Memristor

A memristor (/ˈmɛmrɪstər/; a portmanteau of memory resistor) is

a non-linear two-terminal electrical component relating electric Memristor
charge and magnetic flux linkage. It was described and named in
1971 by Leon Chua, completing a theoretical quartet of
fundamental electrical components which comprises also the
resistor, capacitor and inductor.[1]

Chua and Kang later generalized the concept to memristive

systems.[2] Such a system comprises a circuit, of multiple
conventional components, which mimics key properties of the
ideal memristor component and is also commonly referred to as a
memristor. Several such memristor system technologies have been
developed, notably ReRAM.

The identification of memristive properties in electronic devices Memristor developed by the

has attracted controversy. Experimentally, the ideal memristor has University of Illinois at Urbana-
yet to be demonstrated.[3][4] Champaign and National Energy
Technology Laboratory
As a fundamental electrical component Invented Leon Chua (1971)
Electronic symbol
Chua in his 1971 paper identified a theoretical symmetry between
the non-linear resistor (voltage vs. current), non-linear capacitor
(voltage vs. charge), and non-linear inductor (magnetic flux
linkage vs. current). From this symmetry he inferred the
characteristics of a fourth fundamental non-linear circuit element,
linking magnetic flux and charge, which he called the memristor. In
contrast to a linear (or non-linear) resistor, the memristor has a
dynamic relationship between current and voltage, including a
memory of past voltages or currents. Other scientists had proposed
dynamic memory resistors such as the memistor of Bernard
Widrow, but Chua introduced a mathematical generality.

Derivation and characteristics

The memristor was originally defined in terms of a non-linear

functional relationship between magnetic flux linkage Φm(t) and the
amount of electric charge that has flowed, q(t):[1] Conceptual symmetries of resistor,
capacitor, inductor, and memristor

The magnetic flux linkage, Φm, is generalized from the circuit characteristic of an inductor. It does not
represent a magnetic field here. Its physical meaning is discussed below. The symbol Φm may be regarded
as the integral of voltage over time.[5]
In the relationship between Φm and q, the derivative of one with respect to the other depends on the value
of one or the other, and so each memristor is characterized by its memristance function describing the
charge-dependent rate of change of flux with charge.

Substituting the flux as the time integral of the voltage, and charge as the time integral of current, the more
convenient forms are;

To relate the memristor to the resistor, capacitor, and inductor, it is helpful to isolate the term M(q), which
characterizes the device, and write it as a differential equation.

Device Characteristic property (units) Differential equation

Resistor (R) Resistance (V / A, or ohm, Ω) R = dV / dI

Capacitor (C) Capacitance (C / V, or farad) C = dq / dV

Inductor (L) Inductance (Wb / A, or henry) L = dΦm / dI

Memristor (M) Memristance (Wb / C, or ohm) M = dΦm / dq

The above table covers all meaningful ratios of differentials of I, q, Φm, and V. No device can relate dI to
dq, or dΦm to dV, because I is the derivative of q and Φm is the integral of V.

It can be inferred from this that memristance is charge-dependent resistance. If M(q(t)) is a constant, then
we obtain Ohm's Law R(t) = V(t)/I(t). If M(q(t)) is nontrivial, however, the equation is not equivalent
because q(t) and M(q(t)) can vary with time. Solving for voltage as a function of time produces

This equation reveals that memristance defines a linear relationship between current and voltage, as long as
M does not vary with charge. Nonzero current implies time varying charge. Alternating current, however,
may reveal the linear dependence in circuit operation by inducing a measurable voltage without net charge
movement—as long as the maximum change in q does not cause much change in M.

Furthermore, the memristor is static if no current is applied. If I(t) = 0, we find V(t) = 0 and M(t) is constant.
This is the essence of the memory effect.

Analogously, we can define a as menductance.[1]

The power consumption characteristic recalls that of a resistor, I2 R.

As long as M(q(t)) varies little, such as under alternating current, the memristor will appear as a constant
resistor. If M(q(t)) increases rapidly, however, current and power consumption will quickly stop.
M(q) is physically restricted to be positive for all values of q (assuming the device is passive and does not
become superconductive at some q). A negative value would mean that it would perpetually supply energy
when operated with alternating current.

Modelling and validation

In order to understand the nature of memristor function, some knowledge of fundamental circuit theoretic
concepts is useful, starting with the concept of device modeling.[6]

Engineers and scientists seldom analyze a physical system in its original form. Instead, they construct a
model which approximates the behaviour of the system. By analyzing the behaviour of the model, they
hope to predict the behaviour of the actual system. The primary reason for constructing models is that
physical systems are usually too complex to be amenable to a practical analysis.

In the 20th century, work was done on devices where researchers did not recognize the memristive
characteristics. This has raised the suggestion that such devices should be recognised as memristors.[6]
Pershin and Di Ventra[3] have proposed a test that can help to resolve some of the long-standing
controversies about whether an ideal memristor does actually exist or is a purely mathematical concept.

The rest of this article primarily addresses memristors as related to ReRAM devices, since the majority of
work since 2008 has been concentrated in this area.

Superconducting memristor component

Dr. Paul Penfield, in a 1974 MIT technical report[7] mentions the memristor in connection with Josephson
junctions. This was an early use of the word "memristor" in the context of a circuit device.

One of the terms in the current through a Josephson junction is of the form:

where is a constant based on the physical superconducting materials, is the voltage across the junction
and is the current through the junction.

Through the late 20th century, research regarding this phase-dependent conductance in Josephson junctions
was carried out.[8][9][10][11] A more comprehensive approach to extracting this phase-dependent
conductance appeared with Peotta and DiVentra's seminal paper in 2014.[12]

Memristor circuits

Due to the practical difficulty of studying the ideal memristor, we will discuss other electrical devices which
can be modelled using memristors. For a mathematical description of a memristive device (systems), see
Theory.

