верблюд camel верблюж/и/й camel (adj), camel's
телён/о/к calf теляч/и/й calf (adj), calf's
телята (pl)
русалка mermaid русалоч/и/й mermaid's (adj)

Persons (types built from nouns in the suffixes -ак, -11к, -н11к, -щ11к are somewhat
productive):
Ббг God Ббж/и/й God's
рыбак fisherman рыбач/и/й fisherman's
мужик peasant мужич/и/й peasant's
разбойник robber разббйнич/и/й robber's
помещик landowпer помещич/и/й landowner's
Note that the interrogative possessive pronoun ч/е/й is of the same type (in-
tcrrogative root element к plus suffix -/й-) and declension (ч/е/й, чь-я, чь-ю,
чь-ёгб, чь-их; e.g. чь/й-а, чь/й-у, чь/й-огб, чь/й-ь1х).
The suffix -1111- forms adjectives from masculine and feminine substantives
 SUFFIXES WНICH BUILD QUALIТAТIVE ADJECТIVES 227

denoting animate (nonhuman) beings, particularly birds and insects. Declen-

sion is the normal adjectival:
гусь goose гусиный goose (adj)
курица (куры) chicken куриный chicken (adj)
блоха flea блошиный flea (adj), flea's
мурав/е/й ant муравьиный ant (adj), ant's
л/е/в lion львиный Iion (adj), lion's
Adjectives of the above types all have primary possessive or relational-
possessive meaning but, like other relational adjectives, may occasionally Ье
used metaphorically:
коровьи глаза cow's eyes or eyes like а cow's
rусиная кожа goose's skin or gooseflesh (оп а cold person)
Adjectives derived from nouns denoting animals may refer to the flesh or
meat involved as well as to the animal itself:
calf's or veal (adj) телячьи котлеты veal cutlets
chicken's or chicken (adj) куриный бульон chicken broth

EXERCISE Recover the words from which the following adjectives are derived.
Try to estimate the words and then check your results in the dictionary.
образцовый паевой льняной тётин чиновничий
вишнёвый сырьевой сторонний крь1сий крысиный
гвоздевой нефтяной завтрашний девичий орлиный

С SUFFIXES WHICH BUILD QUALIТAТIVE ADJECТIVES

1 Productive suffixes
Productive suffixes which build qualitative adjectives are -ист- and the en-
larged suffixes -лив-, -чив-, and -оват-.
-ист-: This suffix builds adjectives from nouns and from а few adjectival stems
derived from nouns, with the meaning of possessing the noun or а quality con-
nected with it, often in great quantity:
кость bone костистый bony
зерно grain зернистый grainy, granular
пора роге пористый porous
гора mountain гористый mountainous
глина clay глинистый с\ауеу, having much clay
228 SECTION IV: ADJECТIVES

Used with chemical elements, -11ст- sometimes designates -ous (vs. -и- for
-ic) in the chemical terminology:
азот nitrogen: азотистый nitrous азотный nitric
хлор chlorine: хлористый chlorous хлорный chloric
From adjectives derived from nouns are:
вода водяной water (adj) водянистый watery (fig), insipid
кровь кровяной Ыооd (adj) кровянистый Ыооdу, rich in Ыооd (as
meat)
мука мучной meal (adj) мучнистый mealy

These last examples illustrate the essential qualitativeness of -11ст-; it has

made qualitative adjectives out of relational ones.
-11ст- also builds adjectives from verbs; such adjectives express tendency to-
ward the action denoted Ьу the verb:
от/о/рвать tear (off) отрь1вистый jerky, abrupt
размахнуться swing, brandish размашистый sprawling
поджарить fry, grill поджаристый brown, crisp

-лив-: This suffix forms adjectives from verbal or deverbative (nominal) stems
denoting а tendency to the kind of action suggested Ьу the stem:
rоворить talk rоворливый talkative, loquacious
кричать (крик) shout крикливый loud, garish,
clamorous
берёrут save бережливый thrifty, economical
надоедят (надоесть) bore надоедливый boring
(по )слушаются оЬеу послушливый obedient
расчёт (раз/о/чтут) calculation расчётливый prudent, calculating
(calcula te)
шекотать tickle щекотливый ticklish, delicate

In а handful of cases -ш1в- is added to the infinitive stem rather than the
stem final consonant:
молчать Ье silent молчаливый silent, taciturn
терпеть bear, endure терпеливый patient
Adjectives in -лив- are also built from nominal stems; they have the mean-
ing of possession, often in а substantial quantity, of the noun involved:
талант talent талантливый talented
дождь rain дожливый rainy
 SUFFIXES WНICH BUILD QUALIТAТIVE ADJECТIVES 229
слеза tear слезливый tearful, lachrymose
совесть conscience совестливый conscientious
or of the quality implied Ьу the noun if the noun denotes а person:
трус coward трусливый cowardly
урод freak, monster уродливый hideous, deformed
-чив-: Unlike adjectives in -лив-, adjectives in -ч11В- are derived only from verbal
and deverbative stems. They denote а tendency toward the action expressed in
the stem:
обма~frнуть deceive обманчивый deceitful
находить find находчивый resourceful
задумаются fall into (deep) задумчивый thoughtful, pensive
thought
настоять insist, persist настойчивый persistent
изменить change изменчивый changeaЫe
ДОХОДИТЬ get to, arrive доходчивый intelligiЫe, clear
уклониться deviate, avoid уклончивый evasive
сговориться соте to agreement сговорчивый compliant, tractaЬ!e

-оват-: This suffi.x, added to nominal stems, makes adjectives with the sense of
possessing some characteristics of the noun involved or reminding one of it in
some way:
ноздря nostril ноздреватый porous, spongy
уг/о/л angle, corner угловатый angular, awkward
плут rogue плутоватый roguish
замыс/е/л project, scheme замысловатый intricate, complicated
виноватый 'guilty' (вина 'guilt ') stands apart from this group.
-оват- is more important and productive as а suffix added to adjectives and
attenuating their force, much like the English suffix -ish:
крас/ный red красноватый reddish
дорогой expensive дороговатый rather expensive
старый old староватый oldish
плохой bad плоховатый sort of bad

2 Slightly productive or unproductive suffixes

-/к-: This somewhat productive suffi.x is added to verbal stems to make adjec-
tives with the meaning of capability of performing or also susceptibility to some
actiun:
230 SECTION IV: ADJECТIVES

едят (есть) eat ед/кий corrosive, caustic

лип(ну)ть cling лип/кий sticky
ломают break лом/кий fragile
ловить catch лов/кий adroit, deft
ходить go ход/кий quick, fast; marketaЫe
марают soil, stain мар/кий easily soiled
падают fall пад/кий susceptiЫe to
резать cut рез/кий sharp
An older and unproductive -/к- builds а number of adjectives with simple or
basic meanings from adjectival roots. The comparatives of these adjectives and
deadjectival nouns or verbs are often, though not always, built directly from the
root rather than the stetn with -/к- (cf. page 23):
близ/кий near ближе (comp) близость nearness
сблизить draw/bring together
глад/кий smooth глаже (comp) гладкость smoothness
гладить press
корот/кий short короче (comp) короткость shortness
укоротить shorten
слад/кий sweet слаще (comp) сладость sweetness
насладиться take pleasure in
А very few adjectives are built from adjectival roots Ьу the suffix -ок-; for
example:
вые high высокий high
Од/И/Н one одинокий lonely
ШИР wide широкий wide
-ав-: This unproductive suffix builds а few adjectives from nominal and а hand-
ful of adjectival stems. Some final stem consonants mutate or occur soft before
this suffix, but no regular pattern emerges from the very few examples:
кровь Ыооd кровавый Ыооdу
прь1щ pimple прыи,, ..зый pimply
дыра hole дырявый full of holes, holey
великий great величавый stately, majestic
молодой young (comp моложе) моложавый youthful, young-Iooking
слад/кий sweet (comp слаще) слащавый sugary, sickly sweet
Enlarged suffix -ляв-:

кость bone костлявый bony, rawboned

писк squeak писклявый squeaky; whiny
 SUFFIXES WHICH BUILD QUALIТAТIVE ADJECТIVES 231

-ат-: This suffix is usually added to nouns denoting parts of the body of human
beings or animals. The denotation is possession, sometimes to an enlarged or
exaggerated degree, of the part of the body involved:
волос(ы) hair волосатый hairy
борода beard бородатый bearded
рог horn роrатый horned
крыло wing крылатый winged
чрево maw,womb чреватый fraught (pregnant) (with
(obs) (последствиями) consequences, etc.)
Женатый 'married' does not follow the pattern of this group.
Аrather different suffix -ат- is comЬined with а number of nouns with а
stem ending in а suffixal -/к- or -/ц-, which mutates to ч before the -ат-. These
nouns have nothing to do with parts ofthe body, and the adjectives formed from
them Ьу this -ат- simply denote possession ofthe noun involved or ofthe quality
it suggests:
клет/ка check (design); cell клетчатый checked; cellular
пал/е/ц finger пальчатый digitated (botany)
створ/ка leaf, fold створчатый folding
верёв/ка rope верё~чатый ropelike
Enlarged suffix -чат-: This suffix, enlarged from the second (and not the first)
-ат-type above, forms adjectives denoting possession ofthe noun, often in great
quantity, or of а quality it suggests. For example:
узор pattern узорчатый patterned, figured
брев/но log бревенчатый timbered, of logs
половина half половинчатый indecisive, halfway (policy, etc.)

The suffix also forms а few adjectives from verbs with the denotation of а tend-
ency toward the action described in the verb:
расплывутся run together, diffuse распльшчатый diffuse(d), dim
вз/о/рваться explode взрь1вчатый explosive

-аст-: This suffix is parallel to the first -ат- suffix; it builds adjectives from nouns
denoting parts of the body of humans or animals. However, it emphasizes the
size of the part of the body much more and has а colloquial flavor:
рог horn рогастый having large horns (colloq)
борода beard бородастый with а large beard (рор)
глаз еуе глазастый big-eyed; popeyed (colloq)
горло throat горластый loud-voiced; vociferous (рор)
-
232 SECТION IV: ADJECТIVES

-ив-: This suffix, which gave rise to the productive types -шlВ- and -чив-, is it-
self unproductive. It builds а few adjectives from nominal stems:
краса (arch) Ьeauty красивый beautiful
правда truth правдивый truthful
в/о/шь louse вшивь~й lousy
An example of formation from an adjectival root is
ЛЕН lazy ленивый lazy

Cf. similar examples in -ок above.

