ICON

Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Volume 7 2020

Editor in Chief
AMIYA CHANDRA

Editor
BRIJESH RAWAT

Associate Editor
JAGPAL SINGH

Special Editors
PRANAB K. CHATTOPADHYAY

Wakankar Rock Art and Heritage Welfare Society

Bhopal
 ICON
Journal of Archaeology and Culture
LIFE MEMBERS

Beerendra Kumar Sanjay Singh

Kushi Nagar Lucknow
Sunil Kumar Jha Praveen Kesari
Patna New Delhi
Biri Singh Amita Shukla
Patna Lucknow

Sangeeta Singh Vibha Pandey

Kushi Nagar Lucknow

I.P. Pandey Sachin Kumar Tiwari

Lucknow Varanasi
Surabhi Srivastava
Pataru Maurya
Lucknow
New Delhi
Jaishankar Naik
Rachi Tsheerin Fun Chowk
Jammu
Sarjun Prasad
New Delhi Yesu Babu M.
Alok Kumar Hyderabad
Lucknow
Aparana
Santosh Kumar Singh Lucknow
Varanasi
Rajendra Yadav
Manual Joseph Bhopal
New Delhi
Manjil Hazarika Vinay Kumar
Assam Varanasi

Gyanendra Pratap Singh Anjana Tiwari

Lucknow Lucknow
Parth Singh Kaushik Ankur Singh
Lucknow Lucknow
 NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

1. This journal welcomes the research papers related to Archaeology, Ancient History, Culture and
Books Reviews.

2. The articles may be written in English and Hindi.

3. All manuscripts should be typed in double space on one side of each page.

4. Diacritical marks should be clear.

5. Photography should be in colour,the quality of the photographs should be clear and good.

6. Detailed references should be given at the end of the article in a chronological order.

7. Acknowledgment for photographs, drawing and various other helps should be mentioned below the
concerned object.

8. In the selection of research papers, photographs and line drawings, the decision of the editorial board
will be the final.

9. The Editorial Board will not be responsible for views expressed in articles.

10. After the publication of the articles, a fresh copy of the journal will be given to the author.

11. The contributors are requested to give their full official address and Email address in their articles .

12. The research papers may be send by post or Email them at the address given below:

DR. BRIJESH RAWAT

Department of History
Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University
Mohaan Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226017, INDIA
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
 ICON
Journal of Archaeology and Culture
Volume 7 2020

ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. Narayan Vyas : Ex-President, Wakankar, Rock Art and Heritage

Welfare Society, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Dr. B. R. Mani : Director General, National, Museum, New Delhi
India.
Prof. H. S. Jha : Professor and Head Department of Sociology and
Social Science, Dr. Shakuntla Misra
National Rehabilitation, University, Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh, India.
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Manjul : Joint Director General, Archaeological
Survey of India, New Delhi, India.
Prof. Ajit Kumar : Professor, Department of Archaeology
Kerala University, Trivendram, Kerala, India.
Prof. I. S. Vishwakarma : Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History
Culture and Archaeology, Deendayal Upadhyay
Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
India.
Dr. Sanjib Kumar Singh : Archaeologist and Museologist, Department of
Publication, National Museum, New Delhi, India.
 ICON
Journal of Archaeology and Culture
Volume 7 2020

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. K.K. Thaplyal : Ex. Head, Department of Ancient Indian History Culture
and Archaeology, University of Lucknow, India.
Prof. J. N. Pal : Ex. Head, Department of Ancient History, Culture and
Archaeology, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
Prof. Vasant Shinde : Vice-Chancellor, Deccon College Post Graduate and
Research Institute, Pune, India.
Prof. Anura Manatunga : Director, Centre for Asian Studies, University of
Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.
Prof. Y. S.Alone : Department of Visual Studies, Jawahar Lal Nehru
University, New Delhi, India.
Prof. Bharat Dahiya : Senior Advisor, Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok, Thailand.

EDITORS
Dr. Amiya Chandra : President,Wakankar Rock Art and Heritage Welfare
Society, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Dr. Brijesh Rawat : Department of History, Dr. Shakuntala
Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh, India.
Dr. Jagpal Singh : The Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Israel.
Dr. Pranab K.Chattopadhyay : Archaeometallurgist, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
© Wakankar Rock Art and Heritage Welfare Society, Bhopal.

The Publication of this Journal is Financed by the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi.

Volume 7, 2020

Price : ` 2500/- (India) Library

US $ 100 (Other countries)
Individual ` 1500/-

ICON is published annually. It is an International Peer Review referral Journal.

Cover : Yakshi Ambika, Gwalior
Back : Symbol of ICON

The views expressed in the articles by the authors are their own and the editorial board has no concern with
them.

Published by : Wakankar Rock Art and Heritage Welfare Society, Bhopal

E-mail: [email protected] • Mobile: +919532258847
Website : www.iconjac.org

Printed by : Research India Press, E-6/34, Ist Floor, Sangam Vihar

New Delhi – 110062 (INDIA) • E-mail: [email protected]

Designed by : Ganga Ram Sharma

 ICON
Journal of Archaeology and Culture
Volume 7 2020

CONTENTS

Obituary
Editorial

RESEARCH PAPER

Pre historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 1-13

Nilkamal Singha and O. Ranjit Singh

Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Usrar, Singhpur, district Satna, 15-23

North Central India: A Preliminary Investigation and Analysis.
Pushpendra Kumar Nandan, Praveen Kumar and Yogita Baviskar

Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in Between Kashmir Neolithic and 25-36
Harappan Civilization
Naheed Ahmed and Yogambar Singh Farswan

Archaeology of Nātha Sampradāya in Pune District of Maharashtra 37-45

Vijay Sarde

Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot: An Unique Evidence of 47-54

Existence of Riverine Navigation in Early Historic Period
Sita Ram Dubey and Santosh Kumar Singh

dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe’kZ 55-63

c``ts’k jkor
Archaeological Significance of District Basti, Uttar Pradesh 65-74
Sandeep Kumar Chaudhary and Durgesh Kumar Srivastava

Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 75-95

Vineet Godhal
vi ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

An Overview of Chariot Depicted in Rock Paintings of Chalcolithic Period in Central India 97-103
Ashish S. Shende

Critical Analysis of Rock Paintings in Central Chhattisgarh Region 105-113

Shambhoo Nath Yadav and Md. Zakir Khan

Discovery of Lost - III: Exploring Śramaṇa Culture in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia 115-135
Rajmal Jain

The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 137-150
Pranab K. Chattopadhyay

A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India: An Archaeological Overview 151-162

(600 A.D -1200 A.D.) (With Special Reference to Siyadoni and Ahar Stone Inscriptions)
Santosh Kumar Singh

Notable Stone Antiquities from Kolhua Excavations (Year 1989-93) 163-167

Jalaj Kumar Tiwari

vfgPN= ,oa mldh iqjklEink 169&176

jRuk flag
An Analysis of the Ananthashayana Series Coins of Venad Dynasty from 177-181
St. Thomas Fort, Thangassery, Kollam District, Kerala
Ranimole S.J., Vinuraj B. and Aswani O.K.

Hypothetical observation of Wine use in Early Historical Sanghol 183-190

Ardhendu Ray

NRrhlx<+ dh ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk v/;;u 191&198

dkerk izlkn oekZ ,oa c`ts’k jkor
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 199-213
Varsha Rani

Some Sculptures of Yakshi Ambika from Gwalior Region 215-223

Smriti Pathak and S.K. Dwivedi

Evolution of Gurdwara and Socio-Religious contributions towards the Sikh Community 225-230
Amir Ali, Muhammad Hameed and Mahboob Hussain

Ideology, Power and Conquests: Representation of South Asia in European Cartography 231-240
Ravindra Kumar, Deepak Kumar and Neelkamal Singha

Battles and Sieges in Historical Cartography of India 241-246

Devendra Gupta and Deepak Kumar

Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings and its Artists 247-258

Parul Sharma and S.K. Dwivedi
Contents vii

fefFkykapy esa lkaLd`frd vfjiu dk egRo 259&266

vejthr dqekj ,oa eukst dqekj Vsyj
Conservation Challenges of Monuments in the Hills of Uttarakhand 267-273
Syed Jamal Hasan

Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta 275-296
Period Exhibited in the Pāñchal Museum
Saroj Kumari, Surabhi Srivastava and Archit Srivastava

Plates 297-349
 OBITUARY

Shri Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi

(08. 07. 1938 – 27. 04. 2021)

On 27 April 2021 Shri Nirmal Kumar Jain (Sethi) passed away at the age of 83 at Teerthanker
Mahaveer hospital & Research Center of Teerthanker Mahaveer University (TMU), Moradabad
(UP). He was born on 08 July 1938 in Tinsukia, Assam into the Jain family following and
practicing Śramaṇa tradition. He was a wonderful son of Late Shri Harak Chand Jain Sethi having
great faith in Jainism, Saints and Śramaṇa culture from the childhood. He did B. Com from
St. Xaviers College, Kolkata University. He started his career in business as an Industrialist by
establishing one of its kinds Cold Storage in 1962 in Tinsukia. However, from inside he was a
great academician, and had been reading books on philosophy, history, religion and archaeology
etc., and thereby he was highly inclined to spiritual life. He had been visiting holy places of all
religions in general and Jainism in particular all over the globe. He was also devotee of many
Jain monks and Acharyas, and always ready to rendering services to them. Looking at his faith
and promotion of philosophy of Śramaṇa tradition, willingness for protection of heritage and
restoration of ancient Jain temples, he was elected as President of Shre Bharatvarshiya Digamber
Jain Mahasabh on 3 January 1981 in the annual convention held in Kota. It is to be noted with
proud that “Shree Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha (SBDJM)” was formed before
x ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

freedom of India in 1895 and is only representative organization of Digamber Jain community.
Mr. Sethi dedicated himself to the services of religious and ascetic activities as well as to protect
heritage of Jains, and, in this context, he was continuously being persuaded and requested by our
society for his nomination as President of SBDJM and had served for 40 years until his salvation
on 27 April 2021.

Mr Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi as a president of SBDJM visited personally almost all states of
India and promoted construction of new temples and restoration of antique and old pilgrim/ holy
places such as Muktagiri and Mangitungi Siddh kshetra, Nemgiri, Anjangiri, kanakgiri, Gopachal
Arihantgiri, Sonagir, Ayodhya, Jambudwip, Hastinapur etc., and ensured to retain original
structure. He himself contributed significant amount for this noble cause. Mr. Sethi focused on
Dharm Savrakshini Mahasabha, a unit of SBDJM, in order to motivate and practicing Jain Vidya
among Jains of India and abroad. Further, in order to speed up the restoration of Jain pilgrim/ holy
places he formed in 1997 Tirth Savrakshni Mahasabha under SBDJM. Under his supervision
more than 350 temples and pious/ holy places were renovated. He was a very strict follower of
Ahimsa and keen that youth of India should practice it. He formed Yuva Jain Mahasabha and
Mahila Jain Mahasabha to promote Śramaṇa Culture all over the globe because he was of the
opinion that this tradition can truly bring the peace in the world. Mr. Sethi, on the other hand,
was fascinated by literature of Jainism, called Agam canonical texts, and in order to unveil the
hidden knowledge into them he formed Shrut Samvardhini Mahasabha in 2004, another unit of
SBDJM. He promoted publication of various Jain canonical texts, books and Granths written
by Acharyas and scholars. Furthermore, through SBDJM also he started regular publications to
keep interaction and disseminate knowledge of Jainism to the folk all over India and abroad.
More popular publications are the books and periodicals viz. Jain Gazette (weekly), Pracheen
Teerth Jirnodhaar (monthly), Shrut Samvardhini (monthly), Jain Mahiladarsh (monthly), He
also published numerous books on religious, archaeological and educational aspects in various
languages.

Mr. Sethi was highly interested in the history and antiquity of Śramaṇa Culture and in this context
he was probing evidences in various parts of India as well as in many other countries. He was
associated and worked with many archaeologists, scientists, historians and Jain scholars, and
collected evidences to explore the antiquity of Śramaṇa Tradition. In this respect, he formed a team
of scholars of various disciplines and visited more than 15 countries viz. Cambodia, Indonesia,
Thailand, Sri Lanka, Jakarta, China, Dubai, Ethiopia, Kenya, UK, USA, Germany, Greece, Peru,
Guatemala, Mexico etc. to explore the Śramaṇa Tradition in the world. He was very enthusiastic
and with associated colleagues made contacts with well-known universities in the aforesaid
countries and organized international seminars/ symposiums on the Śramaṇa Culture, Nirgranth
Tradition and global peace etc. Good publications turned out from this endeavor of him. Various
archaeological and historical evidences from the international exploration enabled to discover the
Chandraprabhu and Aadinath temples in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, and similarly signatures
of Śramaṇaculture in South America in general and in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico in particular.
His gracing guidance established that the South Asia and the region up to Greece, Saudi Arab,
Yemen etc. were thickly populated by Śramaṇas and their traditions.

Mr. Nirmal Kumar Sethi was honored and felicitated with many titles such as Shravak Ratna
Mani, Samaj Ratna, Tirtha Bhakta, Muni Bhakta etc. by various Jain Samaj and organizations.
Obituary xi

The Minorities Commission of India honored him with the Life Time Award. In 1984, he organized
a seminar on Non-Violence: Jeev Daya and Vegetarianism. In 1985, he organized Vishwa Jain
Conference in Delhi. He was trustee of SBDJM Charitable Trust and graced many other Jain
organizations such as: Shri Digamber Jain Kundalpur (Vaishali) Tirthakshetra Committee, Bihar;
Shri Gopal Digamber Jain Sidhant Sanskrit Mahavidyalay, MP. In 2006 he was nominated as
convener of Gommateshwara Bhagawan Sri Bahubali Swami Maha-Mastakabhishek Mahotsava
Samithi, Shravanbelagola. He was member of Governing Council and Chief Patron of Bhagwan
Mahavir Memorial Samiti, New Delhi. Mr. Sethi was Patron of Shri Digamber Jain Ayodhya
Tirthakshetra Committee, Raiganj, Ayodhya, U.P. He was Managing Trustee of Sethi Parmarthik
Trust, Guwahati, and Harakchand Nirmal Kumar Jain Charitable Trust, Sitapur, U.P.

Shri Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi left a lasting imprint on the Śramaṇa Tradition in India and over the
globe from the impetus he received from great Acharyas and monks as well as from his father the
late Shri Harak Chand Jain Sethi. He was practicing Jainism in his day to day life and thereby, in
fact, he was a true saint of present time. His biography upholds him a legendary of India.

PROF. RAJMAL JAIN, AHEMDABAD

 EDITORIAL

T his Seventh Issue of ICON is important for two specific reasons. First reason is that this
Journal is being published in remembrance of Late Sri Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi (Babu ji),
President, Sri Bharat Varshiye Digambar Jain Mahasabha, New Delhi, who has the profound
knowledge of Jain Culture and Archaeology, and the excellent work done by him in the said field.

Shri Sethi, for the research in Jain Culture and Archaeology organized seminars, conferences,
symposiums not only in the country but also abroad in the countries like Sri Lanka, Ethiopia,
Greece, Peru etc. He sent the groups of scholars of History and Archaeology to foreign countries
like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Greece, Peru, Mexico etc., in
search of the remains of Jain Archaeology. The name of famous scholars like K.N. Dixit, Vasant
Shinde, Rajmal Jain, Narendra Kumar Jain, Sanghmitra, Bhag Chand Jain, Brijesh Rawat formed
the part of group expedition. There is no hesitation in saying that Shri Sethi was completely
devoted to Jainism, No other name is coming to mind, who could be remembered, who has done
so much of successful efforts for the promotion and research of Jainism, culture and archaeology
as much as has done by him in this century. Hence by giving tribute to such a devout leader the
Journal itself is feeling honoured.

The second important reason is that this Journal has become dear to Indian Council of Historical
Research, New Delhi because due to the continuous publication of its abstract research papers,
the prestigious institution has decided to provide important financial support for its publication.
After receiving financial support from this distinguished institution of the Government of India,
now this journal has joined some of the prestigious Journals of the country.

The First Research paper in this Issue is of Neel Kamal Singha and O. Ranjit Singh, who have
thrown good light on Prehistoric Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya. Three Research Scholars-
Pushpendra Kumar Nandan, Praveen Kumar and Yogita Baviskar have done realistic investigation
and analysis of Prehistoric Rock Painting of Usrar and Singhpur district of Satna. Naheed Ahmad
and Yogendra Singh Farswan have done best effort to establish Archaeological link between
Neolithic and Harappan Civilization of Kashmir. Vijay Sarde has presented the Archaeological
Study of Nath Community of Pune. Similarly, a proper logical study of the brick built Wharf
xiv ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

obtained from the excavations of Pakkakot has been done by the scholars of Archaeology Sita
Ram Dubey and Santosh Kumar Singh. A new discourse has been revealed to the scholars by
Brijesh Rawat on the basis of the archaeology of Cambodia. In the following Research Papers
Sandeep Kumar Chaudhary and Durgesh Kumar Srivastava have presented the archaeological
features of Basti District of Uttar Pradesh, Vineet Godhal, a scholar of Prehistory has presented
a paper on the Prehistory of Alwar district of Rajasthan. Ashish S. Shende has drawn a holistic
outline of Chariot depiction in Rock Painting of Chalcolithic Period of Central India and similarly
presented a Critical Analysis of the Rock Paintings of the Central Chhattisgarh Region.

Rajmal Jain, a specialist on Jain Culture and Archaeology has presented an excellent archaeological
paper on the Sharman culture of the Tigray region Ethiopia. Pranab K. Chattopadhyay, a renowned
Archaeometallurgist of the country and abroad, has done important research work on the history
and origin of the Mirrors. Santosh Kumar Singh, a young scholar of archaeology has in his paper
given the Archaeological evidence of Early Medieval Urbanization of North India with special
reference to the Siyadoni and Ahar stone inscriptions. Archaeologist Jalaj Kumar Tiwari has
mentioned about the antiquities obtained from excavations at Kolhua between 1983-93.Ratana
Singh has given a detailed description of Ahichchhatra and its antiquities. Similarly an important
paper has been prepared by Ranimole S.J., Vinuraj B. and Aswani O. K., which is the analytical
study of the Ananthashayana Series Coins of the Venad Dynasty. Artision Ardhendu Ray has
presented a Hypothetical Observation of Wine Use in Early Historic Sanghol. Kamta Prasad
Verma and Brijesh Rawat studies the Chhatisgarh’s Parvati sculptures.

A special article has been presented by Varsha Rani titled Depiction of Power in the Jaina Art and
Architecture of Sravanbelgola. Joint article of Smriti Pathak and Archaeologist S.K. Dwivedi’s
being presented is based on some distinguished statues of Yakshi Ambika of Gwalior region.
A paper on The evolution of the Gurdwara by Amir Ali, Muhammad Hameed and Mahboob
Hussain is based on the socio-religious contribution of the Sikh Community also forms a part
of this Journal. The Joint paper of Ravindra Kumar, Deepak Kumar and Neel Kamal Sinhga is
based on Ideology, Power and Conquests, Representation of South Asia in European Cartography,
The article of Devendra Gupta and Deepak Kumar is also based on Cartography in which the
description of Battles and Sieges is given. Next article by Parul Sharma and S.K. Dwivedi’s duly
prepared in which there is mention of Miniature Painting in Pichhvai Tradition. Amarjeet Kumar
and Manoj Kumar Tailor have shown in their paper the importance of Aripan which is popular in
Mithilanchal. Famous Conservator Sayeed Jamal Hasan in his distinctive article has described
of the challenges of the Conservative of Monuments standing on the mountains of Uttara Khand
and the last important research paper is jointly written by Saroj Kumari, Surabhi Srivastava and
Archit Srivastava in which meaningful technical analysis of exploratory data has been done of the
sculptures and artefacts belonging to Gupta period that has been displayed in Panchal Museum,
Bareilly.

Thus, in this Issue total of twenty seven articles are included. The creator of these papers are
independent, senior prestigious, young and research scholars. The said authors are associated
with Archaeological Survey of India, State Archaeology Department, Museum, Universities
and Educational Institutes. Scholars as always are not only from India but also from the foreign
countries like Pakistan, USA, Canada etc. Article almost touches all the dimensions of Archaeology
Editorial xv

be it –Explorations, Excavations, Reports, Prehistory, Proto-history, Rock Art, Chalcolithic, Art,

Iconography, Architecture, Epigraphy, Numismatics, Conservation etc. Two articles are related to
culture and tradition. Twenty three articles are published in English while four are published in
Hindi. Hence, through the medium of ICON the light has been thrown on Archaeology, Culture
and tradition, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Hence, first of all, ICON family extends its sincere thanks to our famous prestigious authors and
creators and believes that we will continuously receive your contribution.

ICON family will always be grateful and indebted to Indian Council of Historical Research, New
Delhi because the said institute has given the financial aid for its publication.

We are also heartily grateful to Dr. Rajmal Jain as he has written excellent obituary of Late Shir
Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi on our request. Our gratitude to Research India Press, New Delhi, for
printing this marvellous Journal. At the same time it is expected that this issue of ICON too would
attract eminent scholars, writers, archaeologists, research scholars, students and general readers.

AMIYA CHANDRA • BRIJESH RAWAT

 PRE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE OF ASSAM AND MEGHALAYA

NILKAMAL SINGHA* AND O. RANJIT SINGH**

INTRODUCTION
Prehistory is a pre-literary phase of human past. of prehistoric settlements of Meghalaya region. In the
The broad time frame in anthropological prehistory historic period various sources assist us in reshaping
ranges from 3.3 mya to 5000 years BP divided the historic geography of Assam including literature of
into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic further various nature, epigraphs, petroglyphs, archaeological
subdivided on the basis of tool typology with most materials etc. however the prehistoric study is solely
of the cultural developments taking place since upper based on the archaeological and anthropological
Palaeolithic coinciding with terminal Pleistocene. material. The hills and valleys of Assam were
inhabited from prehistoric periods, evidence of which
Pre historic sites are located all over the north- were recovered from the various sites of Garo and
eastern states of India particularly Meghalaya and the Khasi hills of present Meghalaya. Important sites
region is adjoining to India and all the north flowing from Meghalaya include Rongram, Rengchangre,
rivers from Meghalaya drains itself in Brahmaputra. Ringigre, Ranbhgre, Rongu, Rongchagate, Chitra
And along the banks of these river the prehistoric Abri, Asangre, Chidorengre, Sasatgre, Galwangre,
settlements were based moreover Meghalaya is a Mokbul Abri, Ida, Rongdu, Ganolgre, Misimagre,
hilly region full with caves it is very likely that the Selbalgre, Tosekgre, Bambooti, Nisagram etc. all
prehistoric sites of present Assam are the extension based on the banks of some river.

*
Assistant Professor, History, Bodoland University, Assam, India; E-mail: [email protected]
**
Associate Professor, HoD, Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, Manipur University.
2 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Among the sites of Meghalaya, Selbalgre in Ashraf a scholar of excellence, he analysed numerous
Garo hills on river Rongram is probably the oldest tools numbering more than a thousand from these
pre-historic site with continuous depositional history sites in great technometric detail along with left hand
from middle Palaeolithic to Neolithic (Mahanta 1995: right hand combinations of the tools. He asserts that
125). Elaborate study on Selbalgre on 5 localities pre history of Meghalaya, could be assigned to epi-
was carried by Mahanta, the site revealed one of the palaeolithic or proto-Neolithic has been influenced
thickest deposit 85 cm in the region. Shaped tools greatly by Hoabinhian tradition with successive
forms the largest part of tool kit of the site constituting accretions (Ashraf 2010), Hoabinhian elements are
of scrapers, points, and borer and combined tools associated with all of the sites. He found considerable
with first two making the largest number. Axe and Hoabinhian influence on the Mesolithic assemblage
adze forms the largest part of chipped tools. Among of the three sites of Meghalaya and reported almost
the grounded tools axe and adze forms the majority; all types of geometric and other microliths. Though
all the potteries yielded are plain-grey-brown he did not provided any absolute date for the culture
(Mahanta 1995). Previously the site was also studied but infers that the agriculture was introduced later
by M.C. Goswami and T.C. Sharma (IAR 1967-68) in the Mesolithic period (Ashraf 2010). According
and collected tools in good number from limited area to Ashraf agriculture was initiated on river basins
of excavation. They also reported occurrence of axe, and subsequently extended to slopes. This shift of
both grounded and chipped scrappers, core, hammer, agriculture present wet to dry was accompanied by
flakes and pottery. The lower levels of the site yielded the development of varieties of ground and polished
large number of microliths of both geometric and non stone axes in its later phases. Though the inhabitants
geometric variety. of these three sites are culturally not identical but
constitute distinct sub groups by themselves under
L. S. Rao (IAR 1992-93), with his team of the umbrella of broad spectrum Hoabinhian tradition
Prehistory Branch of the Archaeological Survey laid and subsequently these segmented group as a whole
a trial trench measuring 2m × 1 m at Pynthorlangtein, represent the colonization of the wet Holocene rain
Jowai, Jaintia hill district, with a view to ascertain the forests of the Garo hills. He also speaks of another
nature of the habitational deposit. The trial trench taken group of prehistoric period living in Khasi hills,
up at the highest point of the mound yielded a cultural though he denied direct link with the settlers of Garo
deposit of 1 m comprising Neolithic cultural milieu. hills but completely not denied marginal cultural
The tools yielded comprised adzes, axes, chisels, contact (Ashraf 2010). He further observed the
points, blades, scrapers, polishers, penknife, cores Mesolithic people of Garo hills relied on bamboo
and flakes. Majority of the celts are chipped and a few whereas the Khasi hills hunter group was more
are partly ground. Other than the lithic artifacts, a few depended on their lithic implements. Based on the
potsherds of handmade, coarse red ware pottery with analysis of archaeological material of the three
cord-impression were encountered at a depth of 60- sites he opines people of Saw Mer belonged to late
80 cm. Some Neolithic stray tools were also collected Pleistocene/early Holocene and lived on ridges,
from Riat Turein of Jaintia Hills and Rongchugiri of practicing hunting as main economic activity using
West Garo Hills by them. The Neolithic factory site bow and arrow. People of Makbil Bisik belonged
of Pynthorlangtein (Taher and Rao, 2005) did not early Holocene and were, fully based, practising
yield any shouldered celt, a common type of artifacts gathering as principal economic activity and were
invariably associated with the Neolithic sites (Dikshit bamboo based culture whereas the settlers of
and Hazarika 2012: 98-148). Bibragre also belonged to Holocene and settled
on the confluence of river streams and their tools
The important works on the sites Saw Mer, based on cobble flakes, practising food producing
Makbil Bisik and Bibragre are done by Abdullah Ali along with gathering and fishing and are hand adzed
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 3

culture. He was convinced that northeast India is a at Hahim an important indicator that the food habits
cultural extension of Southeast Asia and cannot be were shifting from animals to grains or protein to
separated technically and culturally and concludes carbohydrate. However some of the pottery of
by stating that by around 7th-8th millennium BC the Duarah’s study seems to belong to historical period
western part of Meghalaya was colonized by people as we encountered such pottery while excavating
of Hoabinhian tradition (Ashraf 2010). historical sites dating as late as 9th century AD.

The influence of the Hoabinhian tradition Prehistoric sites are also reported from Ri
faded by the mid Holocene era attributed to general Bhoi district and east Khasi hills district namely
evolution and drastic change in the subsistence Lawnongthroh and Myrkhan (Mitri 2005: 87-
pattern and relocation of the population from higher 95). Both the sites are elaborately studied and few
altitudes of eastern Himalaya to lower reaches. The calibrated radiometric dates were also available.
three pre historic sites in the foothills bordering These two sites offer closer insights into typo
present Assam- Meghalaya namely Bambooti, technological pattern of Neolithic material from
Nisangram, Hahim and Rani (southeast of Goalpara the region. The dates recovered ranges from 770
district) were studied by Anamika Gogoi Duwarah and 1220 BC from Lawnongthroh and 1885-1765
(Duwarah, 2014) in Bambooti from the excavations BC for Myrkhan (Mitri 2005: 87-95). The toolkit
and surface finds the tools like scraper, celt, core, recovered from Lawnongthroh are axes of round,
borer, blade, adze, axe, shouldered celt and chisel pointed, splayed cutting edge, adze, blade/knives,
were found with shouldered celt dominating the tool chisel, shouldered and tanged types, broken tools
kit. Nisangram located east of Bambooti present etc. and few fragments of flakes along with worn
inventory identical to Bambooti with shouldered out and reworked tools. A total of 342 items of tool
axe dominating the tool kit but shouldered axe and assemblage were reported with 122 from in situ
adzes here have the hafting facility. Hahim located excavated layers. 2104 handmade potsherd were
on the Assam side of foothills yielded celt, axe, adze, recorded from excavation mainly of two types
shouldered celt, chisel, scraper, side scraper, scraper cord marked (3%) and carved paddle (97%) having
cum axe, scraper cum knife, scraper cum point, criss-cross, zigzag and horizontal, vertical bands
blade, chopping axe, refuses etc. adze dominated the on external surface. Fire lighting quartz and few
tool assemblage indicating increased wood working iron objects were also reported from higher levels
shouldered axe also form a considerable chunk of of the site (Mitri & Neog 2016). The Myrkhan site
the tools. Another site Rani located 30 km south in the same district of Meghalaya was dated on the
west of Guwahati an extension of Shillong plateau basis of charcoal from the depth of 50 cm gives a
presents a picture akin to Hahim with adzes and date 3500± 30 BP. The site yielded a total of 1339
shouldered celt dominating the tool kit. Duarah also potsherds from excavation mostly consisting carved
reported pottery with dull red and coarse fabric and paddle type and cord impressed type. Huge sum
no surface treatment. The common shapes being of unfinished tools were also reported. The tools
platter, pitcher, bowls of various shapes, jars, sherds dominating the assemblage are round butt, pointed
the OSL dates of sites places it around 3226±06 butt, broad and splayed working edge and the
BP for Bambooti pottery however the potteries quadrangular type. Short axes of typical Hoabinhian
from Hahim, Rani, Pamohi were handmade, plain tradition are also reported in considerable number.
coarse as well as cord impressed potsherds. Like According to Mitri it is a seasonal tool factory site
Bambooti they are also dull red highly weathered as no finished implements are reported from lower
and some grey pottery, ill fired, coarse texture and levels and potteries also account only 25% of the
without any surface treatment (Duarah 2014). entire repertoire of the site. The toolkit of Myrkhan
Bowls dominated the pottery assemblage (52.9%) are axe type (round, pointed, splayed), chisel, small
4 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

rectangular facetted axe, shouldered and tanged into small pieces hereby denying identification of
types tools, ring stone and knives. Stone spindle shape, size and utility. The cord-impressed coarse
whorl both finished and unfinished are reported from grey ware is made of coarse and unevenly mixed clay,
the site. Another site Lum Sohpetbneng in Nongpoh heavily tempered with large quartz particles. These
also reported similar cultural milieu having identical vessels were prepared by the coil-building method.
toolkit and pottery assemblage (Mitri et al. 2015: 33- The presence of querns and mullers clearly suggests
42) (Mitri 2009). Its seems that the three sites along that the available grains were grinded in the querns
with few more sites form a culture complex having which provide indirect-evidence regarding the use
similar lineage and contiguity with Lawnongthroh of food plants in the neolithic society (Dikshit and
and Myrkhan having twin character. Hazarika 2012: 98-148).

The discussion regarding the Neolithic in Neolithic sites are also identified at the hill
Northeast India is not complete without the site of district of Karbi Anglong. Bichhikri a Neolithic site
Daojali Hading, the first excavated Neolithic site of was excavated by Senar (Senar 2014) yielded 1m
this part of India. The excavated materials from the thick cultural deposit predominantly with potsherds.
site consist of potsherds and stone implements. The Neolithic celts were also reported. The potteries
site has a deposit of 1.5 m, with three layers, Layer 1. yielded are mostly round, varying height, non
Dark loose soil, 20 to 30 cm thick, archaeologically slipped and red slipped ware both well and ill fired
sterile. Layer 2. Dark grey and loose upper half, found, oxidised and unoxidised. Common profiles
and light grey lower half, about 75 cm thick, of the pottery yielded are red in colour, averted rim
archaeologically rich, bearing stone tools of various (mostly), and bowl shape. He also reported pottery
types and potsherds Layer 3 is yellowish brown with round base, carinated (on shoulder part) and non
compact earth of about 45 cm. T.C. Sharma (1966) carinated, storage vessel, dishes with flat and round
studied the collection of stone artifacts recovered base. The study however is based on undated pottery
from excavations. The assemblage consists of 32 but the profile of the pottery points to wheel made as
edged tools, 22 grinding stones, 4 querns, 6 mullers, carinations are easy to make on wheel. The pottery
11 quartzite pebbles and fossil wood. The raw from nearby site Dikisir also bears similar profile.
materials used are locally available shale, sandstone, From Kekang Adong in Baithalangsu on river Karbi
quartzite and fossil wood. Shale was used for making Langpi, red and buff ware both hand and wheel
edged tools and so also fossil wood; sandstone for made, containing shining mica particles are reported
grinding stones, whetstones, querns, etc. The edged (Senar 2014), from Langmet in Hamren sub division
tools are made by flaking and grinding. The ground potteries of red ware of coarse fabric having similarity
tools falls into two main groups: with Bichhikri were reported by Senar (Senar 2014).