A discharge tube can be modelled as a memristive device, with resistance being a function of the number of
conduction electrons .[2]
 is the voltage across the discharge tube, is the current flowing through it and is the number of
conduction electrons. A simple memristance function is . and are parameters
depending on the dimensions of the tube and the gas fillings. An experimental identification of memristive
behaviour is the "pinched hysteresis loop" in the plane. For an experiment that shows such a
characteristic for a common discharge tube, see "A physical memristor Lissajous figure" (YouTube) (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDfJoXrCSxk). The video also illustrates how to understand deviations in the
pinched hysteresis characteristics of physical memristors.[13][14]

Thermistors can be modelled as memristive devices.[14]

is a material constant, is the absolute body temperature of the thermistor, is the ambient temperature
(both temperatures in Kelvin), denotes the cold temperature resistance at , is the heat
capacitance and is the dissipation constant for the thermistor.

A fundamental phenomenon that has hardly been studied is memristive behaviour in pn-junctions.[15] The
memristor plays a crucial role in mimicking the charge storage effect in the diode base, and is also
responsible for the conductivity modulation phenomenon (that is so important during forward transients).

Criticisms

In 2008, a team at HP Labs found experimental evidence for the Chua's memristor based on an analysis of
a thin film of titanium dioxide, thus connecting the operation of ReRAM devices to the memristor concept.
According to HP Labs, the memristor would operate in the following way: the memristor's electrical
resistance is not constant but depends on the current that had previously flowed through the device, i.e., its
present resistance depends on how much electric charge has previously flowed through it and in what
direction; the device remembers its history—the so-called non-volatility property.[16] When the electric
power supply is turned off, the memristor remembers its most recent resistance until it is turned on
again.[17][18]

The HP Labs result was published in the scientific journal Nature.[17][19] Following this claim, Leon Chua
has argued that the memristor definition could be generalized to cover all forms of two-terminal non-volatile
memory devices based on resistance switching effects.[16] Chua also argued that the memristor is the oldest
known circuit element, with its effects predating the resistor, capacitor, and inductor.[20] There are,
however, some serious doubts as to whether a genuine memristor can actually exist in physical
reality.[21][22][23][24] Additionally, some experimental evidence contradicts Chua's generalization since a
non-passive nanobattery effect is observable in resistance switching memory.[25] A simple test has been
proposed by Pershin and Di Ventra[3] to analyze whether such an ideal or generic memristor does actually
exist or is a purely mathematical concept. Up to now, there seems to be no experimental resistance
switching device (ReRAM) which can pass the test.[3][4]
These devices are intended for applications in nanoelectronic memory devices, computer logic, and
neuromorphic/neuromemristive computer architectures.[26][27] In 2013, Hewlett-Packard CTO Martin Fink
suggested that memristor memory may become commercially available as early as 2018.[28] In March
2012, a team of researchers from HRL Laboratories and the University of Michigan announced the first
functioning memristor array built on a CMOS chip.[29]

According to the original 1971 definition, the memristor is the

fourth fundamental circuit element, forming a non-linear
relationship between electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. In
2011, Chua argued for a broader definition that includes all two-
terminal non-volatile memory devices based on resistance
switching.[16] Williams argued that MRAM, phase-change
memory and ReRAM are memristor technologies.[32] Some
researchers argued that biological structures such as blood[33] and
skin[34][35] fit the definition. Others argued that the memory device
under development by HP Labs and other forms of ReRAM are
not memristors, but rather part of a broader class of variable-
resistance systems,[36] and that a broader definition of memristor is
An array of 17 purpose-built oxygen-
a scientifically unjustifiable land grab that favored HP's memristor
depleted titanium dioxide memristors
patents.[37] built at HP Labs, imaged by an
atomic force microscope. The wires
In 2011, Meuffels and Schroeder noted that one of the early are about 50 nm, or 150 atoms,
memristor papers included a mistaken assumption regarding ionic
wide.[30] Electric current through the
conduction.[38] In 2012, Meuffels and Soni discussed some memristors shifts the oxygen
fundamental issues and problems in the realization of vacancies, causing a gradual and
memristors.[21] They indicated inadequacies in the electrochemical persistent change in electrical
modeling presented in the Nature article "The missing memristor resistance.[31]
found" [17] because the impact of concentration polarization effects
on the behavior of metal−TiO2−x−metal structures under voltage or
current stress was not considered. This critique was referred to by Valov et al.[25] in 2013.

In a kind of thought experiment, Meuffels and Soni[21] furthermore revealed a severe inconsistency: If a
current-controlled memristor with the so-called non-volatility property[16] exists in physical reality, its
behavior would violate Landauer's principle, which places a limit on the minimum amount of energy
required to change "information" states of a system. This critique was finally adopted by Di Ventra and
Pershin[22] in 2013.

Within this context, Meuffels and Soni[21] pointed to a fundamental thermodynamic principle: Non-volatile
information storage requires the existence of free-energy barriers that separate the distinct internal memory
states of a system from each other; otherwise, one would be faced with an "indifferent" situation, and the
system would arbitrarily fluctuate from one memory state to another just under the influence of thermal
fluctuations. When unprotected against thermal fluctuations, the internal memory states exhibit some
diffusive dynamics, which causes state degradation.[22] The free-energy barriers must therefore be high
enough to ensure a low bit-error probability of bit operation.[39] Consequently, there is always a lower limit
of energy requirement – depending on the required bit-error probability – for intentionally changing a bit
value in any memory device.[39][40]

In the general concept of memristive system the defining equations are (see Theory):
where u(t) is an input signal, and y(t) is an output signal. The vector x represents a set of n state variables
describing the different internal memory states of the device. ẋ is the time-dependent rate of change of the
state vector x with time.

