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107 viewsCHM 113 PDF
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/ 44
Error = XT-p Prof. 8.0.4 Usman
We often speak of accuracy in ‘walitative terms such a "good, “esPES2d," *po07," and s0 on, However,
Wwe have the ability to make quantitative ‘easurements, We therefore have the abil to ‘make quantitative
Sccuracy of a measurement. In addition, we can defi
ie-erot asthe difference between the measured result
rue value as shown in the equation above. However, ‘We cannot use the above equation to calculate
the exact error because ‘Wwe can never determine the true value, rors in analytical chemistry are ast
88 systematic (determinate) and random (indeterminate), A procedure fers from a i error
‘S.always going (0 give a mean value that i different from the te valu. The erm ‘ia’ is sometimes ued
when defining and describing a systematic error. The measured value is deseribed as being biased high or
and the
vail a
ow when a systematic error is present and the calculated uncertainty ofthe measured vale is suilenty
ompari red value to the conventional true
small to see a definite difference when a comparison of the meast i
‘determinate nhcuals tecoiee eneereaeerati
is made, Some analysts prefer the term ‘determi Stating that this type of error can be dete
ed. A systematic error can be estimate, but tcanot be known
With certainty because the tue value
Cannot be known, Systemati eros can therefore be avoided, hey
“*s¥ are-determinate, Sources of systematic enors Inehide ‘spectral interferences, chemical standard,
volumetric ware, and analytical balances where a
iproper calibration or use will result in a systematic
Srohs eo 8 dirty glass pipette will always detiver less than the Intended volume ‘of Hiquid ant a chemical
Standard that has an assigned valu that is different fom the ve valve wll ‘lways bias the measurements
sitter high or low and so on. The possiblities seem tobe endless F4/, 5.0.4 Usman
Random erors are unavoidable. They are unavoidable due othe fat that every physical mensrement has
Hmitation, Ley some uncertainty. Using the utmost of cre, the anklyst can only obtain m welght the
uncertainty ofthe balance or deliver a volume tothe uncertainty ofthe glss pipet, For example, most
fourplace analytical balances are accurate 0.0001 grams, Therefore, with cre, an analyst ean measure
*1.0000-gram weight (true value) to an accuracy of 0,000] grams where a value of 10001 to 0.99 grams
‘would be within the random error of measurement Ifthe analyst touches the weight with their finger and
{otal error = 1.0005 -1.0000 = 0.0005 grams and the random and
obtains a weight of 1.0005 grams, th
systematic errors could be estimated to be 0.0001 and 0.0004 grams respectively. Note thatthe systemath
surement. A truly
the m
error could be as great as 0.0006 grams, taking into account the uncertainty of
ositive as negative, making the average of several measurements more
random error is just as likely to be
m weight with
eral measurements of the 1.0000:
reliable than any single measurement. Hence, taking s
the added weight of the fingerprint, the analyst would eventually report the weight of the fingerprint as
0.0005 h dom error is still 0.0001 grams and the systematic error is 0.0005 grams
0.0005 grams where the rand
Prof. S:0-A
random errors set g limit upon accuracy no matter how many replicates are made, Prof: S
Howev
Usman
themselves
nis used in describing the agreement of a set of results among th
Precision The term precisi ab igs
in terms of the deviation of a set of results from the arithmetic me
(orn) 0} vastly 02 ples
2 curacy. Prof. $.0.4 Usman
Mean: - The definition of mean is, “an average ofn humbers computed by adding some function ofthe
umbers and dividin
‘ean is an estimate ofthe true value as long as there is no systematic error, In the absence of systemat
‘rror, the mean approaches the true value ( asthe numberof measurements (n) increases. The fequency
‘istibution ofthe measurements approximates a bell shaped eure tha is symmetrical around the mean,
‘The arithmetic mean is calculated using the following equation:
Mean= (X1 + X2 +---Xn)/n
22 Typically, insufficient data are collected to determine ifthe data are evenly distributed. Most analysts rely
‘upon quality control data obtained along with the sample data to indicate the accuracy of the procedural
execution, ic, the absence of systematic error(s). The analysis ofat leastone QC sample with the unknown