1. Edge ground: four tools 2. Fully ground: They In the foothills of Khasi Hills located Neolithic
are further sub-grouped as (i) tanged or shouldered site Sarutaru and post Neolithic site Marakdola in
celts with three sub-types Curvilinear, North proximity of 1 km which continued to megalithic
Cachar Hill variety, Rectilinear variety. (ii) Small and is in habitation till present. Sarutaru is located
celts with three sub-types: a) Oval b) Triangular c) on the edge of Shillong plateau on its northern side
Quadrangular d) Quadrangular adzes e) Chisels. The adjoining the valley of Brahmaputra in north and
pottery from Daojali Hading was classified by T.C. flanked immediately in north by river Digaru. The
Sharma (1967) into three varieties, cord-impressed site yielded a cultural deposit of 65 cm belonging to
variety (595 sherds), stamped dull red variety (19 single cultural phase. The archaeological materials
sherds), and red variety (11 sherds). Majority of the struck belong to tool and ceramic assemblage.
potsherds reported heavily weathered and broken The tools yielded are shouldered celt and round
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 5

butted. The celts were grounded with straight and A unique feature of the Holocene in Northeast
broad cutting edge and have bifacial grinding for India is the occurrence of Hoabinhian assemblage,
sharp cutting edge. The tools show considerable which suggests relatedness with the Southeast
wear and tear. The potteries yielded from the site Asian late Pleistocene and Holocene cultures. Singh
are modelled by hands. The fabric was coarse and reports Hoabinhian assemblage below the cord
fired in low temperatures. The potteries yielded impressed ware level (Singh 1993). Some artifacts
here bears impressed patterns like simple cord similar to Hoabinhian artifacts have also were
impression, twisted cord impression, herringbone reported in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya (IAR 1965–
pattern, zigzag patterns etc. on its outer surface. The 66: 6). The Hoabinhian techno-complex (Bellwood
potteries were made in parts separately and joined 1978; Yi et al. 2008) is defined purely on the basis
together by using dabber and beater (Rao 1977). The of tool categories comprising pebble tools, utilized
design on the beater gets impressed on the surface of flakes, shouldered tools, a small proportion of edge-
pottery a technique still used by Hira potters of the ground tools and bone tools, and in the later period,
region. The cord impression remained a signature pottery and fully ground axes and adzes. The spatial
of north-eastern Neolithic. Marakdola is another distribution of Hoabinhian sites are in southern
site excavated by Rao in the vicinity of Sarutaru a China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indo-China, Sumatra,
village presently inhabited mostly by Karbis; few Taiwan and Northeast India (T.C. Sharma 1988: 136-
menhirs are reported and still can be seen in the 139). The TL chronology for the Hoabinhian bearing
vicinity. The site yielded pottery, shouldered celt layers in Nepal is older than the 14C minimum age of
and terracotta objects. The pottery yielded bears c. 7,000 years BP. The Hoabinhian of the site of Arjun
cord impression, vessels with paddle impression site of Nepal is proposed as late glacial (Zoller 2000:
at the base part. Marakdola potteries are superior 229-233) (Corvinus, 1996) however limited Soanian
in quality of manufacture and preservation state influence was also detected at the site (Pande 1968:
indication well levigation and firing (Rao 1977). 558-560). The bracket of the Hoabinhian in Vietnam
The wares of Marakdola are made of well levigated is broadly 18,000 and 7,000 years BP (Chinh et al.
kaolin clay with least impurities. They are thin and 1988), 19,500 and 8,400 years BP or even as early as
fine in fabric and thrown on wheel unlike Sarutaru 29,140 BP (Yi et al. 2008).
and better fired also. The decorations on pottery
include carved paddle impressions, medium net, Various studies on the Mesolithic-Neolithic of
parallel bands and herringbone. The shapes yielded northeastern India suggest similarities in tool and
from site varies from globular vessels, goblet, bowl, pottery to certain degree. A recent study (Sharma
lid, dish on stand, smoking pipes, terracotta cakes, and Singh 2017) on the chronology of three sites of
fishing weights and zoomorphic form, however Daojali Hading, Gawak Abri and Law Nongthroh
this inventory of ceramic does not seems belong based on the OSL and radiometric dates of the
to Neolithic nor it fits the scheme of Neolithic potteries and charcoal of these sites yielded dates
parameters but similar to the potteries yielded from 2700±30 for Daojali Hading, 2300±20 for Gawak
the sites of Kamrup and Nagaon district specially Abri and 2930±30 for Law Nongthroh (C14).
from Ambari and Mahadeosal (Singha 2021)
suggesting the pottery being brought to the site The neolithic folks appreciated finer things
rather being made there. the similar pottery from therefore they kept tools for longer time after
Ambari ascribed to stratum 3dated 1030±150 AD repeated grounding and reworking, they heavily
on C14 reckoning assigning it to 7th-12th century on depended on the material goods. They followed
stylistic features of sculpture found in association hunting-gathering and shifting to pastoral way with
with it. The celt found here can be explained as limited farming suggested by their pottery. Like
strayed of intrusion. elsewhere no settlements or residences along with
6 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

storage place has been encountered yet in the region megalithic practice evolved among the Neolithic
therefore their architectural and settlement layout is dwellers with their involvement with magic and
still lying in the dark. No neolithic burial from the supernatural practices. The distribution patterns
region came to light so far. Their society seems to be of prehistoric and historic sites are very different.
autonomous with no visible signs of hierarchy and With the settled life and domestication of animals
conflict. There are no study on the prehistoric climate and advent of agriculture and is characterised by
of Meghalaya however it is probable that with the archaeological evidence of settlement, pottery
adoption of husbandry and pastoralism by few etc. humans started allocating areas for particular
groups, forests were transformed to grazing grounds activities (burials reported since Mesolithic period
with ever increasing pattern/ which contracted but with time mortuary practices have undergone
hunting and gathering grounds putting pressure changes).
upon the neighbouring hunter gatherers either to
relocate or adopt their way of subsistence which Megaliths are the most widespread human
eventually happened. The growth of population of remain in time and space. Megaliths are of several
hunter gathers are slower than farmers as the diet of types and it became complicated over time, mostly
hunter-gatherers are mixed and farmer have larger megaliths are sepulchral (grave), commemorative,
supply of fats which helped in increasing fertility. ritualistic association, hero/memorial stone,
Farming is a complicated process needing clearing demarcation of boundary (pathalgarhi in modern
of jungles, ploughing, sowing, guarding (from Chhattisgarh). The earliest megalithic is reported
animals, weeds and pests), irrigation, harvesting and from Middle East belonging to as old as 9000 BC
storing and close living with animals resulting in Mesolithic. The European megalithic culture is older
diseases however it has its advantages also. It seems than Asian and other regions. In Indian subcontinent
that during the period they understood the concept of the oldest megalithic dated to 3000 BC from south
traction and moved those stones lying on their fields India. Megalithic in certain pockets overlaps with
with the help of lever and round logs, the concept end phases of Neolithic-chalcolithic phases and last
they later employed in raising megaliths. During this phases of megalithic merges with early historical
period boat came into material inventory in some period. Most of the megalithic sites of central and
parts of the world. south India considered belonging to Iron Age.
In most of the areas these structures are raised on
unproductive foothills, rocky or gravelli lands but
MEGALITHIC PHASE IN BRAHMAPUTRA avoided fertile arable lands. The faunal remains
VALLEY yielded from the sites of this culture suggest they
domesticated cattle, dog, pig sheep etc. the sizes of
The Neolithic phase is followed by Megalithic, the megaliths are different giving rise to the speculation
geographical spatial distribution of megalithic are and interpretation related to power, position and
nearly same to the distribution of neolithic sites importance of the deceased. Excavation carried out
with trends towards downward movement. The in the various sites of the culture indicates to agro-
megalithic sites reported from Assam are from all pastoral mode of production (surplus?). The crops
the districts of surrounding Meghalaya hills from produced are rice, barley and millet mainly. Different
Rani, Kamrup district and foot hills of Khasi hills metals like iron, copper, gold, silver etc. are reported
and adjoining Karbi Anglong district. Though we from the megalithic sites. The potteries associated
can trace a definite connection between neolithic with the culture are black and red ware, burnished
and megalithic culture which seem to be the work black ware, red ware and grey wares. There was
of the preceding technological phase on the basis of a commonality in the idea of megalithism and the
their distribution pattern of their habitation. It seems associated assemblages, the variations observed
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 7

in the external and internal features of the burials areas and the hoses are constructed. It seems that
reflect that the Iron Age societies of the South India the megalithic people followed variety of methods
are not homogenous. for disposal of dead depending upon the spatial
distribution. The numbers of burial furniture reported
Many societies erect megaliths by those who are very low. No skeletal remains were reported from
offer feast (Adams 2004: 56-76), feast of merit, feast most of the sites sometimes several skeletal remains
takes place during the time of transferring of bones were found probably evidence of community burial,
to permanent secondary clan burial site. Among the single double and multiple burials are also reported.
Khasis, grand feast was held on every occasion of In central and northeast India till recently was a living
collection of family of clan ashes (Clarke 1874: 48- culture. In central India Munda and Gond tribes are
93). So far there is no unanimity among the scholars closely related with the structures till recently tribal
about the timeline however it varies region to region. communities like Ho, Asuras, Birjia, Gond, Munda,
Haimendorf (Haimendorf 1953: 127-135) tries Jayantiyas and Khasis erect menhirs in the memory
to connect megalithic culture with the Dravidian of their deceased. Many legends and folk stories
linguistic group; even in that case the dates will not revolve around these structures some even relate to
go beyond 2000 BC. Ramachandran on the basis of had been created by ghosts and sometimes sinners
C14 dates of megalithic in Tamil Nadu suggest 7th were turned to huge stones.
century (Ramachandran 1980). Gururajarao suggest
time bracket of 400 BC to 400 AD (Gururajarao The extant custom among the Gonds was when
1972), Thapar suggest date of 650 BC, Gordon a person dies; headman announces mourning of
suggest 700 BC -400 BC, according to Mitra its three days, raw rice grain, water in small pot, cloths,
period is 1000-300 BC (Mitra 1921: 56-76), Sirkar mirror, comb and turban to death kept near the
suggest 2000-1000 BC (Sirkar 1960), Banerjee 700- burial. Pottery used by the person was offered. It is
200 BC (Banerjee 1965), Leshnik 300 BC-200 AD generally accepted that the megaliths are memorial
(Leshnik 1974). stone and was erected any time mostly within a
month and their society was by and large egalitarian.
Megalithic people were not a homogenous According to Thapar (Thapar 1988) “Assam
entity. Some relatively large burials are suggestive to Bastar belongs to Southeast Asian tradition,
of status differentiation and ranking of buried introduced to northeast India by Austro-Asiatic
individual. The megalithic structures suggest that the immigrants, mostly commemorative rather than
author village was of sizeable population such type sepulchral”. The incidence relating to megalithic
of construction need considerable size of labour and practicing tribes (Asuras) is mentioned in Sathpath
resource which indicates to sort of political power of Brahman (XIII 8:2) Aryans took upon the builders of
economic affluence within the community. Elaborate Asuras with contempt and in despicable terms and in
architecture, grave goods, stone objects, metals the clash between them chased Asuras towards south
suggest existence of religious beliefs of megalithic (Krishnasastry 1983).
population and indicates to their belief in life after
death. It seems that the megalithic belief in animism. Megalithic is one of the most extensive cultures
Bones of domestic animals in megalithic killed for of Northeast India. It is reported from all the seven
funeral feast are found. There are evidences that states of the region with Meghalaya and Assam
sometimes they are buried within the settlement. having the largest number of sites. It is though not
Some three thousand sites in the subcontinent are possible to discuss about the whole megalithic culture
dated and dated badly and the ratio is very low. and its material milieu therefore present chapter
Though the habitational sites of these cultures are concentrate in Meghalaya and Assam. Megalithic
limited, they are situated mostly on the low lying culture are offshoot of preceding Neolithic culture
8 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

as most of the cultural traits of the Neolithic was Foundation stone: Market or Village
relayed by them including subsistence and social Watch tower and village gate related stone
formation.
Bridge stone
Meitei (Meitei 2017) had studied the megaliths Recreational stone
of Jaintia hills elaborately, the typology he reported
are menhirs, aligned menhirs, dolmen and dolmenoid Therefore it can be surmised that three principal
cist, capstone type, dissoliths, cairn, stone circle, purpose were involved in raising megaliths i)
trilithon and round megalith. These megaliths also functional ii) religious iii) hero worship/ rise of elite
have local names and folk stories. Various functional entity. The megaliths of Khasi hills are also similar
aspects were also discussed by Meitei: to the megaliths of Jaintia hills in typology and
character. The megaliths in Meghalaya is reported
Commemorative or memorial stone from Nartiang, Nangboh, Cerrapunji , Jowai,
Maoflong, Lailugkhot (Jaintia hills) Mawrong,
Burial stones
Mawbri, Lapngar, Tyrso, Umswai, Amjong, Umbi,
Stone related to pre deposition of bones Nongkhrah, Umjajew, San-Mer, Nongpyiur (Ri
Bhoi) Myrkhan, Tynring, Shilian Myntang, Chei
Stone related to deposition of bones
Buai, Nongspung, Wahlang (East Khasi Hills)
Stone related to post deposition of bones
In Assam the megaliths are found from the
Sitting and resting stone foothill areas of Rani, Dimoria, Sonapur, Jagiroad
and hills of Karbi Anglong and N C Hills. The
Meeting and council place related stone
megaliths of Dimoria, sonapur areas are studied
Religious and sacred stone by Choudhury (Choudhury 2004), Karbi Anglong
by Bezbaruah, Jagiroad by Hazarika. Choudhury
Boundary stone
extensively studied the megaliths of Dimoria,
Judiciary stone Sonapur areas and categorised them into flatstone,
menhir, avenues, cairn, dolmen, stone seat, religious

stone and gravestones.

TABLE (CHOUDHURY, 2004)
Sl. no Hill areas Plain areas Total
Name of village No. of megaliths % Name of village No. of %
megaliths
1 Barkashrang 531 26.38 Batakuchi 25 2.85 556

2 Barkuchi 25 1.24 Bhogpur 48 5.49 73

3 Chenimur 260 12.92 Dakhimbam 412 47.03 672
4 Kalangpur 82 4.07 Dakhin Topatali 43 4.90 125
5 Latabori 31 1.54 Dharbam 132 15.08 163
6 Magursila 302 15.00 Digaru 131 14.95 177
7 Marakdola 46 2.28 Dwarkakuchi 38 4.34 340
8 Nakuchi 21 1.04 Khamar 47 5.36 68
9 Panbari 58 2.88 58
10 Pashamsur 231 11.47 231
11 Tegheria 221 10.99 221
12 Upper killing 205 10.19 205
Total 2013 100.00 Total 876 100.0 2889
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 9

From the site of Marakdola, pottery is reported a common location whereas in terminal phase of
and from all the villages Karbi population also is megalithic they gradually shifted to foothills and
reported and few are exclusively Karbi and classify most likely subsistence pattern also undergone
these structures into commemorative, funeral type drastic changes. It is likely that the authors of the
and unnatural death. Funeral have two types a) burn megalithic were the neolithic folks themselves who
b) bury in case of burn no megaliths were raised but developed social stratification, Craft specialization,
feast is offered to co-villagers for the peace of the religion and sympathetic magic. How religion
soul of the deceased. If a person dies an unnatural emerged is altogether a long and different discussion.
death a megalithic is raised, feast takes place and To Charles Darwin (1871: 94) the origin of religious
fowls were sacrificed. Choudhury tries to explain belief was no mystery. “As soon as the important
the process of raising megalithic firstly site was faculties of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity,
selected, than stone is selected, in selection of stone together with some power of reasoning, had become
strong, durable having appropriate shape and size partially developed, man would naturally crave to
are principal considerations and these stones are understand what was passing around him, and would
generally obtained from the hills and transported have vaguely speculated on his own existence,” he
on poles and carried in trolleys. The ethnographic wrote in The Descent of Man.Regardless religion is
studies points that rituals like sacrifice of pig, hen defined as “a set of beliefs and behaviours based on
etc. and hymns were chanted, rituals also performed theory of mind that produces a shared imagination
on 10th day after the erection of megaliths as farewell to enhance survival chance under existential
and purificating rituals done every year on the pressure” (Norenzayan et al., 2016), the additional
specified time and day. requirement is ontogenic ritualisation (Plooij 1978:
111-131) (Vyshedskiy 2014). Therefore religion
The largest number of megaliths are known formation requires imagination, existential pressure
and reported from Karbi Anglong district of Assam and ontogenic ritualization. Two types of religions
particularly from Hamren, Tapat, Rongali and are proposed social religion and immune religion
Habang areas. Bezbaruah had done a study in the which are in lengths discussed by Dingyu Chung
region however his approach was largely descriptive (Chung 2018: 185-511) and also the dynamics of
and methodology historical-ethnological (Bezbaruah functioning of two. According to him “The religious
2003). According to him the megalithic culture in imagination is expressed by symbols, rituals, and
Karbi Anglong were similar to the Khasi hills and imaginary (alternate) mental states. The shared
are the offshoots of Khasi-Jaintia hills. symbols, rituals, and imaginary mental states require
The actual motive behind raising of megalithic ontogenetic ritualization. For imaginary vanished
is not known but the subject remained under kin, the symbols, rituals, and imaginary mental
speculation; however given the wide distribution state involve cemetery, burial rite, and imaginary
of these structures no single reason can be assigned communication with imaginary vanished kin. For
but varied for different geographical locations. The imaginary vanished home territory and culture, the
megalithic period in northeast India continued till symbols, rituals, and imaginary mental state involve
recently as is evident from the accounts of colonial ritualistic festivals, costumes, monuments, and the
writers (Helmendorf, hutton mills etc) is no different imaginary prophecies and prayers. Such attachment
however the culture diffused and disappeared though to imaginary vanished ingroup actually strengthen
few retained it in their living memories. the social bonds in the existing ingroup, resulting
in the enhancement of the survival chance of the
Analysing the spatial distribution of mesolithic- social group”. (Chung 2018: 185-511). Most of the
neolithic and megalithic sites a downward movement theories on the emergence of religion revolve around
is evident. In the transitional phase they shared idea of imagination and survival except for Marx.
10 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

According to Marx, religion is one of those social expected by chance alone. Studies elsewhere showed
institutions which are dependent upon the material that megalithic monuments were based on routes
and economic realities in a given society. It has no and when studied from travelling time and energetic
independent history but is instead the creature of cost parameters it found to be on the optimal routes
productive forces. As Marx wrote, “The religious (Garcia Sanjuan et al. 2007: 1-14). It seems that
world is but the reflex of the real world.” As interesting megalithic folks of Jaintia hills and Hamren-Habang
and insightful as Marx’s analysis and critiques are, sectors were visiting each other and may be these
they are not without their problems—historical and served as milestones and pathfinders. The numerous
economic. Because of these problems, it would not monuments in Jaintia hills suggest their deviation
be appropriate to accept Marx’s ideas uncritically. from hunting-gathering to agriculture as foraging
Although he certainly has some important things to cannot sustain larger population. Yet, it is difficult to
say about the nature of religion however his can’t be understand the meaning of each type of megalithic
accepted as the last word on the subject. and the dimensions it command over time, space and
community.
Apart from ancestor remembrance constructs
these megaliths works also as landmarks, or visual Raising the megaliths needed better planning and
reminders of the association between people and organizing hence enhanced cooperation among the
their physical environment, and secondly, their role members of the ingroup. The theories of the megaliths
as waypoints, or markers that may have aided and in northeast India remained wild imaginations bereft
structured patterns of movement along emerging of any conclusive ethno-archaeological evidence.
path networks. Through their prominence and All the theories regarding megalithic neither could
visibility, some also became material expressions be refuted nor accepted. It is possible that there was
of economic and social practices that may have more than one reason to raise these structures given
included the definition of boundaries and pathways its numerous types, forms, geographical location and
(Garcia Sanjuan et al. 2007: 1-14). different ethnic area.
From this perspective, although the available
The period has a lasting and visible impact on
evidence does not suggest the existence of large
community, economy, material culture, behavioral
herds during the Neolithic, in the Copper Age the
traits and on landscape. They shifted to foothills area
exploitation of domesticated animals seems to
and marshy areas for farming and fishing. A new
have increased markedly, partly in connection
social structure based on stratification was emerging
with a ‘secondary products revolution’ (Harrison
evident from the material culture concentrated in
1985). According to this view it seems possible,
limited area in a settlement. The economy still was
therefore, that short-distance animal herding
largely hunting-gathering but shifting to fishing
(trasterminancia), if not transhumance, could have
and marginal farming. It was difficult for these
occurred. Consequently, the layout of the historically
mountain dwellers to adapt to the marshy and plains
documented transhumance routes is seen as having
that remains inundated most of the year therefore
been influenced not only by a series of physical
remained at foothills practicing shifting agriculture
factors (such as topography) but also by social factors
on hills and slopes procuring meat, fruits, fire woods
including the nature of territorial organization and,
etc. from hills and fishing and limited farming in the
more importantly, tradition.
plains. Upon landscape there are also having impact
The spatial relationship between routes and on the resources which were exploited like never
megaliths can be investigated by constructing before. Potteries specially from Marakdola sites
a significance test to assess whether megalithic suggest they have shifted to agricultural crops hereby
sites are closer to the known routes than would be cleaning the forests for agriculture and hunting
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 11

of animals and birds limited the flora diversity area aligned north-south with around 10° North
which triggered flora and fauna selection in their alignment. The boat consists two compartments
habitational zone therefore impacting its diversity. filled with pots but later broken. The potsherds
Furthermore, their contacts with the people living found inside the boat was historical, round in shape
around them is suggested by their shared pottery. and possibly part of round medium sized pot with
It pushed the limit of human imagination. The short neck. The thicknesses of most of the sherds are
megaliths of Nartiang and Hamren are captivating 0.8-1 cm and the fabric is fine well levigated. Some
and finest in the region and depict cooperation of ashes were also noticed inside the boat which cannot
groups and not mere clan members. Megalithic be explained without proper scientific examination.
monuments are visible marks of communities’ As the number of boat encountered is limited it can
attachments and claim to the land otherwise lacking be said it was not a common popular practice but
reason to mark their land as abodes of their ancestors attributed to few key individuals connected to certain
and hence making economic and political claim domain devoted possibly to someone connected with
giving a thought to ‘my land’ and ‘nativity’ question nautical activity or any high office. The location of
to fruition. Such beliefs created a sacred landscape Tiwanagar as it is located between two less known
which in present day exists in smaller dimensions as but big brick archaeological structure Ganeshguri
sacred grooves. It is one of firsts of the communal hill ruins adjacent to present Ganeshguri market
architecture of the region bearing social dimension, where a large brick structure of 7th-8th century is
how it worked with environment though not known, noticed on brick parameter however the site is still
still remained spiritual last bastion standing against awaiting protection and excavation on its western
new, a transitional culture with roots on both. side nearly 3 km away adjacent to Nijarapar area
of Narakasur lies a large archaeological site built of
Boat burial: Another mortuary practice extant brick belonging possibly to 7th-8th century. The site is
in Assam is the boat burial; however, the timeline very extensive and may spread to 400 sq metre and is
of the practice is not known but seems it continued awaiting excavation and protection. However it will
through historical period and is comparatively be too early to comment anything on the subject.
limited. The burial pattern was in vogue in the valley
specially around Guwahati on high grounds. Three
such burials, made of terracotta are reported from REFERENCE
Jalukbari, Nabagraha and Narakasur hill few years
back. Information regarding these boats pertaining Adams. R. L., 2004, An Ethnoarchaeological Study
to chronology, period, author, belief, purpose etc. of Feasting in Sulawesi, Indonesia Journal of
is not known. The Narakasur boat is found around Anthropological Archaeology 23: 56-76.
half metre below the surface (based on incline of Akoijam, Milan Meitei, 2017, Megaliths and Jaintia
the nearby slope) but erosion has exposed it. The Culture: A study in Archaeological Anthropology
peculiarity of these boat burials are that they are found (Ph. D Thesis) Department of Anthropology, NEHU,
near major historical settlements. In the immediate Shillong.
proximity of these burials no tribal settlements are
reported. The Navagraha boat was found in the Ashraf, Ali Abdullah, 2010, Stone Age Traditions of
Meghalaya: A study of variation and continuity. British
levels where Ambari ware is reported. Dhwalikar
Archaeological Reports International Series 2176.
and Ansari (Dutta 2006) are of opinion that they
belonged to cultural phase 7th-12th century. Same is Ansari, Z. D., Dhawalikar, M. K., 1970, Excavations
true about Jalukbari boat burial which was found in at Ambari, Guwahati, In Dutta, H. N. (ed) Ambari
the vicinity of Pandu a known settlement through the Archaeological Site An Interim Report (2006). Directorate
ages. The Narakasur hill boat found in Tiwanagar of Archaeology, Assam. Guwahati.
12 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Banerjee, N. R., 1965, Iron Age in India. Delhi. IAR 1965–66: “Indian archaeology: a review (1965–66)”,
Annual Bulletin of Archaeological Survey of India.
Bellwood, P., 1978, Man’s conquest in the Pacific: the
prehistory of Southeast Asia and Oceania. Auckland: Gordon, D.H., 1950, The Early Use of Metals in India
William Collins Publishers Ltd. and Pakistan. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 80(1/2).
Bezbaruah, D., 2003, Megalithic Ruins in Karbi Anglong
District of Assam: A study in the context of Karbi Culture Gururajarao, B. K., 1972, The Megalithic culture of South
(Ph.D Thesis) Department of Anthropology, Gauhati India, Mysore.
University.
Haimendorf, C. Von. F., 1953. New Aspects of the
Chinh, H.X., H.X. Chinh, P.D. Thong, N.V. Viet, J. Dravidian Problem. Tamil Cult 1953; 2.
Gorsdorf, J. Hermann, and G. Kohl, 1988, New researches
into prehistory of Vietnam. Hanoi: Archaeological Krisnasastry, K. K., 1983, The Proto and early Historical
Institute of the Social Sciences, Commission of the Culture, Hyderabad.
Socialist Republic of Viet Nam; Berlin: Central Institute
Leshnik, L. S. 1974, South Indian Megalithic Burials, the
for Ancient History and Archaeology of the Academy of
Padukal Complex, Wiesbaden.
Sciences of the GDR.
Mahanta, Hari Chandra, 1995, A Study on the Stone Age
Clarke, C. B., 1874, Stone Monuments of the Khasi Hills,
of Selbalgre, West Garo Hills, Meghalaya. Unpublished
Journal of Anthropological Institute 3 (3).
Thesis, Anthropology, Gauhati University.
Corvinus, G., 1996, “The prehistory of Nepal after 10
Marx, Karl, 1977, Capital: A Critique of Political
years of research”, Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory
Economy, Vol. I. New York: Vintage Books.
Association 14.
Darwin, Charles, 1871, The Descent of Man, and Selection Mitra, P., 1921, The Indian Megaliths: their Origin and
in Relation to Sex, John Murray, London. chronology, PCC XIVII, PASB of Anthropological
Archaeology 23.
Dikshit K. N., Manjil Hazarika, 2012, The Neolithic
Cultures of Northeast India and Adjoining Regions: A Mitri, M, Kharmawphlang, D. and Syiemlieh, H., 2015, A
Comparative Study, Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the Neolithic
No. 7 & 8, 2011-12. Site at Law-Nongthroh (Sohpet Bneng Hill), Khasi Hills,
Meghalaya. Man and Environment XL (1).
Dingyu, Chung, 2018, Evolutionary Origin of Religions
and Religious Evolution: Religious Neurosociology in Mitri, M. 2009, An Outline of the Neolithic Culture of
Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 2018, 8. Khasi-Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, India, Oxford: British
Archaeological Report Series.
Duarah, Anamika Gogoi, 2014, Survival of Prehistoric
Traditions in the Foothills Region of Southern Assam Murrieta-Flores, P. 2010, Travelling in a prehistoric
with Reference to its Highland Counterpart, Unpublished landscape: Exploring the influences that shaped human
Thesis, Anthropology, Gauhati University. movement. In Fricher, B., Webb Crawford, J. and
Koller, D. (eds.), Making History Interactive. Computer
Garcia Sanjuan, L., Garrido Gonzalez, P., and Lozano Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology
Gomez, F., 2007, The use of prehistoric ritual and funerary (CAA), Proceeding of the 37th International Conference,
sites in Roman spain: discussing tradition, memory and Williamsburg, Virginia, United States of America, March
identityin Roman Society. In Fenwick, C., Wiggins, M. 22–26, 2009 (Oxford, BAR Int. Ser. 2079).
and Wythe, D. (eds) TRAC 2007, Proceedings of the
seventeenth annual Theoritical Roman Archaeology Ramachandran, K. S., 1980, Archaeology of South
Conference (UCL and Birbeck College, University of India,Tamil Nadu, Delhi: Sandeep Prakashan.
London, 29 March-1 April 2007) Oxbow Books: Oxford.
Sarkar, S. S. 1960, “Human Skeletal Remains from
IAR 1992–93, Indian archaeology: a review (1992–93), Brahmagiri”. Bulletin Department of Anthropology, Vol.
Annual Bulletin of Archaeological Survey of India. IX. No. 1.
Pre Historic Landscape of Assam and Meghalaya 13

Singh, O.K. 1993, Stone Age culture of Manipur, Thapar, B. K. 2008, Recent Archaeological Discoveries
Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Manipur. in India, Tokyo

Singh, O. K., Cord-marked pottery making tradition in Norenzayan, A., et al. 2016, The Cultural Evolution of
Manipur. Puratattva, 1998–99, 29. Prosocial Religions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39,
e1. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14001356
Singh, O. K., 2008, Pottery through the Ages in Manipur,
Amusana Institute of Antiquarian Studies, Imphal. Vyshedskiy, A. 2014, On the Origin of the Human Mind.
CreateSpace, North Charleston.
Taher, N. and L. S. Rao, 2005, A Neolithic Factory
Pande, B. M., 1968, A note on two paleoliths from Guler,
Site at Pynthorlangtein, In Proceedings of the Sixteenth
District Kangra (Himachal Pradesh). Current Science 37
International Conferences of the European Association of
(19), 558-560.
South Asian Archaeologists, Paris, 2-6 July 2001, vol. I.
Prehistory, eds. C. Jarrige and V. Lefevre. Paris: Editions Plooij, F. 1978, Some Basic Traits of Language in Wild
Recherche sur les Civilisations. Chimpanzees? In Lock, A., Ed., Action, Gesture and
Symbol: The Emergence of Language, Academic Press,
Thapar, B. K. 1965, Neolithic problem in India, Indian
London.
Prehistory, Poona
Rao, S. N. 1977, Continuity and Survival of Neolithic
Sharma, T. C., 1988, Discovery of Hoabinhian cultural traditions in Northeastern India. Asian Perspectives, xx (2).
relics in Northeast India, in Adaptation and other essays:
proceedings of the Archaeological Conference, eds. N.C. Zoller, L. 2000, Chronology of Upper Pleistocene ‘red
Ghosh and S. Chakrabarty. Shantiniketan: Research silts’ in the Siwalik System and constrains for the timing
Publications, Vishwa Bharati, pp. 136–9. of the Upper Paleolithic in Nepal, Catena 41.
 PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS OF USRAR, SINGHPUR,
DISTRICT SATNA, NORTH CENTRAL INDIA: A PRELIMINARY
INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS.

PUSHPENDRA KUMAR NANDAN*, PRAVEEN KUMAR** AND YOGITA BAVISKAR***

INTRODUCTION
Rock Art is the first medium by which hominin aesthetic rock – shelters, clustered in three major mountain
expression can be vividly witnessed on the walls of ranges- the Vindhyas, Satpura, and the Aravalli
rock shelters & caves. In other terms, painted and (Pradhan 2001). The first painted rock shelter in India
engraved walls of caves and rock shelters introduce us has been reported from the northern Vindhyan region,
to the realm of symbols/images present an avenue to survey of which had been undertaken by Archibald
walk through archaic expressions of human societies Carlleyle (Carlleyle 1883) and John Cockburn
as well as their culture and traditions (Wakankar and (Cockburn 1883) in the 1800s. In the year 1883, John
Brooks 1976). From Palaeolithic to early Historic Cockburn, an officer of the Opium Department of
times, many rock paintings were made by Homo the British Government presented the first scientific
sapiens in several regions of the world including paper on Indian rock paintings. It is termed scientific,
India. India has many prehistoric rock painting sites since he tried to trace antiquity of the paintings, based
with a rich scholarship in the field of rock art studies on fossilized bones of rhinoceros found in the river
(Chakraverty 2003, Blinkhorn et al., 2012). Most of valley of Ken, in the northern Vindhyan region, and
the Indian rock paintings have been found in central a painting that depicts a rhino-hunt found at a shelter
India with at least two thousand known decorated near Romp village in Mirzapur region (Cockburn

*
Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, A.P.S. University Rewa, India. E-mail: [email protected]
**
Independent Reserch scholar ([email protected]).
***
Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Durham University, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
16 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

1883). Cockburn studied these pictures systematically is the main rock unit of the area, covering more
and produced few tracings in the Journal of the Royal than 95% of the geographical area of the district.
Asiatic Society. Post Carlleyle and Cockburn’s Among Vindhyas, Lower and Upper Vindhyas,
discoveries, a large number of painted rock shelters both represent the area, but the Lower Vindhyas
have been reported in the Vindhyan region lately by mostly occupy the southern part of the area in Son
various research scholars (Bednarik 1993; Dubey- Sub-basin. The Kaimur range, which is a part of the
Pathak 2013; Kumar et al., 2015; Mathpal 1984; eastern Vindhyas, extends from the south to western
Misra and Mathpal 1979; Pal 2014; Varma 1995, and northern part of Satna district. Approximately,
2012; Wakankar 1962). The current paper highlights 70% of Satna bedrock is related to Sirbu shell
the rock painting of Usrar village, Satna District formation and a major portion of Kaimur range is
(Figure 1), northern Vindhyan region. The northern related to Rewa and upper Bhander group sandstone;
Vindhyan plateau bears evidence of hominin these ranges are the source of several streams and
occupation of the Lower Palaeolithic onwards and water bodies (Nagi 2017) (Figure 1). Tons, Simarwal
can be seen from various river valleys such as Son and Satna, perennial in nature, are big river systems
(Jones and Pal 2009), Mayar (Kumar et al., 2021), of Satna district. Excluding a minor southern part of
Ken (Kumar et al., 2020) etc. In the Satna district, the district, a larger portion of the landscape is fed by
various painted rock shelters have been found by these rivers and its tributaries, flowing north to south
Nandan (2013) and co-author of this article (Praveen and south to east direction.
Kumar). Rock paintings of the Satna region are
a great source of information with regards to the
METHODOLOGY
imagination, cognitive capabilities, belief system,
culture, religious and social lives of the prehistoric The site was explored in 2012 by authors. All rock art
humans of northern Vindhyas. This primary study figures have been counted and statistically analyzed
about Usrar painted rock shelter yielded early and to understand the percentage of figures and rock
late Mesolithic rock paintings with a significant paintings present at all the rock shelters (Figure 6)
amount of surface scatters of microlithic tools. This (Table 1&2). All features of the rock paintings such
gives a critical information about the cultural and as their color, depicted style, amount of patination on
symbolic behavior of the prehistoric hunter gatherer the rock art surface, and size have been documented
society of northern Vindhyan plateau. in the shelter. To improve the quality texture of rock
painting images, ‘DStretch’ Photoshop software was
used (https://www.dstretch.com). The chronology
GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT of rock paintings has been classified by depicted
SETTINGS OF SATNA DISTRICT scenes and figure style. Few microlithic surface
scatters have been collected by a meter grid for basic
Satna district lies in the northern region of the state
analyses of microlithics. Typo technology and basic
Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Average rainfall in
classification system of the microlithic are referred
Satna district is 1092.1 mm and daily temperature
from Jr Andrefsky (Andrefsky 2005).
ranges from 17 °C to 25.3°C. The maximum
elevation of the district is 714 m above mean sea level
(AMSL), which is recorded near the southern part ROCK PAINTINGS FROM USRAR
of the district. Geologically, the various formations
ranging in age from Archaean to the recent occur The site is located (24.6967997 N and 80.5827272 E)
in different parts of the area and contribute to a in northern Kaimur range of Satna district, 48 k.m.
complex geological set up in the district (Ministry far from the headquarters of the district on Satna–
of Water Resources 2013). However, Vindhyas Nagod-Singpur road. The study area is covered by
Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Usrar, Singhpur, Satna District, North Central India 17

densely vegetated Kaimur hills with rich floral and ROCK SHELTER NO. 2
faunal biota which is hard to ingress. A total of four
rock painted shelters have been documented and Few rock paintings have been discovered here. It
most of the rock paintings were found inside rock is close to shelter no.1. Surface is bedrock and no
shelter no.3 (Figure 6 B), which is the biggest painted microliths have been observed here too.
rock shelter (Figure 3). All the shelters have been The length 23’5” width 9’2” height 11’2”
measured between length 126’5”ft, width 8’6”ft,
height 26’7’’ft to length 9’5”ft, width 7’3”ft, and Direction of shelter – North Facing
height 5’3”ft. The subjects depicted can be classified Total no. of painting found from rock shelter – 5
into animal species, human figures, hunting exploits, Used colour -Red
X-ray, and geometric figures, etc. Chronologically,
all the rock paintings have been divided into early Style of painting – Crosshatching -3 and X-ray
Mesolithic time and late Mesolithic phase. Since style-1
there are no accurate dates for this shelter, the Situation of superimposition in scenes of rock shelter
classification of the rock paintings are based on – Period 1
the depicted scene, style of paintings and patina
associated with the paintings. Many paintings in
ANIMAL FIGURES
the shelter are covered with patina indicating their
antiquity. Rock paintings found within these shelters Cervidae/Deer-5
prove to be a major source of our understanding of
how their creators were related to their physical,
biological, and cultural environments. ROCK SHELTER NO. 3

Shelter no.3 (Figure 3,4&8) is the biggest painted

ROCK SHELTER NO.1 rock shelter of the Usrar. Large number of rock
paintings have been observed here which is divided
This is the smallest rock shelter in the painted rock
into early Mesolithic to late Mesolithic rock art.
shelter of Usrar and it is 500m. far from shelter no.3.
Significant number of microliths have been found
Only one rock painting has been documented in this
on the surface of the shelter. The surface presents
shelter. Surface is totally composed of bedrock and
a good amount of sediment (cultural deposit).
no evidence of microliths have been observed.
This shelter was mostly used for the settlement by
The length 9’5”, width 7’3” height 5’3” hominins rather than other shelters of Usrar.
Direction of Shelter –West facing The length 126’5” width 8’5” height 26’7”
Total no. of painting found from rock shelter -1 Direction of shelter – West facing
Used colour- Dark Red Total no. of painting found from rock shelter – 457
Style of painting –Out line Used colour - Red, Dark red
Situation of superimposition in scenes of rock shelter Situation of superimposition in scenes of rock
– Period 1 shelter- Period 2

ANIMAL FIGURES ANIMALS / BIRD FIGURES

Cervidae/Deer – 1 Cervidae/Deer – 255

18 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Cervidae /Barasingha – 37 Total no. of painting found from rock shelter – 5

Sus scrofa/Wild boar – 11 Used colour – Red

Bos gaurus /Gaur – 13 Style of painting – Out line

Pavo cristatus/Peacock – 2 Situation of superimposition in scenes of rock shelter

– Period 1

OTHER SCENES
ANIMAL FIGURES
Human – 139
Cervidae/Deer – 5
Honeycomb – 2

Flora-Fauna – 21
EARLY MESOLITHIC ROCK PAINTINGS
Human palm paintings - 2
All early Mesolithic rock paintings have been
observed in shelter no. 3 (Figure 3,4&7). Early
SCENES OF VARIOUS ACTIVITIES Mesolithic paintings clearly depict a society of hunters
and gatherers. Primarily, they portray man and his
Scenes of group dancing – 2 relationship with the animals. The subject matter of
this period is quite varied, although game animals are
Scenes of hunting by one man – 4 most frequently represented. On the left side of the
shelter wall, the rock paintings covered with patina,
belonging to the early Mesolithic time phase, are
MAJOR ROCK ART STYLE SCENE seen with various scenes related to Deer, Barasingha/
Stag, Pig / Swine, Bison / Gaur (Figure 5 D), and
Scene of zigzag (crosshatching pattern) animals – birds. Some of the birds are identified as peacocks
187 and others resemble jungle fowl. Arthropods such as
scorpions and wild bees were also depicted.
Scene of X-ray style – 11
Most of the animal paintings are related to group
Scene of camera style – 9
painting. For example, deer (Figure 5 B), Barasinga/
Stag, a wild pig group on the wall was drawn in a dark
red color, and the figure had a very broad outline. A
ROCK SHELTER NO. 4
group of deer were painted where the middle part of
This rock shelter is close to Shelter no.3 (Figure 2 each deer was drawn by a crosshatching pattern and
B&C). Few rock paintings have been discovered on the right side of the painting, a big wild pig drawn
here. Surface contains a significant amount of in the x-ray style can be seen. In the bottom side of
sediment with microliths. Most probably cultural the wild pig figure, two human palm paintings also
assemblage is in buried context. appear (Figure 5 A). In the group of stag painting,
dot patterns were used to fill the center part of deer/
The length 14’5” width 7’3” height 9’3” Stag. Some human groups (group dancing) and a tiny
solo human (camera scene) can be seen on the wall.
Direction of shelter – West facing The shape of the human head is round or oval with
Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Usrar, Singhpur, Satna District, North Central India 19

cylindrical and linear torsos; according to Tiwari female union is hardly seen in the rock art. The
(1988) these types of figurative styles are associated compositional elements of these early Mesolithic
with the early phase of rock art. paintings are highly developed. They represent an
element of the creative spirit and high aesthetic
Female figures are occasionally shown. Sexual appreciation.
life does have a place in Mesolithic art and male-