When one wants to go beyond mere curve fitting and aims at a real physical modeling of non-volatile
memory elements, e.g., resistive random-access memory devices, one has to keep an eye on the
aforementioned physical correlations. To check the adequacy of the proposed model and its resulting state
equations, the input signal u(t) can be superposed with a stochastic term ξ(t), which takes into account the
existence of inevitable thermal fluctuations. The dynamic state equation in its general form then finally
reads:

where ξ(t) is, e.g., white Gaussian current or voltage noise. On base of an analytical or numerical analysis
of the time-dependent response of the system towards noise, a decision on the physical validity of the
modeling approach can be made, e.g., would the system be able to retain its memory states in power-off
mode?

Such an analysis was performed by Di Ventra and Pershin[22] with regard to the genuine current-controlled
memristor. As the proposed dynamic state equation provides no physical mechanism enabling such a
memristor to cope with inevitable thermal fluctuations, a current-controlled memristor would erratically
change its state in course of time just under the influence of current noise.[22][41] Di Ventra and Pershin[22]
thus concluded that memristors whose resistance (memory) states depend solely on the current or voltage
history would be unable to protect their memory states against unavoidable Johnson–Nyquist noise and
permanently suffer from information loss, a so-called "stochastic catastrophe". A current-controlled
memristor can thus not exist as a solid-state device in physical reality.

The above-mentioned thermodynamic principle furthermore implies that the operation of two-terminal non-
volatile memory devices (e.g. "resistance-switching" memory devices (ReRAM)) cannot be associated with
the memristor concept, i.e., such devices cannot by itself remember their current or voltage history.
Transitions between distinct internal memory or resistance states are of probabilistic nature. The probability
for a transition from state {i} to state {j} depends on the height of the free-energy barrier between both
states. The transition probability can thus be influenced by suitably driving the memory device, i.e., by
"lowering" the free-energy barrier for the transition {i} → {j} by means of, for example, an externally
applied bias.

A "resistance switching" event can simply be enforced by setting the external bias to a value above a
certain threshold value. This is the trivial case, i.e., the free-energy barrier for the transition {i} → {j} is
reduced to zero. In case one applies biases below the threshold value, there is still a finite probability that
the device will switch in course of time (triggered by a random thermal fluctuation), but – as one is dealing
with probabilistic processes – it is impossible to predict when the switching event will occur. That is the
basic reason for the stochastic nature of all observed resistance-switching (ReRAM) processes. If the free-
energy barriers are not high enough, the memory device can even switch without having to do anything.

When a two-terminal non-volatile memory device is found to be in a distinct resistance state {j}, there
exists therefore no physical one-to-one relationship between its present state and its foregoing voltage
history. The switching behavior of individual non-volatile memory devices thus cannot be described within
the mathematical framework proposed for memristor/memristive systems.

An extra thermodynamic curiosity arises from the definition that memristors/memristive devices should
energetically act like resistors. The instantaneous electrical power entering such a device is completely
dissipated as Joule heat to the surrounding, so no extra energy remains in the system after it has been
brought from one resistance state xi to another one xj. Thus, the internal energy of the memristor device in
state xi, U(V, T, xi), would be the same as in state xj, U(V, T, xj), even though these different states would
give rise to different device's resistances, which itself must be caused by physical alterations of the device's
material.

Other researchers noted that memristor models based on the assumption of linear ionic drift do not account
for asymmetry between set time (high-to-low resistance switching) and reset time (low-to-high resistance
switching) and do not provide ionic mobility values consistent with experimental data. Non-linear ionic-
drift models have been proposed to compensate for this deficiency.[42]

A 2014 article from researchers of ReRAM concluded that Strukov's (HP's) initial/basic memristor
modeling equations do not reflect the actual device physics well, whereas subsequent (physics-based)
models such as Pickett's model or Menzel's ECM model (Menzel is a co-author of that article) have
adequate predictability, but are computationally prohibitive. As of 2014, the search continues for a model
that balances these issues; the article identifies Chang's and Yakopcic's models as potentially good
compromises.[43]

Martin Reynolds, an electrical engineering analyst with research outfit Gartner, commented that while HP
was being sloppy in calling their device a memristor, critics were being pedantic in saying that it was not a
memristor.[44]

Experimental tests

Chua suggested experimental tests to determine if a device may properly be categorized as a memristor:[2]

The Lissajous curve in the voltage-current plane is a pinched hysteresis loop when driven
by any bipolar periodic voltage or current without respect to initial conditions.
The area of each lobe of the pinched hysteresis loop shrinks as the frequency of the forcing
signal increases.
As the frequency tends to infinity, the hysteresis loop degenerates to a straight line through
the origin, whose slope depends on the amplitude and shape of the forcing signal.

According to Chua[45][46] all resistive switching memories including ReRAM, MRAM and phase-change
memory meet these criteria and are memristors. However, the lack of data for the Lissajous curves over a
range of initial conditions or over a range of frequencies complicates assessments of this claim.

Experimental evidence shows that redox-based resistance memory (ReRAM) includes a nanobattery effect
that is contrary to Chua's memristor model. This indicates that the memristor theory needs to be extended or
corrected to enable accurate ReRAM modeling.[25]

Theory
In 2008, researchers from HP Labs introduced a model for a memristance function based on thin films of
titanium dioxide.[17] For RON ≪ ROFF the memristance function was determined to be

where ROFF represents the high resistance state, RON represents the low resistance state, μv represents the
mobility of dopants in the thin film, and D represents the film thickness. The HP Labs group noted that
"window functions" were necessary to compensate for differences between experimental measurements
and their memristor model due to non-linear ionic drift and boundary effects.