-ит-: This suffix is quite dead:

знамя (знамен-) banner знаменитый celebrated, famous
имя (имен-) name именитый distinguished, famous
СЕРД warmth, anger сердитый angry
сердиться Ье angry

Enlarged suffix -овит-: This suffix has little or no productivity but builds а
somewhat greater number of adjectives than -ит-:
дар gift даровитый gifted
яд poison ядовитый poisonous
плод fruit плодовитый fruitful

EXERCISES Recover the words from which the following adjectives are derived.
Try to estimate the words and then check your results in the dictionary.
ВОЛОКНИСТЬIЙ торопливый сучковатый пластинчатый
шетинистый прихотливый грязноватый грудастый
мшистый завистливый клейкий полосатый
травянистый забь1вчивый ёмкий губчатый
углеродистый обидчивый далёкий иrривый
прижимистый переменчивый редкий льстивый
услужливый разборчивый ржавый мозговитый

Using а dictionary, give the meanings of and compare the following adjectives:
шерстяной - шерстистый стеклянный - стеклянистый
зубчатый - зубастый волосатый - волосастый
земляной - землистый железный - железистый
мускульный - мускулистый
кровяной - кровавый - кровянистый - кровный
 SUFFIXES OF PARТICIPIAL ORIGIN 233

D SUFFIXES OF PARТICIPIAL ORIGIN

The commonest suffixes building these adjectives are the same suffixes
which build the four types of participles. Some of these adjectives coexist
formally with extant participles:
текущий current текущий which flows (part) 1
любимый favorite любимый which is loved (part)
бь1вший former бь1вший which was (part)
But many other adjectives, though clearly participial in origin, do not coincide
formally with extant participles. Their formation is not limited aspectually, as is
the formation of certain participles:
деланный artificial: There can Ье no coexisting past passive parti-
ciple, since де.1ают is imperfective.
применимый applicaЫe: There can Ье по coexisting present passive parti-
ciple, since применить is perfective.
А number of adjectives are built from stems differing somewhat from the
stems ofthe corresponding participles or with suffixes differing from those ofthe
corresponding participles:
доказуемый demonstraЫe доказываемый which is being proved
имущий propertied; wealthy имеющий which has
достижимый attainaЫe достигаемый which is being attained
злющий angry, furious злящий which makes angry
Certain adjective types occur only with the negative particle (these adjec-
tives are likely to Ье deriYed from present passive participles and to have the
seпse ип ... а(i)Ые):
непобедимый invinciЫe
неописуемый indescribaЫe
необходимый indispensaЫe
неисчерпаемый inexhaustiЫe

The suffixes building adjectives of participial origin belong to the five fol-
lowing groups.

1 From present active r-articiples

The suffixes are -ущ-, -ящ-, -уч-, -яч-:

1 An actual (long-form) participle must have the meaning "which ... " (i.e. Ье replaceaЫe
Ьу а-"который clause") and must satisfy certain formal requirements (see Ье\оw).
234 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

-ущ­ -ящ-

потрясающий staggering подходящий suitaЫe

выдающийся outstanding блестящий brilliant
текущий current настоящий real; present
The suffixes -ущ- and -ящ- are of Church Slavonic origin, borrowed into Rus-
sian and corresponding to the "Russian" suffixes -уч- and -яч-. -яч- is correlated
with verbs with third plural present in -ят; -уч- is correlated with verbs with
third plural in -ут, but also with а few verbs with third plural in -ят:
-уч-

могучий powerful Cf. могущий which is аЫе (part)

жrучий burning Cf. жгущий which burns (part)
кипучий seething, Cf. кипящий which boils (part)
ebullient
летучий flying; volatile Cf. летящий which flies (part)
(chemistry)
летучая рь16а flying fish
летучая мь1шь bat
-яч-

стоячий standing, стоящий which stands (part)

stagnant
сидячий sitting, СИДЯЩИЙ which sits (part)
sedentary
ходячий walking, ходящий which walks (part)
ambulant;
current

EXERCISE Using а dictionary if necessary, give the meanings of and compare the
following words:
rорящий - горячий - горючий
шипящий - шипучий
висящий - висячий

2 From present passive participles

The suffixes are -11м-, -ём-, -ом-. These adjectives denote the undergoing of
the action expressed Ьу the verb in question or, very often, the possibility of
 SUFFIXES OF PARTICIPIAL ORIGIN 235

undergoing the action. The English equivalent of the \atter type is often an
adjective built with the suffix -аЬ/е/-iЬ/е.

-им-

(не )применимый (in)applicaЫe неудержимый irrepressiЬ!e

(не)выполнимый (un)fulfillaЬ!e (не)измеримый (im)measuraЬ!e
(не)зависимый (in)dependent (не)допустимый (un )allowaЬ!e

-ём- -ом-

(не)сrораемый (in)combustiЫe несrибаемый inflexiЬ!e

(не)проницаемый (im)penetraЬ!e искомое unknown quantity
незабываемый unforgettaЬ!e (mathematics)

3 From past active participles

The suffixes are -вш-, -ш-:

-вш- •Ш·

бь1вший former сумасшедший crazy

минувший past падший fallen

4 From past passive participles

The suffixes are -нн-, -н-, -ённ-, -ён-, -т-:

-ин- -н-

избранный select(ed) вязаный knitted

помешанный mad, insane (не)званый (un)invited
сдержанный restrained ломаный broken
несль1ханный unheard of путаный confused

-ён­ -ённ-

солёный salted умеренный moderate

учёный learned уверенный assured, confident
раненый wounded поношенный worn, threadbare

-т-

развитой developed
открьпый open
- раздутый inflated; exaggerated
236 SECTION IV: ADJECТIVES

5 From participles in -л-

Finally, an older past participial suffix -л-, which became generalized for the
modern past tense and no longer operates participially, builds а fairly large num-
ber of adjectives from intransitive verbs. The formation of these adjectives is the
same as that of the past tense fonns, since the origin is the same. The denotation
is the state or condition resulting from the action of the verb. In most cases the
connection between the adjective and the verb from which it is derived remains
clear, though in а few it may become somewhat obscure (e.g. пошлый 'banal,
trite,' пойдут 'go '). Two important groups of adjectives are derived from ЕЙ
and (НУ) verbs with the intransitive sense "become":
устареют become obsolete устарелый obsolete
окаменеют petrify, become окаменелый petrified
like stone
спеют ripen спелый ripe
смеют dare смелый bold, daring
очерствеют become calloused, очерствелый calloused, hardened
hardened
блёк(ну)ть fade блёклый faded
мёрз(ну)ть freeze (intr) мёрзлый frozen
обрюзr(ну)ть grow fat and flabby обрюзглый fat апd flabby
тух(ну)ть become rotten тухлый rotten
кис(ну)ть turn sour кис/лый sour

Other types are Iess numerous. Some examples:

пройдут pass, go Ьу прошлый past
запоздают Ье late запоздалый belated, delayed
отстанут Iag, fall behind отсталый backward
бьпь Ье былой past, bygone
поживут Iive for а while ПОЖИЛОЙ middle-aged
гореть burn (intr) горелый burпed, scorched
растут (рос-) grow рослый tall, strapping
лёжать lie лежалый stale, old
впадут fall in впалый hollow, sunken
гниют rot гнилой rotten
А handful ofadjectives in the suffix-л- are not derived from the participle:
свет light свет/лый light, bright
круг circle круглый round
ТЁП - ТОП heat тёп/лый warm
БЕГ run беглый fluent; cursory
 COORDINATION 237

Е DIMINUТIVE AND AUGMENTAТIVE

There is only one diminutive suffi.x: -еньк- (-оньк- after velars). This suffix
conveys diminution and, usually, an affectionate attitude оп the part of the
speaker toward the noun modified Ъу the adjective. The suffix is productive but
is comЬined only with qualitative adjectives:
милый nice, dear миленький nice, dear (dim)
молодой young молоденький young (dim)
жёлтый yellow жёлтенький yellow (dim)
глубокий deep глубоконький deep (dim)
сухой dry сухонький dry (dim)
глупый foo\ish глупенький foolish (dim)

The type 1s occasionally comЬined with adjectives in the attenuating suffix

-оват-:

красноватый reddish красноватенький reddish (dim)

синеватый Ыuish синеватенький Ыuish (dim)

The suffi.x has lost its diminutizing force in at least two common words:
малый small маленький small
хорош (short forms only) good-looking хорошенький good-looking

Two augmentative suffi.xes build adjectives characteristic ofpopular speech.

Neither type is numerous:
-ущ-

толстый stout толстущий stout (aug)

-енн-

здоровый healthy здоровенный healthy (aug)

толстый stout толстенный stout (aug)

COMBINA TION

А COORDINAТION
Compound adjectives, like compound nouns, join together two stems,
directly or Ъу а connecting vowel (usually о (ё)). The relationship between the
two stems may Ье coordination, in which case а hyphen is usually found between
the cgnnecting vowel and the second stem; for example:
238 SECTION IV: ADJECТIYES

политико-экономический вопрос political and economic question

культурно-воспитательная работа cultural and educational work
марксистско-ленинский подход Marxist-Leninist approach
русско-английский словарь Russian-English dictionary
рабоче-крестьянский workers and peasants (adj)
товаро-пассажирский freight and passenger (adj)
сине-бело-красный red, white, and Ыuе
But more often some kind of subordination is involved. А hyphen is ordinar-
ily not used, and the stems are connected directly or Ьу а connecting vowel. А
number of different types of subordination may Ье observed. Ву far the most
important type involves nouns preceded Ьу а modifier.

В SUBORDINA ТION
1 Noun preceded Ьу а modifier
Adjectives are built from nouns preceded Ьу adjectival or pronominal
modifiers Ьу adding а suffix (often -/н-). The stems are linked Ьу а connecting
vowel:
сельское хозяйство agriculture сельскохозяйственный agricultural
равные права equal rights равноправный having equal
rights
железная дороrа railroad железнодорожный railroad
МИЛЫЙ вид good (nice) МИЛОВИДНЫЙ good-looking
Iook
своё время its own своевременный opportune
time
бьrстрый ход fast speed быстроходный high-speed,
fast
широкий экран wide screen широкоэкранный wide-screen
(adj)
длинная волна Jong wave длинноволновый long-wave
(adj)
простая душа simple soul простодушный 1 simple-hearted
великая душа great soul великодушный I magnanimous
красная речь beautiful красноречивый 1 eloquent
speech
разные образы various разнообразный 1 diverse
forms
1А number of these nouns are correlated with paralle\ compound nouns in -иё; cf.
11ростодуш11е, великодушие, 11рот11вореч11е, разнообразие,
etc., рр. 202-203.
 SUBORDINA TION 239

An important subgroup of this type is formed Ьу adjectives containing а

noun root designating а part of the body and built with а zero-suffix. The first
part ofthe compound is а quantitative adjective connected Ьу the vowel о or the
preposition без- without the connecting vowel:
толстые губы thick lips толстогубый thick-lipped
красное лицо red face краснолицый red-faced
без зубов without teeth беззубый toothless
длинные руки long arms длиннорукий long-armed
полные щёки full cheeks полнощёкий full-cheeked
голубь1е глаза Ыuе eyes голубоглазый Ыue-eyed
без волос without hair безволосый hairless
узкая грудь narrow chest узкогрудый narrow-chested

2 Other types of subordination

Various types of subordination are involved: verb governing object or
complement, adverb modifying verb (in these two cases the verbal element in the
compound is usually participial), adverb modifying adjective, numeral modify-
ing (or governing) noun, and others. Various suffixes are used to form the adjec-
tives. Most types have а connecting vowel: 1