TABLE 1: ANALYTICAL STUDY OF HUMAN AND ANIMALS

Shelter no. Analytical study of Human and Animals
1 2 3 4 Total Percentage
Human - - 139 - 139 29.70
Cervidae/Deer 1 5 255 5 266 56.83
Cervidae /Barasinga - - 37 - 37 7.90

Bos gaurus - - 13 - 13 2.77

Sus scrofa - - 11 - 11 2.35

Pavo cristatus - - 2 - 2 0.42
Total 1 5 457 5 468 -
percentage 0.21 1.06 97.6 1.06 - 100%

TABLE 2: ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ACTIVITIES AND DRAWING STYLE

Shelter no. Analytical study of Activities
2 3 Total Percentage
Dancing in group - 2 2 0.93
Crass sketching pattern 3 187 190 89.20
X-ray scene 1 11 12 5.63
Camera scene - 9 9 4.22
Total 4 209 213 -
Percentage 1.85 98.12 - 100%

LATE MESOLITHIC TIME PHASE ROCK bottom right side, below the dark red patinated early
PAINTING Mesolithic rock paintings. All these paintings are
different from the early Mesolithic rock paintings
The late Mesolithic rock art has been observed in in the stylistic aspects. Some hunting scenes, group
the rock shelters at Usrar. A few rock paintings were paintings of deer appear on the wall with the deer
made in dark and light red colors but were devoid decorated by a crosshatching pattern. Apart from the
of any patination. Most of the late Mesolithic rock deer paintings, a scene depicting humans hunting
paintings observed in shelter no. 3 were at the deer with bow and arrow is also visible on the wall
20 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

(Figure 5 C). At a few places, late Mesolithic rock instead of Upper Paleolithic assemblages and most
paintings are found in superimposed condition ie. of the time, these microlithic scatters are defined
They are made on early Mesolithic rock paintings’ as a Mesolithic period lithic assemblage (Holocene
surface. In shelter no. 4 and 2, few deer group rock phase) (Misra 1985).
paintings one the ceiling (Figure 2 C) and in shelter
no. 1, single deer rock paintings on the wall have Thus, a lack of Upper Paleolithic artifacts inside
been documented. the painted rock shelters represents only Holocene
(11-12 ka) occupation in the shelters; this argument
is unconvincing. New microlithic dates from various
MICROLITHIC parts of India (Clarkson et al., 2020 and 2009;
Basak and Srivastav 2014; Mishra et al., 2013)
At the surface of shelter number 3, various microlithic show that these microliths are contemporary to the
artifacts have been observed at a few places, which European Upper Paleolithic time period (46 ka to
are exposed by the natural agents or recent human 12 ka). This makes it a high possibility that central
activities. For the basic analyses of microliths, a few Indian painted rock shelters were occupied by pre-
of them were collected from the surface. All lithics Holocene communities. The dates of microliths from
are made on cryptocrystalline raw material such as Jwalapuram rock shelter in South India strongly
Chalcedony, Jasper, Agate, Chert, and Quartz. In the supports this argument that hominins occupied
whole collection of lithics, various micro blades, rock shelters with microlithic technology before 35
waste micro flakes and microlithic cores have been kya (Clarkson et al., 2009). Contemporary dates of
documented (Figure 10). No backed blade artifacts the microlithic period with the Upper Paleolithic
have been observed during primary observation have been under debate on how to better define the
(because of a limited number of collections). South Asian Upper Paleolithic phase. To resolve
All microlithic artifacts show no weathering or these issues, many scholars are now using ‘Late
patination indicating recent exposure. Various Palaeolithic’ (blade-and microlith-based industries)
debris and scrap waste products (debitage such as terminology instead of the Upper Paleolithic phase
small flakes and chunks) at the shelter indicates that, (James and Petraglia 2005; Blinkhorn and Petraglia
inside the shelter lithic reduction activities might 2017). Thus, in this scenario one needs to re-address
have been performed by hominin; however, it needs the correct culture phase of Late Pleistocene rock
further work and research on microlithic assemblage paintings of South Asia in the context of microlithic
to understand the whole chaîne opératoire behavior assemblages.
of hominin inside the shelter.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

MICROLITHIC TOOLS IN THE CONTEXT
OF SOUTH ASIAN ROCK ART SITES Both microlithic and rock art are regarded as a key
feature of Homo sapiens behavior and in a broader
European Late Pleistocene rock painting sites have context it is associated with one of the proposed
been associated with typical long blade and blade core southern dispersal routes (coastal dispersal) of
Upper Paleolithic artifacts, but in the South Asian modern humans from East Africa and southern
context, the picture is a little different. Traditionally, Arabia to South Asia (Mellars et al., 2013) (Figure
various depicted early phase rock paintings of South 11). Northern Vindhyan plateau is the key region of
Asia are associated with Upper Paleolithic period; the possible southern dispersal route of anatomically
however, archaeologically, most of the painted modern human which goes towards south east Asia
rock shelters contain only microlithic assemblage from north east India, and recently some oldest dates
Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Usrar, Singhpur, Satna District, North Central India 21

of the rock art has been obtained from the south the deep chronological sequence of the microliths
east Asia (Brumm et al., 2021), this raises some and rock art in this region. The various rock shelters
possibility of early dates of northern Vindhyan rock and open air sites of this region, including at Usrar,
art. Subtropical climate, favorable environment, a large number of microlithic surface scatters have
various river networks, fauna, flora and sandstone been found. In Bhajikhera (Open air site, Figure 1
rock shelters provided an ideal habitation zone for and 9) (24’41’07’’N, 80’28’52’’E) 10 km away from
prehistoric hunting gathering society in this region. Usrar in south-west direction, a rich assemblage of
Sandstone formations being prone to natural erosion microlithic scatters have been found by co-author of
and weathering, the passage of time and the exposure this article (Praveen Kumar) and most probably these
to natural elements have led to the various shaped rock open air microlithic scatters are the byproduct of the
shelters as we know them now. Their unique natural hunter-gatherer society, residing during the seasonal
architecture made them a safe place for settlement to mobility (such as during the summer season) from
the Upper Palaeolithic society and beyond. A large upland (hilly landscape) to low land area. In this
number of rock painting sites have been explored whole context, rock shelters and open air microlithic
in the Satna district including Dharkundi ashram, sites of the region are of major significance to get
Majhgema, Dhausada or Dhaunsda and Usrar important information about the cultural, artistic
(Dubey Pathak 2013; Nandan 2013; Kumar 2015). and settlement behavior of the northern Vindhyan
These sites have good evidence of rock paintings, prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies.
most probably belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic
period onwards and evidence of microlithic surface
scatters. As mentioned earlier, the Usrar rock ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
paintings represent early Mesolithic (or maybe
This manuscript is a part of Ph.D. work carried out by
older than Mesolithic) lifestyle activity based on
PK Nandan in the year 2013. Our warm regards and
stylistic features and the depicted scenes. Neolithic gratitude towards local villagers of Usrar and Jaiman
or Chalcolithic rock paintings were not found in Singh Parihar for their benevolence and informative
the Usrar rock-shelters. Neolithic and Chalcolithic support during the exploration. And, Field work done by
type rock painting are associated with the humped PK Nandan and Praveen Kumar, statistical analysis done
bull/domesticated animals, chariots, weaponry, etc. by PK Nandan. Manuscript written by Praveen Kumar
(Neumayer 1993), which are not seen in the Usrar and Yogita Baviskar. Map and Photo editing done by
rock paintings. All paintings represent hunting Praveen Kumar.
and other scenes involving wild animals which
according to Pandey (1993), these types of artistic
scenes belong to the Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic REFERENCES
period. Rich microlithic surface scatters of the Usrar Andrefsky Jr., William, 2005, Lithics: Macroscopic
shelter and thick sediment deposit (cultural deposit) Approaches to Analysis. 2nd edition, Cambridge
create an ideal possibility for the future excavation University Press, Cambridge.
inside the shelter. This will be useful to obtain
critical information about the cultural deposit and Banerjee, Ruman and Chakraverty, Somnath, 2014,
to correlate chronology of the paintings. Recently, “Absolute Dating of a Time Marker from the Satpuras
An Appraisal through Uranium Series for Central Indian
at Dhaba in Son valley, which is geographically
Rock Art.” in Suitable Techniques in Dating Rock Art,
close to the present site, the oldest microlithic tools
Malla B (Ed.), 169-189, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi
(48 ka) have been recovered from stratified context National Centre for Arts.
(Clarkson et al., 2020) and also few recent Uranium-
series (U-series) dates in the same region rock art sites Basak, Bishnupriya and Srivastav Pradeep, 2014,
(Banerjee and Chakraverty 2014) gives an idea about “Earliest dates and implications of microlithic industries
22 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

of Late Pleistocene from Mahadebbera and Kana, Purulia James, Hannah V. A. and Michael D. Petraglia, 2005,
District, West Bengal”. Current Science 107: 1167–1171. “Modern human origins and the evolution of behavior
in the Later Pleistocene record of South Asia.” Current
Bednarik, Robert G., 1993, ‘‘Palaeolithic art in India.’’ Anthropology 46(suppl. 5): S3–S27.
Man and Environment, Vol.18, no.2: 33–40.
Jones, Sacha, and Jagannath Pal, 2009, “The Palaeolithic
Blinkhorn, James et al., 2012, ‘‘Rock Art Research in of the Middle Son valley, north-central India: Changes in
India: Historical Approaches and Recent Theoretical hominin lithic technology and behaviour during the Upper
Directions.’’ A Companion to Rock Art, Vol.1: 179-196. Pleistocene.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,
10.1086/693462. 28: 323–341. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2009.05.003.

Blinkhorn, James and Michael D.Petraglia, 2017, Kumar, Giriraj et al., 2015, “Taphonomy of the Early
“Environments and Cultural Change in the Indian Petroglyphs at Daraki Chattan and in the Region Around
Subcontinent Implications for the Dispersal of Homo it in Chambal Basin, India.” in Bednarik et al. Palaeoart
sapiens in the Late Pleistocene.” Current Anthropology and Materiality: The Scientific Study of Rock Art,
Vol.58: 463-479. Archaeopress, Oxford:161-169.

Brumm, Adam et al., 2021, ‘‘Oldest cave art found in Kumar, Praveen, 2015, “Dhaunsda Rock Paintings in
Sulawesi.’’ science advances, Vol.7: 1-12. 10.1126/ North-Central India, Satna.’’ Research Deliberation An
sciadv.abd4648. International Refereed Journal for Humanities and Social
Science, Vol-I, no.2: 109-117.
Carlleyle, Archibald, C., 1883, ‘‘Notes on lately
discovered Sepulchral Mounds, Cairns, Caves, Cave Kumar, Praveen et al., 2020, “Prehistoric explorations
Paintings and Stone Implements.’’ Proceedings of the in the central Ken basin, Panna district, North Central
Asiatic Society of Bengal. India.” Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in
Archaeology, Vol-8.2: 527-537.
Chakraverty, Somnath, 2003, Rock Art Studies in India: A
Historical Perspective. Asiatic Society, Kolkata. Kumar, Praveen et al., 2021, “Prehistoric Explorations
in the Mayar River, District Singrauli, in North Central
Clarkson, Chris et al., 2020, ‘‘Human occupation of India.” Journal of Archaeological Studies in India, Vol-1:
northern India spans the Toba super-eruption ~74,000 62-73.
years ago.’’ nature communication: 1-10, https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41467-020-14668-4. Mathpal, Yashodhar. 1984, Prehistoric Rock art of
Bhimbetka, Abhinav Prakashan, New Delhi.
Clarkson, Chris et al., 2009, “The oldest and longest
enduring microlithic sequence in India: 35000 years of Mellars, Paul et al., 2013, “Genetic and archaeological
modern human occupation and change at the Jwalapuram perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of
Locality 9 rockshelter.” Antiquity 83: 326–348. 10.1017/ southern Asia”. PNAS 110(26): 10699–10704.
S0003598X0009846X.
Ministry of Water Resources Central Ground Water North
Cockburn, John, 1883, ‘‘A Short Account of the Central Region Bhopal. 2013, District ground water
Petrographs in the Caves and Rock Shelters of the Kaimur information booklet, Satna district Madhya Pradesh.
Range in Mirzapore District.’’ Proceedings of the Asiatic Bhopal.
Society of Bengal, Vol.52: 125 – 126.
Misra, Virendra Nath and Yashodhar Mathpal, 1979,
Dubey-Pathak, Meenakshi, 2013, Rock Art of Pachmarhi ‘‘Rock art of Bhimbetka region, Central India.’’ Man and
Biosphere, BR. Publishing Corp, Delhi. Environment, Vol.3: 27-33.

Dubey-Pathak, Meenakshi, 2013, “Newly Discovered Misra, Virendra Nath, 1985, “Microlithic industries
Rock Art Sites of Dharkundi in Central India.” INORA: in India.” In: Misra, V. and Bellwood, P., eds. Recent
10-17. Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: Proceedings of the
Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Usrar, Singhpur, Satna District, North Central India 23

International Symposium held at Poona, December 19- Pandey, Shyam Kumar, 1993, Indian Rock Art, Aryan
21, 1978. Leiden: Brill: 111-122. Books International, New Delhi.

Mishra, Shelia et al., 2013, “Continuity of microblade Pradhan, Sadasiba, 2001, Rock Art in Orissa: Aryan
technology in the Indian subcontinent since 45 Ka: Books International, New Delhi.
implications for the dispersal of modern humans”. PLoS
ONE 8:e69280:1-14. Tiwari, Rakesh, 1988, Rock paintings of Mirzapur in
Uttar Pradesh. ln Rock Ari in the Old world (Lorblanchet,
Nagi, Neety, 2017, Aquifer Mapping and management
M. ed.): 285-301. lndira Gandhi National Center for the
plan of satna district Madhya Pradesh, Ministry of Water
Arts, New Delhi.
Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation,
Central ground of water board north central region Bhopal. Varma, Radhakant, 1995, Mesolithic Culture of Mirzapur,
Nandan, Pushpendra Kumar, 2013, Satna Evam Panna Pram jyoti Prakashan.
Zile Ke Shailchitra Kala – Ek Adhyayana, Ph.D. Thesis,
Varma, Radhakant, 2012, The Rock Art of Northern
2013 -14, A.P.S.U. Rewa (M.P.).
Vindhyan Region, ‎Aryan Books International: 315-50.
Neumayer, Erwin, 1993, Lines on Stone: The Prehistoric
Rock Art of India, Ajay Kumar Jain, New Delhi. Wakankar, Vishnu Shridhar and Robert R.R. Brooks,
1976, Stone Age Paintings in India, D.P. Taraporevala
Pal, Jagannath, 2014, ‘‘Prehistoric Rock Art in the Sons & Co,Bombay.
Vindhyas in Uttar Pradesh and Adjoining Areas, North
Central India.’’ Rock Art Studies, Vol. I. Edited by Bansi Wakankar, Vishnu Shridhar, 1962, ‘‘Painted Rock Shelters
Lal Malla, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and of India.’’ Rivista de Science Prehistoriche, Vol.17, no.1–
Aryan Books International: 299-314, Ibid. 4: 237–253.
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY TO INFER THE LINKAGE
IN BETWEEN KASHMIR NEOLITHIC AND HARAPPAN
CIVILIZATION

NAHEED AHMED* AND YOGAMBAR SINGH FARSWAN**

INTRODUCTION
T he first settled life in Kashmir can be traced
near 3000 BC during the Neolithic period.
The peoples of the early farming community of
primary way. The people started using polished
and long stone tools (celt) bone tools (arrowhead)
and harvester (Gufral). They were in close contact
Kashmir get the protection from cold weather used with the northwestern India, central Asia and china
to live in pit dwelling. On the ground it is circled through regular contact. Near about forty Neolithic
by cone-shaped thatched hut around the opening sites are reported in Jammu and Kashmir, in which
of pit. In due course of time they started living only three Neolithic sites excavated in Kashmir
in the rectangular wattle-daub hut and houses valley, namely Burzahom, Gufral and Kanispur.
of sun dried bricks. The man has successfully Burzahom was excavated by T.N. Khazanchi
domesticated animals, of the families of the bulls, for seven seasons (1960-1971) but Gufkral was
horses and sheep’s. They made use of buffalo and excavated for only two seasons (1980-1982) by
ass to carry heavy load. Beside they also started A.K. Sharma and Kanishkapura for only one
farming, wheat, barley, linseed although in the season (1998-99) by B.R. Mani.

* Research Scholar, Department of History, Ancient Indian History, Culture and archaeology, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal
University (A Central University), Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand-246174, India; E-mail: [email protected]
** Professor, Environmental Archaeology, Department of History, Ancient Indian History, Culture and archaeology, Hemvati Nandan
Bahuguna Garhwal University (A Central University), Srinagar, Garhwal, Uttarakhand-246174, India; E-mail: faraswany@gmail.
com
26 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

The Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan civilization karewa-was excavated by the Prehistory Branch of
both survived in the contemporary period. The three the Archaeological Survey of India from 18 August
Neolithic sites in Kashmir valley are excavated to 20 October, 1981. The site (33°54’ N, Latitude
namely Gufral, Kanispur and Burzahom. The Gufral, and 75°60’ E Longitude) is situated 41 km southeast
Burzahom and Kanispur sites are situated in the of Srinagar near the Tehsil of Tral in the Pulwama
Pulwama, Baramulla and the Srinagar district of the District. The site is located on the slopes of the 35 m
Jammu and Kashmir respectively. On the other side, high on an extensive deposit of upper Karewa adjacent
the Harappan civilization was survived in the north- to the village Ban-Mir between two nallahs that join
western region of Indian sub-continent (including Jhelum nearly 10 km to the west. At the top the mound
the present day Pakistan and northwest India). It measures 400 m long north-south and 75 m wide east-
flourished in the basin of the Indus and Sarasvati west. There are a number of caves, both single and
River and location of Manda site is very interesting. multi-chambered with pillars. The southeastern area
of the site are occupied by Krals for residential and
The Burzahom site is located in the Kashmir storage purposes. The site was explored in 1962-1963
valley of the Union territory of Jammu and by the Frontier Circle of the Archaeological Survey
Kashmir. It is located 16 kilometres to the north- of India. The two cultural phase found at this site. It
east of Srinagar on the Naseem-Shalimar road. The has brought to light the wealth of information so far
elevation of the site is 1,800 metres (5,900 ft.) above unknown, about the Neolithic and Megalithic settlers
sea-level and situated on an ancient Pleistocene lake in Kashmir valley and their contact with outside
bed. It is located in a high terrace which is part of the world. (Sharma 2000: 85).
floodplain of the Jhelum River and has Karewa soil
formation. The site has a commanding view of the The Kanispur is (34° 13’ N 74° 24’ E) is situated
Dal Lake which is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away 49 km northwest of Srinagar. Kanispur is a two-
from the lake. In the Kashmiri language ‘Burzahom’ period site (Neolithic 3149 cal. BC and early historic
means “birch”, a tree species (that generally grows in c. 1st to 5th century AD). It situated on the left bank
the elevation range of 3,000 to 4,200 metres (9,800 of Jhelum River in Baramulla District. Kanispur was
to 13,800 ft.) in the Himalayas), which is found in briefly excavated by the Archaeological Survey of
the excavated area in the form of roofing material, India under the direction of B.R. Mani (IAR 2004:
and thus confirming the existence of the tree even in 30-40; Mani 2000: 139). The five cultural phases
the pre-historic Neolithic times. The archaeological found at this site; the phases I and II is related to the
excavations of Burzahom have revealed four phases Neolithic culture (with phase I Aceramic and phase
of cultural significance between 3000 BC and 1000 II ceramic); and the other three phases belonged
BC. Periods I and II represent the Neolithic era; to Kushan of the early historic period (IAR 2004:
Period III belongs to the Megalithic era (of massive 30). The Neolithic material culture of Kanispur
stone menhirs and wheel turned red pottery); and had similarities with Burzahom and Gufkral. The
Period IV relates to the early Historical Period occupation evidence comprised of rectangular
(Post-megalithic period). The findings, recorded in houses, post holes, a hearth, and circular (Mani
stratified cultural deposits representing prehistoric 2000: 139) believes that the Kanispur excavation
human activity in Kashmir, are based on detailed shows movement of people during the Neolithic
investigations that cover all aspects of the physical times from Central Asia via Baramulla to the rest
evidence of the site, including the ancient flora and of Kashmir. He suggests this on the basis of emmer
fauna. The large cache of tools and implements made wheat found at this site, as emmer was originally a
of bone and stone found at the site. product of the arid Middle East, and came to South
Asia through Iran and Afghanistan to Kashmir via the
The Gufral (literally guf-cave, kral-potter)-a site communication routes that pass through Baramulla
inhabited by potters who utilize the caves cut into the District. Phases III to V belong to Kushan period
Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan Civilization 27

of early historic period. The excavators of the site based on radiocarbon half-life value of 5730 ± 40
further reported a pottery type that have analogues at years. The radiocarbon evidence suggests movement
Sirkap, Taxila in Pakistan (IAR 2004: 40). and development of the Neolithic culture in the
Kashmir valley. It seems that Central Asian Neolithic
The archaeological records at the site of Gufral,
tradition entered the Kashmir valley in the second
Burzahom and Kanispur have amply shown the
half of the fourth millennium BC when the Neolithic
evidence of cultural contact to Harappan civilization.
settlers occupied the western part of the valley around
A large number of material culture is recovered from
Kanispur and then moved towards central Kashmir
the Neolithic sites of Kashmir. This study provides as the dates from Burzahom indicate the occupation
a comparative study of the Kashmir Neolithic and around 2881 BC onwards. The Neolithic settlements
Harappan civilization. in Kashmir valley occupied further south-eastern
part of Kashmir valley in about 2347 BC onwards
CHRONOLOGY around Gufkral. It was during this phase when
Chalcolithic contacts might have developed between
The evidence of radiocarbon dates from Kanispur the Neolithic settlements of Kashmir valley in North
suggests that the beginning of Neolithic age in the and early and mature Harappan civilization in the
the Kahsmir valley in middle of the 4th millennium Punjab-Haryana region in South which is indicated
BC with ceramic Neolithic appearing in the late by the co-existing early Harappan settlement at
4th millennium BC and not in the first half of Manda (Akhnoor) in Jammu on the right bank of the
the 3rd millennium BC as popularly believed by Chenab and Malpur, a Neolithic site partly excavated
archaeologists on the evidence of Burzahom and during 1994-96, located very close to the former,
Gufkral. A C-14 date of one charcoal sample from but on the left bank of the Chenab. (Mani 2006:
Kanispur is 3361 BC to 2937 BC (average being 3149 235). Un-calibrated and Calibrated C-14 dates from
BC). Table given below from Table-1 to Table-4 also three Neolithic sites of Kashmir are as follows:The
provides details of C-14 dates as determined by Tata following scientific radiocarbon dates show that both
Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay and the Harappan civilization and Kashmir Neolithic are
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow contemporaries.

BURZOAHM

TABLE 1: CHRONOLOGY OF BURZAHOM SITE. (MANI 2006: 235)

Sample No Material Period Un-calibrated Calibrated

BS 357 Wood charcoal IB Neolithic 3369 ± 105 BP 1520 ± 110 BC 1681 BC
BS 431 -do- II Megalithic 3466 ± 85 BP 1620 ± 90 BC 1884-1677 BC
BS 433 Charcoal -do- 3612 ± 105 BP 1770 ± 110 BC 2131, 2077, 2047 1871, 1841-
1779 BC
BS 434 -do- -do- 3680 ± 105 BP 1840 ± 110 BC 2195-2151 2149-1900 BC
BS 359 Wood charcoal IB Neolithic 3864 ± 115 BP 2030 ± 120 BC 2347 BC
BS 356 -do- -do- 3466 ± 105 BP 1620 ± 110 BC 1860, 1847, 1770 BC
BS 370 -do- IC Neolithic 2709 ± 105 BP 840 ± 110 BC 842 BC
BS 371 -do- -do- 3466 ± 95 BP 1620 ± 110 BC 1860, 1847, 1770 BC
BS 358 -do- IA Aceramic 3039 ± 105 BP 1180 ± 110 BC 1313 BC
Neolithic
BS 360 -do- IC Neolithic 3243 ± 95 BP 1390 ± 110 BC 1519 BC
28 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

GUFRAL

TABLE 2: CHRONOLOGY OF GUFRAL SITE. (MANI 2006: 236)

Sample No Material Period Un-calibrated Un-calibrated

BS 357 Wood charcoal IB Neolithic 3369 ± 105 BP 1520 ± 110 BC 1681 BC
BS 431 -do- II Megalithic 3466 ± 85 BP 1620 ± 90 BC 1884-1677 BC
BS 433 Charcoal -do- 3612 ± 105 BP 1770 ± 110 BC 2131, 2077, 2047 1871, 1841-
1779 BC
BS 434 -do- -do- 3680 ± 105 BP 1840 ± 110 BC 2195-2151 2149-1900 BC
BS 359 Wood charcoal IB Neolithic 3864 ± 115 BP 2030 ± 120 BC 2347 BC
BS 356 -do- -do- 3466 ± 105 BP 1620 ± 110 BC 1860, 1847, 1770 BC
BS 370 -do- IC Neolithic 2709 ± 105 BP 840 ± 110 BC 842 BC
BS 371 -do- -do- 3466 ± 95 BP 1620 ± 110 BC 1860, 1847, 1770 BC
BS 358 -do- IA Aceramic 3039 ± 105 BP 1180 ± 110 BC 1313 BC
Neolithic
BS 360 -do- IC Neolithic 3243 ± 95 BP 1390 ± 110 BC 1519 BC

KANISPUR

TABLE 3: CHRONOLOGY OF KANISPUR SITE. (MANI 2006: 236)

Sample No Material Period Un-calibrated Calibrated

BS 2058 Charcoal Ceramic Neolithic 3970 ± 90 BP 2020 ± 90 BC 2470 BC
BS 2055 -do- Ceramic Neolithic 4490 ± 100 BP 2540 ± 100 3361 BC to 2937 BC
(At the junction BC (Average 3149 BC
of layers between
ceramic and
Aceramic Neolithic)
BS 2056 -do- Ceramic Neolithic 3970 ± 90 BP 2020 ± 90 BC 2470 BC

TABLE 4: RADIOCARBON AGES FROM DIFFERENT NORTH INDIAN SITES. (MANI 2006: 239)

S. no. Sites Uncorrected Dates Calibrated Dates

1 Kalibangan, Rajasthan 6702 ± 129 (4752 BC) BC 5566 (5436) 5289
2 Barkhera, Madhya Pradesh 7460 ± 140 (5510 BC)
3 Dadupur, Uttar Pradesh 6330 ± 120 (4380 ± 120 BC) BC 5284 (5189) 4857
4 Siswania, Uttar Pradesh 4890 ± 130 (2940 ± 130 BC) BC 3625 (3588) 3535
5 Ganwaria, Uttar Pradesh 4740 ± 110 (27-90 ± 110 BC) BC 3508 (3360) 3107
6 Khairadih, Uttar Pradesh BC 2853 (2559) 2404
7 Takiaper (Takiapar) Uttar Pradesh 4730 ± 125 (2780 ± 125 BC)
8 Bhirrana, Haryana 5700 ± 170
9 -do- 6120 ± 250 BC 5336 (5041) 4721
10 -do- 7590 ± 240 BC 6647 (6439) 6221
Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan Civilization 29

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LIVING

STRUCTURE

The living pattern of the Kashmir Neolithic and

Early Harappan culture was the quite similar. The
people of the Kashmir Neolithic was living in the
pit dwelling complex. These pits are found in
rectangular, circular or oval on plan, narrow at the
top and wide at the base as in Fig. 1. There are almost
16 pits reported from the Burzahom. Which are
directly cut into natural soil, were exposed. The 886
Fig. 1: Pit Dwelling, Period I, Burzahom
carnelian beads and 87 agate beads are reported from
the Burzahom. The largest of these measured 2.74
m. at the top and upward of 4.57 m. at the bottom which were used inside and outside the dwelling pits
and 3.96 m. in the depth. (IAR 1961-62: 57). The (Khatri and Acharya 1997: 89; Shinde 2011: 39).
886 carnelian beads and 87 agate beads are reported The people of Sothi-Siswal phase used the mud-
from the Burzahom. The 886 carnelian beads and 87 bricks structures for living purpose for the first time
agate beads are reported from the Burzahom (Fonia- in the upper Sarasvati basin. Hence, the presence of
Burzahom excavation report 1960-71). The evidence pit dwelling complexes, post-holes, floor level, mud
of pit dwelling complexes also notice in the upper brick structures etc. are provided the large number
Sarasvati basin during the Early Harappan period. similarity in the house pattern between Kashmir
It was noticed that the dwelling pits of Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan culture.
Neolithic and Harappan civilization had post-holes
on their peripheries, suggesting the presence of a
superstructure made up of either of wood or grass COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CERAMIC
covering over them. The diameter of the dwelling pits ASSEMBLAGES
of Early Harappan culture is ranges between 2.00 to
3.40 metres with a maximum depth of 1.10 metre and The ceramic assemblages of Kashmir Neolithic can
the largest pit of Kashmir Neolithic is measured 2.74 be divided into the red, grey, buff and black ware
metres in diameter at the top and 4.57 metres at the groups. The red ware and grey ware were the main
bottom. The presence of hearth, charred bones, ash, ceramic industry of the Kashmir Neolithic. In the red
floor, copper, ceramics and semiprecious antiquities ware group, the dull red ware, black on red ware and
are clearly indicative of the fact that these pits were red gritty ware are also found in the large scale. The
used for multipurpose. The Kashmir Neolithic pits burnished grey ware was main dominated ceramic of
are characterized by the large number of dwelling, gray ware group. In addition, simple gray ware, steel
refuse and dumps pits (IAR 1980-81: 20-23) and one grey ware, coarse grey ware and fine grey ware are
pit dwelling complex of the Early Harappan culture also reported from Neolithic sites in Kashmir valley.
included a number of pits having different functions in Buff ware, black ware and black burnished ware are
nature such as dwelling, cooking, storage, industrial another important feature of ceramic assemblages of
and garbage, etc. (Rao 2006: 33; Shinde 2011: 15- Kashmir Neolithic. Most of the ceramic assemblages
39). The evidence of mud and mud bricks structures of Harappan civilization comprise of red ware
were also notice in the later period of Burazhom. industry, besides the grey ware and buff ware are
During the Early Harappan period (Hakra Phase), also retrieved in a limited number. In the red ware
one can see a continuation of pit-dwelling tradition industry, simple red ware, dull red ware, red slip ware,
as well as the introduction of moulded mud-bricks black on red ware and red gritty ware are reported
30 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

from mostly Harappan sites. The grey ware, coarse showing the ceramic contact between the Kashmir
grey ware and fine grey ware were also recovered in Neolithic and Harappan civilization. Table-4 show
usual ranges. It has very fine fabric, smooth surface, the presence of different style of potteries in both
sometime decorated with black colour. A small Harappan Civilization and Kashmir Neolithic
number of black burnished ware found at Bhirrana culture.
which has red body shreds, treated with glossy black
slip (Rao 2006: 39). Hence, the ceramic assemblages
of both cultures are showing similarity in type and COMPARATIVE STUDY OF METAL
shapes. The main shapes of both culture includes OBJECTS
dish-on-stand, vase, bowls, plates, basins, spouted
bowls, cooking pots. However, there is no doubt, the The Harappans used mainly gold, silver, copper,
characteristic feature of Kashmir Neolithic ceramic lead and bronze as ornaments, tools and weapons.
was totally different to the Harappan civilization. In Kashmir valley, only copper objects are reported
Most of the ceramic assemblage of Kashmir Neolithic during the Neolithic period such as antimony rod,
culture is handmade while Harappan ceramic is well needles, harpoons, bangles, ear and nose rings,
fired, made on wheel, sometime handmade. The mat chisels, coil, bar celt and coil head etc. The evidence of
impressions are completely absent on Harappan copper objects during the Neolithic phase of Kashmir
ceramic. The burnished grey ware and burnished Neolithic suggests a long interaction between the
black ware is main feature of Neolithic ceramic Harappan civilization and Neolithic cultures. The
tradition. These ceramic assemblages are rarely manufacturing technology of copper become more
reported from the Harappan sites. Thus, two different and more common during the Harappan period.
ceramic production centers appeared in the Kashmir The several crucibles of copper slag is indicative of
Neolithic and Harappan region. Nevertheless, the producing of copper melting at Harappan sites. Other
presences of the Harappan shapes (dish-on-stand, factors such as the raw material of copper were easily
perforated jar and high-necked jar) in Kashmir valley available to Harappan settlements from Aravalli
and burnished black ware are found in the Sarasvati hills. The evidences of ancient copper working also
valley. A globular pot with painting of a horned occur in Khetri, Sighana, Ganeshwar, Teejanwali and
deity in Fig.2 (it is very similar to specimens from Khalra hills. Most of the copper objects of Kashmir
Kot-Diji and Bhirrana) are also reported from the Neolithic culture ….. Hence, the copper objects
Kashmir Neolithic site. These evidence are clearly were more popular in Harappan region and presence

Fig. 2: Famous Globular pot with painting of horned deity

Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan Civilization 31

of metal objects in both culture in Table-5 and made of many types of semiprecious stone including
it is more possible that Harappan people were supplied carnelian, agate, jasper, jade, chalcedony, alabaster,
the copper objects to the Kashmir Neolithic people. turquoise, flints and lapis lazuli (Agrawal 2007:
156). The 886 carnelian beads and 87 agate beads
TABLE 5: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF are reported from the Burzahom. Out of 886 beads,
THE METALS OBJECTS 864 carnelian beads are found in globular pot with
painting of a horned deity. (Fonia 1960-71). The
Copper objects Kashmir Neolithic Harappan
Antimony rod + +
similar globular pot with horned deity design is also
Needles + + reported from KotDiji. The different types of carnelian
Harpoons + + bead are reported in Neolithic period including barrel
Bangles + + circular, circular, bicone circular, cylinder, truncated
Chisels + + bicone circular, truncated convex bi-cone circular,
Ear and Nose rings + + concave bicone circular, and hexagonal. The 79
Coil + + beads of agate are found in long barrel circular, two
Bar celt + + in round eye-beads and one each standard lenticular,
Coil head + + short lenticular, rectangular tabular, oval eye-bead,
fish-shaped eye-bead and leech-shaped. The Table
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE BONE 7 show the presence of semi-precious stone in both
OBJECTS cultures. These shapes were also more popular in
Harappan periphery. There is no doubt that the semi-
Bone are found as tools, weapons and ornaments precious stone objects are showing the great trade
during the Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan period. contact between Kashmir Neolithic culture and
Bone are local objects and easily available any kind Harappan culture.
of sites. Bone objects were more popular during the
Neolithic period compare to Harappan civilization. TABLE 7: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SEMI-
A large number of bone objects are reported from PRECIOUS STONES
the Neolithic sites of Kashmir includes arrowhead, Objects Kashmir Neolithic Harappan
needles, bone points, harpoons, awls, pendant, Carnelian + +
knitters and beads. The bone points, bone beads and Chalcedony -- +
pendant are also reported from Harappan sites. The Jasper -- +
presence of bone objects in both cultures in Table 6. Agate + +
Steatite + +
TABLE 6: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF Faience -- +
THE BONES OBJECTS Lapis Lazuli -- +
Objects Kashmir Neolithic Harappan Jade -- +
Light green zade + +
Bones + +
Shells -- +
Ivory -- +
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE STONES
OBJECTS
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SEMI-
PRECIOUS STONE OBJECTS Many types of stone artefacts were found at the
Harappan site such as sculptures, pillars, rings, beads,
Harappan ornaments, such as beads, pendants, weight, balls, querns, pestles, drills and cutting tools,
necklace, measures, weights and game objects, were etc. (Agrawal 2007: 148-153; Mcintosh 2008: 119).
32 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Chert was well-known stone in Harappan civilization and domestication. Most of the bones from Neolithic
and played a vital role in the blade industry. A large culture recovered bore cut and skinning marks
number of the stone objects are reported from the indicating that they were slaughtered for food.
Kashmir Neolithic includes stone celt mace head or The measurement of the humerus, astragalus and
ring stone, pounders, querns, piercers-cum-scraper, calcanium shoe that wild sheep was much larger
axe, burnishing stone, hoes, sawing knives, chisels, than the resent domestic form, and even the present
double edged points, harvester or perforated knives wild form. The occurrence of the wild and domestic
and double haled harvester. The characteristic sheep together indicate simultaneous practice of the
feature of the stone tools of Neolithic culture is domestication and hunting during the Neolithic and
totally different to Harappan stone objects. Most late megalithic period in Kashmir. The cattle and
of the Neolithic stone objects are polished and buffalo were more dominated during the Harappan
made of Pir-Panjal trap. The stone weapon were period. The remains of sheep and goat are also found
dominated during the Neolithic period. The querns, in good number. A number of wild animals and few
pestles, pounders and cutting tools are common in birds have also been identified at the site. The wild
both cultures. The presence of stone objects in both animals are reported during the Neolithic period
culture showing in table 8. includes wild sheep, wild boar, wolf, himalayan ibex,
nilgai, red deer, ret, hare, rabbit and wild urial. While
the principle domesticated animals of Neolithic
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE ANIMALS culture is cattle, dog, pig, Kashmir stag, humped
HUSBANDRY cattle, buffalo, sheep and fowl. The different verities
of wild animal also reported from the Harappan sites
The people of the Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan
such as deer, antelopes, wild pig, nilgai, porcupine,
civilization are involve in the both hunting-gathering
wild boar, gazelle, chital, house rat and Indian hare.
In addition, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, dog and pig
TABLE 8: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STONES
OBJECTS are main domesticated animals during the Harappan
civilization. Hence, one can be seen a lot of similarity
Objects Kashmir Neolithic Harappan
between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan animal
Stone Celt + --
husbandry as in table 9.
Mace head + --
Pounders + +
Querns + + TABLE 9: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ANIMALS
Piecer-cum-scraper + -- HUSBANDRY
Stone axe + -- Animals Kashmir Harappan
Burnishing stones + -- Neolithic
Grinder + + Himalayan ibex + --
Hoes + -- Nilgai + +
Sawing knives + +
Wild dog + +
Chisel + --
Domestic dog + +
Double edge points + --
Adze + -- Wolf + --
Harvester or perforated + -- Bear + --
knives and double haled Wild urial + --
harvester
Fish + +
Bells + --
Pig + +
Stone points + +
Ball -- + Kashmir stag + --
Rings + + Domestic humped cattle + +
Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan Civilization 33