Operation as a switch

For some memristors, applied current or voltage causes substantial change in resistance. Such devices may
be characterized as switches by investigating the time and energy that must be spent to achieve a desired
change in resistance. This assumes that the applied voltage remains constant. Solving for energy dissipation
during a single switching event reveals that for a memristor to switch from Ron to Roff in time Ton to Toff,
the charge must change by ΔQ = Qon −Qoff.

Substituting V = I(q)M(q), and then ∫dq/V = ∆Q/V for constant VTo produces the final expression. This
power characteristic differs fundamentally from that of a metal oxide semiconductor transistor, which is
capacitor-based. Unlike the transistor, the final state of the memristor in terms of charge does not depend on
bias voltage.

The type of memristor described by Williams ceases to be ideal after switching over its entire resistance
range, creating hysteresis, also called the "hard-switching regime".[17] Another kind of switch would have
a cyclic M(q) so that each off-on event would be followed by an on-off event under constant bias. Such a
device would act as a memristor under all conditions, but would be less practical.

Memristive systems

In the more general concept of an n-th order memristive system the defining equations are

where u(t) is an input signal, y(t) is an output signal, the vector x represents a set of n state variables
describing the device, and g and f are continuous functions. For a current-controlled memristive system the
signal u(t) represents the current signal i(t) and the signal y(t) represents the voltage signal v(t). For a
voltage-controlled memristive system the signal u(t) represents the voltage signal v(t) and the signal y(t)
represents the current signal i(t).

The pure memristor is a particular case of these equations, namely when x depends only on charge (x = q)
and since the charge is related to the current via the time derivative dq/dt = i(t). Thus for pure memristors f
(i.e. the rate of change of the state) must be equal or proportional to the current i(t) .

Pinched hysteresis

One of the resulting properties of memristors and memristive systems is the existence of a pinched
hysteresis effect.[47] For a current-controlled memristive system, the input u(t) is the current i(t), the output
y(t) is the voltage v(t), and the slope of the curve represents the electrical resistance. The change in slope of
the pinched hysteresis curves demonstrates switching between different resistance states which is a
phenomenon central to ReRAM and other forms of two-terminal resistance memory. At high frequencies,
memristive theory predicts the pinched hysteresis effect will
degenerate, resulting in a straight line representative of a linear
resistor. It has been proven that some types of non-crossing pinched
hysteresis curves (denoted Type-II) cannot be described by
memristors.[48]

Memristive networks and mathematical

models of circuit interactions Example of pinched hysteresis
curve, V versus I
The concept of memristive networks was first introduced by Leon
Chua in his 1965 paper "Memristive Devices and Systems." Chua
proposed the use of memristive devices as a means of building artificial neural networks that could simulate
the behavior of the human brain. In fact, memristive devices in circuits have complex interactions due to
Kirchhoff's laws. A memristive network is a type of artificial neural network that is based on memristive
devices, which are electronic components that exhibit the property of memristance. In a memristive
network, the memristive devices are used to simulate the behavior of neurons and synapses in the human
brain. The network consists of layers of memristive devices, each of which is connected to other layers
through a set of weights. These weights are adjusted during the training process, allowing the network to
learn and adapt to new input data. One advantage of memristive networks is that they can be implemented
using relatively simple and inexpensive hardware, making them an attractive option for developing low-
cost artificial intelligence systems. They also have the potential to be more energy efficient than traditional
artificial neural networks, as they can store and process information using less power. However, the field of
memristive networks is still in the early stages of development, and more research is needed to fully
understand their capabilities and limitations. For the simplest model with only memristive devices with
voltage generators in series, there is an exact and in closed form equation (Caravelli-Traversa-Di Ventra
equation, CTD)[49] which describes the evolution of the internal memory of the network for each device.
For a simple memristor model (but not realistic) of a switch between two resistance values, given by the
Williams-Strukov model , with , there is a set of
nonlinearly coupled differential equations that takes the form:

where is the diagonal matrix with elements on the diagonal, are based on the memristors
physical parameters. The vector is the vector of voltage generators in series to the memristors. The circuit
topology enters only in the projector operator , defined in terms of the cycle matrix of the graph.
The equation provides a concise mathematical description of the interactions due to Kirchhoff 's laws.
Interestingly, the equation shares many properties in common with a Hopfield network, such as the
existence of Lyapunov functions and classical tunnelling phenomena.[50] In the context of memristive
networks, the CTD equation may be used to predict the behavior of memristive devices under different
operating conditions, or to design and optimize memristive circuits for specific applications.

Extended systems

Some researchers have raised the question of the scientific legitimacy of HP's memristor models in
explaining the behavior of ReRAM.[36][37] and have suggested extended memristive models to remedy
perceived deficiencies.[25]
One example[51] attempts to extend the memristive systems framework by including dynamic systems
incorporating higher-order derivatives of the input signal u(t) as a series expansion

where m is a positive integer, u(t) is an input signal, y(t) is an output signal, the vector x represents a set of n
state variables describing the device, and the functions g and f are continuous functions. This equation
produces the same zero-crossing hysteresis curves as memristive systems but with a different frequency
response than that predicted by memristive systems.

Another example suggests including an offset value to account for an observed nanobattery effect which
violates the predicted zero-crossing pinched hysteresis effect.[25]

Implementations

Titanium dioxide memristor

Interest in the memristor revived when an experimental solid-state version was reported by R. Stanley
Williams of Hewlett Packard in 2007.[52][53][54] The article was the first to demonstrate that a solid-state
device could have the characteristics of a memristor based on the behavior of nanoscale thin films. The
device neither uses magnetic flux as the theoretical memristor suggested, nor stores charge as a capacitor
does, but instead achieves a resistance dependent on the history of current.