режет металл cuts metal металлорежущий metal-cutting

торгует хлебом trades in grain хлеботоргующий grain-trading
подъём водь~ raising of water водоподъёмный water-raising
свободно МЬIСЛИТ thinks freely свободомь1слящий free-thinking
дико растёт grows wild дикорастущий wild(-growing)
мало little - used малоупотребительный little-used
употребительный
трудно проходимый difficult - pass- труднопроходимый difficult to pass
аЫе
двадцать процентов twenty percent двадцатиnроцентный 2 twenty-percent
(adj)

1 In any or all of the compound words below usage тау vary as to presence or absence
of secondary full or half stress.
2 Compounds containing а numeral as their first element do not ordinarily contain а con-
necting vowel; the first element is usually the genitive form of the numeral; e.g. двухэтажный,
трехэтажный, пятиэтажный, сорокаэтажный, nятндссятнэтажный. But note the normal con-
necting vowel in стоэтажный, тысячёлетннй. Most of the discussion of numerals as the first
element of compound nouns on р. 203 applies to compound adjectives with numerals as the
first .element.
240 SECTION IV : ADJECТIVES

пять лет five years пятилетний five-year (adj)

десять километров ten kilometers десятикилометровый ten-kilometer
(adj)
ог/о/нь - упорный fire - resistan t оrнеупорный fire-resistant
жизнь - радост /ный life - joyful жизнерадост /ный full of joy of life
способ/ный к труду сараЫе of work трудоспособ/ный aЫe-bodied,
аЫе to work
САМ - доволь/ный
self - satisfied самодоволь/ный self-satisfied
САМ-звать self - call самозванный false, self-styled
паровоз - ремонт locomotive - re- паровозоремонтный locomotive-re-
pair pairing
As mentioned above, hyphenation is not usual in compound adjectives in-
volving subordination. It is used with one group of adjectives denoting а sup-
plementary shade or nuance added to something, often а color:
блед/ный - розовый pale - pink бледно-розовый pale pink
пепельный - серый ash - gray пепельно-серый ash gray
серебристый - белый silvery - white серебристо-белый silvery white
тём/ный - синий dark - Ыuе тёмно-синий dark Ыuе
горь/кий - солёный Ьitter - salty горько-солёный Ьitter-salty
раскатистый - гром/кий rolling - loud раскатисто-громкий loud and rolling
(like thunder)
Elsewhere it is fairly uncommon:
диалектический материализм dialectical materialism
диалектико-материалистический dialectical materialism (pertaining
to)
экспериментальная психология experimental psychology
экспериментально-психологический experimental psychology (pertaining
to)
ln а number of compound types the second element has achieved an inde-
pendent status and functions as а more or less productive element. For example:
-видный of ... type, form:
куб cube кубовидный cublform
груша pear грушевидный pear-shaped
стрела arrow стреловидный arrow-shaped
пал/е/ц finger пальцевидный finger-shaped
-любивый ... -loving:
себя self себялюбивый egotistic, self-loving
дети children детолюбивый child-loving
труд work трудолюбивый work-loving, industrious
 SUBORDINATION 241

-нбсный ... -bearing:

броня armor броненосный armor-bearing
семя (семен-) seed семеноносный seed-bearing
смерть death смертонос/ный death-bearing
-спосбб/ный сараЬ!е оf/аЬ!е to ... :
труд work трудоспособ/ный аЫе to work
оборона defense обороноспособ/ный аЫе to defend (oneself)
кредит credit кредитоспособ/ный solvent, аЫе to make
good on credit

EXERCISE Give the meanings of the following compound adjectives and recover the
word groups frrm which they are derived:
малодушный великодержавный вышеуказанный
своевольный широкоплечий пятиминутный

добросовестный твердолобый двухсмь1сленный

мягкосердечный жизнеутверждающий шаровидный
белогвардейский болеутоляющий волнообразный
ЗЛОЯЗЬ!ЧНЫЙ мноrообешающий миролюбивый
узкоколейный
 APPENDIX 1

ROOT LIST

This Root List is а working list for practical use; it is neither exhaustive, nor
does it pretend to solve all the proЫems raised Ъу analysis of individual roots.
The considerations and criteria discussed in Section I on roots in general apply.
А final root paired consonant is regarded as neither hard nor soft. All roots are
designated as nominal, adjectival, or verbal (N, А, or v); the decision is usually
clear, though in certain cases opinions may vary as to the status assigned а root.
We recall (cf. page 15) that our categorization ofa root Ъу part ofspeech is based
not only on meaning but on how the root acts in the modern language (cf. page
16), rather than exclusively in terms of its origin. In а few cases, а root has split
into two parts of speech; often an older nominal root has become verbalized; for
example, БЕД, РЯД, ГОЛОС (nominal) but ГЛАС (the ChS variant: verbal).
See page 17 for а more detailed discussion.
The list contains about 650 common roots, not including variants. Most
of the important adjectival and verbal roots are included; nominal roots are
given in most cases only if they build words not directly related to their con-
crete meaning; for example, РУК and ГОЛОВ- ГЛАВ are given because they
build words like вь1руч11ть 'rescue,' поруч11ть 'entrust а task' as well as рука
243
244 ROOT LIST

'hand'; главный 'main,' заголов/о/к 'headline' as well as голова 'head,' but

not НОГ or ГЛАЗ, because their derivatives are directly connected with
'foot/leg' and 'еуе.' On the other hand such roots may Ье given if they are very
important or if they coincide with other roots; for example, ВОД 'water'
homonymous with ВОД from ВЁД - ВОД 'lead.'
The most "basic" possiЫe variant of the root is given in all cases; variants
showing truncation and consonant mutation are not given except in unusual or
unpredictaЫe cases. * Most of the unpredictaЫe or isolated variants (particularly
those resulting from vowel alternations (cf. page 53) are listed and referenced to
one of the variants; for example, СЛЫХ to СЛУХ). SyllaЬic variantst of non-
syllaЬic roots are referenced to the nonsyllablc root, Church Slavonic roots are
referenced to the pleophonic variant (where one exists), and variants in О to
variants in Ё; for example, МЁР and МОР to М/Р, ГЛАВ to ГОЛОВ, and
ВОЗ to ВЁЗ. If а root ever occurs with ё in а word, it is listed with Ё, even if' one
or more other words have the root in the stressed е (cf. page 9).
Some of the more frequent "fused roots" (cf. page 29) are also given; for
example, ДОБ-Р, КОН-/Ц, С-ПОР.

БАБ v add; amuse БЛИЗ А near

БАЛ v indulge, spoil БЛИСТ See БЛЁСК - БЛЕСТ
Б/Д v Ье alert; cf. БУД БЛУД N error, wandering
БЕГ v run БЛЮД v observe
БЕД N trouЫe, disaster; v defeat, БОГ N god; wealth
-vince, viс­ БОГ-АТ А rich
БЕЛ А white БОД See Б/д
БЕР See Б/Р БОЙ 1 v fear
БЕРЁГ' v guard, savei БОЙ2 See БЬ/Й
БЕРЕГ2 N bank, shore БОК N side
БЕРЕМ-ЕН (БЕРЕМ-Я) N burden БОЛ 1 N sickness, pain
БЕС N devil, fury БОЛ 2 А large
БИВ See БЬ/Й БОЛТ v shake, stir, chatter
БИЙ See БЬ/Й БОР 1 v fight, struggle
БЛАГ А good БОР 2 See Б/Р
БЛЕд/Н А pale БОРОН v fight, defend; cf. БРАН
БЛЁСК - БЛЕСТ v shine, brilliance Б/Р v take

* Root variants reduced Ьу truncation or isolated processes to а single consonant; e.g.

ЙД > Д in nри-д-ут • they will соте'; ГБ > Г in г-иу-ть • bend,' are not included in the
list.
t SyllaЬic variants in i of the type found in derived imperfectives and verbal nouns from
nonsyllaЬic verb stems are not ordinarily listed; e.g. МИР • die,' СЫЛ •send.'
t
Roots numbered 1, 2, etc. are regarded Ьу most etymologists as distinct from one
another in origin.
 ROOT LIST 245
БРАН v sco\d; cf. БОРОН БЛАГ N moisture
БРЁГ See БЕРЁГ 1 ВЛАД See ВОЛОД
БРЁД v wander ВЛАСТ ( < ВЛАД-Т) N power
БРЕЙ v shave ВЛАК See ВОЛОК
БРЕМ-ЕН See БЕРЕМ-ЕН ВЛЁК See ВОЛОК
БРИЙ See БРЕЙ ВН N outside, away; cf. ВОН
БРОД See БРЁД ВН-УТР N inside
БРОН N armor; reservation, ВОД1 See ВЁД
guarantee ВОД 2 N water
БРОС v throw ВОЗ See ВЁЗ
БУД 1 v wake ВОЙ 1 N war, fighting
БУД2 See БЫВ ВОЙ 2 v how\
БЫВ v Ье ВОЛ N will, freedom
БЫЛ See БЫВ ВОЛК See ВОЛОК
БЫТ See БЫВ ВОЛН N wave, agitation
БЬ/Й v beat, fight ВОЛОД v possess, control
ВОЛОК v drag, -tract
ВАГ N weight, esteem; daring ВОН N smell
ВАЛ v throw; pile up, wave, bank ВОР See ТВОР 2 ; о-твор became
ВАР v cook от-вор in отворить • open'
ВЕД v know; tel1 ВОРОГ N magic; cf. ВРАГ
ВЁД v Iead, -duce ВОРОТ v turn
ВЁЗ v convey В/Р v Iie, talk nonsense
ВЕЙ v Ь\оw ВРАГ N enemy; cf. ВОРОГ
ВЕК N century, eternity ВРАТ See ВОРОТ
ВЕЛ v command; cf. ВОЛ ВРЕД See ВЕРЕД
ВЕЛ-ИК А great ВРЕМ-ЕН (ВРЕМ-Я) N time
ВЕР v be\ieve В/С А al\, entire
ВЕРГ v -ject, throw ВСТРЕТ (В-С(Т)-РЕТ) v meet
ВЕРЕД N harm ВС-ЯК А every, any; cf. В/С
БЕРЕТ See ВОРОТ ВТОР А second
ВЁРТ See ВОРОТ вый See вой 2
ВЕРХ N top ВЫК v become accustomed/habitu-
ВЕС v hang (tran) ated
ВЕСЁЛ А gay вые А high
БЕТ v say, speak ВЬ/Й v wind, -i·elop
ВЕТХ А decrepit ВЯД v fade, wither
ВЕЩ N thing, substance ВЯЗ v Ьind, tie
ВИВ See ВЬ/Й
ВИД v see, vid- ГАД 1 v guess
BИЙ See ВЬ/Й ГАД 2 N vileness
ВИН N gui\t ГАР See ГОР 1
ВИС v hang (intr) ГАС v extinguish
ВИТ v Iive Г/Б v bend; cf. Г/Н 2
246 ROOT LIST