Animals Kashmir Harappan remain recovered from the Burzahom and Gufral
Neolithic includes wheat, barley, lentil, birch, rice, common
Domestic buffalo + + pea, clover, alfa-alfa, corn Cromwell, cereals, pulses
Domestic sheep + + and wild oat. The Neolithic people of Kashmir
Wild sheep + + in the beginning only collected wild barley and
Domestic goat + + primitive wheat. Later on, they started cultivation
Wild goat + +
of wheat, barley and rice. Two verities of wheat
(Triticumsphearococum and Triticumcompactum)
Argali large Asiatic sheep + --
were identified at Burzahom. The emmer wheat
Rei deer + --
(Triticumdicoccum) are found at Kanispur Neolithic
Rat + --
levels. The dwart wheat (Triticumsphearococum)
Fowl + +
and emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccum) were wide
Indian hare + --
spread in the Harappan region. Only remains of
Mole rat + -- hulled barley was identified from Burzahom while
Rabbit + -- two verities of barley (hulled and naked) are reported
Cowire + -- from Harappan sites. A different verities of the wild
Water buffalo -- + rice and domesticated rice are also recovered from
Domestic dog + + Neolithic site of Kashmir. The presence of wild and
Bull dog -- +
Swamp deer -- + TABLE 10: COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE
Antalopes -- + PLANT HUSBANDRY
Wild cattle -- + Plants/fruits/crops/seeds Kashmir Neolithic Harappan
Onagers -- + Wheat + +
Domestic barley -- +
Wild big game -- +
Wild barley + --
Gazelle -- + Rice + +
Black duck -- + Wild Rice + --
Spotted deer -- + Common pea (matar) + --
Elephant -- + Clover + --
Alpa-alpa + --
Corn-cranwell + --
Cedrusdeodara + --
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE PLANT
Aesulusindia + --
HUSBANDRY
Pinus sp. + --
Juglansregia + --
Agriculture played a significant role in the Prunus + --
subsistence economy during the Neolithic period Cornuta + --
and Harappan period. The Kashmir valley and Pinuswallichiana + --
Indus-Sarasvati basin was very friendly for wheat, Indian jujube -- +
barley and rice cultivation and provided a solid Cherry sized fruits -- +
platform for surplus production. The perennial Dates -- +
Grapes -- +
water sources such as rivers and lakes and annual
Sugar -- +
floods offered rich alluvium deposits and also helped Honey + +
in the irrigation system. The botanical remains Pea + +
recovered from the sites revealed an extensive Beans + +
agricultural scheme involving a greater variety Pulses + +
of crops and plants. A large number of the plants Cotton seeds -- +
34 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

domestic rice and barley provided ample resources the Kashmir valley provided the opportunities for the
for the process of wild to domestication of crop beginning and development of the Neolithic culture
in Kashmir valley. The large quantity of botanical in the region. It is significant to note that the people
remains are found from Harappan civilization of Neolithic culture are permanently settled here and
includes hulled barley, naked barley, dwarf wheat, successfully developed the own tradition, custom
bread-wheat, rice, horse gram, green gram, lentil, and ritual faction. They people were established the
field pea, chick pea, grass-pea, sesame, garlic, date, successful trade network with contemporary cultures.
grape and mango etc. so we got the evidence of The different varieties of the Harappan material were
presence of same plants in both culture as showing recovered during the Neolithic period of Kashmir
in table 10. includes dish-on-stand, perforated jar, high-necked
jar, copper objects (antimony rod, harpoons, bangles,
ear and nose rings etc.), semi-precious stone objects
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE BURIAL (blades, carnelian and agate beads), terracotta objects
PRACTICES (bangles, beads and pendants) and steatite beads etc.
Hence, the main aim of this dissertation is to find
The burial practice of both cultures are showing
out the nature of trade network between Kashmir
the similarity in bared system. The extended body
Neolithic and Harappan civilization. The results of
position in burial are found in Kashmir Neolithic. The
the present study have revealed an interesting and
sometime, the lump of red ochre colour can be notice
an unexpected phenomenon and the same have been
in the graves. The copper bead, ceramic assemblages
discussed below in brief.
and stone vessels with human body are found during
the Neolithic culture in Kashmir. Similar practice The people of Kashmir Neolithic and Early
was followed by Harappans. On overall comparisons, Harappan culture (Hakra culture) was living in the pit
the basic long headed Burzahom crania resemble dwelling complexes. The excavations of both cultures
the Harappa Cemetery R-37 series more clearly. revealed a quite number of rectangular, oval and
The similarity is more expressed in head breadth, square shape pits and having different functions in
horizontal circumferences, sagittal transversal arc, nature such as dwelling, cooking, storage, industrial
orbital breadth, palatal breadth, length breadth and garbage etc. It was noticed that these dwelling
index and length auricular height index. In other pits had post-holes on their peripheries, suggesting
metric characters and indices the Burzahom female the presence of a superstructure made up of either of
measurements are well within the range of the female wood or grass covering over them. The presence of
measurements of the Harappa. (Sharma 2000:76) hearth, charred bones, ovens, charcoal, ash, ceramic
assemblage and stone tools are clearly indicative
CONCLUSION of the fact that these pits were used for residence
purpose. The range of diameter of dwelling pits of
The ecological conditions of the Kashmir valley Early Harappan culture is 2.3 to 3.4 meter and the
played a significant role in the origin and development largest pit of Kashmir Neolithic measured 2.74 meter
of settled life for earlier farming communities. The in diameter at the top and 4.57 meter at the bottom. In
region has a large concentration of alluvial deposit. addition, the mud brick and mud structures are also
The rivers and lakes might have played an important reported from Burzahom. Hence, a lot of similarity
role by providing both a high-quality agricultural in living structure can be notice between Kashmir
land and facilities of irrigation, in addition to the Neolithic and Early Harappan culture.
provision of different varieties of wild plants and
animals. The region was also an important resource The main characteristic feature of ceramic
area for many verities of metals, minerals. Hence, assemblages of Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan
Archaeological Study to Infer the Linkage in between Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan Civilization 35

civilization are totally different. A large number of to the Kashmir Neolithic people. A large number
ceramic assemblage of Kashmir Neolithic culture of the stone objects are reported from the Kashmir
is handmade while Harappan ceramic is well fired, Neolithic. The querns, pestles, pounders and cutting
made on wheel, sometime handmade. The mat tools are common in both cultures.
impressions are more popular in Neolithic culture
which is totally absent in the Harappan ceramic The Kashmir valley and Indus-Sarasvati
tradition. The simple red ware, burnished grey ware basin was very friendly for wheat, barley and
and burnished black ware was the more popular rice cultivation and provided a solid platform for
during the Neolithic culture. In addition, grey ware, surplus production. A large number of the plants
dull red ware, black on red ware, coarse grey ware, remain recovered from the Burzahom, Gufral and
buff ware and red gritty ware are another important Kanispur includes wheat, barley, lentil, birch, rice,
feature of ceramic assemblages of Kashmir Neolithic. common pea, clover, alfa-alfa, corn cromwell,
The Harappan ceramic assemblages comprise of cereals, pulses and wild oat. Three verities of wheat
red ware, dull red ware, red slip ware, black on red (Triticumsphearococum, Triticumcompactum and
ware, red gritty ware, grey ware, coarse grey ware Triticumdicoccum) were identified at the sites of
and buff ware. However, a globular pot with painting Neolithic. The dwart wheat (Triticumsphearococum)
of a horned deity found from Burzahom and it is and emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccum) were wide
very similar to specimens from Harappan site Kot- spread in the Harappan region. The remains of
hulled barley was identified from Burzahom which
Diji. A small number of black burnished ware are
is also reported from Harappan sites. The presence
reported from Bhirrana which is the main feature of
of wild and domestic rice and barley provided ample
Kashmir Neolithic. The presences of dish-on-stand,
resources for the process of wild to domestication of
perforated jar and high-necked jar in Kashmir valley
crop in Kashmir valley.
is highlight the ceramic contact between the Kashmir
Neolithic and Harappan civilization. The people of the Kashmir Neolithic and
Harappan civilization are involve in the both hunting-
The 886 carnelian and 87 agate beads are reported gathering and domestication. A large number of wild
from the Neolithic period of the Burzahom. Most of animals are reported during the Neolithic period
the beads are found in globular pot with painting of a includes wild sheep, wild boar, wolf, himalayan
horned deity. The same globular pot with horned deity ibex, nilgai, red deer, ret, hare, rabbit and wild
design is also reported from Kot-Diji. The shapes of urial. While the principle domesticated animals of
bead are quite similar to Harappan beads tradition. Harappan civilization are deer, antelopes, wild pig,
The steatite beads (barrel circular, cylinder circular nilgai, porcupine, wild boar, gazelle, chital, house
and concave bicone circular shaped) are found from rat and Indian hare. The cattle, dog, pig, Kashmir
Neolithic site of Kashmir. A large number of copper stag, humped cattle, buffalo, sheep and fowl are main
objects are reported during the Neolithic period such domesticated animals of Neolithic period. In addition,
as antimony rod, needles, harpoons, bangles, ear and the remains of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, dog and
nose rings, chisels, coil, bar celt and coil head etc. pig was identified during the Harappan civilization.
The manufacturing technology of copper become Hence, one can be seen a lot of similarity in
more and more common during the Harappan period. agricultural activities and animal husbandry between
The several crucibles of copper slag is indicative Kashmir Neolithic and Harappan civilization.
of producing of copper melting at Harappan sites.
Hence, the copper and semi-precious stone objects The burial practice of both cultures are showing
were more popular in Harappan region and it is the similarity in bared system. The extended body
more possible that Harappan people were supplied position in burial are found in Kashmir Neolithic.
the copper objects and semi-precious stone objects The sometime, the lump of red ochre colour can
36 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

be notice in the graves. The copper bead, ceramic REFERENCES

assemblages and stone vessels with human body
are found during the Neolithic culture in Kashmir. Agrawal, D. P., 2007, The Indus Civilization: An
Interdisciplinary Perspective, New Delhi: Aryan Books
Similar practice was followed by Harappans.
International.

Fonia: Burzahom excavation report, 1960-71.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Khatri, J. S and M. Acharya,1997, Kunal: The Earliest
A look into the material inventory recovered from Pre-Harappan Settlement, In facets of Indian Civilization
different phases at Harappan sites and Kashmir Recent Perspectives-Essay in Honor of B.B Lal (ed.) J.P.
Joshi, New Delhi: Aryan Books international.
Neolithic suggest the cultural contact between both
of cultures from the fourth millennium BC onwards. IAR: Archaeological A review, 1961-62; 1980-81.
The dish-on stand, perforated jar, carnelian bead,
agate bead, blades of semi-precious stones, copper Archaeological A review, 2004-05.
objects are clearly showing a long interaction Mani, B.R., 2000, Excavations at Kanispur: 1998-99
between Harappan and Neolithic cultures. The pits (District Baramulla Kashmir), Journal of Interdisciplinary
dwelling, post holes, mud brick structures, stone Studies in History and Archaeology 10.
pounders and mullers are common feature of these
culture. A Neolithic ring stone are also reported from Mani, B.R., 2006, Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan
Kunal. A lot of similarity also can be seen in the burial : A Linkage, Prgadhara 18.
parities, agricultural activities and animal husbandry. Sharma, A.K., 2000, Early Man in Jammu Kashmir and
Hence, there is no doubt, that both cultural was Ladakh, New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
contemporary and having the import and export trade
contacts. The information about Neolithic culture in Shinde, Vasant, P. B. S. Senger, Nilesh Jadhav, Aftab
Kashmir is based on excavations at the three sites, Hussain, Narender Parmar, Kanti Pawar, P. D. Sable and
Burzahom, Gufkral and Kanispur while there are a Nilanshu Kaushik, 2011-12, The Late Harappan Culture
at Karsola in the Ghaggar basin, Bulletin of Deccan
number of other Neolithic settlements in Kashmir
College Post Graduate and Reserach Institute.
valley which are still waiting to be excavated. After
these excavation, we can highlight the all cultural Mcintosh, J. R., 2008, The Ancient Indus Valley: New
aspects and trade contact of both cultures. Perspectives, California: ABCCLIO.
 ARCHAEOLOGY OF NĀTHA SAMPRADĀYA IN PUNE
DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA

VIJAY SARDE*

INTRODUCTION
The influence of the Nātha sampradāya on CE, which can often be referred to as the ‘Nātha
medieval Indian religious and social life can be seen tradition’ or ‘Prototype of Nātha sampradāya’.
throughout the Indian subcontinent. Several texts,
legends, sites, and folk tales related to the Nātha Siddhas, Yogīs and Saints such as Amara,
sampradāya are found all over India. The works and Gahiṇīnātha, Nivṛtti, Jñānadeva (Jñāneśvara),
lives of Matsyendra (Matsyendranātha) and Gorakṣa Cāṅgadeva, Visobā Khecara, etc. were directly or
(Gorakṣaṇātha), the leading gurus of the Nātha indirectly associated with the Nātha sampradāya.
sampradāya, have established a prominent place in Saint Jñānadeva, while narrating his Gurū-Śiṣya
the minds of Indians. tradition in the Jñāneśvarī (18.1750), mentioned
the names of Matsyendra, Cauraṅgī, Gorakṣa,
Medieval Maharashtra also witnessed several Gahiṇīnātha, and Nivṛtti with great admiration
religious activities of Siddhas and Nātha Yogīs. The (Dandekar 1953, 822). From an archaeological point
first use of asimilar term ‘Nātha Pantha’ for today’s of view, sites such as Jhodge, Mankeshvar, Beed,
Nātha sampradāya has been appeared in the early Aundha Nagnath, Sindkhed-Raja, and Panhale-Kaji
Marathi text Līlācaritra (1280 CE) (Līlācaritra, indicate that the presence of Siddhas and Yogīs of
verses 198 [purvardha], 169 & 475 [uttarardha], Nātha tradition was in its early stages in Maharashtra
12 [ajñāt līlā]). The various groups of Siddhas and by the beginning of the 12th century CE (Sarde
NāthaYogis began to form before the 13th century 2019: 24).

* School of Social Sciences, Punjyashlok Ahilyadevi Holkar, Solapur University, Solapur, Maharashtra-413255; E-mail:
[email protected]
38 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

The Pune district also has strong connections Nātha sampradāya. In ‘Jñāneśvarī’(6.1-497), Saint
to the tradition of Siddhas and Nātha-Yogīs, which Jñānadeva comments extensively about Kuṇḍalinī
is reflected through its archaeological and textual Yoga which was prevalent in the traditions of Nātha
sources. Until today’s date, there have been ample Yogīs.
attempts made to study the Nātha traditions and Nātha
There are several archeological pieces of
sampradāya of the Pune district from a historical
evidence that can see in Alandi. The temple of
point of view, but only a few attempts have taken
Siddheśvara (located in the Samādhi temple complex
an archaeological perspective. The present research
of Saint Jñāneśvara) is worshipped by Vārakaris and
paper mainly deals with several important and newly
Nātha Yogīs. In the 13th century CE, Alandi was
reported sites in the Pune district, which shows
famous as ‘Siddhabet’ (an island of the Siddhas)
some affiliation to the traditions and sampradāya
(Shri Namadevagātha 2008437). There are two
of the Nātha Yogis. A few textual references were
Samādhi temples of the Nātha Yogīs Kesarīnātha
also considered while analysing the archaeological
and Lakṣmaṇanātha within the Jñāneśvara Samādhi
evidence. This paper also highlights the significance
temple complex itself. Kesarīnātha was a disciple of
of the Nātha sites in understanding the religious
Nātha Yogī Udbodhanātha (17th - 18th century CE)
condition of the region. Several archaeological
of Paithan.
sites in the Pune district are associated directly or
indirectly with Nātha Yogīs and Nātha sampradāya,
which shows the spread and significance of the Bhuleśvara temple, Malshiras (18° 26ʹ 08.09ʺ N,
sampradāya during the medieval period. 74°14ʹ 28.26ʺ E)

The Bhuleśvara temple is situated about 60 km

SITES OF NĀTHA SAMPRADĀYA IN PUNE from Pune city and 10 km southwest of Yavat town,
DISTRICT on top of the Sinhagad-Bhuleshvar hill range. The
Śiva temple faces east and is situated within the hill
Pune district lies between 18° 31ʹ North latitude and
fort called ‘Daulat-Mangal’. The unique feature of
73° 51ʹ East longitude. The landscape of the district is
the temple is its rectangular enclosure. It consists
divided into three parts: Ghatmatha, Maval, and Desh.
of devakulikas—alternate cells with the recess
The district is surrounded by Thane district to the
windows having jālavātāyanas.
northwest, Raigad district to the west, Satara district
in the south, Solapur district in the southeast, and The seventy-two images of Siddhas or Yogīs
Ahmednagar district in the north, northeast, and east are depicted above the capitals of pillars and
directions (Fig. 1). Bhima, a tributary of the Krishna elsewhere in the temple. Some Yogīs are shown in
River, is a major river flowing through the district. various āsanas and mudrās, such as Padmāsana,
Ghod, Indrayani, Mula-Mutha, Pavana, Nira, etc. are Siddhāsana, and Siṁhakrānta mudrā. There is a rare
some other major rivers, which also flow through the sculpture in a ‘Dvipādaśirāsana’(also called Pāśinī
Pune district. The following sites related to Nātha mudrā), in which the Yogī has stuck both his legs
sampradāya can be mentioned in the district. behind his back. An image of Siddha Nāgārjuna is
depicted on one top of one of the pillars (Fig. 2). It is
shown with a four-hooded cobra and possibly some
Alandi (18° 40ʹ 36.78ʺ N, 73° 53ʹ 48.28ʺ E)
kind of medicinal plant in his left hand (Sarde 2019:
Saint Jñāneśvara Samādhi temple at Alandi is a 58). The costumes and the iconography of these
famous pilgrimage site of Maharashtra. The saint’s Yogīs are akin to the Siddhas and Nātha Yogīs found
elder brother Nivṛtti, who was himself a disciple elsewhere in Deccan, from which it can be deduced
of Gahiṇīnātha, initiated Saint Jñānadeva into the that these images are related to the Nātha tradition.
Archaeology of Nātha Sampradāya in Pune District of Maharashtra 39

Fig. 1: Map of Pune District

The Hanumāna temple, Malshiras (18°24ʹ 31.19ʺ Mausoleums of Kāniphanātha and other Nātha-
N, 74°14ʹ 03.02ʺ E) Yogīs of the late medieval period can be seen in the
premises of the temple.
Malshiras is located 49 km east of Pune city and
very close to the Bhuleśvara temple. There is around There is also a temple of ‘Bhekarāī Mātā’
hundred years old Hanumāna temple, which consists in Hadapsar. It seems that there could be a
of four pillars of c. 13th century CE. The pillars have possible association of the name of ‘Hadap-sar’
been reused in renovated work of the temple. In one with Jālandharanātha, as his alternative name is
of the pillars out of four at the centre in the rectangular ‘Haḍipā’. The shrines of Gurū-Śiṣya appear to be
frame is a panel depicting Kanha (Kāniphanātha) relatively close to each other in Nātha sampradāya.
and Yoginī Bahuḍī with their disciples. Therefore in the name Hadpa-sar, ‘Haḍipā’ can be
considered another name of ‘Jālandhara’ and the
meaning of ‘Sar’ could be considered as ‘lake’,
Kaniphnathgad, near Bopgaon (18° 23ʹ N 73° 57ʹ which means ‘lake of Jālandhara’. (There is also a
E) lake near Hadapsar, now known as Mastani Talav)
It is likely that the name ‘Hadapsar’ came from this
The temple of Kāniphanātha has located around 10 origin.
km from Hadapsar, a suburban area of Pune city.
40 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

The Nārāyaṇeśvara temple, Narayanpur (18°18ʹ guḍhamaṇḍapa, antarāla, and garbhagṛha. Śaiva
04.85ʺ N, 73°58ʹ 29.84ʺ E) dvārapāla, Nidhi, Ganga, and the Yamuna have been
carved on the door of the guḍhamaṇḍapa. Two Yogīs
The 13th century CE Nārāyaṇeśvara temple is are also carved on the stambhaśākhā of the door.
located at Narayanpur near Saswad city. There Cāmuṇḍā, Bhairava, Nṛvarāha, Vidāraṇa Narasiṁha,
are a few samādhis in the premises of the temple, Putravallabhā, few musicians, and a couple, are
most probably of the Nātha Yogīs. Inscriptions carved on both sides of the door of guḍhamaṇḍapa.
on the temple include the names of Yogīs “Cāṅgā Images of Nṛtya Gaṇeśa, Saptamatṛkāpaṭṭa, Kevala
Vaṭesvarācā”, “Cāṅgā Vaṭesvarācā ṣrīdhara jogī”, Śiva, Gajāsurasaṁhāra mūrti, Viśṇū, Māricavadha
“Acyantadha ja” (Dhere 2015: 122-123). mūrti, Kṛṣṇa with gopīs and cows, Nāga, and more
have also been observed on the pillars and the
There is a branch called ‘Dhajanāthī’, in the premises of the temple.
Nātha sampradāya. They are the worshippers of
Lord Hanumāna (Dvivedi 1950: 11). An attractive A panel of Kanha and Yoginī Bahuḍī has been
stray image of Hanumāna is placed in the premises depicted on the staṁbhamadhya portion of the first
of the temple. The presence of the image may left pillar and near the entrance of the hall. Kānha
indicate the influence of Dhajanāthī followers at is shown on the right side of the coconut tree and
Narayanpur. The mausoleums in the temple premises Yoginī Bahuḍī on the left side. Four coconuts are
would be of Nātha-Yogīs of Dhajanāthī or Vaṭeśvara shown on each side of the tree (Fig.3). A Devanāgarī
sampradāya, sub-branches of Nātha sampradāya. inscription is placed near the nandīmaṇḍapa.

Malegaon Budruk (18° 08’ 07.22’’ N; 74° 30’ 8.50’’

Temples at Pandare, Baramati tehsil (18° 08ʹ N;
E).
74° 27ʹ)
Malegaon Budruk is located at a distance of
The small village of Pandare is located 4 km
9 km from Baramati and 98 km from district
away from the Malegaon Budruk. The village has
headquarter Pune. There are three well-preserved
ample remains of c.14th-15th centuries temples,
temples in Malegaon Budruk, two of which date
inscriptions, hero stones, and loose sculptures. Eight
back to c.14th-15th centuries and are dedicated
temples of different deities are located in and around
to Śiva. The third temple belongs to Bhavani
the village. Most of the temples were renovated in the
Shankar (Raje Jadhavrao Devasthan) and is of
nineteenth century by local ascetics. Among these,
a later period. The first two temples are named
temples of Siddheśvara, Yamāī, Bhairavanātha,
respectively Kāśī Viśveśvara and Nāgeśvara. There
Ādaleśvara Śiva, and Soneśvara are noteworthy.
are some depictions of Yogīs on these temples.
The architectural and artistic features of these
Kāśī Viśveśvara temple is located in the centre
temples suggest 14th to 15th century construction.
of the village. It has several images of gods and
Siddheśvara temple has several depictions of Yogīs,
goddesses, including Yogīs, carved on its pillars. A
tantric images, gods, and goddesses. A Yogī in
squatted Yogī is also depicted on one of the front
squatted posture— with yogapaṭṭa and probably
pillars of the temple. Some loose images of Yogīs,
in jālandhara bandha—is also shown. A dargāh of
gods, and goddesses are also placed in the premises
Gaibi pīr is also located in the village suggesting
of the temple.
some connection of Nātha sampradāya to the
The Nāgeśvara temple is located outside of the village. There are so many temples and antiquities
village on the Baramati-Nira road. It is constructed scattered in and around the village that Pandare can
on a high plinth and consists of nandīmaṇḍapa, be considered a village of temples.
Archaeology of Nātha Sampradāya in Pune District of Maharashtra 41

The Someśvara temple at Pimpri-Dumala (18° Brahmanātha temple in Parunde village, 10 km

46’ 32.02” N; 74° 13’ 13.51” E) away from Junnar. Several types of āsanas— such
as Urdhvadhanurāsana, Garuḍāsana, Naukāsana,
Pimpri-Dumala is one of the important sites of Prasāritapādottānāsana, Gomukhāsana,
Nātha sampradāya in the Pune district. It is located Pādapaścimottānāsana, Anantāsana, Ardhamatsyen
54 km away from Pune city. The site contains rare drāsana, and Krouñcāsana are amongst the earliest
images of Nātha Yogīs such as Matsyendranātha,
representations of Yoga āsanas in Western India. A
Gorakṣanātha, Siddha Ghaṇṭāpā, and others. One of
Nātha monastery, a tradition of Navanātha jhuṇḍī
the Yogīs is shown with a half-bloomed lotus on his
and other Nātha centres of the surrounding region,
head. It is a symbolic representation of Kuṇḍalinī
yoga (Sarde 2014: 117-126). suggests an association of the Nātha sampradāya
with Parunde (Sarde & Dandekar 2015: 12).

Kendur (18° 46ʹ N; 74° 02ʹ E)

The Viṣṇu temple at Palasdev (18°14ʹ 56.26ʺ N,
Kendur is a village belonging to Kanhoba Pathak, 74° 52ʹ 45.00ʺ E)
a contemporary saint of Jñānadeva. There are
shrines of Vaṭasiddha Nāganātha, Matsyendranātha, The Viṣṇu temple is situated at Palasdev on the bank
Jālandharanātha, Kāniphanātha in and around the of River Bhima, about 21 km northwest of Indapur
village and turbats (mausoleums) of Nāth Yogīs (Gazetteer of Bombay state 1954, 626). The village
placed in the sanctums of the temples. The shrine was earlier known as Ratnapur. The subject matter of
of Vaṭasiddha Nāganātha is in the form of a dargāh. the images on this temple is dominated by narratives
There are also other tombs of Yogīs on the premises from Rāmāyaṇa depicted on the jaṅghā portion of
of the dargāh. Based on architectural style, it seems
the temple. The author has come across a panel of
that the shrines in Kendur date from the c. 17th -
Kanha and Bahuḍī Yoginī on the jaṅghā portion
18th centuries CE.
of the temple. The architectural style of the temple
dates it to the 14th century CE.
Ghorāḍeśvara caves, near Shelarwadi (18°41ʹ
32.67ʺ N, 73°42ʹ 14.54ʺ E)
Saswad (Purandar) (18° 20ʹ N 74° 01ʹ E)
Ghorāḍeśvara (Shelarwadi) is well known for its
late Thervāda rock-cut caves. The caves are situated Saswad is a religious site where a temple of the Yogī
approximately 10 km away from the southeast side Cāṅgadeva has been constructed. Saswad is also a
of Talegaon Dabhade. The followers of the Nātha Samādhi place of Sopānadeva, a younger brother of
sampradāya and Vārakarī sampradāya occupied Saint Jñānadeva. Yogavaśiṣṭhasāra, a text which is
the site in the medieval period. A loose image of attributed to Jñānadeva, is found at maṭha of Saswad
Bhairavanātha and pādukas made of stone are placed (Joshi 2020, 31). Saswad is also―stopping point of
in front of cave no. 3. A Nātha Yogī currently residing Navanātha Jhuṇḍī Yātrā (a troop of yogīs marching
here has the honour of worshipping Śivaliṅga at the from Trimbakeshvara to Kadali) and Vārī (an annual
site.
pilgrimage to the town of Pandharpur)of Vārakarīs.
Although the Sopānadeva Samādhi temple is an
The Brahmanātha temple at Parunde (19° 08ʹ important shrine for the Vārakarī sampradāya, it
24.77ʺ N, 73° 50ʹ 25.88ʺ E) is pertinent to consider it also in the context of the
Nātha sampradāya, as Nivṛtti initiated Sopāndeva
Sculptures of various āsanas and mudrās have into the Nātha tradition. The Nātha sampradāya is
been carved on the 13th century pillars of the also known as ‘Ādinātha sampradāya’ (Order of
42 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

the Primordial Śiva). The word ‘Ādinātha Pantha’ of the district are good examples of 14th-15th century
(Śaḍūschaḷa’ verse no.104)is noticed for the first temple construction activities. It seems that though
time in the Marathi text Śaḍūschaḷa’ (Ṣaṭsthala) the Bahamanis ruled the region, local Hindu rulers
written by Visobā Khecara in the late 13th and early and chieftains were patronizing the construction of
14th century C.E. It is said that the text ‘Ṣaṭasthala’ the temples.
was recovered from the Sopandeva Maṭha at Saswad
(Dhere 2015: 208-242). It is noticeable that many depictions of Yogīs
are seen on these temples, mostly associated with the
There is a ‘Naganātha’ cave, water cistern, and Nātha sampradāya. Such depictions of Siddhas and
sculptures of Nātha-Yogīs in Khandala Ghat, near Yogīs can be seen from the earliest of temples in the
Thakurvadi (18° 49ʹ 05.41ʺ N, 73°22ʹ13.64ʺ E). The region, for example, the temple of Bhuleśvara which
site is located on the Pune-Raigad district border in has depictions of several Siddhas (some of them
Raigad district and the caves and sculptures can be are shown in yogic postures). Around 72 Siddhas
traced back stylistically to the 15th - 18th centuries and Yogīs have been depicted on the Bhuleśvara
CE. temple and these particular depictions continued
to be reflected on other temples in the Pune district
Apart from the above-mentioned sites, several until the 15th century CE, as well as in the whole of
others belong to the Nātha sampradāya spread all Maharashtra. It shows their spread and development
over the Pune district, and are datable to the 14th - in that period.
18th centuries CE. There are temples of Siddheśvara
of c. 14th century CE at Naygaon, (about 8 km Historical and archaeological pieces of evidence
away from Malshiras) and at Rajgurunagar. Several show that Bhuleshvar, Alandi, Parunde, Pimpri-
temples related to Kānha are noticed in the valley of Dumala, Palasdev, Malshiras, Narayanpur, Malegaon
the Bhima River of this region. Sites, such as Tanu, Budruk, Pandare, Kendur, Kaniphnathgad, Vadapuri,
Bedshinge, Vadapuri, and Reda in Indapur tehsil in Ghoradeshvar were some significant Nātha sites of
the eastern part of the district, belong to the Nātha the Pune district. Siddheśvara temples at Naygaon,
sampradāya. These are all sites connected to the Rajgurunagar, and Baramati are also named after
famous Nātha centre of Sonari in Osmanabad district the Siddhas, the God of Siddhas. A few important
(Sarde 2017: 113-121). sites such as Harishchandragad in Ahmednagar
district, Phaltan in Satara district, and Naganātha
cave (Thakurwadi) in Raigad district, located on
DISCUSSION Pune district borders, are also associated with Nātha
sampradāya.
Based on the material evidence discussed above,
it seems that the tradition of Nātha-Yogīs has Ghoradeshvar is a Buddhist site—however,
enjoyed an uninterrupted presence in the Pune during the medieval period; it fell under the
district and the surrounding region from at least the Nātha Yogīs. Saint Tukaram, who meditated in
12th century CE. Especially during the Yadava and Ghoradeshvar, Bhamchandra, and the Bhandara
Bahamani periods, sampradāya of the Nātha-Yogīs hills where he would have encountered Nātha-Yogīs,
seem to have thrived in the region. It is also clear condemned the Kānaphaṭā jogīs (Nātha Yogīs) of
that traditional temple construction activities were the region in his abhaṅgas (Benare 1998: 643).
ongoing until at least the 15th century CE. Temples The depictions of Matsyendra, Gorakṣa, Kānha,
at Pimpri Dumala, Malegaon Budruk, Malegaon Siddha Nāgārjuna, a squatted Yogī, and other Siddhas
Khurd, Pandare, Loni Bhapkar, Wadapuri, Kalas, and Yogīs are depicted on temples of Pune district.
Bavada, Palasdev, Nirvangi, and many more temples An image of Matsyendra is carved on the temple of
Archaeology of Nātha Sampradāya in Pune District of Maharashtra 43