Although not cited in HP's initial reports on their TiO2 memristor, the resistance switching characteristics of
titanium dioxide were originally described in the 1960s.[55]

The HP device is composed of a thin (50 nm) titanium dioxide film between two 5 nm thick electrodes, one
titanium, the other platinum. Initially, there are two layers to the titanium dioxide film, one of which has a
slight depletion of oxygen atoms. The oxygen vacancies act as charge carriers, meaning that the depleted
layer has a much lower resistance than the non-depleted layer. When an electric field is applied, the oxygen
vacancies drift (see Fast ion conductor), changing the boundary between the high-resistance and low-
resistance layers. Thus the resistance of the film as a whole is dependent on how much charge has been
passed through it in a particular direction, which is reversible by changing the direction of current.[17] Since
the HP device displays fast ion conduction at nanoscale, it is considered a nanoionic device.[56]

Memristance is displayed only when both the doped layer and depleted layer contribute to resistance. When
enough charge has passed through the memristor that the ions can no longer move, the device enters
hysteresis. It ceases to integrate q=∫I dt, but rather keeps q at an upper bound and M fixed, thus acting as a
constant resistor until current is reversed.

Memory applications of thin-film oxides had been an area of active investigation for some time. IBM
published an article in 2000 regarding structures similar to that described by Williams.[57] Samsung has a
U.S. patent for oxide-vacancy based switches similar to that described by Williams.[58]
In April 2010, HP labs announced that they had practical memristors working at 1 ns (~1 GHz) switching
times and 3 nm by 3 nm sizes,[59] which bodes well for the future of the technology.[60] At these densities it
could easily rival the current sub-25 nm flash memory technology.

Silicon dioxide memristor

It seems that memristance has been registered in nanoscale thin films realized with silicon dioxide since 60s
.[61]

However, hysteretic conductance in silicon has been associated to memristive effect in 2009 only, [62] while
Tony Kenyon and his group has clearly demonstrated that the resistive switching in silicon oxide thin films
is due to silicon nanoinclusions in highly nonstoichiometric suboxide phases .[63]

Polymeric memristor

In 2004, Krieger and Spitzer described dynamic doping of polymer and inorganic dielectric-like materials
that improved the switching characteristics and retention required to create functioning nonvolatile memory
cells.[64] They used a passive layer between electrode and active thin films, which enhanced the extraction
of ions from the electrode. It is possible to use fast ion conductor as this passive layer, which allows a
significant reduction of the ionic extraction field.

In July 2008, Erokhin and Fontana claimed to have developed a polymeric memristor before the more
recently announced titanium dioxide memristor.[65]

In 2010, Alibart, Gamrat, Vuillaume et al.[66] introduced a new hybrid organic/nanoparticle device (the
NOMFET : Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field Effect Transistor), which behaves as a memristor[67] and
which exhibits the main behavior of a biological spiking synapse. This device, also called a synapstor
(synapse transistor), was used to demonstrate a neuro-inspired circuit (associative memory showing a
pavlovian learning).[68]

In 2012, Crupi, Pradhan and Tozer described a proof of concept design to create neural synaptic memory
circuits using organic ion-based memristors.[69] The synapse circuit demonstrated long-term potentiation for
learning as well as inactivity based forgetting. Using a grid of circuits, a pattern of light was stored and later
recalled. This mimics the behavior of the V1 neurons in the primary visual cortex that act as spatiotemporal
filters that process visual signals such as edges and moving lines.

In 2012, Erokhin and co-authors have demonstrated a stochastic three-dimensional matrix with capabilities
for learning and adapting based on polymeric memristor.[70]

Layered memristor

In 2014, Bessonov et al. reported a flexible memristive device comprising a MoOx /MoS2 heterostructure
sandwiched between silver electrodes on a plastic foil.[71] The fabrication method is entirely based on
printing and solution-processing technologies using two-dimensional layered transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs). The memristors are mechanically flexible, optically transparent and produced at
low cost. The memristive behaviour of switches was found to be accompanied by a prominent
memcapacitive effect. High switching performance, demonstrated synaptic plasticity and sustainability to
mechanical deformations promise to emulate the appealing characteristics of biological neural systems in
novel computing technologies.

Atomristor

Atomristor is defined as the electrical devices showing memristive behavior in atomically thin
nanomaterials or atomic sheets. In 2018, Ge and Wu et al.[72] in the Akinwande group at the University of
Texas, first reported a universal memristive effect in single-layer TMD (MX2 , M = Mo, W; and X = S, Se)
atomic sheets based on vertical metal-insulator-metal (MIM) device structure. The work was later extended
to monolayer hexagonal boron nitride, which is the thinnest memory material of around 0.33 nm.[73] These
atomristors offer forming-free switching and both unipolar and bipolar operation. The switching behavior is
found in single-crystalline and poly-crystalline films, with various conducting electrodes (gold, silver and
graphene). Atomically thin TMD sheets are prepared via CVD/MOCVD, enabling low-cost fabrication.
Afterwards, taking advantage of the low "on" resistance and large on/off ratio, a high-performance zero-
power RF switch is proved based on MoS2 or h-BN atomristors, indicating a new application of
memristors for 5G, 6G and THz communication and connectivity systems.[74][75] In 2020, atomistic
understanding of the conductive virtual point mechanism was elucidated in an article in nature
nanotechnology.[76]

Ferroelectric memristor

The ferroelectric memristor[77] is based on a thin ferroelectric barrier sandwiched between two metallic
electrodes. Switching the polarization of the ferroelectric material by applying a positive or negative voltage
across the junction can lead to a two order of magnitude resistance variation: ROFF ≫ RON (an effect called
Tunnel Electro-Resistance). In general, the polarization does not switch abruptly. The reversal occurs
gradually through the nucleation and growth of ferroelectric domains with opposite polarization. During
this process, the resistance is neither RON or ROFF, but in between. When the voltage is cycled, the
ferroelectric domain configuration evolves, allowing a fine tuning of the resistance value. The ferroelectric
memristor's main advantages are that ferroelectric domain dynamics can be tuned, offering a way to
engineer the memristor response, and that the resistance variations are due to purely electronic phenomena,
aiding device reliability, as no deep change to the material structure is involved.