ГИБ v perish, bend; cf. Г /Б ГРОМ See ГРЕМ

ГЛАВ See ГОЛОВ ГРУБ д crude
ГЛАД I л smooth ГРУЗ v \oad
ГЛАД 2 See ГОЛОД ГРУСТ N sadness ( < ГРУЗ-ТЬ)
ГЛАС v call, sound; cf. ГОЛОС ГРЫЗ v gnaw
ГЛОТ v swallow ГРЯЗ N dirt
ГЛОХ See ГЛУХ ГУБ v (Г/Б) bend; destroy
ГЛУБ л deep ГУД v hum
ГЛУП А stupid ГУЛ v stroll
ГЛУХ л deaf ГУСТ л thick
Г ЛЯД v look, glance
Г/Н 1 v chase; distill ДАВ 1 v squeeze, press
Г/Н 2 v bend; cf. Г/Б and ГИБ ДАВ 2 (usually ДАВ-Н) л long ago
ГНЁТ v oppress ДАД SееДАЙ
ГНИЙ v rot ДАЙ v give
ГНОЙ See ГНИЙ ДАЛ А far
ГОВОР v speak, talk ДАН SееДАЙ
ГОД N goodness, advantage ДАРI SееДАЙ
ГОЛ л naked ДАР2 v ДАР in УДАР 'hit' is
ГОЛОВ N head related to д/Р
ГОЛОД N hunger ДАТ SееДАЙ
ГОЛОС N voice ДВЕР N door
ГОН See Г/НI ДВИГ v move, -тоt-
ГОР 1 v burn (intr); N sorrow, ДВОР N court (yard); cf. ДВЕР
Ьitterness ДЕВ N maiden, girl
ГОР 2 N mountain ДЕД 1 N grandfather
ГОРБ N hump ДЕД2 (ДЕЖ/ДЕЖД) v put, !ау*
ГОРД л proud ДЕЙ v put, !ау; do, act, operate*
ГОРОД v enclose, partition ДЕЛ I v do, make*
ГОСПОД N master, lord, God ДЕН v put, \ау*
ГОСТ N guest ДЕЛ 2 v divide
ГОСУ Д See ГОСПОД ДЕР See Д/Р
ГОТОВ л ready; v prepare ДЁРГ v pull; cf. ДЕРЖ
ГРАБ v grab, rob; cf. ГРЁБ ДЕРЖ v ho\d; cf. ДЁРГ
ГРАД 1 v reward (originally with а ДЕРЕВ N wood, country
castle) ДЕРЗ д bold
ГРАД I See ГОРОД ДЕШЁВ А cheap
ГРАД 2 N hail ДИВ N wonder
ГР АН N border ДИК А wild
ГРЁБ v dig, row ДЛ л long
ГР-ЕЙ v heat; cf. ГОР 1 д/Н1 N day
ГРЕМ v ring out, thunder д/Н 2 N bottom
ГРЕХ N sin
ГРОБ See ГРЁБ * Related roots.
 ROOT LIST 247
ДОБ N suitaЬility, convenience ЖАС (cf. ГАС) See У-ЖАС
ДОБ-Р А good, kind; cf. ДОБ Ж/Г v burn (tran)
ДО-В/Л (ДО-В/O/Л) N satisfaction; Ж/д v wait
cf. ВОЛ ЖЁГ See Ж/Г
ДОЙ v milk ЖЕЛ v wish
ДОЛ 1 N valley, down ЖЁЛТ А yellow
ДОЛ 2 N divide, share; cf. ДЕЛ 2 ЖЁН N woman, /еm-
ДОЛ-Г А long; cf. ДЛ ЖЁРТВ N sacrifice
ДОЛГ N oЬ!igation ЖЁСТ А hard, cruel
ДОР See д/Р ЖИВ v live
ДОРОГ1 А dear, expensive ЖИД А liquid
ДОРОГ2 N road ЖИР N fat
ДОСТО- ( < ДО plus СТОЙ 2 ) N Ж/М v press
worth, sufficiency Ж/Н v reap
ДОХ SееДЫХ ЖОГ SееЖ/Г
д/Рv tear, fight ЖОР SееЖ/Р
ДРАГ See ДОРОГ1 Ж/Р v gorge, eat
ДРАЖ v annoy; cf. ДРАЗ
ДРАЗ v tease; cf. ДРАЖ ЗАБОТ N care, concern
ДРЕВ N antiquity; cf. ДЕРЕВ ЗАД N back
ДРОБ N small pieces, fraction 3/В v call, -voke, vос­
ДРОВ N wood; cf. ДЕРЕВ ЗВЕН v ring
ДРОГ v tremЫe, shake ЗВЕР N beast
ДРУГ N friend; А other ЗВОН See ЗВЕН
ДУЙ v Ыоw ЗВУК N sound; cf. ЗВЕН
ДУМ v think 3/Д v build, edif
ДУР А foolish, bad, homely ЗДОРОВ А healthy
ДУХ N atmosphere, breath, spirit ЗДРАВ See ЗДОРОВ
ДЫХ v breathe; cf. ДУХ ЗЁВ v yawn
ЗЕЛЁН А green
ЕД 1v eat ЗЕМ (ЗЕМ-Л) N earth, land
ЕД2 See ЕЗД ЗЕР See 3/Р
ЕДИН See Од(И)Н ЗИМ N winter
ЕЗД v ride ЗИН SееЗЁВ
ЁМ See Й/М 3/Л Аevil, bad; angry
ЕХ See ЕД 2 ЗЛА Т See ЗОЛ ОТ
ЕСТ v Ье, natur- ЗЛ-ОБ See 3/Л
ЗНАЙ v know
ЖA(r/;f.) See Ж/М ЗНАК N sign; cf. ЗНАЙ
ЖАСi/1) See Ж/Н ЗНАМ-ЕН (ЗНАМ-Я) N banner; cf.
ЖАД N greed, thirst ЗНАЙ
ЖАЛ 1 N pity, regret ЗОВ See 3/В
ЖАЛ 2 N sting ЗОД See З/Д
ЖАР v burn; cf. ГОР 1 ЗОЛОТА gold
248 ROOT LIST

ЗОР See 3/Р КОЛОТ v strike, break, thrash

3/Рv see КОЛЕБ v shake, waver, vacillate
ЗРЕЙ v ripe КОЛИК - КОЛЬК А how many/
ЗЫБ v vacillate, shake much, quant-
ЗЫВ See 3/В KOH N beginning, end, order; cf. Ч/Н
КОН-/Ц N end
ИГ/Рv play КОП v dig, heap
ИД See ЙД КОР 1 v reproach; subject
ИМ See Й/М КОР 2 N rind
ИМ-ЕН (ИМ-Я) N name КОРМ v feed
ИН А other КОРОТ А short
ИСК v seek КОС 1 v cut; touch
ИСГ А genuine КОС 2 А slanted, awry
КРАД v steal
ЙД V go КРАЙ N edge, extreme
Й/М v take, have КРАС N beauty, color
КРАТ1 SeeKOPOT
КАЗ 1v show, render КРА Т 2 N time (number of times)
КАЗ 2v deform КРЕП А strong
КАК А how, qual- КРЕС v raise/rise up, resurrect
KAЛ v temper, heat КРЁСТ N cross
КАМЕИ N stone КРИВ А crooked
КАП - КАП-Л N drop, drip КРИК v shout
КАС SeeKOC1 КРОВ 1 See КРОЙ 1
КАТ v roll КРОВ 2 N Ь!ооd
КИВ v nod КРОЙ 1 v cover
КИД v throw КРОЙ 2 v cut (cloth)
КИП v boil КРОТ А tame
КИС v become sour КРУГ N circle, round
КЛАД v place КРУП-/Н А coarse, large, major
КЛАН See КЛОН КРУТ А steep; v turn, twist
КЛЁВ v peck КРЫЙ See КРОЙ 1
КЛЕВЕТ v slander; cf. КЛЁВ КУЙ See КОВ
КЛЕЙ v paste КУК v Ье bored, burdened
КЛИК v shout, hail КУП 1 v buy
КЛИН See КЛЯН КУП2 v bathe
КЛОН v bow, -cline КУР 1 v smoke
КЛЮЙ See КЛЁВ КУР 2 N poultry
КЛЮЧ N key; v -clude, close КУС1 v Ьite, piece
КЛЯН v vow, curse КУС 2 v test
КОВ v forge КУТ v wind, wrap
КОЙ See ПО-КОЙ; cf. ЧИЙ
КОЛ 1 N circle ЛАГ See ЛЁГI
КОЛ 2 V prick ЛАД N harmony, good
 ROOT LIST 249
ЛАЗ See ЛЕЗ 1 МЁД N honey
Л/Г v prevaricate МЕЖ - МЕЖД N between, inter-
ЛЕВ А left MEЛ v grind; fine, minor; shallow
ЛЁГ1 v lie, !ау, place, -pose, -ропе МЕН 1 v change
ЛЁГ2 N; ЛЁГ-К А light, easy МЕН 2 А less
ЛЕЗ 1 v climb МЕР v measure
ЛЕЗ 2 See ПО-ЛЬ/З МЁР See М/Р
ЛЕК v heal МЕРЗ А vile
ЛЕН А lazy МЁРЗ See МОРОЗ
ЛЕП v stick, paste; beautiful; cf. МЁРК See МОРОК
ЛЬ/П МЁРТВ А dead; cf. М/Р
ЛЕСГ See ЛЬ/СТ МЁРЦ - МЁРК See МОРОК
ЛЕТ N year, summer МЕС See МЕХ
ЛЁТ v fly МЕСТ 1 N place
ЛИВ See ЛЬ/Й МЕСТ 2 See М/СТ
ЛИЙ See ЛЬ/Й МЕТ v notice, mark, aim
ЛИК N face, person, identity МЁТ v sweep, throw
ЛИП See ЛЬ/П МЕХ v mix, hinder; cf. МЕС
ЛИХ 1 N extra, superfluity МИГ See М/Г
ЛИХ 2 А bad; wild, daring МИЛ А dear, nice
ЛОВ v catch МИН v pass, go Ьу
ЛОГ SееЛЁГ1 МИР N реасе; world
ЛОЖ See Л/Г М/К v close, join; rush
ЛОМ v break МЛАД See МОЛОД
ЛОП v burst М/Н 1 v think
ЛУК N onion; bend, bow; ray; М/Н 2 v crumple
v bind, separate МНОГ А many, multi-
ЛУЧ v give, permit (получить, MOГ v can, аЫе to
случиться) МОЙ v wash
ЛЬ/З See ПО-ЛЬ/З (ЛЁГ-/К) МОК See М/К
ЛЬ/Й v flow, flи- МОК - МОК-Р А wet
ЛЬ/Пv stick, adhere МОЛ 1 v pray, implore
ЛЬ/СТv flatter, charm МОЛ 2 See МЕЛ
ЛЮБ v love, like МОЛВ v say
ЛЮД N people МОЛК v Ье silent
ЛЯГ See ЛЁГ 1 МОЛОД А young
МОР See М/Р
МАЗ v smear МОРОЗ N frost, severe cold
МАЛ А little МОРОК N darkness
МАИ v entice, lure МОЧ ( < МОГ-Т) N power
МАТ (МА ТЕР) N mother МОЩ See МОЧ
МАХ v wave; miss М/Р v die
М/Г N moment, instant; wink МРАК See МОРОК
1\)ЕД N copper М/СТ v avenge
250 ROOT LIST