Someśvara at Pimpri-Dumala of Pune district (Sarde, popular from the beginning of the thirteenth century
2014:93). Recently, two more images of Matsyendra CE. The earliest depiction of this legend is reported
have been identified at Phaltan of Satara district. from the Jabareśvara temple at Phaltan on the Pune-
Satara district’s border area. The temple is assigned
Only one image of Gorakṣa is reported from the to the second half of the 13th century CE by scholars
Someśvara temple at Pimpri-Dumala in Pune district (Deglurkar 2019:43 ). The Kāniphanāth temples
until today. A rare image of Siddha Nāgārjuna is or shrines have been located at Kaniphnathgad
depicted on the Bhuleśvara temple. Recently, other at Bopgan, Manjari Budruk, Lonikand, Kendur,
depictions of Nāgārjuna have been identified in Dhayari, Pir-phata, Sanasvadi, Charholi Budruk,
Khaḍakeśvara temple at Jamkhed in the Jalna district Moshi, Pirangut, and Retavadi—all in the Pune
(Fig. 4) and in Mahādeva temple at Bhejgaon in the district.
Chandrapur district of Maharashtra.
Apart from these examples, the same panels
Typical depictions of a Yogī seated in a can be seen at Phaltan, Panhale Kaji, and Beed in
squatting posture have been observed all over Maharashtra (Sarde 2019: 31). Recently, a panel
the district, from Bhuleśvara temple, the Kāśī- of Kānha and Bahudi has also been found on a
Viśveśvara and Nāgeśvara temples at Malegaon loose pillar of the 13th century Bhākeśvara temple
Budruk, to the Mallikārjuna temple at Loni Bhapkar at Navagan Rajuri, about 10 km away from Beed
and Siddheśvara temple at Pandare as well as many city (Fig. 7). An image of an ascetic with ḍamaru
more temples of Maharashtra (Fig.5). Identification is depicted on the uttarāṅga of the 13th century
of this particular style of Yogī is sometimes tricky. Siddheśvara temple at Shirur Kasar in Beed district.
However, the figure is always shown in a squatting Kānha is always shown with ḍamaru. A shrine
posture and tied with yogapaṭṭa around the knees. named Kaniphnathgad is also near the Shirur Kasar.
His chin always touches his chest. This type of Therefore, the image of Yogī on Siddheśvara temple
posture is known as Jālandhara bandha. Because of may be of Kānha.
the name Jālandhara of the bandha, this particular
Yogī could be Jālandhara, a gurū of Kānha. Here we In addition to Kānha, Cāṅgā Vaṭesvara was also
can view several sculptures and sites associated with popular in the region. It is well known that Yogī
Kānha also have been noticed in the Pune district. Cāṅgadeva was a disciple of Yoginī Muktāī and
The earliest depiction of a squatting Yogī is noticed Muktāī herself was a disciple of Gorakṣa. A list of
from the Ambaranātha temple at Ambarnath near Siddhas is given in the text ‘Tattvasāra’, which was
Mumbai of 1061 CE (Fig. 6). written by Cāṅgadeva on Harishchandragad in Śake
1234 (1317 CE) (Dhere 2015: 96). Several rock-
It seems that Kānha, or the sampradāya cut caves at Harishchandragad have been engraved
associated with him, was quite popular in this with names of Nātha Yogīs (Kolte 1971: 65-77). The
region. It is said that Kānha belonged to the Kāpālika graffiti at Harishchandragad and Narayanpur give
sampradāya. In a later period, the sampradāya information about the Nāth Yogīs ‘Śridhara Jogī’ and
merged with Nātha sampradāya (Dvivedi 1950: ‘Vikaṭadeva’, who lived in the region in the early
210). The legend of Kānha and Yoginī Bahuḍī period of Nātha sampradāya. There is also an 18th
is depicted in panels on the Hanumāna temple century Maratha period temple called ‘Cāṅgadeva’
at Malshiras, the Viśṇū temple at Palasdev, and near Saswad. The legend about Cāṅgadeva’s visit
Nāgeśvara temple at Malegaon Budruk. It shows the to Alandi and meeting Jñānadeva and his siblings is
popularity of the legend in the region. The earliest well known. Kendur is also an important site, where
textual reference of the legend is given in the 13th we can see the temple of Vaṭeśvara. The temple
century Līlācaritra. It seems that the legend has been of Vaṭeśvara, built at the end of the 13th century
44 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

at Velapur in Solapur district, maybe the famous several yogic postures of Haṭhayoga. Both the sites
centre of the Cāṅgadeva related sampradāya, most can be assigned to the 13th century CE on grounds
probably Vaṭeśvara sampradāya. Overall, it seems of their art and architectural style.
that Cāṅgadeva was popular in the Pune region in
and around the 13th-14th centuries CE. In addition, According to the legend of Kānha and Yoginī
the existence of the Dhajanāthī sampradāya is also Bahuḍī given in the Līlācaritra, it is easy to see
evident in this region. The name of Acyantadhaja that they both were engaged in some kind of sexual
Jogī has been inscribed on the Narāyaṇeśvara temple discipline—most probably the practice of Vajrolī
at Narayanpur. mudrā. Sculptural depictions of Kānha and Yoginī
Bahuḍī indirectly indicate the presence of the practice
Practices of Haṭhayoga were well known in this of Vajrolī mudrā in the region. Several references
region at least since the 12th and 13th centuries, as is of Vajrolī, Amarolī Siddholī, and Divyolī are also
evident from the sites such as Bhuleshvara, Parunde, given in Līlācaritra (Līlācaritra, 475 Uttarārdha).
Pimpri-Dumala, and Alandi. Saint Jñānadeva of A squatted Yogī depicted on various temples which
Alandi describes the practice of Kuṇḍalinī in detail, is likely the practice of Jālandhara bandha has
which is an important practice for achieving siddhi. already been mentioned in the discussion above. All
In Pimpri-Dumala we can see the sculptural depiction this textual and archaeological evidence shows that
of the awakening of Kuṇḍalinī. A sculpture with a practices of Haṭhayoga were popular in the region.
half-bloomed lotus is shown on the head of one of
the Yogī on Someśvara temple at Pimpri-Dumala. A Navanātha Jhuṇḍī is organized from Nashik-
Kuṇḍalinī is also considered a coiled serpent and Trimbakeshvar to Kadari near Mangalore in coastal
is possibly shown as such on several temples of Karnataka every twelve years during Kumbha Melā
Maharashtra. Such depictions have also been noticed in Nātha sampradāya. Hundreds of Nātha-Yogīs
in the Pune district and surrounding region. It could take part in this pilgrimage. As this Jhuṇḍī (troupe)
be a symbolic depiction of the Kuṇḍalinī practice. passes through the Pune district, Nāth’s stops have
In these depictions, a serpent is always shown in been fixed at various places over the years. Their
a coiled posture and his tail maybe represents the traditional maṭhas have also been established at
Mulādhāra cakra. Both the Nāgeśvara temple at these places. Ale Phata, Alandi, Pune city, Saswad,
Malegaon Budruk and Bhairavanātha temple at Narayanpur are the traditional stops of the Navanātha
Pandare have such types of depictions. Other such Jhuṇḍī Yātrā. The temples of Bhairavanātha can
depictions can be seen at Jabareśvara, Mānakeśvara, also be seen in almost every village of Pune district,
Datta, and Mahākāleśvara temples at Phaltan which is likely to have been established under the
(Fig. 8). Tattvasāra of Cāṅgadeva also one of the influence of Nātha sampradāya.
important text mentions the practices of Haṭhayoga.
It gives the several references of Pavanābhyāsu The activities of the Nātha sampradāya were
(Prāṇāyāma), bandhas, mudrā and other practices of also prevalent in the region, even after the 15th
Haṭhayoga (Tattvasāra, 643-664 ). century CE, as is evident from the abundant
manuscripts, textual references, maṭhas, and
Several āsanas and other Haṭhayoga practices archaeological sites. Nātha sites such as Vadapuri,
have been depicted on the Brahmanātha temple at Kaniphnathgad, Parunde, Alandi, and Dudulgaon
Parunde in Junnar tehsil. These depictions show continue to draw thousands of devotees each year.
the great tradition of Haṭhayoga practices in the Some of the century-old maṭhas, such as at Goraksh
medieval Pune region as well as in Western India. Tekdi (near Manchar), Alandi, Kedgaon, and
Another example is of Mahuḍī gate at Dabhoi in the Bhairav-Nala (Pune city) are run by Nāth Yogīs.
Vadodara district of Gujarat, where we can see the Nighoje in Khed (Rajgurunagar) tehsil is the village
Archaeology of Nātha Sampradāya in Pune District of Maharashtra 45

of locally famous Nātha-Yogī Ādinātha Bhairava, Dhere, R. C., 2010, Nātha Sampradāyācā Itihās, Pune:
who wrote one of the important texts, Nāthalīlāmṛta Padmagandha Prakashan.
in 1834 CE (Dhere 2010: 240). Dhere, R. C., 2015, Śrīparvatācyā Chhāyet, Pune:
Padmagandha Prakashan.
The Nātha sampradāya continues to be
prominent in everyday social life. People celebrate Dvivedi, Hajariprasad, 1950, Nātha sampradāya,
the festivals of the Navanāthas, especially of Allahabad: Hindusthan Academy. Fergusson, J. and
Kāniphanātha. Some devotees from the Pune Burgess, J., 1880, The cave temples of India, London.
district, scattered all over Maharashtra, are involved Gazetteer of Bombay State 1954. Poona District.
in the business of sugarcane juice centres. Most of Bombay: Printed at the Government Central Press, 626.
the cities in Maharashtra have such juice centres,
Joshi, M. R., 2020, Nātha Sampradāya, Pune: Aprant.
which are named after the Nātha Yogī Kāniphanātha
(Kānha). Kolte, V. B., 1971, Hariśacandragadāvaril Śilālekh,
Vārṣik Vidarbh Sanśodhak Maṇḍal, Nagpur.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Kolte, V.B., 1978, Līḷācaritra (ed.) (In Marathi), Mumbai:

Maharashtra Rājya Sāhitya āni Sanskṛtī Maṇḍal.
I owe my sincere thanks to Deepak Kumar, Manish
Maheshwari and Aruna Mudaliyar for their support and Sarde, Vijay, 2014, Nath-Siddhas Sculptures on the
valuable suggestions. Someshwara Temple at Pimpri-Dumala in Pune District,
Maharashtra’ Bulletin of theDeccan College 74: 117-
126.
REFERENCES
Sarde, V. & Dandekar, A., 2015, Archaeological Signatures
Benare, G.G., 1998, Sārtha Tukārāmācī Gāthā (ed.), of the Nāth Cult: A study of the Yogic postures and Rituals
Pune: Sharada Sahitya. Depicted on the Brahmanath Temple at Parunde, District
Pune. Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in
Bhatt, P.G., 1975, Studies in Tuḷuva History and Culture, Archaeology 3:232-254.
Manipal: Manipal Power Press.
Sarde, Vijay, 2017, Archaeology of the Nāth Cult:
Cāṅgadeva Vaṭeśvarakṛta ‘Tattvasāra’,(In Marathi), Evidence from Recent Explorations in Pune District’,
Divekar H. R. (Editor), Ujjain: Prachya Grantha In the proceedings of the Workshop on ‘Explorations
Sangrahalaya. 1936. in Maharashtra, University of Mumbai, Mumbai: India
Study Centre Trust. Pp.113-121.
Dandekar, S. V., 1953, Sārth Jñāneśvarī, Pune: Prasad
Prakashan. Sarde, Vijay, 2019, Archaeological Investigations of
the Nāth Sampradaya in Maharashtra (C.12th to 15th
Deglurkar, G. B., 2019,Temple Architecture, and century CE)’, Pune: Unpublished thesis submitted to the
Sculptures of Maharashtra, Pune: Aparant. DeccanCollege PGRI.

Dhere, R.C., 1975, Ṣaṭsthala: ek Adhyayan, Pune: Śrī Nāmadeva Gāthā (In Marathi),ed. Maharashtra Rājya
Unpublished thesis submitted to the University of Pune. Sāhitya āni Sanskṛtī Maṇḍal Mumbai: 2008.
 EXCAVATING A BRICK-BUILT WHARF AT PAKKAKOT:
AN UNIQUE EVIDENCE OF EXISTENCE OF RIVERINE
NAVIGATION IN EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD

SITA RAM DUBEY* AND SANTOSH KUMAR SINGH**

A mong the pancha-bhuta (five gross elements)

water has its own importance. Water is of
primary necessity in the daily life of human beings.
and Junagadh inscription of Rudradamana can be
termed as important examples of such practice. The
first describes how Kharavel enables the Tanasulivata
In the early days when human had not conquered the Channels built during the year of king Nandas to
nature, rivers and lakes were the important source to enter the city, where as Rudradaman’s Junagrah
fulfill the requirements of water. Hence the early man inscription gives information about the construction
settled in the vicinity of rivers and lakes. Confronting of Sudarshana lake (by Vaishya Pushyagupta under
the challenges which would emerge in the course of Chandragupta Maurya)with the help of building
the development of any civilization man made canal dams on the rivers like Suvarnasikta, Palashini and
a mode of transportation. In the inaccessible dense how under Ashoka’s tutelage Yavanraja Tushasp
forests instead of making roads water ways made the built channels from it. There are many references
transportation easier. Gradually through boats and beginning from Rig-Veda to the Jatakas which talk
of Transportation and also trade and commerce with
ships goods too began to be imported and exported.
the help of boat or ships. On the coins of Satavahana
Along with economic prosperity many capable
kings Vashisthi putra Pulmavi and Yajna Shri
kings, for the convenience of urban dwellers,
Satkarni evidences to such activities are indicated.
built lakes by constructing dams on the rivers and
transported water to the city through a network of The ancient settlement of Pakkākot (Lat
channels. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela 25 45’10” N, Long. 84o0’30”E) is located on the
o

*
Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, 221005
**
Asstt. Professor, Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, Devendra P.G. College, Ballia, U.P., E-mail:
[email protected]
48 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

ancient bed of ChhotiSaryu (Tons) river in Ballia period, from Pakkakot site of Ballia district in Middle
district of eastern Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1&2).This Ganga plain acquires great importance. It appears
site was excavated in 2010-11(Dubey, etal. 2012), that in the initial stages of urbanization of Pakkakot,
2011-12, 2012-13, 2014-15 and 2015-16 (Dubey to safeguard the fort / citadel the moat surrounding
and Singh, 2014: 72-86, 2015:204-211, 2017:10-34, it was filled by artificial canals which connected it
2017:31-40 and 2018:73-87).by the Department of with the Budhi River flowing north of Pakkakot.
Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Continuing the earlier tradition this canal might have
Banaras Hindu University. The site is extended in a proved to be an appropriate source of drinking water
wide area, about 2 km square and located on at least for the convenience of well to do lifestyle of urban
four different mounds (1-4) at Pakkākot. dwellers as well. The boats used for transporting
the import-export of good began to anchor at the
During excavation, we tried to ascertain the
entrance and during the age of prosperity a wharf
behavior of the river Chhoti Saryu which had played
made of bricks was constructed at the entrance gate.
a vital role in the life of the inhabitants of Pakkākot
The present research paper endeavors to propound
during different periods. On account of erosion by
evidence based study of this wharf at Pakkakot.
the river, the inhabitants were forced to settle at safer
places in different periods. Such a pattern is indicated Excavations during three field seasons of 2010-
by the flood deposits in the sections of the trenches 11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 have revealed rich cultural
excavated by us. In the later period the inhabitants remains beginning from about the fourth millennium
constructed fortification wall and watch towers for B.C and the habitation continues, without desertion,
the security against river erosion. almost up-to the medieval times. A contributory
The limited excavations on mounds 1-4 has factor of its continuous existence could be traced
brought to light a six-fold cultural sequence ranging to its nearness to the river source, where water was
in approximately from 5000 BC to 15th century available which sustained the habitation to a large
AD without any break in its continuity. All the six extent. Some interesting inferences could be drawn
periods were characterized by their typical ceramic from excavations. During different periods of its
industry and other antiquities. The features of these existence, the riverine activity did play a significant
periods are described below: role on the catchment basin, corresponding that
recourse was taken to shift the area of occupation to
TABLE 1 a safer distance away from the margin of the river.
Periods Settlements Approximate Dates This is observed by the evidence of flood deposits
I Neolithic 5000 BCE -2000 BCE in the sections in varying cultural periods. Perhaps
II Chalcolithic 2000 BCE -900 BCE during the Early Historical Period, the settlement is
III Northern Black 900BCE-200 BCE
well planned by the building of a fort wall, gate and
Polished Ware
III-A NBPW 900BCE-600 BCE other accessories, that in a way, the river margin was
III-B NBPW 600BCE-450 BCE contained and channelized to the advantage of the
III-C NBPW 450BCE-200 BCE inhabitants.
IV Śuṅga-Kuṣāṇa 200 BCE - 300 CE
V Gupta and Post- Gupta 300 CE - 700 CE This apart, the geophysical features of the
VI Early Medieval - 700 CE- 1500 CE settlement do testify to the ingenuity of the settlers
Medieval Periods to adjust to the environment and domesticate the
Remains of wharfs are discovered form the river to the best advantage for their utility. This
excavations at Pattanam, Kaveripattanam and reasoning gets strengthened by the fact that the
Nagarjunikonda (Fig. 3). In this context the discovery settlement was within the ambit of two riverine
of a wharf, built of bricks belonging to the Mauryan margins of river Chhoti Saryu flowing on the south
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 49

and the Buddhi River running north and both join major contributory factor which finds support in
together some distance away at Chitabadagaon. an unique structural feature that has been exposed
A notable feature which needs to be emphasized, at PakkaKot. This could be identified as an inland
during the early historic i.e., NBPW period, is that landing facility, perhaps the building of a wharf,
the river Chhoti Saryu was flowing past the ancient a device that possibly indicates the existence of
settlement. The perennial nature of the river is a riverine navigation (Fig. 4 & 5).

Fig. 1: Location of Pakkākot

Fig. 2: Contour Plan of Pakkākot

50 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 3: Wharfs discovered in ancient India

Fig. 4: Warf Plan of Pakkākot

Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 51

In the late level of NBPW phase, there has been As mentioned above from the trenches in
a significant improvement in structural planning and the vicinity of wharf are found anchors, clamps,
increasing use of burnt bricks for building houses in seal and sealing, needles and antiquities made of
an orderly manner. This period is also marked by some precious and semi precious stones. Among these
conscious efforts on the part of the people to unite for anchors, clamps and wharf being found together is
the general welfare. It is clearly indicated by attempts well a known fact.
being mode for managing the entire output for the
society as a whole. Further some major improvements The sealings representing the period from
have been taking place in the fields of agriculture, Maurya to Kushana are of three types.
development of craft and technology in stone, metal,
bone and marine shell. This resulted in increasing i) String marked sealings.
connectivity from one place to the other for exchange ii) Identity card of state and.
of both raw material and finished products and in fact
the whole range of merchandise. The perennial river iii) Religious.
afforded easy movement that boosted the trade traffic.
On the basis of first two types of sealings
Excavations revealed a huge brick-built structure presence of a ware house and check post in the
near the entrance gate on the north measuring about nearby can be inferred. The first type of string marked
20m or so. A buttress was also built in support in sealings indicate that this warehouse must have
order to prevent any damage or the recurring rise of stored the packets of imported goods. Similarly the
water eroding the lower brick courses. The size of goods meant for export must have been transported
the bricks used measure 52x26x12 cm comparable from the city and stored in this warehouse before
to the typical Mauryan bricks. A little away facing being loaded on the boats to their destinations. The
the defense wall was built a series of brick structures fact that a needle is found from this place indicate
of at least three walls running in line almost in that it must have been used for opening as well as
parallel with a gap of 46cm in between them. The sewing the bundles. The sealings with the legends of
building was quite solid with 23 courses of bricks Dhanadeva, Vishakhadeva, Bhadrasena (the rulers
(Dubey, et al, 2012-13: 138). The functional utility of Ayodhya etc.) can be taken as royal insignia. It is
could be connected to the regulated entry situated possible that such types of sealings must have acted
near ferry or landing point and also to check the as a passport for entering or moving out of the city.
incoming and outgoing goods in proper order. It The religious importance of sealings depicting axe
is quite interesting to mention, about six dozen based Taurins, Taurins, tree in railing and bearing
terracotta (Dubey and Singh 2015: 79-90).seals legends like Shivasa or is well established. Similarly
and sealings were recovered from the next trench wharf, river banks being used for accomplishing
fort behind it between this ‘entry’ and the main fort religious activities has its own ancient tradition. In
gate entrance. Anchor, clamp, needle and other semi this context from the nearby trenches are found the
precious artifacts are also recovered from the same potsherds of dishes, big frying pans and clay pots
trench. The combined situation of the connected used for cooking. These potsherds are extremely
structures could reasonably be argued for a built-in attractive and strong and their typology/ manufacture
wharf on the river front. It is a new evidence perhaps type is indicative of the fact that they were part of a
identified for the first time in the region. ceramic tradition dedicated to community feeding
houses (hotels). On the basis of such finds presence
The built-in remains further could not be traced of community feeding houses near the wharf can be
as the subsequent occupation resulted in removal of inferred. Taking into account the requirements of
that little which might have been existing. boatmen and those persons who were involved in
52 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

trade and commerce (traders) it appears to be quite a canoe, bollards and an adjacent commercial ware
natural as well. house area. The wharf was found in the northeastern
boundary of the site close to a water logged deposit.
A similar built in ferry has also been recorded The part of the wharf that could be excavated was a
and properly assessed from the excavations carried huge structure (+6m in length and 7.3m in width),
at the ancient port town of Kaveripattinam (Dubey, made of a mixture of laterite granules and had a
et al, 2012-13: 142). At the nearby village at Kilayur, nineteen course outer brick lining. The waterlogged
200m away north of river Kaveri was traced a wharf area adjacent to the brick-lining had a dugout canoe
platform of 18x28x7.62m. The structural remains made of single log of Anjili wood (Fig. 10&11).
comprised a provision for berthing boats. The brick (Bhatt 2007). The intact portion of the highly
platform or quay was having a channel of basal decayed canoe measures ca 6m in length and 30 cm
courses flanked by high platform or pier. It has a in breadth and the AMS dates put the C14 calibration
height of 1.71m. The channel was intended to cut age range from 1300 to 100 BCE (i.e.700± 600
the impact of the breakers by allowing water to flow cal. BCE with 95.4% probability) (Cherian, et al.
through the channel gap (Fig. 6&7). Further a series 2009:236-40). The AMS dates for the teak bollard
of four strong poles in each line (Fig. 8&9) of 15cm sample puts the C14 calibrated age range from 1100
dia was driven in, and a plank prepared, so that, it BCE to 1300 CE (i.e. 100± 1200 cal. CE with 95.4%
may serve as a boat jetty for loading and unloading probability) (Cherian, et al. 2009:236-40). The layer
of merchandise. So far as the chronology (Rajan, below the canoe had amphorae, rouletted ware, TGP
1994:.25-26) and dating is concerned the poles and other ceramics, as a floor for the water-logged
were determined yielding C14 dates approximately area of the wharf.
between 300 B.C, 200B.C. These were associated
with Black and Red Ware pottery of the Period The chronology of the Pattanam site spans
I of the site to which the poles belong, when the across three millennia: the story beginning with
urn-burial practicing communities were living in the Iron Age habitation, with the commercial peak
the locality. It may be added in the next period the between 1st c BCE and 5th c CE and life going on
brick-built wharf has been provided, the culture of with its inbuilt continuities and are continuities. High
that period is broadly datable to the first century B.C. precision Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)
and first century A.D., interlocking with the advent Carbon14 (C14) dating on the charcoal samples
of the Rouletted ware using phase and after the pole from the aeolian sandy layers at depths varying from
built wharf stage. The black and red ware was also 340 cm to 370 cm confirm that native settlement had
available in this stage. begun at Pattanam in the Iron Age phase (around
1000 BCE) (Cherian, et al. 2009:236-40).
Pattanam (N. Lat. 10° 09.434’; E Long 76°
12.587’) is a densely populated hamlet in the Excavations at Nagarjunakonda has revealed
Vadakkekkara revenue village in Paravur taluk evidence of most elaborate type on the river Krishna,
of Ernakulam District in Kerala, India.The site is the entire establishment of Buddhist and Brahmanical
located in the delta of the river Periyar about 25 km affiliations built in the large valley known as
north of Ernakulam/Kochi. About one km south of Vijayapuri (Rajan 1994:.25-26). The river zone has
the site flows the Paravur Todu, a tributary of the revealed very interesting structures all of which
river Periyar which is about six km to the north of planned elaborately keeping in view the growing
Pattanam. traffic on the river and also catering to various needs of
the inhabitants’. A massive heavy brick embankment
The wharf context is the most striking structural was built along considerable distance with a special
feature at Pattanam. It is situated next to a port, with u-shaped dock-like recession to the south (Fig. 12).
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 53

Further an elaborate stepped and balustrated ghat was From the analysis of excavated materials it becomes
also built leading to the river front. Perhaps this was a obvious that Pakkākot was a place which had all
specially built structure and was used by the Royalty such facilities.
as the palace was built above in a compact zone along
with a temple. These riverine structures were used The presence of not only ware house and check
not only for navigational purposes, but the ghats also post but also community hotel and shops can easily
served as places for religious ablutions and ritualistic be inferred. Perhaps these were the factors that led to
functions of an elaborate nature. (I.A.R 1955-56:23, the economic prosperity and commercial excellence
25-26) The entire complex was the handi- work of of this place. Tracing its development from Neolithic
Ikshvakus who ruled in this region during the end of age, by the time of Mauryan and Shaka-Kushana
the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. period, this site had become a distinguished city of
the Middle Ganga Plain boasting all the facilities.
The emergence of riverine transport could be
natural and the evidence has relevance to assess further,
but it requires more positive data. One aspect has to be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
emphasized that water flowing throughout the year in
the river and merging with the main river Ganga leads The authors are grateful to the Director General,
support to the prevalence of the navigation mainly Archaeological Survey of India for granting permission
for movement of goods and materials. This is quite to conduct archaeological excavations at Pakkākot as
reasonable, but the question arises, as to its existence also for giving a generous financial assistance for this
and how much earlier it goes. purpose. Academic help and suggestion was provided
by a number of scholars .To Dr. C. Margabandhu, Ex.
As a matter of fact the movement of trade traffic Director, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi and
emerging in the Early Historic Period in the region Prof. M.D.N. Sahi, University of Aligarh, our sincere
has some relevance regarding the economic activity thanks are due for providing use reprints of this papers
that needs to be considered in detail. It is found that published in inaccessible journals. We are also grateful
on the other side was the famous ancient site Buxar Dr. D. K. Ojha for critically evaluating the content of the
and possibility of the river being used for navigation paper and providing some suggestions for improvements.
Our thanks are also due to the technical staff of the
is supported by a major ferry situated a little distance
Department, Mr. Ram Badan Ram (Surveyor), Mr. Arun
ahead. The present knowledge on the existence of
Kumar Pandey and Mr. Shiva Kumar (Draughtsmen), Mr.
the use of the river for navigation is an aspect to
Barun Kumar Sinha (Photographer) and Mr. Shiv Shankar
examine and the evidence at Pakkakot is a major Prajapati (Surveyor) who have helped us in preparing the
proof that requires further discussion. illustrations contained in the report.

CONCLUSION REFERENCES
As it is clear from the study of wharfs found at Bhatt, KV, 2007, Test Report of the Wood Samples from
Nagarjunakonda, Kaveripattanam and Pattanam that Pattanam, Trivandrum: Kerala Council for Historical
wharfs were used for varied purposes like import- Research, (hereafter KCHR).
export of goods, to undertake other related economic
activities and to perform religious rituals. In these Cherian, P. J. et. al., 2009, Pattanam Excavations: Interim
contexts it can easily be imagined that such facilities Reports, 2009, Trivandrum: KCHR.
might have been used for controlling the import- Dubey, S.R., et. al., 2012, Pakkākot: Some New
export activities, supervise those who are coming Archaeological Dimensions of Mid-Ganga plain, Delhi:
in and going out and providing food to the traders. Rishi Publication.
54 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Dubey, S.R., et. al., 2013, A Preliminary Report of the of Prof. D. N. Tripathi, B.R. Mani, et al. (Editor) Delhi:
Excavations at Pakkākot (2010-2012), Ballia District, Agam Kala Prakashan.
Utter Pradesh, Man and Environment Vol. XXXVIII, No
Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, 2017, Excavation- Data
I.
(2014-15) of Pakkākot: A Study, Bharati No. 40, Journal
Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, 2014, Pakkākot Excavations: of the Department of AIHC and Archaeology, B.H.U.
Interim Reports- 2013-2014, Bharati, Vol. 38, Journal of 2017.
the Department of AIHC and Archaeology, B.H.U. Dubey, S.R. and S. K. Singh, 2017, The ancient Fort of
Pakkākot; New Excavations and Researches, 2015-16,
Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, Bharat Men Nokaghat Ki
ICON -Journal of Archaeology and Culture, Vol. IV.
Parampara: Pakkākot Ke Sandarbha Men, Pura-Pravaha
I. Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, 2018, Pakkākot: An
Example of Interrelation Between Trade-Commerce and
Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, 2015, Emergence of Cities in Urbanization in the Middle Ganga Plain, B. R. Mani et
the Middle Ganga Plain In the Light of Newly Discovered al.(Editor) Felicitating A Legendary Archaeologist Prof.
Urban Settlement of Pakkākot, District Ballia, Jaipur: B. B. Lal, Dr. Vol. III, Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.
Museological Approaches Literary Circle.
Soundara, Rajan, 1994, Kaveripattinam Excavations,
Dubey, S.R and S. K. Singh, 2016, Pakkākot: Transition 1963-73, (A port city on the Tamil Nadu coast), New
From Rural To Urban Settlement: An Archaeological Delhi: Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, 90
Study, Archaeology and Tradition, Felicitation volume Indian Archaeology-A Review, 1955-56 and1956-57.
 dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe’kZ

c``ts'k jkor

lkekU; ifjp;

dEcksfM;k dk bfrgkl] eè;&,f'k;k vkSj lqnwj&iwoZ ¼phu] ds ekxZ ij Hkh vxzlkfjr fd;kA ckS)ksa ds vfrfjDr 'kSo]
tkiku vkSj dksfj;k½ ds leku nf{k.k&iwohZ ,f'k;k Hkh Hkkjr oS".ko vkfn èkeksZa ds izpkjd Hkh bu ns'kksa esa x;s vkSj ogk¡ ds
ds lkaLd`frd lkezkT; dk egRoiw.kZ {ks= FkkA Hkkjr ds iwoZ fuokfl;ksa dks vius èkeZ dk vuq;k;h cuk;k] fdUrq Hkkjrh;
fn'kk esa cekZ] eysf'k;k] b.Mksusf'k;k] fl;ke] dEcksfM;k] dsoy èkeZ izpkj ds iz;kstu ls gh ogk¡ ugh x;s] cfYd
ykvksl] fo,ruke vkSj fQfyihal ds jkT;] ftuesa u dsoy mUgksaus ogk¡ cgqr ls mifuos'k Hkh cuk;sA tgka ,d gtkj
Hkkjr ds èkeZ izpkjd 'kSo] oS".ko] ckS) vkfn èkeksZa dk izpkj ls Hkh vfèkd o"kksZa rd Hkkjrh; laLd`fr Qyrh&Qwyrh jgh
djus ds fy, x,] cfYd vfèkdka'k ns'kkas esa mifuos'k Hkh gSA ;gka izkphu Hkkjrh; jktkvksa ds vfHkys[k cgqrk;r ek=k
LFkkfir fd;sA bu ns'kksa ds lkFk izkphu Hkkjr dks O;kikfjd esa feyrs gSa vkSj reke iqjkrkfRod vo'ks"k tSls Lrwi] ewfrZ]
lEcUèk cgqr iqjkuk FkkA rhljh 'krkCnh bZ0iw0 esa ekS;Z 'kkld pSR;] fogkj] eafnj vkfn fon~eku gSa] ftuls ogka Hkkjrh;
lezkV v'kksd us ckS) èkeZ }kjk vU; ns'kksa dks thrus dh laLd`fr dk i`Fkd vfLrRo fn[krk gSA
uhfr viuk;h vkSj ckS) xq: mixqIr ¼eqXxfyiqRrfrL;½ ds
usr`Ro esa ckS)ksa dh rhljh ckS) laxhfr esa fons'kks esa izpkjd iqjko'ks"k ds vUrxZr vfHkys[k] Lekjd] ewfrZ;ka] flDds]
e.M+y Hkstus dk vk;kstu fd;k] rks Hkkjr ls iwoZ dh vksj Hkou] e`n~Hkk.M+] midj.k] èkkrq] ,oa vU; og oLrq,sa vkrh
ds bu izns'kksa es Hkh ckS) fHk{kq izpkj ds fy, x,A bl le; gSa] tks vrhr esa ekuoksa }kjk fdlh u fdlh :i esa iz;ksx
rd bu ns'kksa esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh mUur lH;rk dk esa ykbZ tkrh FkhaA lEiw.kZ fo'o esa iqjkrRo ds ;gh vax gSaA
fodkl ugha gqvk FkkA Hkkjr ds bu èkeZ izpkjdksa us mDr dEcksfM;k esa Hkh bUgh iqjko'ks"kksa dh miyCèkrk i;kZIr :i
ns'kksa esa vius èkeksZa dk izpkj fd;k vkSj lkFk gh lH;rk esa gS] ftuesa vfHkys[k eq[; gSaA

*
bfrgkl foHkkx] MkW- 'kdqUryk feJk jk"Vªh; iquokZl fo'ofo|ky;] y[kuÅ&206017] E-mail: [email protected]
56 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

vfHkys[k dkd Fkkse vfHkys[k esa laLd`r dh 192 iafDr;k¡ gSa rFkk
[esj Hkk"kk dh 146 iafDr;k¡ gSaA t; oekZ iape~ ds curs
dEcksfM;k esa vfHkys[k cM+h la[;k esa miyCèk gS]a tks ogk¡ ds lzsbZ vfHkys[k esa laLd`r Hkk"kk ds 44 'yksd rFkk [esj Hkk"kk
bfrgkl] lkfgR; vkSj laLÑfr ds izek.k gSAa tkok ds leku ds 11 'yksd mRdha.kZ gSaA g"kZ oekZ r`rh; ds yksa osd f'kyk
dEcksfM;k esa ,slk dksbZ lkfgR; ugh gS] ftlls ogk¡ ds ys[k esa laLd`r Hkk"kk 59 vkSj [esj Hkk"kk ds 45 'yksd vafdr
jktkvksa dk bfrgkl tkuk tk lds] fdUrq vfHkys[kksa ds ys[ku gSaA vusd jktkvksa vkSj fo}kuksa ds uke laLd`r Hkk"kk ds
esa ;g ns'k vxzf.ke gSA ;gk¡ ls izkphu dky ds tks vfHkys[k lkFk&lkFk [kesj Hkk"kk esa Hkh fy[ks x;s gSaA tSls Lnksd dkd
vc rd feys gS]a mudh la[;k yxHkx 350 gS (Majumdar, Fkkse vfHkys[k ds [esj Hkk"kk ds Hkkx esa Jh t;sUæ if.Mr
1944: 376) A budk fuekZ.k vfèkdka'kr% eVeSyk cyqvk izLrj ds xq: dk uke dezr¥~ v¥~ Jh okxhUæ if.Mr fy[kk x;k
ls gqvk gSA buesa ls dqN vfHkys[k vkdkj esa [k.M+ dkO;ksa gSA ;g Li"V gS] fd dezrv~ v¥~ xq: dk [esj fo:) gSA
ls Hkh cM+s gSAa jktsUæ oekZ ds es cksu vfHkys[k esa 218 'yksd ;gk¡ ds vfHkys[kksa esa ikf.kuh dh v"Vkè;k;h vkSj iratfy ds
gSa vkSj iz:
s i vfHkys[k esa 298 'yksd gSAa bl jktk ds vU; egkHkk"; ds O;kdj.kksa ls vksr&izksr laLd`r Hkk"kk dk iz;ksx
vfHkys[kksa esa Hkh 'yksdksa dh la[;k 107 rFkk 58 gSAa lsukifr fd;k x;k gSA ,d vfHkys[k esa o.kZu gS] fd ;'kksoekZ us
laxkz e ds izg rksd vfHkys[k esa 161 'yksd gSAa blh rjg egkHkk"; dh O;k[;k dh Fkh&
mn;kfnR; ds izLr( u vfHkys[k esa 122 'yksd gSAa lw;Z oekZ
f}rh; dk cu Fku vfHkys[k rhu lxksZ esa 139 'yksd gSa (Arts ukxsUæ od~= fo"knq"Vr;so Hkk";a eksgizna izfrina
et Archeologic Khamers 1921-26: 549)
fdy 'kkfCndkuke~A
O;k[;ke`rsu onusUnq fofuxZrsu;L; izcksèkdj eso
jktk ;'kksoekZ rFkk t;oekZ lIre~ ds Hkh vfHkys[k
iqu% iz;qDre~AA (Journal of the Siam Society 1904-
dkQh cM+s gSAa vkSj] ;g laLd`r Hkk"kk esa dkO; ds :i esa
39: 109)A
fy[ks x;s gSa (Chattarjee 1927: 213)A buds 'yksdksa ds
fy, vuq"Vqi] vk;kZ] lzXèkjk] 'kknwZy foØhfM+re~] bUæotzk] gkykafd] dEcksfM;k ds vfèkdka'k vfHkys[kksa dh laLd`r Hkk"kk
misUæotzk] ekfyuh] oUlrfryd] iqf"irkxz] lao`Ur] mitkfr] O;kdj.k dh n`f"V ls 'kq) gS] ysfdu dqN ,sls Hkh vfHkys[k gSa
eUnkØkUrk] oa'kLFk] oSrkyh; vkfn lHkh izeq[k NUnksa dk ftuesa foHkfDr] fyax bR;kfn ds iz;ksx ikf.kfr ds O;kdj.k
mi;ksx fd;k x;k gSA vfèkdka'k vfHkys[k jktkvksa ds iz'kfLr ds vuq:i ugh gSaA T;knkrj] ;g vfHkys[k ckn ds le;
ds :i esa mRdha.kZ gSa vkSj muesa 'kkldksa dh oa'kkofy;k¡ Hkh nh ds gSaA ,slk izrhr gksrk gS] fd vfHkys[kksa dk ys[ku Hkkjrh;
x;h gaSA fdUrq dEcksfM;k esa vfHkys[kksa dk eq[; fo"k; eafnjksa fo}kuksa ds lg;ksx ls gks jgk Fkk] fdUrq tc Hkkjr esa rqdksZa
dk fuekZ.k] muesa ewfrZ;ksa dh izfr"Bk vkSj eafnjksa ls lEcfUèkr dk vkØe.k gqvk] rks fLFkfr;k¡ vjktdrk esa ifjofrZr gks
vkJeksa bR;kfn ds fy, iznku dh x;h nku&nf{k.kk dk x;ha vkSj dEcksfM;k dks Hkkjrh; lg;ksx ugh fey ldk]
mYys[k djuk FkkA cgqr ls vfHkys[k lsukifr;ks]a iqjksfgrksa blfy, vfHkys[k ys[ku eas v'kqf);k¡ vk;haA dEcksfM;k ds
vkSj vU; inkfèkdkfj;ksa }kjk Hkh fy[kok;k x;k FkkA ;g fo}kuksa us ckn ds vfHkys[kksa esa dqN ,sls 'kCnksa dk iz;ksx
vfHkys[k pV~Vkuks]a izLrj f'kykvks]a eafnjksa ds }kjksa vkSj nhokjksa fd;k gS] tks Hkkjrh; laLd`r Hkk"kk ds 'kCnkoyh esa ugh ik;k
bR;kfn ij mRdh.kZ gSAa dEcksfM;k esa vc rd dksbZ fyf[kr tkrk gS (Garnier 1873: 121)
laLd`r dkO; miyCèk ugh gq, gSAa fdUrq] bu vfHkys[kksa dks bu izek.kksa ls fl) gksrk gS] fd dEcksfM;k esa u
i<+dj laLd`r lkfgR; ,oa dkO; dk egRo le>k tk ldrk dsoy Hkkjrh; mifuos'k LFkkfir gks jgs Fks] cfYd laLd`r
gSA vfHkys[kksa dks i<+us ls irk pyrk gS fd ;gk¡ ds fo}kuksa Hkk"kk dh lRrk Hkh LFkkfir FkhA bu vfHkys[kksa ds vuq'khyu
dks osn] osnkax] n'kZu] Le`fr] jkek;.k] egkHkkjr] iqjk.k vkfn ls ,d ,sls ns'k dk fp= gekjs lkeus mifLFkr gksrk gS]
dk Kku Hkyh&Hkkafr Fkk (Farrand 1926: 471)A tgk¡ Hkkjrh; èkeksZa dk izpkj FkkA f'ko] fo".kq vkSj cq) ds
;gk¡ ds dqN vfHkys[kksa dh jpuk laLd`r ds lkFk&lkFk eafnj LFkkfir Fks vkSj lkFk gh vU; czkg~e.k rFkk ckS)
[esj Hkk"kk esa Hkh dh x;h gSA jktk mn;kfnR; oekZ ds Lnksd èkeZ ds nsoh&nsorkvksa dh ewfrZ;k¡ LFkkfir dh x;h Fkha rFkk
dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe'kZ 57