Carbon nanotube memristor

In 2013, Ageev, Blinov et al.[78] reported observing memristor effect in structure based on vertically
aligned carbon nanotubes studying bundles of CNT by scanning tunneling microscope.

Later it was found[79] that CNT memristive switching is observed when a nanotube has a non-uniform
elastic strain ΔL0. It was shown that the memristive switching mechanism of strained СNT is based on the
formation and subsequent redistribution of non-uniform elastic strain and piezoelectric field Edef in the
nanotube under the influence of an external electric field E(x,t).

Biomolecular memristor

Biomaterials have been evaluated for use in artificial synapses and have shown potential for application in
neuromorphic systems.[80] In particular, the feasibility of using a collagen‐based biomemristor as an
artificial synaptic device has been investigated,[81] whereas a synaptic device based on lignin demonstrated
rising or lowering current with consecutive voltage sweeps depending on the sign of the voltage[82]
furthermore a natural silk fibroin demonstrated memristive properties;[83] spin-memristive systems based on
biomolecules are also being studied.[84]

In 2012, Sandro Carrara and co-authors have proposed the first biomolecular memristor with aims to realize
highly sensitive biosensors.[85] Since then, several memristive sensors have been demonstrated.[86]

Spin memristive systems

Spintronic memristor

Chen and Wang, researchers at disk-drive manufacturer Seagate Technology described three examples of
possible magnetic memristors.[87] In one device resistance occurs when the spin of electrons in one section
of the device points in a different direction from those in another section, creating a "domain wall", a
boundary between the two sections. Electrons flowing into the device have a certain spin, which alters the
device's magnetization state. Changing the magnetization, in turn, moves the domain wall and changes the
resistance. The work's significance led to an interview by IEEE Spectrum.[88] A first experimental proof of
the spintronic memristor based on domain wall motion by spin currents in a magnetic tunnel junction was
given in 2011.[89]

Memristance in a magnetic tunnel junction

The magnetic tunnel junction has been proposed to act as a memristor through several potentially
complementary mechanisms, both extrinsic (redox reactions, charge trapping/detrapping and
electromigration within the barrier) and intrinsic (spin-transfer torque).

Extrinsic mechanism

Based on research performed between 1999 and 2003, Bowen et al. published experiments in 2006 on a
magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) endowed with bi-stable spin-dependent states[90](resistive switching). The
MTJ consists in a SrTiO3 (STO) tunnel barrier that separates half-metallic oxide LSMO and ferromagnetic
metal CoCr electrodes. The MTJ's usual two device resistance states, characterized by a parallel or
antiparallel alignment of electrode magnetization, are altered by applying an electric field. When the electric
field is applied from the CoCr to the LSMO electrode, the tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) ratio is
positive. When the direction of electric field is reversed, the TMR is negative. In both cases, large
amplitudes of TMR on the order of 30% are found. Since a fully spin-polarized current flows from the half-
metallic LSMO electrode, within the Julliere model, this sign change suggests a sign change in the effective
spin polarization of the STO/CoCr interface. The origin to this multistate effect lies with the observed
migration of Cr into the barrier and its state of oxidation. The sign change of TMR can originate from
modifications to the STO/CoCr interface density of states, as well as from changes to the tunneling
landscape at the STO/CoCr interface induced by CrOx redox reactions.

Reports on MgO-based memristive switching within MgO-based MTJs appeared starting in 2008[91] and
2009.[92] While the drift of oxygen vacancies within the insulating MgO layer has been proposed to
describe the observed memristive effects,[92] another explanation could be charge trapping/detrapping on
the localized states of oxygen vacancies[93] and its impact[94] on spintronics. This highlights the importance
of understanding what role oxygen vacancies play in the memristive operation of devices that deploy
complex oxides with an intrinsic property such as ferroelectricity[95] or multiferroicity.[96]

Intrinsic mechanism

The magnetization state of a MTJ can be controlled by Spin-transfer torque, and can thus, through this
intrinsic physical mechanism, exhibit memristive behavior. This spin torque is induced by current flowing
through the junction, and leads to an efficient means of achieving a MRAM. However, the length of time
the current flows through the junction determines the amount of current needed, i.e., charge is the key
variable.[97]

The combination of intrinsic (spin-transfer torque) and extrinsic (resistive switching) mechanisms naturally
leads to a second-order memristive system described by the state vector x = (x1 ,x2 ), where x1 describes the
magnetic state of the electrodes and x2 denotes the resistive state of the MgO barrier. In this case the change
of x1 is current-controlled (spin torque is due to a high current density) whereas the change of x2 is voltage-
controlled (the drift of oxygen vacancies is due to high electric fields). The presence of both effects in a
memristive magnetic tunnel junction led to the idea of a nanoscopic synapse-neuron system.[98]

Spin memristive system

A fundamentally different mechanism for memristive behavior has been proposed by Pershin and Di
Ventra.[99][100] The authors show that certain types of semiconductor spintronic structures belong to a
broad class of memristive systems as defined by Chua and Kang.[2] The mechanism of memristive behavior
in such structures is based entirely on the electron spin degree of freedom which allows for a more
convenient control than the ionic transport in nanostructures. When an external control parameter (such as
voltage) is changed, the adjustment of electron spin polarization is delayed because of the diffusion and
relaxation processes causing hysteresis. This result was anticipated in the study of spin extraction at
semiconductor/ferromagnet interfaces,[101] but was not described in terms of memristive behavior. On a
short time scale, these structures behave almost as an ideal memristor.[1] This result broadens the possible
range of applications of semiconductor spintronics and makes a step forward in future practical
applications.