МУДР А wisdom ПАС v tend, watch; save

МУЖ N man, male ПАХ' v smell; Ыоw, sweep
МУК 1 v torture ПАХ 2 v plow
МУК 2 N grain ПЕЙ v sing
МУТ v confusion, dullness ПЁК v bake; take care of
МЫВ See МОЙ ПЁР See П/Р
МЫЙ See МОЙ ПЕРВ А first
МЫСЛ - МЫШЛ v think ПЕРЁД N front, forward part,jore-
МЯГ/К А soft ПEPЁK N direction across, against
МЯ(Н) See М/Н 1 , М/Н 2 ПЁСТР А multicolored
ПЕХ А оп foot
НАГ А bare ПЕЧ-АЛ (ПЁК) N sadness
НА-РУЖ N exterior, outside ПЕЧ-А Т (ПЁК) N press, print, seal
НЕГ N luxury, tenderness ПИВ See ПЪ/Й
НЕМ А mute ПИЙ See ПЪ/Й
НЁС v сапу ПИС v write, -scribe
Н/З v penetrate, cut ПИСК v squeal
НИЗ А low ПИТ v nourish, feed
НИК v appear, emerge, go; bend ПЛАВ v swim; melt, fuse; cf. ПЛЫВ
НОВ А new ПЛАК v weep
НОЙ v ache; whimper ПЛАМ-ЕН (ПЛАМ-Я) N flame
НОРОВ N moral(e), custom ПЛАТ N cloth; v рау (cloth asan
НОС 1 See НЁС ancient means of payment)
НОС 2 N ПОSе ПЛЁВ v spit
НРАВ See НОРОВ ПЛЕН N capt- (captive, captivate)
НУД Nneed, boredom, coercion ПЛЁСК v clap, splash
НУЖ See НУД ПЛЁТ v weave
НЫЙ See НОЙ ПЛОВ See ПЛЫВ
ПЛОД N fruit
ОБ-РАЗ (РАЗ 1 ) N form плоек л flat
ОБ-РЁТ v find, get; cf. ВСТРЕТ ПЛОТ N flesh
ОБЩ А general ПЛОТ-/Н А dense, close
ОДИН - Од/Н А one ПЛОХ А bad
ОК N еуе ПЛЫВ v swim
ОПТ SееОБЩ ПЛЮЙ See ПЛЁВ
O-РУ Д N tool, instrument; cf. РУ Д 2 П/Н v string up; kick
O-РУЖ N weapon, arm(s)(ament); cf. ПОЗД А late
РУЖ 1 ПОЙ 1 See ПЬ/Й
О-СНОВ v base ПОЙ2 See ПЕЙ
ОСТ/Р А sharp ПО-КОЙ N rest, реасе; cf. ЧИЙ
ОТ/Ц N father, раtr- ПОЛ 1 N half; sex
ПОЛ 2 N field
ПАД v fall, -cide ПОЛ 3 N floor
ПАЛ v burn ПО-ЛЕЗ See ПО-ЛЬ/3
 ROOT LIST 251
ПОЛЗ v crawl ПЫЛ N flame, fire; dust
ПОЛ/Н А full ПЫТ v try, test
ПОЛ/O/Н 1 See ПОЛ/Н ПЫХ v flare, flame; cf. ПУХ
полон 2 See ПЛЕН ПЬ/Й v drink
ПОЛОС N strip(e) ПЯ(Н) See П/Н
ПОЛОСК А rinse
ПО-ЛЬ/З N use (ЛЁГ in ЛЁГ-/К) РАБ N slave; cf. РОБ
ПО-М/Н v remember РАБ-ОТ N work; cf. РАБ
ПО-МЯН See ПО-М/Н РАБ See РОВ 1
ПОР 1 v rip, slash, beat; time РАВ/Н See РОВ-/Н
ПОР 2 See П/Р РАД А glad
ПОРОЖН А idle, empty РАЗ 1 v strike
ПОРТ 1 v spoil РАЗ 2 See РОЗ
ПОРТ 1 N trousers, clothes РАЗ-/Н - РОЗ-Н See РАЗ 2
ПО-ШЛ (по-йдут) А banal, vulgar РАН 1 А early
П/Р v shut; support; press РАН 2 N wound
ПРАВ А right, rесt- РАСТ See РОСТ
ПРАЖН See ПРАЗДН Р/В v tear
ПРАЗДН See ПОРОЖН Р/Д А red; cf. РУД 1
ПРЕД See ПЕРЁД Р/Ж N rust; cf. Р/Д
ПРЕЙ v rot РЕД А rare
ПРЁК v reproach; cf. ПЕРЁК РЕЗ v cut
ПРЕТ v forЬid; cf. ПРОТ-ИВ РЕЙ v swarm
ПРОБ N attempt РЕК N river
ПРОК А other, away; benefit, РЁК v speak, say
solidity РЁТ v find, oЬtain; cf. ВСТРЕТ
ПРОС v ask, quest- РЕШ v decide, solve
ПPOCТ А simple РИЦ See РЁК
ПРОТ-ИВ N against РОБ А timid; cf. РАБ
ПРУГ N spring, resilience; cf. РОВ 1 А equal, even, exact
ПРЫГ, ПРЯГ РОВ 2 See РОЙ 1
ПРЫГ v jump, spring; cf. ПРУГ, РОВ-/Н See РОВ 1
ПРЯГ РОД N Ьirth, gеп-
ПРЯГ v hamess, tension; cf. ПРУГ, РОЗ N difference, variety
ПРЫГ РОЙ 1 v dig
ПР ЯД v spin (yarn) РОЙ 2 See РЕЙ
ПРЯМ А straight РОК See РЕК
ПРЯТ А hide РОН v lose, drop
ПУГ v frighten РОП/Т (РОПОТ) v murmur
ПУСК See ПУСТ РОС 1 Ndew
ПУСТ v let, loose; А empty РОС 2 See РОСТ
ПУТ 1 v tangle, confuse РОСТ v grow
ПУТ 2 N route, travel РУБ v chop
ПУХ v swell РУГ v scold
252 ROOT LIST

РУД 1 А red, rusty СКОЛЬЗ v slip, slide

РУД 2 See О-РУД; cf. РЯД СКОР А quick, soon
РУЖ 1 N gun; cf. O-РУЖ weapon, СКОРБ N sadness
arm(s); related to РУГ СКРЁБ v scrape
РУЖ 2 See НА-РУЖ СКРИП v squeak
РУК N hand С-КУК N boredom; cf. КУК
РУС N Russia СКУП А stingy
РУХ v crash, destruction С/Л v send
РЫВ See Р/В СЛАБ А weak
РЫЖ А red, rusty; cf. Р/Д, РУД 1 СЛАВ N glory; cf. СЛОВ and СЛЫВ
РЫЙ See РОЙl СЛАД А sweet; cf. СОЛОД
РЫХ See РУХ СЛЕД N track, trace
РЯД N row, order; v set in line/order СЛЕП А Ьlind
СЛОВ N word; cf. СЛАВ and СЛЫВ
С-ЛОГ N complex, compound,
САД v set, make sit; cf. СЕД 1 complicated
САМ А self, аиtо- С-ЛОЙ N layer; cf. ЛЬ/Й
СВЕЖ А fresh СЛОН v lean
СВЕТ N light, world СЛУГ v serve
СВИСТ v whistle СЛУХ v listen, hear
СВОБОД N freedom СЛЫВ v pass for; cf. СЛАВ and
СВОЙ А own, prop(e)r- слов
CBЯT А holy СЛЫХ See СЛУХ
СЕБ N person, own, self СМЕЙ 1 v dare
СЕВ See СЕЙ СМЕЙ 2 v laugh
СЕВЕР N north СМЕЛ А bold; cf. СМЕЙ 1
СЕД 1 v sit down, set(tle) (intr) С-МЕР-Т N death; cf. М/Р
СЕД 2 А graу (haired) СМЕХ See СМЕЙ 2
СЕЙ V sow СМОТР v look at
СЕК (СЁК) v chop, whip С/Н See С/П
СЕЛ v settle; cf. СЕД 1 СНОВ See О-СНОВ
СЕМ-ЕН (СЕМ-Я) N seed; cf. СЕЙ СОБ See СЕБ
СЕР А gray СОВ v thrust
СЕРД N warmth, anger; cf. СЕРЕД СОЛ 1 N salt
СЕРД-/Ц N heart; cf. СЕРД and СОЛ 2 See С/Л
СЕРЕД СОЛОД N malt; cf. СЛАД
СЕРЕД N middle, center; cf. СОР N trash; quarrel
СЕРД-/Ц СОС v suck
СЕТ 1 Nnet СОХ See СУХ
СЕТ 2
v guest С/П v sleep; cf. С/Н
СИД v sit; cf. СЕД 1 СПЕЙ v Ье on time, succeed, ripe
СИЯЙ v shine, radiance СПЕХ See СПЕЙ
СИЛ N strength, force С-ПОР N argument (П/Р)
СКАК - СКОК v jump, gallop С-ПО-СОБ N capaЬility
 ROOT LIST 25 3
СРЕД See СЕРЕД С-ЧЕТ See С-Ч/Т
СТАВ v stand (tran), -pose; cf. СТАН С-Ч/Тv consider, calculate
and СТОЙ 1 СЫП v pour, strew
СТ АН v take а standing position; СЫР А raw, Ьitter
become; cf. СТАВ and СТОЙ 1 СЫТ А satiated
СТАН-ОБ v stand (tran); cf. СТАН СЯГ v seize, obtain; swear
СТАР А old СЯД See СЕД 1
СТЁГ v stitch, button; whip СЯЗ See СЯГ
СТЕЛ See СТ/Л
СТЕН N wall ТАЙ 1 v hide
СТЕПЕН N degree; cf. СТУП ТАЙ 2 v melt
СТЕРЁГ v watch, guard Т АСК v drag, pull
СТИГ v achieve, reach ТВАР See TBOPI
СТ/Л v spread, cover ТВЁРД А hard, firm
СТОЙ 1 v stand (intr), -sist; cf. ТВОР 1 v create
СТАН and СТАВ ТВОР 2 v c\ose
СТОЙ 2 v cost ТЁК v f\ow, run
СТОЛ See СТ/Л ТЁМ-/Н А dark; cf. Т/М
СТОН v groan ТЁП-/Л А hot
СТОРОГ See СТЕРЁГ ТЕР v lose
СТОРОН N side, strange, foreign ТЁР See Т/Р
СТ /Р v stretch ТЕРП v bear, endure
СТРАГ See СТОРОГ ТЕС-/Н А close, dense
СТР АД v suffer ТЕХ v console, amuse; cf. ТИХ
СТРАН See СТОРОН ТИСК v press, clamp
СТРАХ N fear ТИХ А quiet, calm; cf. ТЕХ
СТРЕК v excite, incite Т/К v poke; weave
СТРЕЛ N arrow, shot ТЛ N decay
СТРЕМ v go headlong, strive Т/М N darkness; cf. ТЬ/М
СТРИГ v shear ТОК 1 N point; cf. Т/К
СТРОГ А strict, stern; cf. СТЕРЁГ ТОК 2 SееТЁК
СТРОЙ v build, -struct, order ТОЛК 1 N sense, interpretation
СТРУЙ N stream ТОЛК 2 See ТОЛОК
СТУД А cold ТОЛОК v pound, shove
СТУК v knock ТОЛСТ А thick, fat
СТУП v step ТОМ N weariness; cf. ТЁМ-Н
СТЫД N shame; cf. СТУ Д ТОН А thin
СТЫН v cool off; cf. СТУ Д ТОП 1 v sink, drown
(СТЫД-Н) ТОП 2 N heat; cf. ТЁП-/Л
СУД N judgment ТОП/Т (ТОПОТ) v stamp
СУЙ See СОВ ТОРГ1 N trade; solemnity, triumph
СУТ v Ье, exist, essen- ТОРГ 2 v tear, thrust
CYX А dry ТОРК v protrude
С-ЧАСТ N happiness, fortune ТОСК N yearning, melancholy
254 ROOT LIST