iBu&ikBu esa osn] osnkax] iqjk.k] jkek;.k] egkHkkjr eq[; okLrq ,oa LFkkiR; dykvksa dks Hkh vius lkFk ys x;sA
Fkk (India Antiqua 1941: 218)A blfy, LokHkkfod gS] fd tc dEcksfM;k esa LFkkiR; dk
fuekZ.k gqvk] rks ml ij Hkkjrh; izHkko xEHkhjrk ls iM+kA

eafnj LFkkiR; Qwuku jkT; dh izkphu jktèkkfu;ka lEcksj rFkk izsbZ

dqd FkhaA buds HkXuko'ks"k orZeku esa n`"VO; gSaA ;gk¡ vusd
dEcksfM;k esa dyk ds tks Bksl vo'ks"k miyCèk gSa] os vn~Hkqr iqjkus eafnj th.kZ&'kh.kZ voLFkk esa fLFkr gSaA bu esa Qwuku
,oa vf}rh; gSaA bUgas ns[k dj dksbZ Hkh vokd~ ,oa vk'p;Z dh okLrq dyk dk vPNk vadu fd;k x;k gSA ;g eafnj
esa iM+ tkrk gSA ;g vo'ks"k eq[; :i ls vM~-dksj {ks= NksVs&NksVs oxkZdkj vkSj vk;rkdkj gSaA eafnj ds eè;
esa dsfUær gSaA 19oha 'krkCnh ds eè; rd vkèkqfud fo}kuksa esa xHkZx`g gS] ftlesa f'kofyax ;k f'ko dh foxzg ewfrZ;k¡
dks budh tkudkjh ugha FkhA Ýkal ds ouLifr foKku ds LFkkfir gSaA xHkZx`g ds pkjksa vksj vDlj iznf{k.kk iFk Hkh
fo}ku~ gsujh ekÅ gkWV us 1860 bZ0 esa bu fo'kky Lekjdksa fufeZr gSaA f'k[kjksa dk fuekZ.k gqvk gS] tks Øe'k% uhps ls
dk irk yxk;k FkkA bUgksaus LFkkuh; yksxksa ls lquk Fkk] fd Åij dh vksj fujUrj ladjk gksrk x;k gSA eafnj dh nhokjksa
izkphu dky ds uxj l?ku taxy esa fLFkr Fkk vkSj euq"; ij ewfrZ;ksa ,oa fp=ksa dks mRdh.kZ ugha fd;k x;k gS] ijUrq
muesa ugh jgrkA mRlqdrko'k Ýkal ds ;s fo}ku~ taxy esa nhokj dh ckgjh vksj yxh dqN bZVksa ij vyadj.k cuk,
x;s vkSj pkjksa rjQ ls o`{k ,oa yrkvksa ls <ds Å¡ps&Å¡psa x;s gSaA
eafnjksa ds f'k[kj bUgsa fn[kkbZ iM+sA ;g ns[k dj gsujh ekÅ
gkWV vk'p;Z pfdr jg x;s vkSj mUgksaus fy[kk fd ^^;g Hkkjrh; xqIr dky esa Hkh eafnjksa dks blh izdkj vyad`r
lalkj dh vR;Ur vk'p;Z pfdr dj nsus okyh bekjrsa fd;k x;k gSA dPph ;k iDdh yEch&pkSM+h bZaVksa ¼VkbYl½
gSaA ,slh bekjrsa ;wuku ,oa jkse esa dHkh ugh cuk;h x;ha**A ij fofoèk izdkj ds vyadj.k ,oa vkd`fr;ka mRdh.kZ dj
okLro esa] blesa dksbZ lUnsg ugha] fd ;g bekjrsa fo'o nh tkrh Fkha vkSj fQj] mUgas vkx esa idk;k tkrk FkkA bl
dh fo'kkyre~ ,oa vn~Hkqr Lekjd gSaA okLrqdyk ds {ks= esa izdkj idh gqbZ vyad`r bZaV eafnj dh nhokjksa ds ckgjh
dEcksfM;k us vklkèkkj.k mUufr dh Fkh] fdUrq bl dyk dk vksj ltkoV ds fy, yxk nh tkrh FkhaA mRrj izns'k ds
fodkl èkhjs&èkhjs LokHkkfod :i ls gqvk Fkk (Chattarjee Hkhrjh xk¡o rFkk NRrhlx<+ ds fljiqj ds xqIr dkyhu
1927: 342)A eafnjksa esa ,slh gh bZaVksa dks yxk;k x;k gSA blh fofèk dks
dEcksfM;k ds Qwuku ;qx esa cus eafnjksa esa Hkh iz;ksx fd;k
Hkkjrh; dkSfM.; us ftl mifuos'k dh LFkkiuk dh Fkh]
x;k gSA eafnjksa ds }kj ds Åij yykVfcEc j[ks x;s gSa]
og izkphure~ Fkk vkSj mls phuh xazFkksa esa Qwuku jkT; dgk
ftu ij nso&nsoh vkd`fr;k¡ fufeZr gSaA nhokjksa ds ckgjh
x;k gSA vkSj] ;g lkroha 'krkCnh rd LFkkfir FkkA bl
vksj vyad`r bZaVksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gS vkSj mu ij izk;%
dky ds tks Hkh HkXuko'ks"k bl le; fo|eku gSa] mu ij
izklkn dh vkd`fr cuh gS] tks lEHkor% ml eafnj dh gh
Hkkjrh; izHkko Li"V gSA Qwuku jkT; ds fuoklh o.kZ ladj
viuh vuqd`fr gSA Nr ,oa nhokj ds eè; esa izk;% ckgj
FksA Hkkjrh; mifuos'kdksa us dEcksfM;k ds ewy fuokfl;ksa
dh vksj fudyh gqbZ dkfuZ'k gS] ftl ij nsoh&nsorkvksa ds
ds lkFk fookg lEcèk LFkkfir dj ds ,d ladj tkfr dks
'kh"kZ cus gSaA ;g fo'ks"krk,sa xqIr ;qxhu Hkkjr ds eafnjks esa
mRiUu fd;k] tks lkaLd`frd n`f"Vdks.k ls Hkkjr ls cgqr
ik;h tkrh gSaA c;ku ds eafnj dk fuekZ.k lkroha 'krkCnh
vfèkd izHkkfor FkhA blfy, ;g LokHkkfod Fkk] fd ogk¡ ds
ds izkjfEHkd o"kksZa esa gqvk Fkk (Majumder 1947: 135)A ;g
Hkouksa] eafnjksa vkSj ewfrZ;ksa vkfn ij Hkkjr dk vfèkdkfèkd
,d igkM+h dh pksVh ij cuk gS] tks 'kSo eafnj gS vkSj eafnj
izHkko gksA ;gh dkj.k gS] fd ikapoh] NBoha ,oa lkroha
vk;rkdkj gSA bl esa xHkZx`g vkSj iznf{k.kkiFk gS] bldh
'krkfCn;ksa ds cgqrk;r eafnj tks feys gSa] os Hkou fuekZ.k ,oa
Nr rhu eafty dh gSA Åijh eafty] fupyh eaftyksa dh
LFkkiR; esa Hkkjrh; dyk ls iw.kZ :i ls izHkkfor gSa (Briggs
rqyuk esa NksVh gSA ;g eafty fdlh mi;ksx esa ugh vkrh
1948: 432)A njvly] tks Hkkjrh; mifuos'kd izkphu dky
esa dEcksfM;k x;s] os èkeZ] Hkk"kk bR;kfn ds lkFk&lkFk viuh gSA bUgsa dsoy eafnj dh 'kksHkk ds fy, cuk;k x;k gSA
58 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

eafnjksa dh nhokjksa esa vusd tkyhnkj f[kM+fd;ka cuh gSaA dyk ,oa LFkkiR; ij fn[krk gSA vkBoha 'krkCnh vkSj mlls
budk Hkh dksbZ iz;ksx ugh gSa] fdUrq eafnj dh HkO;rk dks igys tks eafnj dEcksfM;k esa cus os 'kq) :i ls Hkkjrh;
;g c<+krh gSaA c;ku ds eafnj dk fuekZ.k bZaVksa }kjk gqvk 'kSyh ds Fks] fdUrq uoha 'krkCnh ls tks LFkkiR; 'kq: gqvk]
gSA bl eafnj dks ns[k dj Hkkjrh; xqIr dky ds eafnj ;kn mu ij Hkkjrh; dyk ds lkFk&lkFk [esj dyk dk Hkh
vkrs gSaA eafnj dh Nr izk;% mlh 'kSyh esa fufeZr gS ftl izHkko FkkA ;g Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS] fd nksuksa dykvksa
'kSyh esa dk¥~phiqje~ dk dSyk'kukFk eafnj rFkk ekeYyiqje~ ds rRoksa dks ysdj gh eafnjksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k] ysfdu
ds jFk eafnj gSaA fQj Hkh Hkkjrh; izHkko mu ij vfèkd Fkk (Garnier 1873:
511)A
Qwuku jkT; ds izkphu dky ds cgqla[;d eafnj bZaVksa
ls fufeZr gSa fdUrq lEcksj rFkk vU;= dqN ,sls eafnj Hkh [esj dky esa dEcksfM;k esa cgqrk;r eafnjksa dk fuekZ.k
fo|eku gSa] tks iw.kZr;k iRFkjksa }kjk fufeZr gSaA ,slk gh] ,d gqvk vkSj bu esa vaM~-dksj {ks= esa lokZfèkd Lekjdksa dk fuekZ.k
eafnj izsbZ dqd esa gSA ;g ,d vk;rkdkj Hkou gS] bldh fd;k x;kA jktk ;'kksoekZ us uoha 'krkCnh ds vfUre n'kd
nhokjsa lknh gSa ij blds pkSdksj [kEHkksa ij uDdk'kh dh esa ;'kksèkj us uoha 'krkCnh ds vfUre n'kd esa ;'kksèkjiqj
x;h gSA eafnj dh Nr piVh gS vkSj ,d fo'kky f'kyk ls uxj dk fuekZ.k djk;kA ;g vM-~dksj {ks= esa fLFkr FkkA
fufeZr gSA Nr ds pkjksa vksj vkxs dh vksj dkfuZ'k gS] ftl ;'kksèkjiqj dh fLFkfr vM~-dksjokV vkSj vM~-dksjFkkse ds eè;
ij nsorkvksa ds 'kh"kZ cus gq, gSaA lEcksj ds lehi gapsbZ dk esa FkhA bl uxj dks ¶ukse c[ksax ds eafnj ds pkjksa vksj
izLrj fufeZr eafnj Hkh gS] blds yykVfcEc ij prqHkqZt mlh rjg ls cuk;k x;k Fkk] tSls fd ck;ksu ds eafnj dks
vuUr'kk;h fo".kq dh izfrek vafdr gSA bldh Hkh Nr piVh dsUæ cuk dj vM~-dksjFkkse uxj dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k
gSA c;ku ,oa lEcksj ds bu eafnjksa ij Hkkjrh; dyk dk FkkA eafnj Å¡ps LFkku ij cuk;s tkrs Fks] tks dSyk'k ;k
bruk vfèkd izHkko gS] fd ;g dYiuk djuk vlaxr ugh es: ioZr dk izfrfufèkRo djrs FksA blfy, ¶ukse c[ksax
gksxk] fd budk fuekZ.k Hkkjrh; f'kfYi;ksa us dEcksfM;k esa ds eafnj dk fuekZ.k Hkh ,d ,sls Å¡ps LFkku ij fd;k x;k
tk dj fd, gksaxs (Farrand 1925: 123)A Fkk] ftl ds fy, ,d igkM+h dks rjk'k dj ikap pcwrjksa
dks fijkfeM esa ifjofrZr fd;k x;kA lcls Åij ds pcwrjs
lkroha 'krkCnh rd Qwuku lkezkT; v{kq..k ugha jg ij eafnj dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k] ftlesa ;'kksèkjs'oj uked
ldk vkSj ogk¡ vO;oLFkk mRiUu gks x;hA [esjksa us bl f'kofyax dh izfrLFkkiuk dh x;h] ;gh f'kofyax txr&rk
fLFkfr dk ykHk mBk;k vkSj viuh 'kfDr dk foLrkj fd;kA jktk ¼nsojkt½ dk izrhd FkkA bl eafnj dh eq[; bekjr
[esj ds yksx dEcksfM;k vkSj ykvksl ds mRrjh izns'kksa ds vc èoLr gks x;h gS] ij lcls Åij ds pcwrjs ij cus
fuoklh FksA Qwuku ds ewy fuokfl;ksa ds leku [esj jkT; ds ikap f'k[kj vc Hkh fo|eku gSaA Åij ds pcwrjksa ij tkus
yksx Hkh Hkkjrh; lH;rk ,oa laLd`fr ds izHkko esa vk x;s FksA ds fy, lksiku fufeZr gSa (Foucher 1920: 453)A vM~-dksj
[esj lkezkT; ds yksx lH;rk dh n`f"V ls mrus fiNM+s ugha {ks= ds eafnjks esa cDlsbZ peØksM~ eafnj fLFkr gS] tks [esj
Fks] ftrus fd Qwuku ds fuoklhA blfy, vkBoha 'krkCnh esa lkezkT; ds eafnjksa esa eq[; LFkku j[krk gSA bldk fuekZ.k
fuekZ.k vkSj LFkkiR; dyk dk fodkl gqvkA ml ij [esj nloha 'krkCnh ds eè; Hkkx esa gqvk FkkA bls Hkh Å¡ps LFkku
yksxksa dk izHkko Hkh FkkA njvly] ;gk¡ dgk tk ldrk gS] ij cuk;k x;k Fkk] tks dSyk'k ;k es: ioZr dk izrhd gSA
fd Qwuku jkT;] [esj jkT; dh rqyuk esa vfèkd izkphu FkkA ftl Å¡ps fijkfeM ij ;g fufeZr gS] mlesa ik¡p eaftysa
dEcksfM;k esa Hkkjrh;ksa us dEcksfM;k ds yksxksa ds lkFk lEcUèk fufeZr gSaA fupys pcwrjksa ls Åij ds pcwrjksa ij tkus ds
cuk dj lH;rk dk izpkj&izlkj fd;k vFkkZr~ Hkkjrh;ksa ds fy, pkjksa vksj lhf<+;k¡ cuh gSaA igys bu lksikuksa ds nksuksa
vkxeu ls gh dEcksfM;k esa lH;rk dk Hkh vkxeu gqvk vksj flag Hkh fufeZr Fks] fdUrq vc os ugha gSaA fQekud eafnj
vkSj [esj lkezkT; ckn dk ;qx gSA blfy,] LokHkkfod dk fuekZ.k Hkh vM-~dksj {ks= ds Hkhrj ;'kksèkjiqj uxj esa
:i ls Hkh Qwuku ls vfèkd fodflr gks x;s FksA ifj.kker% nloha 'krkCnh esa fd;k x;k FkkA bls Hkh ,d Å¡ps LFkku ij
[esj Qwuku ls vfèkd vxz.kh gks x;sA ckn esa ftudk izHkko cuk;k x;k FkkA blesa rhu eaftyksa dk ,d Å¡pk fijkfeM
dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe'kZ 59

fufeZr fd;k x;k gSA blesa Hkh uhps ls Åij ds eaftyksa esa gS] bldh dqy yEckbZ yxHkx 1000 xt gSA 25 fQV ds
tkus ds fy, lksiku gSa] ftuds nksuksa vksj izLrj ls cus flag yEckbZ ds vkl&ikl cgqr ls fp=ksa dk vadu gS] tks fo".kq
cSBs gq, gSaA lcls Åij dh eafty ij orZeku eas f'k[kj vkSj ;eyksd ds dFkkudksa ls lEcUèk j[krs gSaA eafnj esa
ugha gSA lEHkor% ;g u"V gks x;k gS] bl eafnj dh vusd Åij dh vksj tkus ds fy, eq[; }kj ls lksiku cus gSa]
xSyfj;k¡ bl le; Hkh lqjf{kr gSa( A.B.I.A., 1937: 637)A ftlls Åij p<+us ds ckn ,d cM+k lgu feyrk gS] blesa
Hkh vusd xSyfj;ka cuh gSaA ;gk¡ ls fQj ,d lksiku Åij
jktk ;'kksoekZ 889 bZ0 ls 909 bZ0 rd 'kklu fd;kA dh vksj tkrk gS] tks ,d [kqys vkaxu esa igqap tkrk gSA ;g
blh us lcls igys vM-dksj {ks= dks viuh jktèkkuh cukus vk¡xu ,d fo'kky Å¡ps IysVQkeZ ds leku gS] ftlds pkjksa
dk fu'p; fd;kA mn;kfnRr oekZ ds Lnksd dkd Fkkse dksuksa ij f'k[kj cus gSaA blds eè; esa ,d Å¡pk fijkfeM
vfHkys[k esa o.kZu gS] fd rc ije~ HkV~Vkjd ij f'koyksd gS] ftlds Åij eq[; eafnj fo|eku gSA blesa igqapus ds
¼;'kksoekZ½ us ;'kksèkjiqj uxjh clk;h vkSj txr&rk&jktk fy, ioZrkdkj fijkfeM ds pkjksa vksj lhf<+;k¡ cuk;h x;h
¼nsojkt½ dks gfjgjky; ls ys vk,A fQj] ije~HkV~Vkjd gSaA bl eafnj ds dsUæh; f'k[kj dh Å¡pkbZ Hkwfe dh lrg
us dsUæh; f'k[kj ¼eafnj½ cuok;k] vkSj okef'ko us mlds ls 210 fQV gSA Åij fijkfeM ij xHkZx`g fufeZr gS] vkSj
eè; esa ifo= fyax ¼nsojkt½ dks LFkkfir fd;kA ;g erHksn pkjksa dksuksa ij vU; pkj f'k[kj Hkh fufeZr gSa tks eè; f'k[kj
dk fo"k; jgk gS] fd ftl dsUæh; f'k[kj ;k eafnj ds dh rqyuk esa Å¡pkbZ esa de gSaA igys blesa nsojkt dh ewfrZ
pkjksa vksj ;'kksèkjiqj clk;k x;k Fkk] og dkSu&lk Fkk\ LFkkfir Fkh] fdUrq vc ;gk¡ cq) dh fo'kky LFkkud ewfrZ
igys ;g ekuk tkrk Fkk] fd orZeku esa fo|eku ck;ksu LFkkfir gS (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1878-
dk eafnj Fkk] ysfdu lgefr bl ckr ij cuh] fd mDr 1922: 752)A
eafnj ¶ukse c[ksM~- ds eafnj dks dsUæ cuk;k x;k FkkA bl
eafnj dh fLFkfr vM~-dksjokV vkSj vM-dksjFkkse ds eè; esa bl eafnj ds nhokjksa vkSj xSyfj;ksa esa izLrj dks mR[kfpr
gSaA blds pkjksa vksj ;'kksoekZ us ,d uxj clk;k Fkk] tks dj vyadj.k cuk;s x;s gSa] tks vR;Ur lqUnj ,oa dykRed
rhu 'krkCnh rd dEcqt ns'k dh jktèkkuh FkkA lu~ 1181 gSaA nhokjksa ij ikSèks] o`{k] yrk,sa] ifRr;ka] iq"i] Qy vkSj nso
ls 1201 bZ0 rd t;oekZ lIre~ ogk¡ dk jktk gqvk] blus dU;kvksa dks cgqr lw{erk ls mdsjk x;k gSA bl dyk dk
vaM-~dksj ds {ks= esa gh ck;ksu eafnj dks dsUæ cuk dj ,d lEcUèk u ek= èkeZ cfYd jktk] jkuh] jktdqekj] vaxj{kd
u;s uxj dk fuekZ.k djk;k vkSj ;gh uxj vaM~-dksjFkkse ds vkSj lsukifr;ksa ls Hkh lEcfUèkr gSaA dbZ ewfrZ;ksa ,oa n`';ksa
uke ls tkuk tkrk gS] tks ;'kksèkjiqj ds LFkku ij dEcqt esa vfHkys[k Hkh vafdr gSaA xSyfj;ksa esa vafdr eq[; fp=.kksa
ns'k dh jktèkkuh cukA bl u;s uxj ds fuekZ.k ls igys esa fo".kq] fo".kq dh dFkk,sa] nso] nsfo;ksa] vlqjksa vkSj jkek;.k
jktk lw;Z oekZ f}rh; ¼1112&52bZ0½ us vaM~-dksjokV ds ml ,oa leqæeaFku fo'ks"k gSaA leqæeaFku dk vadu dEcksfM;k
izfl) eafnj dk fuekZ.k djok;k Fkk] tks dEcqt ns'k dh ds reke eafnjksa esa feyrk gSA ;g n`';kdau vkt Hkh bruk
lcls vn~Hkqr okLrqd`fr gS vkSj bldk uke vaM~-dksjokV gS izfl) gS] fd ogk¡ ds ?kjksa] gksVyksa rFkk eafnjksa esa cgqrk;r
(Fourneeau 1895-1908: 198)A ek=k esa fn[kykbZ iM+rk gSA xSyfj;ksa esa LFkku&LFkku ij
,dk'e ewfrZ;k¡ [kf.M+r&v[kf.M+r voLFkk esa izpqj ek=k
vaM~-dksjokV ,d HkO; fo'kky eafnj gSA ;g <kbZ ehy esa j[kh x;h gSaA bu esa f'ko] f'kofyax] fo".kq bR;kfn
ds ifjfèk esa gSA bldh ifj[kk 650 fQV pkSM+h gS] ifj[kk ds dh izfrek,sa LFkkud ,oa vkluLFk voLFkk esa LFkkfir gSa
ckn Å¡ph j{kk izkphj gSA ifj[kk dks ikj dj vUnj tkus (Journal of the American Oriental Society 1845: 642)A
ds fy, 36 fQV pkSM+k iqy gSA iqy ds nksuks vksj osfndk,a
cuh gaSA ftuds LrEHkksa ij Q.k QSyk, ukxksa dh ewfrZ;k¡ vaM-dksjokV ds mRrj fn'kk esa ,d ehy dh nwjh
fufeZr gSaA eafnj ds vUnj tkus ds fy, ,d fo'kky }kj ij vaM-dksjFkkse fLFkr uxj ds :i esa clk;k Fkk vkSj
cuk gSA blds ckn prqHkqZtkdkj yEch xSyjh gSA ;g iwoZ ls ;'kksèkjiqj ds LFkku ij bls viuh jktèkkuh cuk;k FkkA
if'pe 265 xt vkSj mRrj ls nf{k.k dh 224 xt yEch ;g uxj vc èoal gks pqdk gS] fdUrq blds tks HkXuko'ks"k
60 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

gSa] muls ;g lkQ irk pyrk gS] fd blds pkjksa vksj 330 oh.kkoknd] fHkLrh] uV] ckthxj] jktk vkSj ifjpkjd eq[;
fQV pkSM+h ifj[kk Fkh] ftl dh dqy yEckbZ 850 ehy ds gSaA lkFk gh fgj.k] lkaM] xSaMk] [kjxks'k] ,oa 'ko;k=k ds Hkh
yxHkx Fkh (Deniker 1913: 232)A uxj esa izos'k djus ds n`'; gSaA jktdqekfj;ka] cSyjFk] eNyh idM+uk] leqæ;q)]
fy, iqy Fks vkSj iqy ds nksuksa vksj fo'kkydk; nSR; cuk, ijkLr ns'kksa ls èku lEifRr ykuk bR;kfn dk Hkh vadu
x;s Fks] ftUgksaus ukxksa dks vius gkFkksa idM+k j[kk gSA blds gS (Ghosh 1936: 127)A ikSjkf.kd dFkkvksa] nsorkvksa ds
ckn Å¡ph j{kk izkphj fo|eku gSA rksj.k }kj 30 fQV egkRE; rFkk jkek;.k vkfn ds dFkkudksa dk vadu fd;k
pkSM+s rFkk 15 fQV Å¡ps gSaA rksj.k }kjksa ds nksuksa ik'oksZa dks x;k gSA pwafd] jktk t; oekZ lIre~ ckS) èkeZ ds vuq;k;h
gkfFk;ksa ds fljksa ij mBk;k gqvk fn[kk;k x;k gSA blesa ikap Fks (Farrand 1926: 451)] blfy, ckS) ewfrZ;ksa ,oa fp=ksa
egk}kj cus Fks] ikapksa ,d leku Fks] buds rksj.k rd dh dks Hkh izeq[krk ls LFkku izkIr gSA ,d fp= esa cksfèklRo
ÅapkbZ 30 fQV vkSj pkSM+kbZ 15 fQV FkhA rksj.kksa ij f'k[kj voyksfdrs'oj dey iq"i ij [kM+s gSaA muds gkFkksa esa dey]
cuus ds dkj.k Å¡pkbZ 70 fQV gks x;h gSA vaM-dksjFkkse iqLrd] ekyk ,oa niZ.k gSA lkFk gh] pkjksa vksj mM+rh gqbZ
uxj ds chp esa ck;ksu dk eafnj gSA blds mRrj esa ,d vIljk,a vafdr gSaA bl eafnj esa ikSjkf.kd vkSj ckS) èkeksZa
eSnku gS] ftldh yEckbZ 765 xt rFkk pkSM+kbZ 165 xt gSA dk cgqr lqUnj leUo; gqvk gS (Journal of the Thailand
bl eSnku ds ,d vksj ck;ksu dk eafnj Fkk vkSj nwljh vksj Research Society 1940: 549)A
ckiqvksu] fQesukd vkfn bekjrsa gSa (Farrand 1926: 213)A
vaM-dksjFkkse uxj ds vUnj gh] ,d vU; eafnj us vd
uxj ds egk}kjksa ls rhu egkiFk ck;ksu ds eafnj dh isvu ds Hkh HkXuko'ks"k fo|eku gSaA bldk fuekZ.k rsjgoha
vksj tkrs Fks] vkSj nks egkiFk eafnj ds mRrj esa fLFkr eSnku 'krkCnh ds mRrjkèkZ esa gqvk FkkA ;g ,d deykdkj vkèkkj
dh vksjA ;g egkiFk 100 fQV pkSM+s FksA uxj dh eq[; ij [kM+k gS] tks tyk'k; esa cuk gSA bl deykdkj vkèkkj
bekjrsa bu egkiFkksa ds lehi fufeZr Fkha] ftu esa jktizeq[k dks nks ukxksa us yisV j[kk gS] blds lkFk pkj vU; NksVs
tyk'k; Hkh gSaA cM+s tyk'k; ls NksVs tyk'k;ksa esa ty
eaf=;ksa] inkfèkdkfj;ksa ,oa vU; jkt ifjokj ds fuokl LFkku
Mkyus ds fy, QkSokjs fufeZr gSa] ftuds eq[k flag] v'o]
FksA ljdkjh dke&dkt ds Hkou] eafnj vkSj eB vkfn Hkh
gLr vkSj euq";ksa ds cuk;s x;s gSaA eafnj dk ek= ,d
uxj ds Hkhrjh {ks= esa gh fLFkr FksA ;gk¡ dh iqjkuh bekjrksa
f'k[kj gS] ftldk vkeyd dey ds leku gSA bl eafnj
ds èoa'kko'ks"k vHkh fo|eku gSaA ;gk¡ ciqvksu ds eafnjksa ds
esa cksfèklRo voyksfdrs'oj dh ewfrZ LFkkfir gS (Foucher
VwVs&QwVs ljksoj bZaV ,oa iRFkjksa ds cM+s&cM+s <sj bl uxj
1920: 423)A
ds iqjkus xkSjo dk Lej.k fnykrs gSaA vufxur ewfrZ;k¡ Hkh
VwVh&QwVh voLFkk esa loZ= fc[kjh iM+h gSa (India Antiqua bl Øe esa curs J;h eafnj dk fuekZ.k 14oha 'krkCnh
1947: 452)A ds vkjEHk esa jktk JhUæ oekZ ds xq: }kjk djk;k x;k
FkkA ;gk¡ ,d gh IysVQkeZ ij rhu 'kSo eafnj cuk,sa x;s
vaM-dksjFkkse uxj ds Bhd eè; esa ck;ksu eafnj fLFkr gSaA buesa ,d&,d izos'k }kj vkSj f'k[kj fufeZr gSaA eafnj
gSA ;g HkXu n'kk esa vHkh Hkh fo|eku gSA eafnj dh nhokjsa dh fHkfRr;ksa ds fp=.k egRoiw.kZ gSaA buesa nso ewfrZ;k¡ ,oa
iRFkjksa ls cuk;h x;h gSa vkSj blesa Hkh vaM-dksjokV eafnj dh dykRed i=&iq"i fo'ks"k gSaA ,d fp=kadu esa jko.k dks
rjg vusd izdkj dh fp=koyh fufeZr dh x;h gSA ck;ksu dSyk'k ioZr mBkrs gq, fn[kk;k x;k gSA rk ds vks dk
eafnj ds f'k[kj dh Å¡pkbZ 150 fQV gS] bl eq[; f'k[kj eafnj ,d Å¡ps IysVQkeZ ij cuk gS] ftldk fuekZ.k ,d ds
ds pkjksa rjQ 40 vU; f'k[kj Hkh fufeZr gSaA ftudh Å¡pkbZ Åij ,d cus dbZ pcwrjksa ls gqvk gSA lcls Åij ds pcwrjs
vis{kkd`r de gSA f'k[kjksa eas pkjkas fn'kkvksa dh vksj eq[k cus ij f'ko dk eafnj fufeZr gS] ftl ds vkB f'k[kj gSaA ;s
gq, gSa] tks f=us= èkkjh f'ko ds eq[k gSaA bu ij f'ko dh vkB f'k[kj f'ko ds v"Vokiw;ksa ds izrhd gSaA yksys;h eafnj
tVk,sa cM+h ckjhdh ls mRdha.kZ dh x;h gSaA eafnj dh nhokjksa dk fuekZ.k ;'kksoekZ }kjk djk;k x;k Fkk ;g lHkh ,d gh
vkSj xSyfj;ksa esa cgqr ls fp= mifLFkr gSaA buesa ;q) ds pcwrjs ij fufeZr gSaA buesa eq[; :i ls f'ko ,oa ikoZrh dh
n`';] lsukuk;d] lkeUr] inkfr lSfud] ;Kksiohr czkã.k] ewfrZ;k¡ LFkkfir gSaA eafnj ds }kjksa ij }kjikyksa dh ewfrZ;k¡
dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe'kZ 61

[kM+h gSaA fofoèk ik'oksZa esa vusd nsodks"B cus gq, gSa] ftu ds vuq;k;h Fks (Coomaraswamy 1927: 247)A blfy,]
esa vusd nsoh&nsorkvksa dh ewfrZ;k¡ j[kh gSaA eafnjksa ds f'k[kj f'ko dh izfrek,sa lcls vfèkd ek=k esa cuhaA ;g ewfrZ;k¡
dbZ Hkkxksa esa foHkDr gSaA f'k[kj ds fuekZ.k esa bZaVksa dk iz;ksx LFkkud vkSj vkluLFk nksuksa :iksa esa fufeZr gSaA dgha&dgha
fd;k x;k gS] fdUrq }kj iRFkj ds fufeZr gSa (Indian Arts f'ko&ikoZrh] vkSj uUnh dh ewfrZ;k¡ Hkh cuh gSaA cUrs J;h
and letter 1926: 324)A esa jko.kkuqxzg ewfrZ izfl) ewfrZ;ksa esa ls ,d gSA x.ks'k ,oa
f'kofyax ds ewrZu Hkh fd, x;s gSaA f'ko ds fyax ,oa foxzg
nksuks rjg dh ewfrZ;ksa dk vla[; ek=k esa fuekZ.k fd;k x;k
ewfrZdyk gS (Chattarjee 1927:190)A

dEcqt ns'k ds izkphu eafnjks vkSj Hkouksa dh rqyuk esa ogka¡ blh rjg oS".ko lEiznk; ls lEcfUèkr ewfrZ;ksa dks Hkh
dh izkphu ewfrZ;ksa ij Hkkjr dk izHkko vkSj Hkh vfèkd Li"V ewfrZr fd;k x;k gSA fo".kq dh ewfrZ;ksa esa 'ks"k'kk;h fo".kq dh
gSA [esj dky ls igys dh ewfrZ;k¡ Hkkjr ds xqIr ;qx dh Hkh izfrek,a izkIr gSaA izLr nEjsih Øki ls izkIr ewfrZ esa fo".kq
ewfrZ;ksa ls bruh vfèkd lkE;rk j[krha gSa fd mUgsa Hkkjrh; us 'ka[k] pØ] xnk vkSj in~e èkkj.k fd;s gSaA eq[k e.M+y
ewfrZ;ksa ds lehi [kM+k dj nsrh gSaA bruh vfèkd lkE;rk ij izlUurk dk Hkko gSA dkaL; dh ,d 'k;ukoLFkk ewfrZ esa
gksus dk ,d gh dkj.k gS] fd mu ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k fo".kq ds d.B esa ekyk vkSj Hkqtkvksa esa dadM+] eq[k e.M+y
Hkkjrh; f'kYidkjksa }kjk fd;k x;k gksxk (Journal of the xEHkhj vkSj HkkSgsa uhe ds iRrh ds vkdkj dh gSaA dksgdsj
American Oriental society 1845: 239)A bl dky dh ls fo".kq dk ,d vR;Ur lqUnj flj feyk gS] tks jRutf.kr
ewfrZ;ksa esa us= iwjh rjg ls [kqys] gYdh eqLdku] lqUnj vkSj m".kh"k ls ;qDr gSA }kjksa ds yykVfcEcksa vkSj nhokjksa
pqUuVnkj oL= fo'ks"k gSaA dEcksfM;k dh bu izkphu ewfrZ;ksa ij fo".kq ls lEcUèk j[kus okys vusd dFkkudksa dk vadu
esa lEcksj ds lehi izkLr vUnsr ls izkIr gfjgj dh ,d gSA tSls&n'kkorkj ds fp=.k] jke rFkk d`".k ds vusd
ewfrZ fo'ks"k mYys[kuh; gS] tks bl ;qx dh ewfrZ dyk dh fp=.k] ekjhp dk vk[ksV] lhrkgj.k] ckfy&lqxzho dk ;q)]
mRre mnkgj.k gSA v'kksd okfVdk esa lhrk] lqxzho vkSj jke dh fe=rk rFkk
jke&jko.k ;q) vkfn ds vufxur n`"; dEcqt ds eafnjksa
[esj dky esa dEcksfM;k dh ewfrZ dyk dk vkSj vfèkd dh nhokjksa ij fpf=r gSa (Chattarjee 1927:194)A
fodkl gqvkA Hkkjrh; izHkko iwoZr~ cuk jgk] fdUrq [esj
f'kYidkjksa us viuh izfrHkk ls mlesa dqN ekSfyd rRoksa dk ;gk¡ ls cãk dh Hkh dqN ewfrZ;k¡ feyh gSaA dqN ewfrZ;ksa
lekos'k fd;kA os'kHkw"kk] vyadj.k vkSj dFkkud ds fp=.k esa pkj eq[k] pkj gkFk gSa] ,d ewfrZ esa czãk gal ij lokj
esa nhokjksa dks foHkwf"kr djus ds fy, tks fp= vafdr fd,] gSaA buds dku yEcs vkSj fNns gSa vkSj eq[k e.M+y xEHkhj
muds fy, jkek;.k] egkHkkjr rFkk iqjk.kksa dh dFkkvksa dk gSaA la;qDr ewfrZ;ksa dk izpyu Hkh iz;kZIr :i esa feyrk
vkJ; fy;k] D;ksafd ;g dFkkud dEcqt laLd`fr ds mlh gSA tSls gfjgj] f=ewfrZ] f=ewfrZ ds lkFk cq) HkhA blds
izdkj ls vax Fks] ftl rjg Hkkjr dh laLd`fr dsA ijUrq vfrfjDr e;wj ij lokj dkfrZds;] ,sjkor ij vk:<+ bUæ]
i'pkr~ esa bu fp=kofy;ksa ds fy, ,sls n`';ksa vkSj izlaxksa dk jke&cyjke] xksoèkZu èkkjh d`".k] 'kjl;~;k ij Hkh"e] f'ko
Hkh mi;ksx fd;k x;k] tks dEcqt laLd`fr ds vax ugha FksA ,oa dkensoh] leqæeaFku vkSj d`".k dh yhyk,sa vkfn ds
vufxur vadu eafnjksa dh fHkfRr;ksa ij 'kksHkk,eku gSaA
dEcksfM;k esa izèkkur% ikSjkf.kd fgUnw èkeZ dk vlqj] nso] nSR;] ;{k] fdUuj] jk{kl] ukx] ukxh u`Rrjr~
izpkj&izlkj FkkA blfy,] LokHkkfod :i ls ogk¡ bUgha vIljkvksa dh fofHkUu eqækvksa dks Hkh fp=.k esa izpqj LFkku
nsoh&nsorkvksa dh izfrHkkvksa dks vfèkdkfèkd la[;k esa izkIr gS (Coomaraswamy 1927: 324)A
fu:fir fd;k x;kA czãk] fo".kq] f'ko] x.ks'k] gfjgj]
ikoZrh] mek] y{eh] x#.k] cyjke vkfn dh izpqj ek=k esa 11oha 'krkCnh ds lw;ZoekZ vkSj 12oha 'krkCnh ds t;oekZ
ewfrZ;k¡ cuk;h x;haA vkSj] buls lEcfUèkr dFkkudksa dks Hkh lIre~ ds le; esa dEcksfM;k esa ckS) èkeZ dk mRd"kZ gqvk
fp= lewg esa eq[; LFkku feykA dEcqt ds ukxfjd 'kSo èkeZ (Journal of the Siam Society 1904: 520)A bu egku~
62 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