sample(s) is strongly recommended. ven when the QC sample isin Gontol itis still important to inspect
the data for outliers. There is a third type of error typically referred to as a ‘blunder’. This is an-error that is
made unintentionally. A blunder does not fall in the systematic or random error categories, It is & mistake
ited data sets (n= 3 to 10),
that went unnoticed, such as a transcription error or a spilled solution, For Ii we (Xn-X1), where Xn int
He largest value and X1 is the smallest value, is a good estimate of the
precision and
useful value in dat
‘a(a inspection. inthe situation where a limited data se has suspicious
outlier and the Qc
‘mle sin contol, the analyst should caleulate the range ofthe data and determin if
itis significantly lager than would
‘expected based upon the QC data If an explanation cannot be found
for an outlier (other than it appears too high or low), there is a convenient test that ean be used forthe
‘ejection of possible outliers from limited datasets This i the Q test. The Q testis commonly conducted
at the 90% confidence
vel but the following table (14-3) includes the 96% and 99% levels as well for your
Convenience. At the 90% confidence level, the analystcan reject a result with 90% confidence thatan outlier
fom the other results inthe dataset. The Q test involves dividing the difference
the outlier and its nearest value inthe set by the range, which gives a quotient - Q, The range is
» calculated by including the outlier, which is automatically the largest or smallest value in the data
et. If the quotient is g
er than the refection quotient, Q0.90, then the outlier ean be rejected. Table 143:
The Q Test n Q0,90 20.96 Q0.99 3 0.94 0.98 0.99 4 0.76 0.85 0.93 5 0.64 0.73 0.82 6 0.56 0.640.747051
0.59 0,68 8 0,47 0.64 0.53.9 0.44 0.51 0.60 10 0.41 0.48 0.57 Example: This example will test four results
4--1004, 1005, 1001, and 981, The range is calculated: 1005 - 98
4. The difference betwee
the questionable result (981) and its nearest neighbor is calculated: 1001 - 981 = 20. The quotient is
| calculated: 20/24 = 0.83. The calculated quotient is compared to the Q0.90 value of 0
ble 14.3 above) and found to be grea
2. The questionable result (981) is rejected. Standard Deviation A
fol and commonly used measure of precision isthe experimental standard deviation defined by
ries of n measurements of te same measured the quantity s characterizing
the results and given bythe formula: = [(xi-)2 (ol) ]1/2 xi being the result ofthe ih measuremen
4 being the arithmetic mean of the n results considered." The above definition is fr estima
ard deviation for n values ofa sample of «population and is always calculated using 1, The
seviation of population is symbolized as sand is calculated using n. Unless the en
amined, s eannot be known and is estimated from samples randomly selected fron
Ab {uuiesiA16 spon a given production lot of material (populat " deviation of the set (n=4) of mea:
surements would be estimated using (n-1). If this analysis was repeated
several times to produce several sample sets (four each) of data, it would be expected that each set of
measurements would have a different mean and a different estimate of the standard deviation. The
experimental standard deviations of the mean for each set is calculated using the following expression: s /
(n)1/2. Using the above example, where values of 1004, 1005, and 1001 were considered acceptable forthe
calculation of the mean and the experimental standard deviation the mean would be 1003, the experimental
standard deviation would be 2 and the standard deviation of the mean would be 1. Prof. $.0.A Usman Significant Figure Rules
There are three rule:
ules on determining how ‘many significant figures are in a number:
1. Non. :
5 eeeeucisits son CIWAYS significant, PROR.S0.4. USMAN
7 - ‘0s tween two significant digits are significant.
Or fraling zeros inthe decimal portion ONLY are significant.
Since.all measurements are
3. A final zero
n waverin, we must only use those.numbers thatare meaningful, A
Fe re camct measure something to be 2240 g0ea ae long. Not allof the digits have
BER | emscance) and, therefore, should not bale feRiRateniES science, only the numbers
that have significance (derived from measurement) are written,
Hyoulte not convinced significant figues afe important, you ‘may want to read the Significant
Figure Fable that follows.