ТОЩ л emaciated, worn ХОРОН v keep, save, preserve

Т/Р v rub ХОРОШ л good; good-looking
ТРАТ v waste, lose ХОТ v want (includes о-хот-а both
ТРЕБ v demand, require "wish" and "hunt ")
ТРЕВОГ N alarm ХРАБР л brave
ТРЕЗВ л sober ХРАН See ХОРОН
ТРЕСК v crack(le) ХРОМ л lame
ТРОГ v touch ХУД л thin; bad
ТРУД N work, -labor- ХУДОЖ N art
TPЯ C v shake
ТУГ л taut; N sadness; cf. ТЯГ ЦАР N tsar, ruler
ТУП л Ьlunt, dull ЦВЁТ v Ыооm
ТУХ I v extinguish ЦЕЛ 1 А whole; healthy, great
ТУХ 2 v become rotten ЦЕЛ 2 N aim, purpose
ТЬ/М N darkness; cf. Т /М ЦЕН N price; v evaluate, appreciate
ТЯГ v pull, drag; cf. ТУГ, ТЯЗ ЦЕП N chain, hook
ТЯЗ See ТЯГ
ЧА(Н) See Ч/Н
УВ See УЙ ЧАЙ v expect, hope
У-ДАР v hit; cf. ДАР 2 ЧАР N magic, spell
У-ЖАС N horror, terror; cf. ГАС ЧАСТ1 v part
УЗ л narrow ЧАСТ 2 л often
УЗД N bridle ЧЕЗ v disappear
УЙ v shoe (verb) ЧЕРЕД N line, row, turn
УК v teach, learn ЧЁРК v sketch, draw; cf. ЧЕРТ
УЛ N street ЧЁРН л Ьlack
УМ N mind, intellect ЧЕРП v draw up, scoop
УСТ N mouth ЧЕРТ N line; cf. ЧЁРК
УТР 1 N interior; cf. ВН-УТР ЧЁС v scratch, comb
УТР 2 N morning ЧЕСТ ( < Ч/Т-Т) N honor
УХ N ear ЧЁТ See Ч/Т
ЧИЙ v rest; cf. КОЙ
ФОРМ N form ЧИН N rank, order; v cause, fix
ЧИСЛ N number; cf. Ч/Т
ХВАЛ v praise ЧИСТ л clean
ХВАТ v grasp, grip; Ье sufficient ЧЛЕН N member
ХИТ v grab, ravish; crafty Ч/Н v begin; cf. КОН
ХЛАД See ХОЛОД ЧРЕД See ЧЕРЕД
ХЛОП v slam, bang Ч/Т v regard, consider
ХМУР л dark, cloudy; frown ЧУБ See ЧУЙ
ХОД v go оп foot; cf. Ш/Д and ЧУД 1 N marvel
ШЕД ЧУ Д (ЧУЖ) 2 л not one's own, a!ien
ХОЗЯЙ N host, ownership ЧУЙ v feel, se11s-
ХОЛОД N cold ЧYT See ЧУЙ
 ROOT LIST 255
ШАГ N step ЩАД v spare
ША Т v shake, wоЬЫе ЩЕД-Р А generous; cf. ЩАД
Ш/В See ШЬ/Й ЩИП v pinch, pluck
Ш/Д (Ш/ Д-Л) See ХОД ЩИТ v defend
ШЕД See Ш/д ЩУП v feel, probe
ШЁПОТ See ШЁП/Т ШУТ SееЧУТ
ШЁП/Т v whisper
ШЕСТ See Ш/д (Шд/-Т (ШЕД-Т)) ЮГ N south
ШИБ v hit ЮН А young
ШИВ See ШЬ/Й ЮТ v shelter
ШИЙ See ШЬ/Й
ШИР А wide, broad Я(М) See Й/М
ШОВ SееШЪ/Й ЯВ v rnanifest, show
ШУМ N noise ЯД N poison
ШУТ N joke ЯД/Р N nucleus
ШЬ/Й v sew ЯС/Н А clear
ЯТ See ЙМ
 APPENDIX 2

INDEX OF NOMINAL SUFFIXES

-аж, r70 ·В·О, I93

-ак,persons, r78 -евич See -ович
objects, r92 -ев-о See -в-о
-ак-а, r85 -е/е/ц See -/е/ц
-ан, r79 -ёж,r66
-анин, r75 -ель,abstract, I 66
Cf -ин, I79 objects, I 92
-ан/к-а (-/к-а), r82 -ён-а, r85
-ант, r75 -ен/е/ц See -/е/ц
-ар See -яр -ени-ё (-и-ё (-ь/-ё)), I53
-арь(m), persons, I79 -ен/к-а (-/к-а), r82
objects, I9I -ён/к-а, r99
-атор, r77 -ён/о/к,persons, r8o
-аци-я, r65 animals, r86
-ач, persons, I 78 -енств-о (-ств-о), r68
objects, r92 -ёныш, 186
-/6-а, I66 -/е/нь (m), I9I
бищё (-ищ-ё), I94 -ень/к-а (-/к-а), 198
257
258 INDEX OF NOMINAL SUFFIXES

-ёр, 176 -ищ-а, 200

-/е/ц,persons, 172 -ищ-ё, objects, 192
objects, 192 places, 193
diminutives, 197 augmentatives, 200
-знь, 166 -/о/к See -о
-ианин See -анин -/к-а, abstract, 162
-ив-о See -в-о persons, 1 8 1
-и-ё (-ь/-ё), 170 objects (based оп two words), 189
used to form nouns from preposi- diminutives, 197
tional phrases, 151 -к-и objects (pluralia tantum), 188
verbal noun (-ние, -тие, -тьё), 153- -/к-о, 197
158 -л-а, 185
abstract deverbative, 165 -лив-о See -в-о
abstract deadjectival, 170 -лищ-ё (-ищ-ё), 194
compound nouns, 202-203 -л/к-а,objects, 187
-изм, 168 places, 193
-изн-а, 169 -л-о, 190
-ик,persons, 173 -льник, 187
objects, 191 -ль/н-я, 193
diminutives, 197 -льщик (-щик), 175
-ик-а, 192 -ни-ё (-и-ё (-ь/-ё)), 154
-ик-о, 197 -ник, persons, 173
-ин, 179 objects, 187
Cf -анин, 175 places, 193
-ин-а,abstract (deadjectival), 169 collective, 195
persons, 1 84 -ниц-а, persons, 182
objects (singulative), 189 objects, 191
augmentatives, 200 -ность See -ость
See also -щин-а -/е/нь (m) See -е
-ин/е/ц See -/е/ц -/н-я, abstract, 166
-ин/к-а (-ин-а), 190 places, 194
-инств-о (-ств-о), 168 collectives, 195
-ист, 175 diminutives (nicknames), 199
-итель (m) See -тель (m) -няк, objects, 192
- их-а, persons, 184 collective, 195
animals, 185 -ов/е/ц See -/е/ц
-иц-а, persons, 182 -овизн-а See -изн-а
common gender nouns, 185 -овин-а, 192
animals, 185 -ович See -ич
objects, 191 -овищ-ё, 192
places, 193 -ов/к-а (-/к-а), 182
diminutives, 198 -ов-о See -в-о
-ич, 180 -овщик (-щик), 175
-иш/к-а, 199 -овь/-ё, 194
-иш/к-о, 199 -ок, 179
 INDEX OF NOMINAL SUFFIXES 259
-/о/к,abstract, 165 -/ц-о, 197
objects, 188 (pluralia tantum, 188) -чак See -ак
diminutives, 197 -чанин See -анин
-он-я, 185 -чик, dimiпutives, 197
-ость, 168 See -щик, persons
-от-а, 169 See -щик, objects
-отн-я, 166 -чин-а See -щин-а
-оч/к-а (-/к-а), 198 -чиц-а See -щиц-а
-ош-а, 185 -ш-а, persons, 183
-с-а, 185 diminutives (nicknames), 199
-ств-о, deverbative abstract, 164 -шеств-о (-ств-о), 168
other abstract, 167 -щик, persons, 174

co\lective, 194 objects, 191

-тв-а, abstract, 166 -щин-а, 169

co\lective, 195 -щиц-а, 182

-тель (m), persons, 17, -ыг-а, 185

objects, 187 -ын-я, abstract, 170

-тельств-о (-ств-о), 164 persons, 184

-ти-ё (-и-ё (-ь/-ё)), 153 -ыш, persons, 178

-ть,deverbative abstract, 166 objects, 192

other abstract, 170 -ыш/к-о (-/к-о), 198

-уг-а, 185 -ь/ё, co\lective, 195

-ул-я, 185 -ь/-ё (-и-ё (-ь/-ё)), verbal nouns -ь/-ё,

-ун, 178 155

-ур-а, 195
-ь/-я, 183

-ур/к-а (-/к-а), 198 -юк-а, 185

-ух-а, 185 -яг-а, 185

-уш-а,common gender nouns, 185 -як (-ак), 192

-янин See -анин
diminutives (nicknames), 199
-уш/к-а (-/к-а), 189 -яр, 179

(-/к-а), diminutives, 198 -ят-а See -ён/о/к

-уш/к-о (-/к-о), 198 Zero-suffix, general, 23-25

-х-а,185 masculine abstract, 161
-/е/ц See -е
feminine abstract, 162-163
-/ц-а,
common gender nouns, 185 compound agent nouns, 204-206
diminutives, 198
 APPENDIX 3

INDEX OF ADJECTIVAL SUFFIXES

-ав-, 230 -еньк-, 237

-ан- See -ян- -есн (-/н-), 217
-анск- (-ск-), 221 -ив-, 232
-аст-, 231 -нйск- (-ск-), 211
-ат-, 231 -им-, 235
-ач-· See -яч- -ин-, possessive, 225
-ащ- See -ящ- relational-possessive, 226
-вш- (-ш-), 235 -инск- (-ск-), 221
-ебн- (-/н-), 217 -ист-, 227
-ель/н- (-/н-), 217 -ит-, 232
-ейск- (-ск-), 221 -ическ- (-ск-), 220
-ём-, 235 -ич/н- (-/н-), 217
-ён-, 235 -/й-, 226
-енн-, augmentative, 237 -/к-, 229
(-/н-), 216 -л-, 236
-ённ-, 235 -лив-, 228
-енн'- (-/н'-), 225 -льн- (-/н-), 217
-енск- (-ск-), 221 -ляв- (-ав-), 230