jktkvksa us ckS) èkeZ dk O;kid :i ls izpkj&izlkj fd;k dEcksfM;k esa cfYd lEiw.kZ Hkkjr esa Hkh izpqj ek=k esa fufeZr
,oa dyk rFkk LFkkiR; esa eq[; LFkku Hkh fn;kA ifj.kke gSA vr% fo}kuksa dks xEHkhjrk iwwoZd Jh lsBh ds fopkjksa ij
Lo:i cq)] cksfèklRo] izKkikjferk vkfn dh izfrek,sa cM+h fparu djus dh vko';drk gSA
ek=k esa fufeZr dh x;haA Hkkjr vkSj dEcksfM;k dh cq)
ewfrZ;ksa esa dkQh vUrj gSA ,d fo'ks"k 'kSyh ds vUrxZr cq) dEcksfM;k ds fo'o izfl) jk"Vªh; laxzgky; esa Hkh tSu
dks ukxksa ij vklhu fn[kk;k x;k gS] ftldk rkRi;Z ;g gS] iqjko'ks"k [kkstus ds Øe esa x,A bl laxzgky; esa vrqy
fd Hkkjrh; ckS) laLd`fr vkSj dEcksfM;k ukx laLd`fr dk iqjk lEink lqfu;ksftr rjhds ls latksbZ ,oa iznf'kZr dh
lfEeyu gSA cksfèklRo yksds'oj ¼voyksfdrs'oj½ dh vusd xbZ gSA gekjh n`f"V tSu iqjko'ks"kksa dks <wa<us esa yxh FkhA
izfrek,sa feyh gSa] ftuesa pkj ;k pkj ls vfèkd gkFk vkSj dqN ohfFkdkvksa eas izLrj ,oa èkkrq dh izfrek,a iznf'kZr gSaA
muesa dy'k] iqLrd] ekyk vkSj dey èkkfjr gSA dqN izfrek,a rks fcYdqy rhFkZadj dh gh tSlh Fkh] fdUrq
lw{erk ls ns[kus ij vfèkdka'k izfrekvksa ds dfV esa oL=
n`"VO; Fkk] fdUrq dqN ewfrZ;ksa esa vfr lw{erk ls <w¡<us ij Hkh
uohu foe'kZ oL= ugha feykA blfy, ;g dgus esa izlUurk gksrh gS fd
dqN izfrek,a vo'; gh rhFkZadj dh gSaA ysfdu laxzgky;
blh rjg èoa'k iM+k rk ds;ks eafnj ds LrEHkksa] nhokjksa ,oa esa QksVksxzkQh iw.kZ fuf"k) Fkh] blfy, izfrekvksa dh qQksVks
yykVfcEc ij Hkh y?kq vkluLFk izfrek,a fufeZr gSa] tks ugha yh tk ldhA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus dh vko';drk gS fd
rhFkZadj ewfrZ ln`'k gSaA ;gk¡ ls izkIr bu ikapksa ewfrZ;ksa esa laxzgky; dh vfèkdrj izfrek,a rhFkZadj ewfrZ;ksa ds lehiLFk
oL=ksa dk vHkko gSA blh rjg cUrs Nej ds HkO; eafnj gSaA dEcksfM;k ds iqjko'ks"kksa dks [kaxkyrs le; è;ku eqnzkvksa
esa y?kq ewfrZ;ksa dh vfèkdrk gSA bl efUnj ds LrEHkksa] ij Hkh Fkk] fdUrq le;kHkko vkSj dqN vU; dkj.kksa ls
vèkZLrEHkksa] fHkfRr;ksa] yykVfcEcksa] pkgkjnhokjksa ds Åij ,oa fujk'kk gkFk yxhA
f'k[kj bR;kfn esa mu reke NksVh&NksVh ewfrZ;ksa dk vadu
gS] tks vkluLFk ,oa oL= foghu gSaA bUgsa ns[kdj fdlh ;g vo'; gS] fd dEcksfM;k esa lH;rk] dyk vkSj vkSj
Hkh izfrek foKkuh dks ;g lkspus ij ckè; gksuk iM+ tkrk LFkkiR; dh 'kq:vkr Hkkjrh;ksa }kjk gqbZ gSA ;gk¡ ckS) ewfrZ;ksa
gS] fd dgha ;s rhFkZadj dh izfrek,a rks ugha gSaA fdUrq dk fuekZ.k uoha 'krkCnh ls izkjEHk gqvkA ;gh og le; gS]
bu eafnjksa dh cM+h&cM+h ewfrZ;k¡ vkSj eafnj ds iwohZ }kj tc nf{k.k Hkkjr esa Hkh ckS) vkSj tSu izfrek,a cM+h ek=k
ds mRrjh nhokj ij mRdha.kZ HkO; cksfèklRo voyfdrs'oj esa fufeZr dh tk jgha FkhA fo'ks"kr% nf{k.k Hkkjr esa tSu
gekjh }Un dks fojke yxk nsrk gSA ;fn bu ewfrZ;ksa dks ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k NBoha 'krkCnh ls 'kq: gqvkA vkSj] bldh
eafnj ls vyx dj ds ns[kk tk;] rks mUgsa ge vo'; gh pje fLFkfr Jo.kcsyxksyk ds HkO;re~ ckgqcfy dh ewfrZ
rhFkZadj dh izfrek,a ekusaxsA fuekZ.k gSA gesa ;g è;ku j[kuk gksxk] fd ;g ogh le;
Fkk] tc dEcksfM;k esa cq) dh ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k Hkh f'k[kj
dEcksfM;k ds lHkh eafnjksa vkSj LFkkiR; iqjkLFkyksa ls ij FkkA pw¡fd] dyk vkSj LFkkiR; ds fy, nf{k.k Hkkjr ls
ewfrZ;ksa ds lkFk&lkFk foiqy ek=k esa izfrek&ihfBdk izkIr gh f'kYidkj ,oa ewfrZdkj dEcksfM;k yk, tk jgs Fks vkSj
gqbZ gSaA izfrekvksa ds bu ihfBdkvksa esa ewfrZ dks LFkkfir ;s Hkkjr esa rhuksa èkeksZa czkEg.k] ckS) vkSj tSu dh ewfrZ;ksa
fd;k tkrk FkkA ewfrZ;ksa dh ty] iq"i] i= bR;kfn ls iwtk dk fuekZ.k O;kid iSekus ij dj jgs FksA blfy, lEHko
dh tkrh gS] blfy, fo'ks"kdj ty vklkuh ls ihfBdk ds gS] fd dEcksfM;k dh ftu ewfrZ;ksa esa oL= dh foghurk ;k
ekè;e ls ckgj fudyus ds fy, xksykdkj] vk;krkdkj] oL= dk de gksuk vafdr gS] os tSu èkeZ ls izHkkfor gksaA
oxkZdkj bR;kfn izdkj dh ihfBdk,a cukbZ tkrh FkhaA bu vkSj ,d rF; ;g Hkh LokHkkfod gS] fd dEcksfM;k tkus
ihfBdkvksa ds lUnHkZ esa tSu èkeZ ds vè;srk Jh fueZy dqekj okys O;kikfj;ksa esa u flQZ czkEg.k] ckS) cfYd tSu Hkh jgs
tSu lsBh ,oa vU; dk vfHker gS fd ;g tSu ewfrZ;ksa gh gksaxsA buds jgu&lgu] [kku&iku] èkkfeZd ekU;rkvksa
dh ihfBdk,a gSaA bl izdkj dh izfrek&ihfBdk u ek= bR;kfn dk dEcksfM;k;h lekt esa vo'; izHkko iM+k gksxkA
dEcksfM;k dk iqjkrÙo% ,d uohu foe'kZ 63

tSu ijEijk esa lw;kZLr ls iwoZ Hkkstu blfy, dj fy;k Journal of the Thailand Research Society, Bangkok, 1940
tkrk gS] fd [kkuk cukrs ,oa [kkrs le; lw{e thoksa dh Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Straits Branch,
gR;k u gksA vkSj] ,d O;ogkfjd dkj.k ;g Hkh gS] fd Singapore, 1878-1922
Hkkstu lw;Z Mwcus ls igys dj ysus ij ikpu esa leL;k Journal of the American Oriental society, New Haven,
ugha gksrhA ogk¡ dh xzkeh.k turk vkt Hkh lw;kZLr ds igys 1845
gh Hkkstu dj ysrh gSA lEHko gS] ;g ijEijk Hkkjrh; tSu Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822
ijEijk ls izsfjr gks] blfy, ;g dguk vlaxr ugha gksxk
fd dEcksfM;k esa czkã.k vkSj ckS) èkeZ dk gh izHkko iM+k The Modern Review, Culcutta, 1907

gS] cfYd tSu èkeZ dk Hkh izHkko gS] bls lw{erk iwoZd 'kksèk Barth, Auguste, 1882, Inscriptions sanscrites du
djus dh vko'drk gSA Cambodge

Briggs, Lawrence, Palmer, 1974, The Ancient Khamer

dqN ewfrZ;k¡ NksVh] eè; ,oa o`gn~ vkdkj dh gSaA Emprire, Bangkok
è;ku voLFkk esa cSBh gqbZ liZQ.k ls ;qDr ,oa liZ ij cSBh
Majumder, R.C. 1947, Ancient Hindu colonies in the for
ewfrZ;k¡ vfèkd gSaA bu ewfrZ;ksa esa oL= yxHkx ux.; gSa] East, Calcutta
fdUrq lw{erk ls ns[kus ij Kkr gksrk gS] fd dej esa ,d
iryh&lh iV~Vh gSA bu ewfrZ;ksa ds oL=ksa ds yxHkx vHkko Majumdar, R.C., 1944, Kambiya-Desa, Madras

dks ns[krs gq, ,slk izrhr gksrk gS] fd ;g lEHkor% rhFkZadj Briggs, Larry, 1948, Siamese Attacks on Angllor Before
ik'oZukFk dh izfrek,sa gSa] oL= ds uke ij dej esa caèkh tks 1430, Oakland Coomaraswamy, Ananda K, 1927, History
of Indian and Indonesian Art, London: Goldstone
,d iryh&lh iV~fVdk gS] og eu dks mn~}sfyr djrh gS]
fd lEHkor% ;g uXu ewfrZ;ka dEcksfM;k esa oL= dh deh Excamtions at the Bayon of Angkor Thom, A.B.I.A., 1937
dks iznf'kZr djrh gSa vFkok tSu fnxEcjrk ds izHkko ls Deniker, Joseph, 1913, The Races or Man : An Outline of
izsfjr gSaA Anthroplogy and Ethrography, London

Damrong, Rajancrbhab, 1904, The Foundation of Ayuthia,

vkHkkj Hongkog

Foucher, Alfred, 1920, Influence of Indian Art on

tSu èkeZ ds fo}ku~ ,oa iqjkrÙo ds izseh fuokZ.k izkIr Jh Combodia and Java, Calcutta
fueZy dqekj tSu lsBh] iwoZ v/;{k] Jh Hkkjro"khZ; fnxEcj
Fourneeau, Lucien, 1895-1908, Le SiamAncieant,
tSu rhFkZ lajf{k.kh egklHkk] ubZ fnYyh dk gkfnZd vkHkkjh Archaelogie- Apigraphie-Geographie, Paris
gw¡ fd vkius eq>s vkSj MkW- ujsUnz dqekj tSu] xkft;kckn
Farrand, Gabriel, 1925, Hindu Kingoms in Indochine
dks twu 2016 esa tSu lkfgR;] laLÑfr ,oa iqjkrRo ds
vuq'khyu gsrq 45 fnu ds fy, dEcksfM;k Hkstk FkkA blh Farrand, Gabruied, 1926, Outlines of the History of
losZ{k.k ls izkIr lkfgfR;d ,oa iqjkrkfÙod lk{;ksa ds vkèkkj Buddhism in Indo-China

ij mDr 'kks/k i= izdk'k esa vk;k gSA Indian Arts and letters, London, The India Socity, 1926

Garnier, Francies, 1873, Chromique royale du Comboge,

Paris
lUnHkZ
Ganguly, O.C., 1926, The Cult of a Gastya : and the
Arts et Archeologic Khamers, Paris, 1921-26 Origin of Indian Codonial Art, Rupam
India Antiqua, Leyden, 1941
Ghosh, Devprasad, 1936, Migration of Indian decrative
Journal of the Siam Society, Bangkok, 1904-39 Motifs, Madras
64 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

ABSTRACT

Prior to the first century, Cambodia was governed by the tribes. But in the first and
fourth century an Indian named Condinya along with his team visited there. It was
then that the birth of national religion and culture and its development took place.
There was domination of Brahmanism for some time which was later dominated
by Buddhism. Cambodia is the center of Indian Archaeology and Culture. Here the
archaeological remains of Brahmanism and Buddhism has been found in plenty and
is well conserved specially the inscriptions, sculptures and temples. The remains
of these can be obtained from archaeological sites and museums where the writer
himself has attended and inspected the antiquities. Here the statues of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas are almost covered with minimal clothes. While the image of Buddha
has generally the garments of an ascetic which could be easily visible at a distance.
The reason probably being that till the beginning of twentieth century People did not
wear full clothes. Therefore, even in the idols, a thin plate has been made round the
girdle, which could be perceived only after looking very carefully. It is because of
this characteristic that some people and scholars of Jainism consider these sculptures
to be of Tirthankars. This paper mainly focuses on these problems only.
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DISTRICT BASTI,
UTTAR PRADESH

SANDEEP KUMAR CHAUDHARY* AND DURGESH KUMAR SRIVASTAVA**

T he district Basti lies between geodetic

coordinates 26º33’33” N to 27º07’24” N and
82º14’18” E to 82º58’38” E. Geographically, it is
brought down by the hill torrents in the north. The
area consists of sands, silt and clay on the surface
and gravel, sand, silt and clay in the sub-surface.
a part of Saryupar region of eastern Uttar Pradesh The area is drained by ground water fed and rain
in middle Gangetic plain. It is bounded by district fed rivers. The landscape of this region is evolved
Siddharthnagar in north and in south, river Ghaghra under fluvial environment of varying energy due to
separated it from district Ayodhya (Faizabad) and fluctuating discharge of the river, which is controlled
Ambedkar Nagar. To the east it is bounded by by the climate. The area can be broadly classified into
district Sant Kabir Nagar and on the west by district two – channel areas and inter-channel areas (doab or
Gonda. It is a part of Basti division with an area of interfluve). The channel area consists of sand and silt
2718.3 square km. As per administrative unit, it is deposited by rivers having high discharge and so the
a division of Uttar Pradesh state and it comprised high energy, whereas silt and clay is the dominant
four tehsils– Basti (Sadar), Harriya, Bhanpur and composition in interfluve areas deposited by aqueous
Rudhauli. There are 3,348 villages in the district environment having low energy. So we can say that
according to the census report 2011. The main water sediments were deposited by high and low energy
streams in the area are Ghaghra, Kuwana, Ami, and environment under direct control of climate. The
Manwar. rivers flow from northwest to southeast. The average
slope of the area from northwest to southeast is about
The area exhibits alluvium of different ages 0.9 meter. The height in northwest is 100 m and 85 m
and nature with the exception of boulders and debris in southeast from the sea level (Singh 2009: 147-154).
* Department of Ancient Indian History and and Archaeology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow; E-mail: [email protected]
** Department of Ancient Indian History and Archaeology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow; E-mail: [email protected]
66 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Historically, the district was a part of Kosala habitats emerged especially along the rivers,
region. Its earliest reference is to be found in the which functioned as important routes of transport.
Śatapatha brāhamana (I.4.1.14-17), where the Some of these settlements developed as urban
river Sadānīrā has been mentioned as the boundary settlements during 6th century BCE simultaneously
between Kosala and Videha (Majumdar & Pusalkar with the transformation of the tribal janapada
1971: 255; Macdonell and Keith 1912: 421-422). (countries) into either mahajanpadas (kingdoms)
The river Sadānīrā is identified with the modern or ganarajya (republics). Thus the Kosala janapada
river Gandak/Gandaki. Śatapatha brāhamana have was transformed into a mahajanapada in the early
also mentioned Kosala as one of the countries of the historic period, according to the Anguttara Nikaya.
Vedic Aryans (Majumdar & Pusalkar 1971: 258-259).
The ancient Kingdom of Kosala is generally
While Kosala is mentioned as a country in Sanskrit
corresponding to the historical region of Oudh of
texts, like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, its
northern India. It was bounded in the west by the river
territorial extent is not properly defined. Panini also
Gomti, in the south by the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai)
mentioned Kosala in his Ashtadhyayi (4.1.17). As a
river, to the east by the Sadanira (Gandaka) which
mahajanapada, Kosala is for the first time mentioned
act as the border between Kosala and Videha, and
in Pali Buddhist texts, Anguttara-Nikaya (I: 213; IV:
to the north by the Himalayan range. The country of
252 etc.), Samyutta Nikaya (IV: 374) and Majjhima
Kosala was divided into two parts- north and south,
Nikaya (II: 124) etc.
evidently by the river Saryu (Majumdar and Pusalkar
According to genealogical tables of the 1968: 4). Sravasti was the capital of North Kosala,
Brahmanda, Vishnu, Vayu, Matsya and Padma while Kusavati was the capital of South Kosala. It
Puranas and other ancient texts, it is proposed that covered the territory of the Kalamas of Kesaputta
about one hundred two kings of the solar race ruled and the Sakyas of Kapilavastu. The Sutta Nipata
up to one or two generations later to the Buddha also refer that the inhabitants of Kosala lived besides
(Pusalkar 1951: 271-322; Pathak 1963: 84-114). Himavanta (Himalaya), endowed with the power of
The famous Ikshvaku king Rama appears in the 61st wealth (Muller 1881: 68-69). The Majjhima Nikaya,
generation, while Vrihadbala of the same dynasty, also, mentions the Buddha as a Kosalan (Robert
who was killed in the great war of Mahabharata, was 1898: 124).
the 95th king (Pusalkar 1951: 271-322). Taking the The rise of Kosala in the northern India was an
date of the Mahabharata war as 1800-1400 BCE and important trait in the political condition during 6th
giving 20-25 or 18 years for each generation, the first century BCE. It contained some important cities—
Ikshvaku king Manu has been placed somewhere Ayodhya, Saketa and Savatthi or Sravasti. Ayodhya
between 3500-3000 BCE (Pathak 1992: 112-113). was a city on the bank of river Saryu. Saketa is
The upper date may, however, be reduced to about commonly supposed to be the same as Ayodhya and
2800 BCE, as another theory places Vrihadbala possibly adjoining cities. Sravasti is the huge ruined
in the 76th generation (Pathak 1963: 105 & 110). town known as Saheth-Maheth on the right bank of
Considering these dates as parallel to the Indus- the river Rapti.
Sarasvati culture, another scholar has opined that it
is not impossible that in future archaeology may also According to the Ramayana and Puranas
give a few pieces of evidence in support of literary the progenitor of Kosala kings was Ikshvaku
traditions (Pathak 1992: 112-113). (Raychaudhari 1923: 49). The descendants of
Ikshvaku ruled at Vaisali, Mithila and Kusinara
During century 8th and 7th BCE, when semi- (Raychaudhari 1923: 49). The lists of rulers of
nomadic tribes of invaders settled in the fertile Ikshvaku dynasty from Ikshvaku to Prasenajit, the
plain of Gangetic basin, small settlements/ contemporary ruler of Bimbisara, were mentioned
Archaeological Significance of District Basti, Uttar Pradesh 67

in Puranas (Raychaudhari 1923: 49-50). Of these Directorate of U P State Archaeology, Lucknow,

several rulers have been mentioned in Vedic literature. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Deen Dayal
The later names of Puranic list are also mentioned Upadhayay Gorakhpur University Gorakhpur, and
in Buddhist literatures i.e. Sakya, Suddhodana, University of Lucknow, Lucknow in the different
Siddhartha, Rahula and Prasenajit (Raychaudhari parts/ river valleys of the district, which evident
1923: 51). the archaeological importance and antiquity of the
region.
In the context of archaeological investigations,
explorations and excavations has been carried out The founder Director General, Alexander
by the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, Cunningham visited the study area during 1874-

Fig. 1
68 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

75 and reported archaeological mounds of Koron- NBPW culture, NBPW culture, Shunga, Kushana
dih or Korawa (Cunningham 1880: 101-102) to the and Medieval periods (IAR 1995-96: 83-86).
east and Barah Chhetra (Cunningham 1879: 211-
215) to the northwest of the district headquarters. Several ancient sites/settlements of
Several sites has been mentioned by A. Fuhrer viz. archaeological importance have been explored/
Basti, hoard of 11 gold coins of Chandragupta II reported in the district by scholars of different
from Manhan, ruins of brick stupa at Khirnipur, agencies and institutions. During the present work,
Bhuila dih, Barah Chhetra, etc (Fuhrer 1891: 216- in the field seasons 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-
227). 18, we have explored/ investigated 93 sites (fig.
1) of archaeological importance including those
Archaeological excavations at Siswania sites, which were reported earlier. Among these
and Devraon were conducted by B R Mani, of archaeological sites a few are associated with
Archaeological Survey of India during field season single culture and others are associated along with
1995-96 to ascertain the antiquity and cultural succeeding cultures. The details of the explored
assemblage of the site. The occupational deposit at archaeological sites are as under:
Siswania divided into five cultural periods viz., Pre-

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
01 Ama Bazar 26º52'46" N; Potsherds of red ware and brick wall Medieval ---
82º39'03" E
02 Amorha 26º45'42" N; Potsherds of NBPW, Grey ware, red NBPW to (IAR 1995-96: 86;
82º23'26" E ware and brickbats Kushana 2009-10: 119-120)
03 Arail 26º50'41" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (IAR 1996-97:
82º48'03" E Medieval 126-135)
04 Badalpur 26º36'15" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º53'18" E
05 Badhar 26º47ʹ39ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (Tiwari, 2005-06:
82º26ʹ09ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
06 Badhni 26º45'15" N; Potsherd of red ware, black ware and Kushana to (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º37'48" E brickbats Medieval 120)
07 Badokhar 27º02'22" N; Potsherds of red ware , grey ware and Kushana to ---
82º36'27" E brickbats Medieval
08 Bageshari 26º37'56" N; Mound like stupa; Potsherds of NBPW, NBPW to (IAR 1996-97: 127)
(Baxuri) 82º51'08" E black slipped ware, grey ware, red ware; Medieval
sculpture of Mahishasurmardini Durga
and brickbats
09 Baheria 26º51'22" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º42'26" E
10 Baidari 26º36'08" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º44'56" E
11 Baksari 26º50ʹ49ʺ N; Potsherds of grey ware, red ware and Kushana to (Tiwari & Mani
82º20ʹ56ʺ E brickbats Medieval 2005-06: 81-87)
12 Bankata 26º44'28" N; Microliths (cores, flakes of chalcedony, Pre-NBPW to (IAR 1990-91:
82º45'20" E quartz and chert); potsherds of Cord- Medieval 69-70)
impressed red ware, black-and-red
ware, black slipped ware, grey ware and
red ware
Archaeological Significance of District Basti, Uttar Pradesh 69

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
13 Banpur 26º37'23" N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, NBPW to (IAR 1990-91:
82º51'41" E orange-red slipped ware and red ware; Medieval 38-39)
terracotta skin rubber, ball, cylindrical
bead, pendent, net sinker; and brickbats
14 Banni 26º52ʹ27ʺ N; Potsherds of NBPW, black slipped NBPW to (IAR 1990-91:
82º48ʹ10ʺ E ware, grey ware and red ware Kushana 69-70)
15 Baranda 26º41'23" N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Shunga-Kushana ---
(Banda) 82º51'54" E ware, red ware and brickbats; terracotta to Medieval
aricanut-shaped bead
16 Baragaon 26º44'23" N; Potsherds of Cord-impressed red ware Pre-NBPW to (IAR 1983-84: 87)
(Badgon) 82º49'04" E (handmade), black-and-red ware, early Medieval
NBPW, grey ware, orange-red slipped
ware and red ware; microliths (cores,
flakes) of chalcedony, quartz and chert
17 Bargadwa 27º02'16" N; Ruined structure of temple made of Medieval (IAR 1996-97: 127)
82º43'00" E kankar stone
18 Barhar Khurd 26º47ʹ00ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Gupta to Medieval (Tiwari, 2005-06:
82º26ʹ13ʺ E 81-87)
19 Behil 26º42'44" N; Potsherds of NBPW, black slipped ware, NBPW to (IAR 1996-97: 127)
82º50'24" E grey ware, red ware and brickbats Kushana
20 Benipur 26º53'00" N; Potsherds of handmade black-and-red Pre-NBPW to (Tiwari & Mani
82º30'08" E ware, black slipped ware, NBPW and NBPW 1995-96: 163-166)
red ware; terracotta beads, bangles,
wattle-and-daub
21 Bhadana 26º53'10" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana and (IAR 1996-97: 128)
82º40'02" E Medieval
22 Bhadeshwar 26º45'24" N; Siva temple, Sivalinga made on Early Medieval ---
Nath 82º44'29" E sandstone in the sanctum
23 Bhaukhari 26º59'43" N; Potsherds of red ware, glazed ware; Kushana to early (IAR 1996-97: 128)
82º42'06" E brickbats and headless sculpture of Medieval
Mahavira made on sandstone
24 Bichhauliya 26º52ʹ39ʺ N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Late NBPW to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º22ʹ33ʺ E ware and red ware early Medieval 81-87)
25 Chamrahua 26º52'00" N; Potsherds of cord-impressed ware, Pre-NBPW to ---
Ghat 82º40'48" E black-and-red ware, black slipped ware, Kushana
grey ware, orange-red ware; wattle-and-
daub and brickbats
26 Chando 26º45'02" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (IAR 1990-91: 69-
82º45'08" E Medieval 70; 1995-96: 86)
27 Chandua 26º42'38" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Post-Gupta/early ---
Mahrai 82º57'00" E Medieval
28 Chardahi 26º37'16" N; Siva temple Late Medieval (IAR 1996-97: 129)
82º46'08" E
29 Chuil Babu 26º43'09" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º27'51" E Medieval 120)
30 Chuil Kazi 26º44'05" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º26'50" E Medieval 120)
70 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
31 Damarua Jungal 26º49'48" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º40'43" E
32 Deoraon 26º45'34" N; Stone flakes, potsherds of cord- Pre-NBPW (IAR 1995-96: 86)
82º45'17" E impressed red ware, black-and-red (Chalcolithic) to
ware, black slipped ware, grey ware, Medieval
orange-red ware; stone pestle, terracotta
hop-scotches and wattle-and-daub and
brickbats
33 Devdad 26º37'18" N; Potsherds of red ware, terracotta skin Kushana to (IAR 1996-97: 130)
(Baguliajot) 82º46'36" E rubber and brickbats Medieval
34 Dharampur 26º53ʹ03ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Early Medieval (Tiwari, 2005-06:
82º19ʹ06ʺ E 81-87)
35 Dhaurahra 26º41'49" N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Contemporary to (IAR 1990-91:
82º45'41" E ware, red ware and brickbats NBPW to early 69-70)
Medieval
36 Gahirware 26º41'25" N; Potsherds of grey ware, black slipped Shunga-Kushana ---
82º49'15" E ware and red ware; terracotta animal to early Medieval
figurine, skin rubber and brickbats
37 Gaighat 26º37'18" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats; Kushana to (IAR 1996-97:
82º45'16" E Sivalinga Medieval 126-135)
38 Gana 26º38'06" N; Potsherds of red ware and stone Kushana to early (IAR 1996-97:
82º45'55" E sculptures of Ganesha and Vishnu Medieval 126-135)
39 Gaura Rohari 26º38'05" N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana (IAR 1996-97:
82º47'19" E 126-135)
40 Gerar- 1 26º38'51" N; Carnelian stone flakes, potsherds of Pre-NBPW to (IAR 1990-91:
82º49'35" E cord-impressed red ware, black-and-red early Medieval 69-70)
ware, black slipped ware, grey ware,
and red ware; terracotta skin rubber,
aricanut shaped beads, discs, hop-
scotches, animal and human figurines,
ring-well, and wattle-and-daub
41 Gerar-2 26º38'39" N; Potsherds of NBPW, grey ware, orange- NBPW to early ---
82º49'52" E red slipped ware, red ware; perforated Medieval
hop-scotch and terracotta animal
figurine
42 Gharighat 26º50'20" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana (IAR 1996-97:
82º48'41" E 126-135)
43 Gudanupur 26º51ʹ54ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º20ʹ14ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
44 Gulrihwa Ghat 26º45'26" N; Potsherds of black-and-red ware, black Chalcolithic to (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º29'35" E slipped ware, NBPW, grey ware and red Kushana 120)
ware
45 Gyanpur 26º48ʹ21ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º26ʹ09ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
46 Hatwa 26º42'18" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Early Medieval (IAR 1996-97:
82º50'07" E 126-135)
47 Jiji Rampur 26º50ʹ19ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º22ʹ28ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
Archaeological Significance of District Basti, Uttar Pradesh 71

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
48 Kalani Kalan 26º48ʹ45ʺ N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Contemporary (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º23ʹ34ʺ E ware and red ware; brickbats to NBPW to 81-87)
Medieval
49 Kalvari 26º38'17" N; Temple and tank Late Medieval (IAR 1996-97:
82º40'34" E 126-135)
50 Katesar 26º52'30" N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana (IAR 1996-97:
82º48'49" E 126-135)
51 Kodra 27º00'05" N; Potsherds of cord-impressed red ware, Pre-NBPW (Srivastava &
82º44'33" E black-and-red ware, grey ware, black (Chalcolithic) to Chaudhary 2017:
slipped ware, NBPW, orange-red Kushana 119-124)
slipped ware and red ware; stone (agate
and carnelian) flakes, terracotta discs,
gamesmen, skin rubber; wattle-and-
daub
52 Kope 26º39'00" N; Stone (carnelian) flakes, potsherds of Pre-NBPW to ---
82º50'01" E black slipped ware, grey ware, orange- NBPW
red slipped ware, and red ware
53 Koraun Khas 26º42'46" N; Ruined brick structure with Gupta to Medieval (IAR, 2009-10:
82º57'00" E Chaturmukhi Sivalinga, 151-154)
Mahisasurmardini Durga and other
fragmentary sculptures of sandstone;
potsherds of red ware
54 Kotiya 27º01'49" N; Potsherds of red ware, terracotta Kushana to ---
(Patkhauli) 82º42'16" E aricanut shaped bead, skin rubber, ball, Medieval
and wheel
55 Kundi-Barawa 26º59'56" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Gupta to Medieval (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º49'00" E 120)
56 Loniyapar 26º49ʹ13ʺ N; Potsherds of grey ware, red ware and Kushana to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º25ʹ07ʺ E brickbats Medieval 81-87)
57 Madanpura 26º51'03" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Late Medieval ---
82º38'52" E
58 Mahua Dabar- 1 26º54'11" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to ---
82º32'07" E Medieval
59 Mahua Dabar-2 26º40ʹ13ʺ N; Factory site for dying and printing Late Medieval As per the
82º41ʹ15ʺ E fabrics, brick structure, potsherds of excavator Dr.
red ware, terracotta animal and human Anil Kumar,
figurine, shell object, iron nail/hooks deptt of AIH and
Archaeology,
University
of Lucknow,
Lucknow

60 Makhaura 26º52ʹ50ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º18ʹ15ʺ E Medieval 81-87
61 Medhain 26º51ʹ33ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana-early (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º21ʹ46ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
62 Masjidiya 26º42'52" N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Shunga to early (IAR 1990-91:
82º46'42" E ware and red ware; brickbats Medieval 69-70)
72 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
63 Mukaddi 26º43'59" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Late Medieval ---
82º47'20" E
64 Mundiar 27º01'09" N; Brick structure and potsherds of red Kushana (Mani 1997-98:
82º48'34" E ware 117-118)
65 Muradih 26º58'02" N; Potsherds of NBPW, black slipped ware NBPW to (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º48'59" E and red ware Kushana 120)
66 Murdahwa 27º01'29" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º39'06" E
67 Nagar 26º44'11" N;Black slipped ware, grey ware, red ware Contemporary (IAR 1995-96: 86)
82º40'22" E to NBPW to
Medieval
68 Nagdeshpur 26º50ʹ34ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana and early (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º22ʹ24ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
69 Naugarh 26º44'37" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (IAR 1996-97:
82º41'29" E Medieval 126-135)
70 Neel Kothi 26º50'16" N; Brick structure, potsherds of red ware Late Medieval ---
(Bari Baksai) 82º42'56" E
71 Othaganpur 26º44'59" N; Potsherds of red ware Early Medieval (IAR 1996-97:
82º41'38" E period 126-135)
72 Orai 26º44'30" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana and (Tewari & Mani
82º48'20" E Gupta 1995-96: 156)
73 Pakherwa Kalan 26º49ʹ10ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º23ʹ58ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
74 Panibharwa 26º59'19" N; Potsherds of red ware, black ware and Medieval ---
Ghat 82º39'01" E brickbats
75 Pachaura 26º50ʹ44ʺ N; Black slipped ware, grey ware and red Contemporary (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º19ʹ49ʺ E ware and brickbats to NBPW to 81-87)
Kushana
76 Pipra Gautam 26º43'38" N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana to (IAR 1996-97:
82º45'21" E Medieval 126-135)
77 Purepheru 26º52ʹ46ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana to early (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º19ʹ25ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
78 Rampur 26º38'55" N; Potsherds of NBPW, black slipped ware, NBPW to (IAR 1996-97:
82º45'44" E grey ware, red ware and brickbats Medieval 126-135)
79 Rampur Reoti 26º45'03" N; Damaged sculpture on a circular mound, Gupta and post- (IAR 1996-97:
82º54'51" E carved bricks Gupta 126-135)
80 Saltauwa 26º55'47" N; Potsherds of grey ware, red ware and Kushana to (IAR 1995-96: 86)
82º42'47" E remains of stupa Medieval
81 Selhara Ghat 26º37'10" N; Red ware and bricks sizes 16x16x6 cm Early Medieval ---
82º49'58" E
82 Shakraula 26º51'03" N; Potsherds of corded ware, grey ware, Contemporary to ---
82º41'35" E orange-red slipped ware, red ware and NBPW
wattle-and-daub
83 Singinari 26º52ʹ56ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana and (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º24ʹ21ʺ E Medieval 81-87)
84 Sisai 26º47ʹ48ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to early (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º26ʹ43ʺ E Mediecal 81-87)
Archaeological Significance of District Basti, Uttar Pradesh 73

SN Name of Sites Geodetic Findings Probable period References/

Coordinates remarks
85 Siswania 26º45'04" N; Stone (carnelian and agate) flakes, cord- Pre-NBPW to (Tewari & Mani
82º45'36" E impressed ware, black-and-red ware, Kushana and 1995-96: 153-156)
painted black slipped ware, NBPW, Medieval
grey ware
86 Surwar 27º00'12" N; Potsherds of red ware Kushana (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º51'46" E 120)
87 Susipar 26º44'27" N; Potsherds of Corded ware, black-and- Pre-NBPW to (IAR 1990-91:
82º45'56" E red ware, black slipped ware, NBPW, Kushana 69-70)
grey ware and red ware
88 Taraini 26º56'16" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º37'14" E
89 Thalhapar 26º41'49" N; Potsherds of red ware, terracotta skin Kushana to ---
82º54'32" E rubber, animal figurine; stone net-sinker Medieval
and brickbats
90 Tharauli 26º42'40" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Medieval ---
82º49'11" E
91 Tikariya 26º42'33" N; Potsherds of red ware and brickbats Kushana to Gupta (IAR 2009-10: 119-
82º34'14" E 120)
92 Ujaini 26º51ʹ43ʺ N; Potsherds of black slipped ware, grey Contemporary (Tiwari 2005-06:
82º17ʹ28ʺ E ware, and red ware to NBPW to 81-87)
Medieval
93 Barah Chhetra 26º52ʹ49ʺ N; Potsherds of red ware Medieval ---
82º41ʹ09ʺ E

Among these 93 archaeological sites, 10 belongs 63 belong to Sunga-Kushana period, 53 belong to

Pre-NBPW period. On the basis of cultural remains Gupta period and 72 belong to early to late Medieval
(especially potsherds, stone artifacts including core, period.
flakes and microliths), among these10 sites a few sites
may be associated with Neolithic culture and others The radiocarbon dates available from
to Chalcolithic culture. In the context of Neolithic Lahuradewa period IA, which is assigned as Early
period, there are 03 excavated sites—Sohgaura (IAR Farming Phase (Neolithic), are 5320±90 years BP
1961-62: 56; 1974-75: 46-47; Chaturvedi 1985: 101- (calibrated 4220, 4196 and 4161 BCE), 6290±160
108) and Imlidih-Khurd (IAR 1991-92: 107-109; years BP (calibrated 5298 BCE) (Tewari 2005-06: 35-
Singh 1992-93: 121-135) in Gorakhpur district and 68). It has the earliest occupational phase of human
Lahuradewa (Tewari et.al 2001-02: 54-56; 2005- activity and agricultural practices may be assigned
06: 35-68; and Tripathi 2002-03: 69-72) in Sant to as early Holocene period in 6th-5th century BCE. It
Kabir Nagar district in the Saryupar region. These shows that the area was inhabited first during 7th-6th
excavated sites represent handmade corded ware, millennium BCE, when the climatic condition has
rusticated ware and Black-and-red ware with plain been favorable for their settlements.
red ware.