Rule 1: Non-zero digits are always significant.
his rule seems rather obvious. If you measure something and the device you use (ruler,
thermometer, triple-beam balance, etc.) returns a number to you, then you have made
measurement decision and that ACT of measuring gives significance to that particular numeral (or
digit) in the overall value you obtain,
Hence a number like 26.38 would have four significant figures and 7.94 would have three, The
problem comes with numbers like 0.00980 or 28.09.
Rule 2: Any zeros between two significant digits are significant,
number like 406, By the first rule the 4 and the 6 are significant. However, to
Rae ion on the 4 (in the hundred's place) and the 6 (in the unit's place), you
HAD to have made a decision on the ten’ place, The measurement scale for this number would
have hundreds and tens marked with an estimation made in the unit's place. Like
Sees
0
400 350 a Rule 3: A final ze)
0 oF trailin 5 i
trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are signi
This rule causes the most g sticks
withthe zeros this rule affects noe oem Team tenis, Hee are two examples of hse
$ in boldface;
nt,
0.00500
0.03040
Here are two more examples where the significant zeros are in boldface:
2.30% 10
4,500 x 10!
What Zeros are Not Discussed Above
Zoro Type #1: Space holding zeros on numbers less than one.
Here are the first two numbers from just above with the digits that are NOT significant in
boldface PROF.S,0.A. USMAN
0.00500,
0.03040.
‘These zeros serve only as space holders. They are there to put the decimal point in its correct
location. They DO NOT involve measurement decisions, Upon writing the numbers in scientific
notation (5,00 x 10°? and 3.040 x 10 *), the non-significant zeros disappear
Zero Type H2: the zero to the left of the decimal point on numbers less than one.
‘When a number like 0.00500 is written, the very first zero (to the left of the decimal point) is put
there by convention, Its sole function is to communicate unambiguously that the decimal point is
fi decimal point, If the number were written like this, .00S00, there is a possibility that the
decimal point might be mistaken for a period. Many students omit that zero. They should not.
‘Zero Type 1/3; trailing zeros in a whole number,
gnificant figure while 25,000 has two.
200 is considered to have only ONE.
‘This is based on the way each number is written. When whole number are written as abaye, the
ze08, BY DEFINITION, did not require a measurement decision, thus they are not significa
figures. Ifit does
However, its entirely possible that 200 really does have two or three significant figures. If
it will be written in a different manner than 200. e
Srna ne Peon 's Used for this purpose, 1f200 has two significant figures, then 2,0
242 above, Simee, then 2,00 x.10? is used, [Fit had four, then 200.0 is sufficient. See rule
ice ad Many significant figures are in a number like 200? In a problem like
h FmensChtific context, you will be told, If' you were doing an experiment, the
Peatextof the experiment and its measuring devioes woulda you how many significant figures
10 report to people who read the report of your work,
Pero Type #4: leading zeros in a whole number,
00250 has two significant figures, 005,00 x 10-4 has three,
Exact Numbers
Exact numbers, such as the number of people in a room, have an infinite number of significant
figures. Exact numbers are counting up how many of something are present, they are not
measurements made with instruments. Another example of this are defined numbers, such as 1
foot= 12 inches, There are exactly 12 inches in one foot, Therefore, if a number is exact, it DOES
NOT affect the accuracy of'a calculation nor the precision of the expression. Some more examples:
There are 100 years in a century.
2molecules of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 2 molecules of water.
There are $00 sheets of paper in one ream.
Interestingly, the speed of light is now a defined quantity. By definition, the value is 299,792,458
meters persecond, PROF.S.0.4. USMAN
Rules for Rounding Off
Now that "everyone" has a calculator that will give a result to six or eight (or more) figures, it is
‘important that we know how to round the answer off correctly. The typical rule taught is that you
‘ound up with five or more and round down with four or less,
IS RULE IS WRONG!
However, please do not rush off to your elementary school teacher and read 'em the riot act!