Self-directed channel memristor

In 2017, Kris Campbell formally introduced the self-directed channel (SDC) memristor.[102] The SDC
device is the first memristive device available commercially to researchers, students and electronics
enthusiast worldwide.[103] The SDC device is operational immediately after fabrication. In the Ge2 Se3
active layer, Ge-Ge homopolar bonds are found and switching occurs. The three layers consisting of
Ge2 Se3 /Ag/Ge2 Se3 , directly below the top tungsten electrode, mix together during deposition and jointly
form the silver-source layer. A layer of SnSe is between these two layers ensuring that the silver-source
layer is not in direct contact with the active layer. Since silver does not migrate into the active layer at high
temperatures, and the active layer maintains a high glass transition temperature of about 350 °C (662 °F),
the device has significantly higher processing and operating temperatures at 250 °C (482 °F) and at least
150  °C (302  °F), respectively. These processing and operating temperatures are higher than most ion-
conducting chalcogenide device types, including the S-based glasses (e.g. GeS) that need to be photodoped
or thermally annealed. These factors allow the SDC device to operate over a wide range of temperatures,
including long-term continuous operation at 150 °C (302 °F).

Potential applications
Memristors remain a laboratory curiosity, as yet made in insufficient numbers to gain any commercial
applications. Despite this lack of mass availability, according to Allied Market Research the memristor
market was worth $3.2 million in 2015 and will be worth $79.0 million by 2022.[104]

A potential application of memristors is in analog memories for superconducting quantum computers.[12]

Memristors can potentially be fashioned into non-volatile solid-state memory, which could allow greater
data density than hard drives with access times similar to DRAM, replacing both components.[31] HP
prototyped a crossbar latch memory that can fit 100 gigabits in a square centimeter,[105] and proposed a
scalable 3D design (consisting of up to 1000 layers or 1 petabit per cm3 ).[106] In May 2008 HP reported
that its device reaches currently about one-tenth the speed of DRAM.[107] The devices' resistance would be
read with alternating current so that the stored value would not be affected.[108] In May 2012, it was
reported that the access time had been improved to 90 nanoseconds, which is nearly one hundred times
faster than the contemporaneous Flash memory. At the same time, the energy consumption was just one
percent of that consumed by Flash memory.[109]

Memristor have applications in programmable logic[110] signal processing,[111] Super-resolution

imaging[112] physical neural networks,[113] control systems,[114] reconfigurable computing,[115] in-
memory computing,[116] brain–computer interfaces[117] and RFID.[118] Memristive devices are potentially
used for stateful logic implication, allowing a replacement for CMOS-based logic computation[119] Several
early works have been reported in this direction.[120][121]

In 2009, a simple electronic circuit[122] consisting of an LC network and a memristor was used to model
experiments on adaptive behavior of unicellular organisms.[123] It was shown that subjected to a train of
periodic pulses, the circuit learns and anticipates the next pulse similar to the behavior of slime molds
Physarum polycephalum where the viscosity of channels in the cytoplasm responds to periodic
environment changes.[123] Applications of such circuits may include, e.g., pattern recognition. The
DARPA SyNAPSE project funded HP Labs, in collaboration with the Boston University Neuromorphics
Lab, has been developing neuromorphic architectures which may be based on memristive systems. In 2010,
Versace and Chandler described the MoNETA (Modular Neural Exploring Traveling Agent) model.[124]
MoNETA is the first large-scale neural network model to implement whole-brain circuits to power a virtual
and robotic agent using memristive hardware.[125] Application of the memristor crossbar structure in the
construction of an analog soft computing system was demonstrated by Merrikh-Bayat and Shouraki.[126] In
2011, they showed[127] how memristor crossbars can be combined with fuzzy logic to create an analog
memristive neuro-fuzzy computing system with fuzzy input and output terminals. Learning is based on the
creation of fuzzy relations inspired from Hebbian learning rule.
In 2013 Leon Chua published a tutorial underlining the broad span of complex phenomena and
applications that memristors span and how they can be used as non-volatile analog memories and can
mimic classic habituation and learning phenomena.[128]

Derivative devices

Memistor and memtransistor

The memistor and memtransistor are transistor based devices which include memristor function.

Memcapacitors and meminductors

In 2009, Di Ventra, Pershin, and Chua extended[129] the notion of memristive systems to capacitive and
inductive elements in the form of memcapacitors and meminductors, whose properties depend on the state
and history of the system, further extended in 2013 by Di Ventra and Pershin.[22]

Memfractance and memfractor, 2nd- and 3rd-order memristor,

memcapacitor and meminductor

In September 2014, Mohamed-Salah Abdelouahab, Rene Lozi, and Leon Chua published a general theory
of 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd-, and nth-order memristive elements using fractional derivatives.[130]

History

Precursors

Sir Humphry Davy is said by some to have performed the first experiments which can be explained by
memristor effects as long ago as 1808.[20][131] However the first device of a related nature to be
constructed was the memistor (i.e. memory resistor), a term coined in 1960 by Bernard Widrow to describe
a circuit element of an early artificial neural network called ADALINE. A few years later, in 1968, Argall
published an article showing the resistance switching effects of TiO2 which was later claimed by
researchers from Hewlett Packard to be evidence of a memristor.[55]