260
 INDEX OF ADJECТIVAL SUFFIXES 261

-/н-, 215 -ск-, 218

-н-, 235 -т-, 235
-нн-, 235 -тельн- (-/н-), 217
-/н', 223 -уч-, 234
-ов-, relational, 222 -ущ-,participial, 234
possessive, 225 augmentative, 237
-оват-, qualitative, 229 -чат- (-ат-), 231
adjectives comЬined with -еньк-, 237 -чив-, 229
-овит- See -ит- -ш- (-вш), 235
-ов/н- (-/н-), 217 -шн'- Sее-/н'-
-овн'- See -/н'- -юч- See -уч-
-овск- (-ск-), 221 -ющ- See -уш-
-ок-, 230 -ян- and -янн-, 223
-ом-, 235 -яч-, 234
-онн-, 216 -ящ-, 234
-оньк- See -еньк- Zero-suffix, 239
-оч/н- (-/н-), 217
 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX
AND GLOSSARY

Below is а subject index designed to provide quick reference to both general and
specific headings and also to provide general definitions and explanations of
some of the concepts and terms encountered in the book. In most cases the first
(or only) page cited in an entry will provide а definition, if one is needed, but the
index also contains certain definitions and explanations when the book may not
contain а handy or explicit summation; these are given after co/ons. 1n this sense
the index serves as а glossary and it fulfills this function also in that it cross-
references alphabetically the linguistic terms defined in the unalphabetized
"glossary" with which Section I begins. These items are given, in capital letters
along with the pages on which they are defined; e.g.
VELARS, defined, 4
Cross references to terms listed in the index itself are printed in sma/1 capita/s;
e.g.
compound nouns See сомв1NдТЮN

ln addition to providing quick reference to the more obvious headings, this

index attempts also to list items which do not appear even in the quite detailed
262
 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY 263

tаЫе of contents, including references to а large number of footnotes which fre-

quently raise points important or interesting in themselves, though peripheral
to the direct subject being treated. In this way it has tried to anticipate issues
which might arise after or during use of а part of the book and cause the user to
turn to the index.

Abbreviations, compound words con- Assimilation of foreign words to Rus-

sisting of, 206-207 sian pattern, 28
Iist of, xviii Attenuating force, adjectival suffix,
Abstract nouns, 152-170 -оват- expressing, 229
of action-result, 152-156 Augmentative suffixes, in adjectives, 237
Addition, simple, of prefixes to words, in nouns, 200
20
to nouns, 149-150 Base, 29
to adjectives, 212-213 Basic consonant See BASIC SOUNDS
Adjectives, derived from participles, Basic form, 81-83
233-238 Basic mobile vowel See MOBILE VOWEL
distinguished from participles, 233- Basic о, alternation ,vith basic е in verb
234, 233 n forms, 58, 99 n1, 101 n2
Adverbs, fossilized, 13 in Russian vs. Church Slavonic basic
Affectionate meaning in diminutives, е, 53, 57-58
196, 198 spelling of, 9-10
Agent nouns 171, 187 BASIC SOUNDS, defined, 3
compound, in zero-suffix 204-206 preservation of, Ьу Russian spelling
abstract nouns built from, 167 system, 7
productivity of -ск- with, 221 tаЬ!е of, with their spellings, 1 2
Aktionsart, 118-122 Basic stem, 81-83
Alike elements, juxtaposition of, 35 Basic vowel See BASIC SOUNDS
Alterations, of consonants, 46-51 "Becoming" verbs, in -ей-, 11 о, 145
isolated, 30 n 1, 3 1 n 1, 50 in (ну), 107-108
tаЬ!е of, 46 Body, parts of, -ат-, -аст-, 231
vowel-zero, 60--80 zero, 239
of vowels, 52-54 Borrowed words See FOREIGN WORDS
Analysis of words, 26-28, 52 Building element, 13
Animals, nouns denoting, 185-186
adjectives derived from, 226, 227 Calque, 19, 122
Anomalous verbs, 112 Capability, deverbative adjectives in -/к­
Aspect, and aspect pairs, irregularities denoting, 230
in, 141-143 Chemica\ elements, suffixes used with,
prefixation, 116-119 228
verbs occurring as both perfective and Church S!avonicisms, 54-60
imperfective, 115-116 basic е vs. basic о in Russian, 57-58
Se.e also IMPERFECТIVE DERIV А ТION in verb forms, 58
264 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Church Slavonicisms (cont.) Coordination in compound words, in

mutations (in tаЫе of mutations), 46, adjectives, 237-238
58-59 in nouns, 201
in present active participles, 234 CorreJation, with as opposed to deriva-
prefixes, 59-60 tion from, 23
Col\ective meaning in nouns, 194-195
Co\ors, adjectives depicting shades ог Deadjectiva] words: words derived from
nuances of, 240 an adjectiva\ root or stem
Declension as а type of comЬination,
ComЬination, of building elements,
44-45
35-46
Degrees of diminution, 198
nominal-adjectival, 43-46 Denominative words: words derived
verbal, 37-43 from а nominal root or stem
of stems, in compound adjectives, DENTALS, defined, 3
237-241 Depreciatory meaning See PEJORAПVE
in compound nouns, 201-207 MEANING
Common gender, second declension DERIVATION See WORD-FORM-
nouns of, 185 ATION; see a/so IMPERFECПVE
Compound adjectives See сомв1NАТЮN DERIVATION
Compound nouns See сомв1NАТЮN Derivationa] leve], vowel-zero alterna-
Concrete meaning See HYPOSTASIS tions at, 61, 66--69
Conditioning of vowel-zero alternations, Derived words, 14
62-65 Deverbative words: words derived from
of -ов-, 222 а verbal root or stem, nouns of

Conjugation, 83-97 action-result, 152- 1 66

Diminutive suffixes, in adjectives, 237
of head verbs, 88-90
hard-soft opposition of paired con-
tаЫе, 85
sonants before, 35-36, 196 n1
as а type of comЬination, 39-43
loss of diminutizing force of, 31-32
Conjunctions, fossilized, 14
in adjectives, 237
Connecting vo\vel, in adjectives, 237-241 implications for word ana]ysis,
in nouns, 201-206
31-32
with против, 151 П2, 214 in nouns, 199-200
spelling of, 202 n
in nouns, 196--200
Consonanta\ eJements: а consonantal special status of, 196, 196 n
prefix is а prefix ending in (or Division, principles of, 26--27
consisting of) а consonant; а
consonantal suffix or ending is а Emotiona\ meaning in diminutives, 196,
suffix or ending begi1111i11g with а 198
consonant; cf. VOCALIC Endings, tаЫе of verbal, 84
Consonanta] endings, only one in de- Enlarged suffixes See suFFIXES
clension, 44 n Etymologica] origin, distinct, of roots,
CONSONANTS, defined, 3 244
Containers, nouns designating, 188, 191, Etymologica] study, words requiring
193 specia], 27, 32 n
 COMВINED SUВJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY 265

Factitives, prefixes, 127, 133 HUSНING CONSONANTS, defined, 4

suffixes and verbs, 143-144 Hushing plus А (ЖА) verb type, his-
Feminine nouns without masculine torical basis of, 48-49, 48 n2
counterparts, 181, n2 Hyphenated words, adjectives, 237-238,
Feminine suffixes, counterparts to mas- 240
culine, 171, 181-184 nouns, 201
Flesh of animals, suffix denoting, 190 Hypostasis, 152
Foreign prefixes, 150, 212, 213 Hypothetical words or forms designated
Foreign suffixes, 165, 168, 170, 175, 176, Ьу asterisk, 6
177,195,216
Foreign words, analysis of, 27-28 Imperative, ending -i replaced Ьу zero,
assirnilation of, to Russian pattern, 28 41, 41 n, 42 n2
Formant: а derivational (as opposed to formation of, 96--97
infiectional) suffix Imperfective derivation, 134-141
Fossilized noninfiected derivatives, tаЫе, 137-139
13-14 tree, 140
Fragments of objects, nouns denoting, Inanimate nouns, -/н- all purpose suf-
188 fix for, 215
Fusion of building elements, 29-35 in -ов-. 223
of prefix, with prefix, 33 Inceptive action, suЫexical meaning ex-
with root, 32-33 pressed Ьу, за-, 119, 125
of root with suffixal element, 30--32 IndeclinaЫe words, derivational treat-
of suffix with suffix, 34 ment of, 28
INFLECТION, defined, 2
Gerund, present, rarity of formation lnfiectional level, vowel-zero alterna-
from А verbs, 89 n2 tions at, 61, 65-66
Grammatical conditioning: occurrence Insertion of vowel i in imperfective
because of morphological derivation ofverbs in nonsyllabic
(rather than phonological) roots, 137
reasons See also V0WEL-ZER0 ALТERNATIONS
in vowel-zero alternations, 68, 72 Instrument, nouns denoting, 190
Grammatical marker, soft sign as, 13 lntensification, of action, expressed Ьу
verbal prefixes, 123, 13 1
Hard consonants See HARD-SOFТ of meaning, expressed Ьу adjectival
Hard sign, role in spelling, 12, 37 prefixes, 2 13
HARD-SOFT, defined, 4 expressed Ьу nominal prefixes, 150
hard-soft opposition, neutralization Intransitive verb types, 100, 101, 107,
of, in favor of soft before -/6-, 35 109, 145
n2 Inventory of verbs, 97-112
in favor of soft before verbal end- Irregular verb stems, 1оо-- 112
ings in о, i, and а, 39 Iterative meaning, 120
in preceding oftwo juxtaposed con-
sonants, 35 Jot, general discussion and spelling of,
Head verbs, 83, (in taЫes) 86--87 10--12
ёonjugated, 88--90 may end а root, 15 n 1
266 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Jot (cont.) violation of, з > с, 37