2 thane ae
)blem lies in rounding "up" (increasing) the number that is followed by a 5. For example,
fer ike 3.65 o: 3.75, where you are to round off to the nearest tenth,
: oa Hl
Jain this, When you round off, you change the value of the number, exe
ve Bipttarec Following the old rules, you can round a number down in value four times
‘with one, two, three, four) compared to rounding it upwards five times(five, 8%
s seven, eight, nine). Remember that "
: it chi th
Pee ereine, ‘rounding off" a zero does not change the value of the number
Suppose you had a very large sample of numbers to round off. On average you would be changing
values in the sample downwards 4/9ths of the time, compared to changing values in thesample
upward 5/9ths of the time, ; ‘
_ This means the average of the values AFTER rounding off would be greater than the average of
= the values BEFORE rounding,
f
This is not acceptable.
We can correct for this problem by rounding "off" (keeping the number the same) in fifty percent
of the roundings-even numbers followed by a 5. Then, on average, the roundings "off" will
cancel out the roundings "up."
‘The following rules dictate the manner in which numbers are to be rounded to the number of
figures indicated. The first two rules are more-or-less the old ones. Rule three is the change in
‘the old way.
‘When rounding, examine the figure following (i.e, to the right of) the figure that is to be last. This
figure you are examining is the first figure to be dropped.
1. Ifit is less than 5, drop it and all the figures to the right of it.
2. Ifit is more than 5, increase by 1 the number to be rounded, that is, the preceeding figure.
3. If it is 5, round the number so that it will be even. Keep in mind that zero is considered to
be even when rounding off.
Example #1 - Suppose you wish to round 62.5347 to four significant figures. Look at the fifth
figure. It is a 4, a number less than 5. Therefore, you will simply drop every figure after the fourth,
and the original number rounds off to 62.53.
Example #2 - Round 3.78721 to three significant figures, Look at the fourth figure. It is 7, anumber
ereater than 5, so you round the original number up to 3.79.
Example #3 - Round 726.835 to five significant figures. Look at the sixth figure. It is a 5, so now
you must look at the fifth figure also. That is a3, which is an odd number, so you round the original
number up to 726.84. PROF.S.0.A. USMAN-
Example #4 - Round 24.8514 to three significant figures. Look at the fourth figure. It is a 5, s0
now you must also look at the third figure. It is 8, an even number, so you simply drop the 5 and
the figures that follow it. The original number becomes 24.8,
1e ALSO. If
When the value you intend to round off is a five, you MUST look at the previous value Al"
it is even, you round down, If it is odd, you round up, A common question is "Is zero cons
odd or even?" The answer is even.
Here are some more examples of the "five rule." Round off at the five.
i , 3.075
PROF.S.0.4. USMAN
3.85
2.73541
0.00565 Mould your teacher be so mean as to include problems like this one on a test? In the ChemTeam
2lassroom, the sufferers (oops, I mean students) have learned to shout "YES" in unison to such
easy questions
Lastly, before we get to the problems. Students, when they learn this rule, like to apply it across
the board, For example, in 2.0495, let's say we want to round off to the nearest 0.01. Many times,
a student will answer 2.04, When asked to explain, the rule concerning five will be cited. However,
ie pace ‘number in this problem is the nine, so the rule is to round up and the correct answer
152.05.
Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction
Addition and Subtraction
In mathematical operations involving significant figures, the answer is reported in such @ way
that it reflects the reliability of the least precise operation. Let's state that another way: a chain is
no stronger than its weakest link, An answer is no more precise that the least precise number
used to get the answer. Let's do it one more time: imagine a team race where you and your team
must finish together. Who dictates the speed of the team? Of course, the slowest member of the
team, Your answer cannot be MORE precise than the least precise measurement.
For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal portion (j.., to the right of the decimal point) of
the numbers ONLY. Here is what to do:
1) Count the number of significent figures inthe decimal portion of each number in the problem
(The digits to the left of the decimal place are not used to determine the number of decimal
places in the final answer.)
2) Add or subtract in the normal fashion. PROF.S.0.4. USMAN
3) Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the decimal portion of any number in the
problem.
WARNING: the rules for add/subtract are different from multiply/divide. A very commonstudent
error is to swap the two sets of rules. Another common error is to use just one rule for both types
of operations.