Theoretical description

Leon Chua postulated his new two-terminal circuit element in 1971. It was characterized by a relationship
between charge and flux linkage as a fourth fundamental circuit element.[1] Five years later he and his
student Sung Mo Kang generalized the theory of memristors and memristive systems including a property
of zero crossing in the Lissajous curve characterizing current vs. voltage behavior.[2]

Twenty-first century

On May 1, 2008, Strukov, Snider, Stewart, and Williams published an article in Nature identifying a link
between the two-terminal resistance switching behavior found in nanoscale systems and memristors.[17]
On 23 January 2009, Di Ventra, Pershin, and Chua extended the notion of memristive systems to capacitive
and inductive elements, namely capacitors and inductors, whose properties depend on the state and history
of the system.[129]

In July 2014, the MeMOSat/LabOSat group[132] (composed of researchers from Universidad Nacional de
General San Martín (Argentina), INTI, CNEA, and CONICET) put memory devices into a Low Earth
orbit.[133] Since then, seven missions with different devices[134] are performing experiments in low orbits,
onboard Satellogic's Ñu-Sat satellites.[135][136]

On 7 July 2015, Knowm Inc announced Self Directed Channel (SDC) memristors commercially.[137]
These devices remain available in small numbers.

On 13 July 2018, MemSat (Memristor Satellite) was launched to fly a memristor evaluation payload.[138]

In 2021, Jennifer Rupp and Martin Bazant of MIT started a "Lithionics" research programme to investigate
applications of lithium beyond their use in battery electrodes, including lithium oxide-based memristors in
neuromorphic computing.[139][140]

See also
Electronics portal

3D XPoint
Electrical element
Hybrid Memory Cube
List of emerging technologies
Neuromorphic engineering
Trancitor

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Further reading
Chen, Dongmin; Chua, Leon O.; Hwang, Cheol Seong; Wang, Shih-Yuan; Waser, Rainer;
Williams, R. Stanley; Yang, Jianhua, eds. (March 2011). "Special Issue: Memristive and
Resistive Devices and Systems". Applied Physics A. 102 (4).
Mazumder, P.; Kang, S. M.; Waser, R., eds. (June 2012). "Special Issue: MEMRISTORS:
DEVICES, MODELS, AND APPLICATIONS". Proceedings of the IEEE. 100 (6): 1905–2092.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2012.2197452 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2012.2197452).
Tetzlaff, Ronald, ed. (2013). Memristors and Memristive Systems (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=OOW5BAAAQBAJ). Springer Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-
9068-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-9068-5). ISBN 978-1-4614-9068-5.
 Adamatzky, Andrew; Chua, Leon, eds. (2013). Memristor Networks (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Mxu4BAAAQBAJ). Springer Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-3-
319-02630-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-02630-5). ISBN 978-3-319-02630-5.
S2CID 39739718 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39739718).
Atkin, Keith (May 2013). "An introduction to the memristor". Physics Education. 48 (3): 317–
321. Bibcode:2013PhyEd..48..317A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PhyEd..48..317
A). doi:10.1088/0031-9120/48/3/317 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0031-9120%2F48%2F3%2
F317). S2CID 121268844 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121268844).
Gale, Ella (2014-10-01). "TiO2-based memristors and ReRAM: materials, mechanisms and
models (a review)". Semiconductor Science and Technology. 29 (10): 104004.
arXiv:1611.04456 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.04456). Bibcode:2014SeScT..29j4004G (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014SeScT..29j4004G). doi:10.1088/0268-
1242/29/10/104004 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0268-1242%2F29%2F10%2F104004).
S2CID 5686212 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5686212).
Traversa, Fabio Lorenzo; Di Ventra, Massimiliano (November 2015). "Universal
Memcomputing Machines". IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems.
26 (11): 2702–2715. arXiv:1405.0931 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1405.0931).
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.747.5690 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.747.
5690). doi:10.1109/TNNLS.2015.2391182 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTNNLS.2015.239118
2). PMID 25667360 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25667360). S2CID 1406042 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1406042).
Caravelli, Francesco; Carbajal, Juan Pablo (January 2019). "Memristors for the curious
outsiders" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Ftechnologies6040118). Technologies. 6 (4): 118.
arXiv:1812.03389 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.03389). doi:10.3390/technologies6040118 (http
s://doi.org/10.3390%2Ftechnologies6040118). S2CID 54464654 (https://api.semanticschola
r.org/CorpusID:54464654).
Maan, Akshay Kumar; Jayadevi, Deepthi Anirudhan; James, Alex Pappachen (August
2017). "A Survey of Memristive Threshold Logic Circuits". IEEE Transactions on Neural
Networks and Learning Systems. 28 (8): 1734–1746. arXiv:1604.07121 (https://arxiv.org/abs/
1604.07121). doi:10.1109/TNNLS.2016.2547842 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTNNLS.2016.
2547842). PMID 27164608 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27164608). S2CID 1798273 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1798273).

External links
Finding the missing memristor (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3XzuBt54ig) on
YouTube
Interactive database of memristor papers (2013) (http://memlinks.eu)
Simonite, Tom (2015-04-21). "Machine Dreams" (http://www.technologyreview.com/featured
story/536786/machine-dreams). Technology Review. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
"Leon Chua: A bulb versus Google go player" (https://www.sztucznainteligencja.org.pl/leon-c
hua-a-bulb-versus-google-go-player/) - (in Polish) an interview with Leon Chua, the creator
of memristor
"Leon Chua: A bulb versus Google go player" (https://www.sztucznainteligencja.org.pl/en/leo
n-chua-a-bulb-versus-google-go-player/) - (in English) an interview with Leon Chua, the
creator of memristor

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