root initial goes to i, 78 роз- > раз-, 131 n

in vowe\-zero alternations, 71-72 Mutation, of consonants (and resulting

a\ternations): change of one
k vs. k', morphophonemic status of, 4, consonant to another, notaЫy
12, 12 ПI, 42 n3 under specific, stataЫe gramma-
tical or derivational conditions,
LABIALS, defined, 3
Latin elements, prefixes, 122 46--52
Church Slavonic, (in tаЫе) 46, 58-59
roots, 19, 122
in comЬination of building elements,
Lexica\ prefixation, 118-122
Loan translation See CALQUE 36
resulting from the comЬination CV,
Masculine nouns without female coun- 35 nl
terparts, 181 n 1 in conjugation, tree, 85
Material or substance, suffix -ян- build- in imperfective derivation, 135, (tree)
ing adjectives from nouns denot- 140
ing, 223 of nonfinal stem consonant, 100 n2,
Meaning, aspectual (of prefixes), 103 n4
118-122 of р, л, and н, 46 n2
classification of nominal suffixes Ьу, tаЫе of, 46
151 of velars ц and ск, Ьefore suffixes in
lexica\ (of prefixes), 118-122 И, 44, 45, 47-48
metaphorical, of relational adjectives, of velars II and ск,Ьеfоrе the verbal
210, 211 suffixes и and е, 38, 48-49
in relational-possessive adjectives, of ve\ars before endings in о in conju-
227 gation, 40
of roots, 16
suЫexical, 118-122 Names, diminutives of, 199
of suffixes, 22 possessive adjectives from, 225
of verba\ nouns in -иё (-ь/-ё), 156--157 Negative partic\e не-, in adjectives
of verbal prefixes See PREFIX TABLE (also без), 212
Meat of anima\s See FLESH OF ANIMALS in nouns, 150
Mobile vowel, in vowe\-zero alterna- with participles, 233, 235
tions, basic, 69-70 Nest See WORD NEST
and jot, 71-72 Nicknames See NAMES
spelling of, 69-70 Nonderived words, adjectives, 211-212
in adjectives and pronouns, 73-74 nouns, 149
in nouns, 70-72 Nondetermined verbs, build imperfec-
in verbs, 74-80 tives of prefixed motion verbs,
Morpheme See MORPHOLOGY 134
MORPHOLOGY, defined, 2 perfectivized Ьу semelfactive с-, 133
Morpho(pho)nemes See BASIC Noninflected deri va tives, 13-14
SOUNDS Nonsuffixed verb stems, 83, 86
Morphophonemic spelling in Russian, NonsyllaЬic: not containing а vowel,
preservation of, 7 roots, 15-16
 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY 267

vs. syllaЬic roots in е(ё)/о, 53 adjectives distinguished from, 233,

verb stems in, 83 234, 233 n
Nonvocalic elements, role in vowel-7.ero in л, adjectives derived from, 236
alternations, 62 past active, adjectives derived from,
vowel-zero alternations in, 60-80 235
Notation: the conventions and symbols conjugation, (tree) 85, 86, 87, 86 n2
used in linguistic descriptions; past passive, adjectives derived from,
5-6 and elsewhere, verbal stress 235
in basic forms from Section II оп, conjugation, (tree) 85, 86, 87
90-96 nouns denoting objects correlated
in verbs with nonsyllaЬic roots, 83 n1 with, 188
vowel-zero alternations, 61 -62 verbal nouns formed according to
Nouns, verbal See VERBAL NOUNS IN same rules as, 153
-и-ё (-ь/ё) present active, adjectives derived
Numerals, as first element, in compound from, 233-234
adjectives, 239-240, 239 n2 Church Slavonic origin of suffixes,
in compound nouns, 203 234
present passive, adjectives derived
Objects, nouns denoting, 187-192 from, 234-235
OЬlique cases: genitive (including mas- expressing -аЬ/е/-iЬ/е, 235
culine accusative animate), dat- rarity of formation from obstruent
ive, prepositional, instrumental stems, 89 n1
OBSTRUENTS, defined, 3 Particles, fossilized, 14
Obstruent verb stems, 83, 86 Pejorative meaning, in nouns with
similarity оf(ну) stems to, 107 n2, 153 diminutive and augmentative
n2 meaning, 196
Origin, suffixes naming persons Ьу, ad- in nouns with diminutive meaning,
jectival, 218-222 198-199
nominal, 180 Persons, nouns denoting, 171-185
suffix -ск- deriving adjectives from,
PAIRED-UNPAIRED, defined, 4 218
Pa\atalization: softness of paired con- Phonemes See PHONOLOGY
sonants See HARD-SOFТ; Phonetic assimilation, 16
PAIRED-UNPAIRED Phonetic spelling, examples of, 8 n,
PALATALS, defined, 4 (з > с) 37
Paradigm: the set of all the injlected PHONETICS, defined, 2
forms of а single word; e.g. the Place, adjectives in -/н'- from nouns de-
singular and plural of the six noting, 223-225
cases of стол constitute its para- Places, nouns denoting, 193-194
digm; the present tense paradigm Plants, suffix building nouns denoting,
of говорить is the six forms го­ 192
ворю through говорят Pleophony, 55-56, 55 n1
Part of speech in roots, 16 Plura/ia tantum See FRAGMENTS
Participles, adjectives derived from, Polnoglasie See PLEOPHONY
- 233-238 Possessive adjectives, 225-226
268 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Prefixation, 20--21 Resonant verb stems, 83, 86

and aspect pairs, 116---117 RESONANTS, defined, 3
aspectual, lexical and suЫexical, Roots, 15-20
118-122 derivation from, rather than from а
Prefixed suffixal words (derived from longer stem in adjectives, 230,
prepositional phrases), adjectives, 232
213-214 fusion of, with prefix, 32
nouns, 150--151 with suffixal element, 30
Prefixes, 20--21 Latin, 19
adjectival (simple addition of prefix to list of, 243-255
adjective), 212-213 meaning and part of speech of, 16
nominal (simple addition of prefix to Russian elements vs. Church Slavonic
noun), 149-150 elements, 54-60
verbal, 116-134
Latin, 122 Semantic changes, influence on genera-
meanings of, 123-133 tion of new building elements, 29,
tаЫе of verbal, 123-133 34-35, 34 n
Prepositional phrases, prefixed suffixal Semelfactive meaning, in НУ verbs,
words derived from See 104-105, 105 nl-2, 120
PREFIXED SUFFIXAL WORDS in verbs in the prefix с-, 132
Primary: nonderived Simplex (verb) stem: unprefixed (verb)
Primary suffixed stems, ОВА, 103 stem, perfectives, 114-116
АЙ, 109 Singulative meaning, 176, 176 n1, 179,
Productivity, 25 189-190
of verb types, 97 and statements in Soft consonants See HARD-SOFТ
Verb Jnventory, 97-112 Soft sign, role in spelling, 13
as grammatical marker, 13
Qualitative adjectives, 209-211 Sonant: same as resonant
suffixes which build, 227-232 Spelling and word-formation, 7-13
Qualitative vs. relational meaning in ad- of basic о, 9-10
jectives in -ск-, 221-222 of basic sounds, tаЫе of, 12
of initial root i after consonantal pre-
Recovery, exercises, basic forms, fixes, 37
113-114 ofjot, 10--12
basic forms from verbal nouns, of moЬile vowels See MOBILE VOWELS
157-158 Stem, 14
prefixed perfective basic form from Stress, notation of and general state-
derived imperfective, 140--141 ment on, 6
Relational adjectives, 209-211 ьй' vs. 'ий, 86 nl, 153 n1
suffixes which build, 218-227 spelling of moЬile е before jot influ-
Relational vs. qualitative meaning in ad- enced Ьу, 72, 75 n; see a/so 172
jectives in -ск-, 221-222 n 1
Relational-posscssive ad_jectives. verbal, excursus on, 90--96
226-227 general, 90--92 (paragraphs 1-2)
dec\ension type of, 74, 225 suffixed stems, 92 (paragraphs 3-4)
 COMBINED SUВJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY 269

nonsuffixed stems, 92-94 (para- Syntactic gender, in diminutives, 199

graphs 5-9) in augmentatives, 196 , 200
past passive participles, 94-95
(paragraph 10) SYNTАХ, defined, 2
perfectives in вь,, 95 (paragraph 11)
stems in -ся, 96 (paragraph 12) ТаЬ!еs, of imperfective derivation,
general statements on, in Verb 137-139
ТаЫеs, 86, 87; see also 84 of prefixes, 123-133
spelling influenced раз- replacing of verbs, 86-87
роз-, 131 n Time, adjectives in -/н'- from nouns de-
of imperfectivizing suffixes, 135 noting, 223-225
of verbal nouns, 154 Transitive verb type, 100
SuЬ!exical prefixation, 118-122; suЬ!exi­ in factitives, 143-144
cal prefixes given in Prefix ТаЫе, Trees, for conjugation (consonant mu-
123-133 tation, past active participles and
"Submit" meaning, of transitive verbs past passive participles), 85
in the prefixes о- and у-, 127, 133 for imperfective derivation, 140
Subordination in compound words, in Trunca tion: the deletion of а sound,
adjectives, 238-241 usually as а result of the comЬin­
in nouns, 201-207 ation of building elements mak-
Substance, or material, suffix -ян- build- ing up а word; normally, the last
ing adjectives from nouns denot- sound of the preceding element
ing, 223 or, rarely, the first sound of the
Successful action, prefixes expressing, following element is deleted
124, 133, 133 Пl-2 of initial root в after prefix об-, 38
Suffixed verb stems, 83, 87 of final root consonant before -ну-, 39
Suffixes, 21-25 occurrence in combination of building
adjectival, 214-237 elements, 35, 36
index of, Appendix 3, 260-261
enlarged, 29, 33-34 Unalike elements, juxtaposition of, 35
nominal, 151-200 Unpaired See PAIRED-U.NPAIRED
index of, Appendix 2, 257-259
zero See ZERO-SUFFIX VELARS, defined, 4
Suppletion: the existence within the morphophonemic status of, 12, 1 2 n,
same paradigm of forms from See also 42 n3
totally different roots or stems: mutation of See MUTATION
e.g., English go - и•е,11 spelling of i after, 47 n2
in aspectual pairs, 141 Verb tаЬ!е, 86-87
SusceptiЬility, deverbative adjectives in Verbal nouns in -и-ё (-ь/-ё), 153-158
-/к- denoting, 230 Verbalization ofnominal roots, 17
SyllaЬic: containing а vowel, roots, 15 Vocalic: pertaining to vowels, contain-
variants of nonsyllaЬic roots, 244: ing а vowel, and so on; а vocalic
see also VOWEL-ZERO ALTERNA· prefix is а prefix e11di11g in (or con-
TIONS sisting of) а vowel; а vocalic suf-
verb stems in, 83 fix or ending is а suffix or ending
270 COMBINED SUBJECT INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Vocalic (cont.) occurrence and condition. 62-6,

beginning with а vowel; cf. VOWELS, defined, 3
CONSONANTAL spelling of (basic sounds), after con-
Vocalic variants, of nonvocalic suffixes sonants, 8-9
conditioned Ьу а preceding hush-
ing, 63 n2, 167, 218 W1ves, suffixes designating, 183, 183 n
VOICED-VOICEL,ESS, defined, 5 Word nest. 15
phonetic devoicing reflccted in spell-
ing shift з > с, 37 Yod See ют
Vowel shit"t, о > а before '-ivaj- ш im-
perfective derivation, 136 Zero, 24 n1
Vowel-zero alternations, 60-80: see also zero-ending, conditions preceding
MOBILE VOWELS moЬile vowel, 63-64
in conjugation and verbal deriva- designated Ьу # in mutation, 5-6
tion, 74-80 zero-suffix, 23-25, 50
in declension, 69-74 in compound adjectives, 239
at the derivational Ievel, defined, 61 in compound nouns of agent,
examples of occurrence, 66-69 204-206
at the inflectional level, defined, 61 in nouns with abstract meaning, 160,
examples of occurrence, 65-66 161-162, 163, 164
involving the suffix -/н-, 215 words containing appear to Ье non-
involving the suffix -ск-, 220 derived, 14 n 1