‘Multiplication and Division
‘The following rule applies for multiplication and division:
‘The LEAST number of significant figures in any number of the problem determines the number
of significant figures in the answer.
‘This means you MUST know how to recognize significant figures in order to use this ae: Example #1: 2.5 x 3.49,
‘The answer to this prob)
ies Problem would be 86 (which yume EO BE ERetor reading of 8.55).
>| 2.5 has two signifi
siifines <0 the Ber a s 42 has three. Two significant figures is less precise than
ony Eee fald two. This is too few. A common empfie forthe student 10 100k at muinber
ionificest cans thas two significant figures. The zero in the nundedith's place is notrecognized
Ss significant when, in fac, its. 3.10 has three significant figures.
Three is the correct answer. 14.0 has three significant figures. Note that the zero in the tenth's place
iSconsidered significant. Al trailing zeros in the decimal portion are considered significant,
Another common error is for the student to think that 14 and 14.0 are the same thing, THEY
ARE NOT. 14.0 is ten times more precise than 14, The two numbers have the same value but they
Convey different meanings about how trustworthy they are
Four is also an incorrect answer given by some ChemTeam students, It is too many significant
figures. One possible reason for this answer lies in the number 4.520. This number has four
significant figures while 3.10 has three. Somehow, the student (YOU!) maybe got the idea that it
is the GREATEST number of significant figures in the problem that dictates the answer. It is the
LEAST.
Sometimes student will answer this with five. Most likely you responded with this answer because
it says 14.012 on your calculator. This answer would have been correct in your math class becatise
mathematics does not have the significant figure concept.
Example #3: 2.33 x 6,085 x 2.1. How many significant figures in the answer?
Answer - two. PROF.S.O.A. USMAN
Which number decides this?
Answer - the 2.1.
Why?
It has the least number of significant figures in the problem, It is, therefore, the least precise
measuyement.
Example #4: (4.52 x 10”) + (3.980 x 10%). 4low many significant figures in the answer?
Answer - three
Which number decides this?
Answer - the 4,52 x 107%,
Vhy?
I has the least number of significant figures in the problem. It is, therefore, the least precise
Tre Sutement. Notice it is the 4.52 portion that plays the role of determining significant figures,
the exponential portion plays no role.
Itis important to be honest when reporting a measurement, so that it does not appear to be more
accurate than the equipment used to make the measurement allows, We can achieve this by
Controlling the number of digits, or significant figures, used to report the measurement.
Determining the Number of Significant Figures PROF.S.0.4. USMAN
‘The number of significant figures in a measurement, such es 2,531, is equal to the number of digits
that are known with some degree of confidence (2, 5, and 3) plus the last digit (1), which isan
estimate or approximation. As we improve the sensitivity of the equipment used to make a
measurement, the number of significant figures increases.
Postage Scale 341g 1 significant figure
3 significant
‘Two-pan balance 1 Na trs
i 4 significant
Analytical balance 2.531 £0.01 g figures
Rules for counting significant figures are summarized below.
Zeros within a number are always significant, Both 4308 and 40.05 contain four significant figures. Zeros that do nothii , i
/ Tesigtifieant Sou hing but set the decimal point are not significant. Thus, 470,000 has two
Trailing zeros that aren’
iB Ze ‘t needed t 7 i ignificant, x
three significant figures 'o hold the decimal point are significant. For example, 4,00 has
oif you are not sure whether a digit is significant, assume that it isn't. For example, if the
directions for an experim t
ic ‘ent read: "Add the sample to 400 mL of water," assume the volume of
“water is known to one significant figure,
Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures
' When combining measurement
; of the final answer can be no
translated into a simple rule
subtracted, the answer
measurement.
s with different degrees of accuracy and precision, the accuracy
greater than the least accurate measurement, This principle can be
for addition and subtraction: When measurements are added or
can contain no more decimal places than the least accurate
150.0 g H2O (using significant figures)
£0,507 g salt
150.5 g solution
Multiplication and Division With Significant Figures PROF.S.0.4. USMAN
Nae eee tra tue ene eelnas MMMEEESTT is cae? however we
er ie significant figures in each measurement, not the number of decimal places: When
ments are multiplied or divided, the answer can contain no more significant figures
measure
than the least accurate measurement.
a < d penny that is pure
MPP ie [e, let's calculate the cost of the copper in an old p
Sean: To illust on eitie penny has a mass of 2.531 grams, that it is essentially pure copper,
me ‘g a is 67 cents per pound. We can start by from grams to pounds
an fe pri
Lib
453.6 &
2531 g x = 0.005580 7%
We then use the price of a pound of copper to calculate the cost of the copper metal
fe then use the pri
61g 7
x» £12 . 9.3749 g
0.005580 » x ‘There are four Significant fj
1 68 in bo
40 @ pound (453.6), Bi there are el see
answer can only
‘0 significant figures in the price of
havé two significant figures ca i
Penny (2.531) and the number of grams
‘Opper, so the final
Rounding Off
PROF.S.0.4, USMAN
When the answer to a calculation contains too ‘many significant figures, it must be rounded off
There are 10 digits that can occur inthe ‘ast decimal place in a calculation, One Way of rounding
Of involves underestimating the ther fee Eve Of these digits (0, 1, 2, 3) and 4) ma
crmamating the answer for the other five .6,7, 8, and 9), This approach to rounding off
‘summatized as follows,
H the digit is smaller than 5, drop this Aleit and leave the remaining number unchanged Thus,
1.684 becomes 1.68,
U the digit is 5 or larger, drop this digit and add 1 to the preceding digit. Thus, 1.247 becomes
1.25, ERROR p ETERMINATION
Erroi easureme A
se hep my iy, i
visually an instrument solo of a Coat nee 2
Pith to pee tae cS le, or the difficulty of defining exactly what we
{ easure, ace Never certain that the value of what we have
measured is the "true" value of what we intended to measure. Thus, we
assume that all mea urements include the Possibility of "errors", and a
Measurement is not completely described without some indication of the
nature of these errors (the uncertainty in the measurement). Measurement
errors are unavoidable, so "error" in this context does not mean "mistake."
We may have measured the true value, but we are never certain that we
have done so Prof. 8.0.A.Usman
Precision refers to the uncertainty in a measurement reading or
observation. It is closely linked with the term “reproducibility.” A precise
Measurement is one which is characterized by high reproducibility,
Repeated observation leads to nearly identical reported values. Accuracy
is used to describe the closeness of an observation to the true value of the
parameter being measured. It is independent of Precision. Note that
precision necessarily refers to the characteristics of a set of repeated
observations, while accuracy can refer to a set of observations or to an
individual observation. In other words, an observation from an imprecise
instrument could very well be highly accurate, but a second observation
has a high probability of being inaccurate since the instrument is
imprecise. Whether from imprecision or inaccuracy, measurements are
always characterized by errors, and the term “errors” is commonly used
to describe both imprecision and inaccuracy collectively. It is useful to
think of measurement errors in two categories: systematic errors and
random errors.
Systematic errors: - Systematic errors are those differences between an
observation and the true value that are consistent from one observation ba
the next. For example, suppose the scale plate on a thermometer wer
1 shifted up or down then all o:
if
the amount of the shift. Such _lrates ee apace oe
E calibration errors are the most common
of systematic €rror. A systematic error is caused by a defect ne
analytical method or by an improperly functioning instrument or analyst
Note that systematic errors, since they are consistent from one
measurement to another, are most closely associated with inaccuracy.
Also note that systematic errors are relatively easily managed, once they
are detected. Detection, however, is nontrivial.
Prof. S.0.A.Usman
Random errors: - Random errors are more difficult to characterize and
are usually more difficult to manage. By definition, they are unpredictable
and change from one observation to another. Common sources of random
errors include:
¢ different applications of the instrument and technique, for example, by
different people during visual interpolation of instrument scales
* inherent randomness in the instrumentation (usually electronic
components)
* uncontrolled and unobserved external influences on the measurement
As an example of the latter, consider the effect of wind on a rain gage
measurement. While wind essentially always reduces the measured
amount of rain, the magnitude of that reduction depends on wind speed,
direction, etc. These factors vary from event to event, day to day, leading
to an unpredictable and varying error in the measurement.
+ random differences in the quantity being measured, such as the
differences between individual paper clips when measuring the number of
bends required to break a paper clip. Random errors manifest themselves
as an error distribution, which is often represented graphically. Prof
S.0.A.Usman SIMPLE AND yy
OLECuL
~ Chemical Formu
-AR FORMULA
lae
GH «,
hydroge
with 4 (,
2 atoms of carbon combine with 6 atoms of
nto form ethane, Mn(Cr 207)2, one Mn combines
«and 14 0 to form manganese(II)
dichromate,
If we know the formula of a compound, determining ihe
molar mass is simple. Since we know the atomic masses of the
elements, we can sum the atomic masses to obtain the
molecular masses.
1 atom of C :H « contains 2 atoms of C 12.01 amu = 24.02
1.0079 amu =6.0474
30.0674 = 30.07 amu
1 atom of C >H ¢ contains 6 atoms of H
We also know that 1 mole of C atoms weighs 12.01 g andil
mol of H atoms weighs 1.0079 g. So, we know the molar
mass of ethane also.
1 mole C 2H 6, 2 moles 12.01 g x 2 24,02 gofC
Lmole C2H ¢,6moles 1.0079 gx 6.0474.
of H 6
30.0674 = 30.07 g/mole
Or, 30.07 g in 1 mole C 2H 6. So, we say the molar mass of ethane is
30.07 g/mol (that’s grams per mole).
I
Prof. S.0.A Usman mole Na 2
a 2Cr 207, 2 mole of Na 29,939 8x2 =47,978 g
mole Na 2Cr 2
t 207, 2 mole of Cr 51.996 gx2 =111.9958 g
15.9994g¢x7 =263.9658=
263.97 g/mole
mole Na 2Cr 207, 7 moles of O
MW (which means molar mass) of (C 5(CH 3)5)
Re(NO)(CO) 2BF4. = 103.992 g
12 mol Cx 12.01 gC = 144.12 ¢¢
1 mol G
15 mol H x 1.0079 g H = 15.1185 g H
1 mol H
lmolBx10.81gB = 1081gB
1 mol B
4molF x 18.998gF= 75.992 g F
1 mol F
lmolNxl401gN= 14.01gN
i 1 mol N
3 mol O x 15.9994 g O = 47.9982 g O
1 mol O
1 mol Re x 186.207 g Re = 186.207 g Re
1 mol Re
MW = 494.26 g/mol
Prof. S.0.A Usman ML composition?
ental analy,
ular formula
analysis is aly,
of the
sis is performed we do not get
» The result of an elemental
YS reported asa Percent mass of each
ments. for which tHe analysis was
An elemental analysis of a white crystalline
compound believed t¢
o be COI 1206, analyzed for
C, H and O gave the following results,
C= 40.00 % »H=6.71 %, 0 =53.98 % by wt.
Is the compound actually C 6H 1206?
Start the problem with the assum,
ption that you have 100.0 g of
sample.
‘The percent composition tells
you how much of each element
is present:
100.0 gsamplex _ 40.00 g 6 = 40.00 gC
100.0 g sample
100.0 gsamplex _671gH= 6.71 9H
100.0 g sample
100.0 g sample x _53.28 g O = 53.28 g O 100.0
g sample
__ Pref: 8.0.4 Usman to dete,
a tmine the number of atoms/moles of each
100.0 ¢samplex _ 49, 00 g
0.00 Cx Jmol C = 3.330 mol
100.0 g sample 12.01 gC
100.0 g sample x 6.71 ¢ H= 6,71 @H x Lm mol H = 6.66 mol
100.0 g sample 1.0079 g H
100.0 g sample x ;
3.2 8 g O = 53.28 g Ox Lm mol O = 3.33 mol
100.0 g aa 15.9994 ¢ O
Finally we reduce the number of moles to the smallest whole number