The first settlers of the study area were the user REFERENCES
of handmade corded/cord-impressed ware along with
stone artifacts. The number of sites who comprise Chaturvedi, S N, 1985, ‘Advance of Vindhyan Neolithic
multiple cultures are; 26 belong to NBPW period, and Chalcolithic Cultures to the Himalayan Tarai:
74 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Excavation and Explorations in the Saryupara Region of Raychaudhari, HC, 1923, Political History of Ancient
Uttar Pradesh’, Man and Environment, no IX, Pune. India, Calcutta.

Cunningham, A, 1879, Report of Tour in the Central Robert (ed), 1898, The Majjhima Nikaya, vol II, Pali Text
Doab and Gorakhpur in 1874-75 and 1875-76, vol XII, Society, London.
Calcutta.
Singh, D S, A. Awasthi and V. Bhardwaj, 2009, Control
Cunningham, A, 1880, Reports of Tours in the Gangetic of Tectonics and Climate on Chhoti Gandak River Basin,
Provinces from Badaon to Bihar in 1875-76 and 1877-78, East Ganga Plain, India, Himalayan Geology, Vol. 30 (2),
vol. XI, Calcutta. Dehradun.

Fuhrer A, 1891, The Monumental Antiquities and Singh, D S, 2009, Rivers of Ganga Plain, Book/Bane.
Inscriptions in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, E-Journal, Earth Science, India.
Allahabad.
Singh, P, 1992-93, ‘Archaeological Excavations at
Indian Archaeology, A review, 1961-62; 1974-75; 1983- Imlidih Khurd-1992’, Pragdhara, no 03, Lucknow.
84; 1991-92; 1992-93; 1995-96; 1996-97 and 2009-10.
Srivastava, D K and S K Chaudhary, 2017, Kodra: An
Macdonell, A A and A B Keith, 1912, Vedic Index of ancient Settlement near Ox-bow Lake in Saryupar Plain,
Names and Subjects, Vol II, London. Kosala, no X, Raipur.

Majumdar, R C & A D Pusalker, 1971, The History and Tewari, R, et al, 2001-02, ‘Excavations at Lahuradewa,
Culture of Indian People, vol I, The Vedic Age Bombay. District Sant Kabir Nagar (UP)’, Puratattva No. 32,
Lucknow, pp 54-56.
Majumdar, R C & A D Pusalker, 1968, The History and
Culture of Indian People, vol II, The Age of Imperial Tewari, R and B R Mani, 1995-96, Further Archaeological
Unity, Bombay. Investigations in Saryupar Area, Pragdhara, no. 06,
Lucknow.
Mani, BR, 1997-98, Two seasons of Archaeological
Investigations in Trans-Ghaghra Plain (District Basti and Tewari, R, et al, 2001-02, ‘Preliminary Report of the
Siddharthnagar, UP), Pragdhara, no 08, Lucknow. Excavation at Lahuradewa, District SantKabir Nagar,
UP-2001-2002 wider archaeological implication’,
Muller, F, Max (ed), 1881, The Sutta Nipata (tras. V Pragdhara, No, 13, Lucknow.
Fausboll), The Sacred Book of the East, vol X, part II,
London. Tewari, et al, 2005-06, ‘Second Preliminary Report of the
excavations at Lahuradewa, District Sant Kabir Nagar,
Pathak, V N, 1963, History of Kosala up to the Rise of U P: 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06’, Pragdhara, No 16,
Mauryas, Motilal Banarasidas, Varanasi. Lucknow.
Pathak, V N, 1992, Bhartiya Itihas me Rama, Shri Ram Tiwari, Vimal, 2005-2006, Exploration along the Manwar
Vishwakosh, I part, Siddharth Prakashan, Varanasi. river in district Basti, Pragdhara, no 16, Lucknow.
Pusalkar, A D, 1951, Traditional History from Earliest Tripathi, Krishnanand, 2002-03, ‘A note on the
time to the Accession of Parikshit, The Vedic Age, Archaeological remains Collected from the Lahuradewa
Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay(Ed. R C Majumdar et mound’, Pragdhara, No. 13, Lucknow.
al. Fourth Impression, 1965.
 PREHISTORY OF ALWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

VINEET GODHAL*

R ajasthan, the state was formed on 30 March

1949 with Jaipur as the state capital. Once
known as the ‘Land of the Kings’, the state still
diagonals, the former measuring about 830 km and
the latter about 860 km in length.

retains the glory and richness of those times with The most important geographical feature of
its marvellous monuments, colourful traditions Rajasthan is the Aravali mountain-range which runs
and customs. The panoramic outlook of the state is through the state from south-west to north-east. It
simply mesmerizing; with lofty hills of Aravali’s - divides the state into two unequal parts with clearly
one of the oldest mountain ranges of the world and distinguishable features. Its north-western part lies
the golden sand dunes of the Great Indian Desert - in plain sand hills of Marwar, Jaisalmer and Bikaner.
the only desert of the sub-continent with one edge Eastern and south-eastern parts are covered by forests
paralleling the Sutlej - Indus river valley along with and plains of black loam, furrowed by the perennial
its border with Pakistan. It borders Pakistan to the water streams of Mewar, Hadoti, Jaipur and Alwar
west, state of Gujarat to the southwest, Madhya region. The Alwar district (Fig. 1) is situated in the
Pradesh to the southeast, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana north-east of Rajasthan between 27° 4’ and 28° 4’
to the northeast and Punjab to the north. No other North Latitudes and 76°6’ and 77°13’ East Longitudes.
region in the country is a conglomeration of so many
paradoxes. Rajasthani and Hindi are the widely
used languages in the state. The state covers an area ALWAR DISTRICT: AN INTRODUCTION
of 342,269 km². This state is located in the north-
western part of India between 23° 3’ to 30° 12’ north Historical Background
latitudes and 69° 30’ to 78° 17’ east longitudes. It has
a rhomb-shaped land with north-south and east-west There are many theories about the derivation of the
* Superintendent (Excavation), Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur; E-mail: vineetgodhal@
gmail.com
76 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

name Alwar. Cunningham told that the city derived Geological Formation
its name from the Salva tribe and was originally
Salwapur, then, Salwar, Halawar and eventually Main geological formations in Alwar (Fig. 3) are
Alwar. According to another school it was known (i) Aravali system- comprising schists, granites,
as Aravalpur or the city of Aravali (A hill system schistose quartzites, (ii) Raialo series- comprising
dividing Rajasthan roughly into third and two- crystalline limestone and subordinate quartzites
thirds). Some others told that city is named after and (iii) Delhi system- consisting of Alwar series
Alaval Khan Mewati. A research conducted during Hornstone breccias, Kushalgarh limestone and
the reign of Maharaja Jey Singh of Alwar revealed Ajabgarh series, which comprise quartzites,
that Maharaja Alaghraj, second son of Maharaja phyllites, slates, grits, impure limestone and breccias.
Kakil of Amer (old seat of Jaipur state) ruled the area Delhi system is exposed over major parts of the
in the eleventh century and his territory extended district and the rocks of this system are throughout
upto the present city of Alwar. He founded the city of predominating. The hills of south and south-west are
Alpur in 1106 Vikrami samvat (1049 A.D.), after his fairly rich in minerals such as copper, iron and lead,
own name which eventually became Alwar. It was but they are not being extracted out intensively (Fig.
formerly spelt as Ulwar but in the reign of Jey Singh 4).
the spelling was changed to Alwar.

Flora
Drainage Pattern
The forests of the Alwar district fall under the
Though, there are some rivers in this region named category of dry deciduous forest of the Rajasthan
as Ruparel, Sahibee, Chuhar Sidh, Landoha and region. The forests are classified as subsidiary
Banganga that flow through the district and carry edaphic type of dry tropical forest. The hill slopes
the drainage of the hills, there is no perennial river. are covered with Dhok (Anogeissus pendula), Salar
There are about 150 lakes and water-tanks in this (Boswellia serrata), Khair (Acacia catechu), Chheela
area. The main water reservoirs are Jai Samand (Butea frondosa), Kikar (Acacia Arabica), Ber
Bund, Siliserh Bund, Baleta Bund, Mansarowar (Zizyphus spl.), Lod siali (Grewia flavescens) and
Bund, Vijay Sagar Bund, Training Bund, Atariya Har Singar (Nyctanthes arbortristis) etc. Bamboo
Bund, Deoti Bund, Mangalsar Tank, Tijara Bund (Dendrocalamus strictus) generally occurs in the
and Jai Sagar Bund. The district has four important cool and sandy nalas in Dhok forest.
springs at Narayani, Pandupol, Bhartrihari and
Bani-Talbraksh. The terrain of Arawali range is
quite hilly (Fig. 2). Amounting to both these facts, Fauna
it has a dense forest area. The Sariska sanctuary is
located here which has a large variety of animals, In the fauna, antelope, ravine deer, tigers, hyenas and
particularly Tiger, Panther, Sambhar, Nilgai Sambhar (Cervus Unicolor) are found in the hilly
and wild Boar dwelling in the wooded hills with area and leopards almost everywhere. Wild hogs are
picturesque surroundings. Thus, the ecology of fairly numerous in parts and wolves are occasionally
this reason is very conspicuous to the evolution of met with. The natural surroundings and abundance
human civilization. The ridges of Arawali enclose of lakes create a suitable habitat for the different
among them fertile valleys and high table lands species of fishes and other acquatic fauna. During the
which are reserved forests thickly wooded with rainy season the rivers are connected with each other
spontaneous growth used for fodder and fuel and and thus serve as an ideal breeding ground for fishes.
abound in hunts of wild animals. Asian House Geoek, Common Garden, Lizard, Slow
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 77

Worms, Desert Monitor, Common Worm Snake, in the district is noticed in Thanagazi block (887.7
Sand Boa, Indian Ery, Common Cobra, Commaon mm).
Krait etc. types of lizards and snakes are found in
the jungle of this district. There are more than 100
species of birds in the district in which Blue Rock HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL
Pigeon (Columba Livia Gmelin), Common Crow RESEARCH
(Corvus Splendes Vieillot), Common Babbler
(Argya Caudata), Grey Shrike (Lanius Exubitor Before independence, most of the archaeological
Linn), Drongo (Dicrurus Macrocercus Vieillot), Red research work was carried out by the British scholars
Vented Bulbul (Pyenostus Cafer Linn) are common and officials like Alexander Cunningham, A.C.L.
birds. Carlleyle, D.R. Bhandarkar, L.P. Tessatori, Aruel
Stein, C.A. Hackett etc in the area of present state.
James Fergusson extensively surveyed the ancient
Rainfall monuments between the years 1829 to 1847. He was
the first man who published the illustrated history
The district (Fig. 5) received fairly good rainfall of Indian architecture covering a few monuments
in the majority of blocks and slightly less in some from Rajasthan as well (Fergusson 1848, 1876).
blocks (like Behror) in the year 2010. Average Carlleyle (1878) and Cunningham (1873, 1996,
annual rainfall in Alwar district was about 761.1 2000) toured eastern Rajputana in 1871-73 and
mm based on the data of available blocks. Highest 1882-83 respectively. Sir Alexander Cunningham
annual rainfall was noticed in Lachhmangarh block inspected a few monuments in Rajasthan as early
(1,250.9 mm) whereas lowest was in Behror block as 1861-65. His assistant Carlleyle toured in
(422.0 mm). The highest average annual rainfall eastern Rajputana during 1871-73 and reported the

Fig. 1: Administrative Map of Alwar District

78 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 2: Topographical Map of Alwar District Fig. 3: Geological Map of Alwar District

Fig. 4: Geomorphological Map of Alwar District Fig. 5: Rainfall distribution (2010) in Alwar District

monuments located in the region of Rupbas, Satwas H.B.W. Garrick (2000 reprint, Srivastava 1981: 19-
and Bayana in Bharatpur, Bairat, Chatsu, Bisalpur 46) surveyed Punjab and Rajputana in 1883-84 and
and Nagar etc. in Jaipur, Baghera in Ajmer region, published the results of his work along with plans
Nagari and Bijolian in Mewar region. Subsequently and plates of architectural remains, sculptures,
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 79

inscriptions, coins etc. He surveyed the area of archaeological sites. The two colossal marble
Bairat, Amber and Jaipur in Jaipur region, Adai images of Saraswati, the Indian goddess of learning,
Din Ka Jhopra, Dargah Sharif, Taragarh in Ajmer discovered by him from Pallu (Ganganagar) have
region, Jodhpur, Mandor, Nagaur, Pali, Nadol, Juna rightly been called ‘the greatest masterpiece of the
Khera etc. in Marwar region, Chittor, Nathdwara in medieval Indian art’. They are now display in the
Mewar, Bhimganj, Mukundara and Jhalarapatan National Museum, New Delhi and the Government
etc. in Hadoti region during the season of 1883- Museum, Bikaner respectively.
84. In the seventies of the nineteenth century that
C.A. Hackett of the Geological Survey of India had In the winter of 1940-41, along the dry bed of the
made a surface collection of palaeoliths from Jaipur, Ghaggar in Bikaner state and Hakra in Bahawalpur
Bundi and Indergarh (Agrawal 1995: 1-12). Some state (now in Pakistan) explorations was conducted
of them have been recorded by J. Goggin Brown in by a veteran scholar, Sir Aruel Stein. More than
the catalogue of Indian Museum at Calcutta (Brown 40 sites in Bikaner and an equally large number
1917: 66-67). in Bahawalpur were discovered by him (Stein
1942: 173-182, 1943: 49-52, 1989: 1-97). Several
In 1916-18, an Italian Indologist, Dr. Luigi Harappan, Painted Grey Ware and Rangmahal
Pio Tessitori compiled the list of ancient remains Cultural sites were identified by the scholar.
in Rajputana for the Archaeological Survey of
India. Some sculptural remains from ruined sites In 1960, the site of Bairath was visited by A.
near the bed of Ghaggar were collected by him Ghosh, then Director General of Archaeological
(Tessitori 1917-18: 21-23). A brief account of his Survey of India with the proposed excavation in the
findings was published in the annual report of the present township, was of opinion that this valley
Archaeological Survey of India for 1917-18. A seems to be an ideal place for the habitat of palaeolithic
number of protohistoric, early historic and medieval man. With this background, Shri K.N. Dikshit (Dikshit
sites were plotted along the dry bed of river Ghaggar. 1966-68: 26-30) explored the valley thoroughly and
Tessitori had an over-ambitious but well planned brought to light Stone Age industries, natural caves
scheme for the bardic and historical survey of the six and rock shelters. In 1970-71, R.C. Agrawal and Vijai
principal states of Jodhpur, Bikaner, Udaipur, Bundi, Kumar conducted a systematic exploration work in
Jaipur and Jaisalmer. He defined the aim of his work the districts of Jaipur, Bharatpur, Sikar, Alwar and
“to explore as completely as possible in search for Jhunjhunu and a number of protohistoric sites were
manuscripts, inscriptions and other antiquities, discovered by the team members (Agrawal 1978a:
compile a descriptive catalogue of the most important 72-75, 1978b: 123-24, 1979a: 91-92, 1979b: 159-
bardic and historical manuscripts discovered some 160, 1980a: 89-91, 1980b: 92, 1981a: 70-80, 1981b:
of the most interesting bardic poems.” He took 25-31, 1981c: 59-63, 1981d: 69-71, 1984a: 157-162,
up the work in Jodhpur and Bikaner areas during 1984b: 89-95, Agrawal and Kumar 1976: 241-44,
1915-19 and published the progress report of his 1982: 125-135, 1993: 125-135).
work in Journal of Asiatic society of Bengal. He
also brought out the descriptive catalogue of the After 1950, H.D. Sankalia (Sankalia 1956:
bardic and historical manuscripts from Jodhpur 99-100), S.R. Rao (IAR 1954-55: 58, 1955-56: 68,
and Bikaner states. In the scheme of his survey, 1956-57: 5,8, 1957-58: 45), M.N. Deshpande (IAR
antiquity played an important part and he did not 1953-54: 37), K.V. Soundara Rajan (IAR 1955-56:
slacken his pace, from town to town, from village to 68), K.N. Dikshit (IAR 1962-63: 70), B. Allchin,
village, in collecting the stampages of the epigraphs, A.S. Goudie, K.T.M. Hedge (Allchin et al. 1978)
inscribed memorial pillars, sculptures, terracotta, and V.N. Misra (Misra 1967) made a substantial
coins, portable antiquities and also discovering contribution in the preshistoric studies of the
80 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

state. Misra’s (Misra 1967) explorations on Banas, Kot Qasim in the north to Ramganar in the south
Berach and Luni basin added a lot of knowledge of with a view to ascertaining the migrational pattern of
Prehistoric age of Rajasthan. Paleolithic tools have the protohistoric people and tracing the calender of
been reported from the districts of Pali, Barmer, archaeological cultures of the area. The exploration
Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, revealed thirty sites containing antiquities from
Chittaurgarh, Jaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, protohistoric times down to the medieval period.
Sirohi, Kota and Sawai Madhopur. The discovery Protohistoric remains, mainly comprising ceramics,
of Mesolithic sites in different parts of Rajasthan were noticed at Qadain, Karnikot and Ramnagar on
is very interesting in as much that more than dozen the eastern bank, and Palawa and Helmana Khurd
of such sites have been discovered even in Jaipur, on the western bank. The protohistoric red ware,
Alwar, Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts, all along the the available types being dishes and vase, bears
river beds of Kantli, Sahibee (Sabi), Sota, Dohan resemblances to the Ochre-coloured pottery of the
and Kansawati (Allchin et al. 1978, IAR 1962-63: Ganga valley. On certain sherds dark brown polish
70; 1976-77: 45, 1978-79: 20, 1979-80: 64, 1987- was also noticed. It appears that the protohistoric
88:100-101, 1988-89: 76, 1990-91: 59-60). In the migrations had taken place along the eastern bank of
course of exploration, Shri B. S. Negi of the Delhi Sahibi. The early historical pottery comprising the
Circle of the Survey discovered sites yielding Kushana and Rangmahal red ware types and coarse
Painted Grey Ware at Babain, Bagdhari, Bhandor, grey ware came from Badawas, Sehali Kalan, Tigaon,
Birawi, Sewer, Sinpini and Tatamar. Besides, early Gangapur, Bagheri, Sailkhara, Ajarka, Tejpura,
historical pottery was collected from all the sites Babiriya, Ramnagar, Bijwara, Jalabas, Sanauli and
and a few sherds of black-and-red ware from Sewer Khori. Medieval forts were located at Karnikot,
(IAR 1977-78: 46). In 1978-79, again B.S. Negi Sarai Kalan, and Bijwara. Bronze images of the
discovered 11 PGW and six historical sites (IAR Jaina pantheon were noticed in a temple at Sanauli
1978-79: 19) from Bharatpur district. In the same (IAR 1980-81: 51, 55). A. K. Khanna of Delhi Circle
season, Shri K.P. Chaudhary of the Delhi Circle of of the Archaeological Survey of India discovered
the Archaeological Survey of India noticed sites sites of the Kushana period at Badla, Bajora, Goth,
belonging to historical times at Raisisi and Rawan Hodaheli, Khelpur, Nandwari and Parbeni, apart
ka Dehra in Alwar Taluk and Tatarpur, Thikani from sites of the Rangmahal affiliation at Amarpur,
and Thikani ka Bas in Kishangarh taluka of Alwar Dungarawara, Googrod and Kodiya in the Rajgarh
District (IAR 1978-79: 19). In 1979-80, Vijay tahsil of Alwar district (IAR 1981-82: 55). R.
Kumar, Shyam Nandan, Harish Chandra Mishra, P. Sharma, B. P. Saxena, D. P. Sinha and A. K.
K.L. Meena, Krishna Lal and Jodha Ram under the Khanna of the Delhi Circle of the Archaeological
direction of Shri R.C. Agrawal of the Department of Survey explored the Neelkanth valley and found
Archaeology and Museums, conducted explorations Lower Palaeolithic tools comprising Acheulian
in the districts of Alwar, Banswara, Bharatpur, handaxes and a cleaver along the foothills at Garh
Bhilwara, Chittaurgarh, Dungarpur, Jaipur, (Neelkanth) in District Alwar (IAR 1981-82: 99).
Jhunjhunu, Sawai Madhopur, Sikar and Udaipur Again A.K. Khanna discovered a number of sites
and reported a number of sites in the areas (IAR from Alwar district in the season of 1984-85 (IAR
1979-80: 62-65). The sturdy pottery and microlithic 1984-85: 69-70).
tools were reported from archaeological site of
Bavariya of the same village near Kharnali river in During the last two decades, more than 18 rock
Alwar district (IAR 1979-80: 62). C. Margabandhu art sites have been discovered and explored in this
and R. P. Sharma, assisted by Budhi Singh, Gurnam area. In 1992, Sahibi river valley was explored by
Dass and D. D. Dogra of the Archaeological Survey M.L. Sharma and Late Shri P.T. Sharma (Sharma
of India explored the banks of the river Sahibi from et al 1992: 84) from rock art point of view. Twenty
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 81

eight shelters with paintings were discovered at and Museums (IAR 1961-62: 38). Along with a
16 sites in the Sahibi river valley of Jaipur, Sikar water channel on the eastern edge of the village,
and Alwar district. Few petroglyph sites were also the locality from Bhopala to Kola Ka Baas, covers
located. Rock art in red colour depicts zigzag lines, approximately 15 kilometres is important from
handprints, animals, cattle rearing, carts, Sankha archaeological point of view. Not only prehistoric
like designs, human activities etc. ranging in time tools, but ochre coloured pottery, black and red ware
from Mesolithic age of hunting food gathering and Painted grey ware poetry pieces are collected
to the historic period. Rock paintings have been from this area. This nala further merges into Chhitoli
discovered from Ajeetgarh, Sohanpura, and Baandh.
Bheetaro in the district of Sikar. Dantala, Kalabhata,
Viratnagar (Bheem Dungri, Gnaesh Dungri, Beejak During the survey, 3 tools consisted handaxe,
Dungri), Gothari, Papda ki Dungari, Jaisinghpura, flake tool and unifacial scraper were collected from
Bhainsawal, Baneri, Brahmakunda, Jeenagaur, here (Fig. 6). The unifacial scraper is made on dark
sarund etc. rock art sites also discovered by scholars brown quartzite stone. It is comparatively beautiful
and researchers (Sharma et al 1992: 84, Kumar and tool. It has 15 centimetre length, 9.5 centimetre
Sharma 1995: 56-59, Sharma and Meena 2004: 47- width and 5 centimetre breadth. This tool is prepared
52, Sharma 1996: 153-159, Sharma 1997: 25-35, on core. First of all, the original stone was flaked
Sharma 2001, Sharma 2005: 5-25, Sharma 2009: from dorsal face. Further, right portion was flaked
57-89, Sharma et al 2009a: 130-143, Sharma et al from below portion, so that the butt end may be
2009b: 1-11). prepared. The left portion was prepared as working
end. The tool has been flaked from lower portion
Historically, the archaeological research and also. Subsequently three small flakes were removed
explorations conducted so far in this area has from working portion also. In the back side, right
amassed quite a good amount of scientific evidences side is comparatively similar to dorsal portion of
for existence of prehistoric man. Different places the tool. 75% of the ventral portion has cortex also.
in this area provide us with inklings of presence Remaining part of the tool has been flaked with
of Stone Age culture. At the banks of Sanvan control flaking technique.
River, near Bhangarh, pebble tools have been
found (Sankalia 1974: 68). Bairath (Dikshit 1966- Another tool is of almond shaped handaxe,
68: 26-30), Dingharia, Bhoopsera, Chula, Kala prepared on dark brown quartzite stone. On the
pahar (Kumar & Sharma 1995: 56-59) and Jhirna basis of typology, flaking, size and utility this
(Sharma & Meena 2004: 47-52) are also newly tool may be put in the series of lower Palaeolithic
discovered Stone Age sites (Sharma 1997: 25-35, tools. The working part and central part of the tool
2001). Some very important rock art sites in this has specially prepared. The butt end portion is
region (Sharma et al 1992: 84) especially in Alwar comparatively thinner. This tool is prepared on core.
district are reported by the scholars (Sharma 2005: From the obverse portion of the tool, comparatively
5-25). bigger flakes are detached. Although reverse portion
consists cortex also. The fore and lower part of the
tool has been flaked similarly. Butt end portion is
Dhigariya flat surface. There are small flakes are removed from
that side. There are cortex is available on reverse
Dhigariya village is located 10 kilometres east of portion of the tool in lower part. It has almond shape.
Viratngar, just before the Thanagazi in the district. The butt portion is comparatively similar “U” shape.
In earlier surveys, the Palaeolithic tools were This tool has 13 centimetre length, 7.5 centimetre
recovered by officials of Department of Archaeology width, and 3.3 centimetre breadth.
82 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Another tool, marked as flake tool is prepared on seen. Both of the edges of the tool are comparatively
dark quartzite grey stone. It has 13 centimetre length, similar. It may be assume that this tool is prepared
4.6 centimetre width and 2 centimetre breadth. It is by use of wooden hammer. Another handaxe is
assumed that probably this is broken part of any tool. also made on quartzite stone in heart shape which
There are flaking marks on the tool. Flaking is done length is 16.4 centimetre, width 9.3 centimetres and
from both sides of the same. 4.2 centimetre breadth. It is made on core. There
is cortex is available on obverse side of the tool.
The dorsal portion is lesser flaked in comparison to
Harsora ventral portion. This tool represents the developed
Acheulian culture. The working end part of the
This is the most important village of the district tool is comparatively longer and asymmetrical
from archaeological point of view. The village of shape with “U” design. It is noted that this type
Harsora (27˚46.8’ North Lat., 76˚26.9’ East Long.) tool may be used for detaching the skin of animals
is located in Bansur tehsil of Behror subdivision of from their body and also trees. It is also assumed
Alwar district. This village can be approachable via that the working end of the tool was used as clever.
Alwar, Behror and Kotputli. The town of Bansur is The edge of the working end part of the same is in
approximately 15 kilometre east on Kotputli-Alwar lunate shaped. The flakes removed from the part are
road. Harsora is 20 kilometre away in northern of different sizes. There are comparatively longer
direction of Bansur town. The nearest railway and symmetrical shape flakes detached from edges
station of Alwar is located 60 kilometres away from of the tools. The reverse portion is fully flaked and
here. The flowing of water from the hills during the the surface is rough. There are two small flakes are
rainy season joins the Banganga river which merges removed from former portion of the reverse side of
in Sabi river in northern direction. This area is 10 tool. Both of the edges are symmetrical. The butt end
kilometres away from Sabi river catchment area. The portion is in “U” shape.
hills located here are formed of Granite boulders,
located in south of the Harsora village. There are two Another handaxe tool may be placed in
rock shelters are painted in which one shelter bears developed handaxe culture. This tool is prepared on
archaeological deposit also. A number of microliths flake of quartzite stone of milky white colour. It has
are also collected from here. This shelter is located in 13.8 centimetres length, 7.6 centimetre width, 2.4
south-western part of the hill having 10 meter height centimetre breadth. The working end portion of the
from surrounding level of the hill. The shelter is in tool in obverse side is flat and soppy. It is thinner
good condition. In the context of Palaeolithic tools, comparatively to another tool of the collection. The
5 handaxe and two cleaver tools are also collected slim and comparatively lower wide flakes has been
during the survey of the area (Fig. 7). detached. Most of the flakes have been detached
from right edge of the tool. The striking platform is
One of the handaxes, first tool is prepared also seen in the centre. There are cortex is available
on quartzite stone. This tool has length of 17.5 on the obverse side. Both of the edges are straight
centimetre, 8.4 centimetre width and 2.5 centimetre and parallel. The butt end of the tool is of “U” shape.
breadth. A major flake has been detached from right
side of obverse portion of the tool. The former or Another handaxe is prepared on quartzite stone
working end portion of the tool is broken. Cortex of brown colour. It has 14 centimetre length, width
may be seen in central portion. The butt end portion 8.3 centimetres and 2.9 centimetre breadth. This tool
of the tool is of “U” shape. This tool is prepared on is prepared on core. It is in almond shape. Cortex
core, finished from both of the sides. The working may be seen in reverse side. On the obverse side,
edges have been broken. Deep flake scars are also three flakes have been detached from left side. The
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 83

striking platform at butt end may be also seen. The butte end portion of the tool is of “V” shape. This
butt end portion of the tool is of “U” shape. tool may be compare with developed Acheulian
culture of the region.
Another handaxe is prepared on quartzite stone
of light brown colour. It has length of 13 centimetre,
9.5 centimetre width and 3.5 centimetre breadth.
Kala Pahar
The side ages has been flaked from the obverse
side. There are also retouching marks at the edges The hill called as Kala Pahar extended in 6 to 10
of the tool. Cortex is also there on obverse side. kilometre area from Harsora village. This hill has its
The butt end is of “V” shape and the remaining orientation from north to south. Due to the blackish
part is prepared on roundish core. The edges have colour of the hill, local people called this hill as “Kala
been broken for giving the “V” shape. The deep Pahar”. In the north western side of the hill, there are
rectangular flake is also detached from working three comparatively small hillocks are located where
end portion of the tool. Stepped flaking technique is grey granite colour boulder stones are located. There
used for making tool. Both of the edges are parallel are 6 rock shelters bearing paintings in which 2 bear
and comparatively similar. It appears that tool was cupules while remains bear paintings. Two handaxes
beautifully prepared. Although the right portion of and one clever tool have been recovered from the
the tool is comparatively wide. area (Fig. 8). One of the handaxes is prepared on
Along with handaxes, two cleavers are also white quartzite stone. This tool has 14 centimetre
collected from the area. One of the cleavers is made length, 8.5 centimetre width and 5.5 centimetre
on core. It has 17 centimetre length, 4 centimetre breadth. Due to the poor quality of the stone, the
width and 10.9 centimetre breadth. There are cortex flakes are not similar and symmetrical, although it is
is available on both sides. It may be assumes that this fully flaked. Sloppy flakes have been removed from
tool was used for both handaxe and clever purposes. both of the edges of the tool. Roundish flakes have
The one of the edges is in shape of “V’ while another also been detached from reverse portion of the same
corner is comparatively wider. Both of the edges tool. Cortex may be seen in lower portion. The butt
are parallel to each other. Obverse portion is more end of the tools is of “U” shape.
worked. The tool is prepared on light brownish
Another handaxe is prepared on dark brown
quartzite stone. The former part of working portion
quartzite stone core. It has 14.3 centimetre length,
is in sloppy and more flaked comparative to another
10.3 centimetre width and 6.2 centimetre breadth.
part. This tool is bigger in comparison to other tools.
This tool is flaked almost from all corner and given
On the basis of flaking, tool typology, size, this tool
a beautiful shape. On the obverse side, lunate shape
may be placed in the Acheulian culture. The working
flakes have been removed and sloppy working edge
end is comparatively wide. Both of the edges are
is prepared. There are beautiful flakes are detached
parallel to each other and equal to “V” shape.
from corner of the edges of both sides of the tool.
Another cleaver is also prepared on light brown The middle portion is comparative thinner. There are
quartzite stone. It has 12.2 centimetre length, 7.5 rectangular flakes are detached from butt end portion.
centimetre width and 3.5 centimetre breadth. It is It makes sloppy portion so that the butt end may be
made on core. Both sides have cortex also. Controlled catch easily in hands. There are right side has been
flaking technique is used on both sides. Small flakes flaked from reverse portion. Cortex is also available.
have been detached from both of the edges of the Probably the working end has been broken.
tool in obverse and reverse sides. Flakes have been
detached for making parallel to both sides also. The The cleaver recovered from here is prepared
working end is comparatively thin and wide. The on quartzite stone. It has 13.1 centimetre length, 9
84 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

centimetre width and 3.5 centimetre breadth. The The stone nature is not good for preparing tools. This
working end of this tool is wider. Signs of Primary tool is not fully flaked. The flakes are detached not
and secondary flaking may be seen on the obverse properly. There are two big flakes are detached which
and reverse side. Small and medium sized flakes are are comparatively long but in narrow. Two small flakes
detached from edges of left side in obverse portion. are detached from butt end portion also. Ventral part
Somewhere these flakes are deep and somewhere is also flaked totally. Symmetrical flakes are detached
shallow. Both of the edges are parallel and working from both of the sides of ventral side. Cortex is also
end is comparatively good and wider. The butt end available at there. It has “U” butt end. Both of the
portion is of “V” shape. There are cortex is also edges are parallel. The working end portion is wider.
available. The striking platform is also seen on the
Another handaxe is prepared on medium brown
surface of the tool.
quartzite stone which has 12.5 centimetre length, 7.5
centimetre width and 4 centimetre breadth. Both of
the edges are not parallel. Somewhere tool is taking
Jhirna
round shape. There are small flakes are detached
Another site called as Jhirna is located southern from working end. Flakes have been detached for
portion of the Kala Pahar. There are rock shelters preparation of working end. Cortex is also available
bearing paintings at this place. During the rainy on stone tool. This tool is prepared on core.
season, water accumulates in lower portion of Comparatively deeper flakes have been detached for
the nearby area. There are different sizes round levelling of the tool from both of the sides. The butt
granite boulders may be seen. The shelters bears end portion is of “U” shape.
rock paintings on the ceiling and central portion. 3 The discoid tool is prepared on light blue
handaxes, 2 discoids and 2 flake tools are collected quartzite stone core which length is 11.3 centimetre,
during surveys of the area (Fig. 9). width 11.1 centimetres and breadth 7 centimetre.
Due to the environmental conditions, this tool is
First handaxe is prepared on dark brown
rolled. There are light brown patination is also in
quartzite stone flake, which length is 14 centimetre,
left side of the tool. Primarily, comparatively bigger
width 10 centimetres and breadth 3 centimetre.
flakes are detached on the ventral face of the tool
There are patination is also seen on this tool. The
but there are secondary marks are also there. On
working portion is flaked with detaching of small
the ventral face, deep flakes are detached from left
flakes. Big flake has been detached in right side of
side of the tool. There are striking platform is seen
dorsal face. The length of the detached flake is more
in the centre. Stepped flaking is seen on the tool. On
than width. The butt end portion is of “U” shape.
the dorsal face, cortex is also there. There are small
Both of the edges are parallel of the tool. The ventral
flakes are also removed from edges of the tool. There
face is totally flaked with detaching of different sized
are signs of comparatively deep and big flakes are
flakes. Cortex is available in lower portion. There
also on this part of the tool.
are some flakes removed from cortex area. The tool
is prepared bifacial so that it can be used easily. It is Another Discoid tool is prepared on dark
comparatively lighter in comparison to other tools. brownish chert stone. It has 9.6 centimetre length,
width 7.5 centimetres and 8 centimetre breadth. It
Another handaxe is prepared on whitish colour has been flaked from all around. There are cortex
quartzite stone. It has 13.4 centimetre length, 7.7 may be seen on ventral face. Small flakes are also
centimetre width and 4.7 centimetre width. This detached from corners of the tool. The flaking from
tool is not flaked properly. There are small flakes are corners also informs about the stepped flaking. There
detached from working end portion of dorsal face. are round deep marks are also seen on dorsal face.
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 85

Toli breadth. The dorsal and ventral face of the tool is

totally flaked. There are striking platform is also
Another site called as “Toli” is located 150 meter seen on the dorsal face of the same. Comparatively
away in western direction from Kala Pahar. There big flakes have been removed from the tools. The
are some round granite boulders are located. Locally lower portion or butt end portion is sloppy and
this place is called as “Toli”. There are rock paintings comparatively thinner for using the tool. Both of
in one of the shelters on vertical surface. 3 handaxe the edges of the tool are parallel to each other.
tools and one discoid is collected from here.
Another tool collected from here is discoid tool
One of the handaxes is made on light brownish made on white quartzite stone. It has length of 10.9
quartzite stone. It has 16.1 centimetres length, width centimetre, 9 centimetre width and 5 centimetre
9.8 centimetres and 4 centimetre breadth. It has been breadth. It is comparatively rolled tool. The flaking
rolled. The dorsal face has been flaked in right side work is not properly done on the tool. Secondary
and in the central part of the right edge. Original flaking is observed on the edges of the both sides
cortex is also seen in the centre. Comparatively of the tool. Three flakes are removed from butte end
bigger flakes have been detached from left side of portion.
the dorsal face. Small flakes have also been detached
on dorsal side. Butt end has sloppy surface for easily
catching the tool during the utilization. Small flakes Khola
are detached from ventral face of the tool. Most of
the part have original cortex also. Although both of The site of Khola is situated on western portion of
the edges of this tool are parallel to each other but southern edge of Kala Pahar. There is a shelter with
one is more waiver comparison to other. The butt comparatively bigger rock is located in the foothill.
end portion is in “U” shape. There are Acheulian tools are collected from this
area. When we throw stones on the rock, it sounds.
Another handaxe is of medium size, which has
Local people called this rock as “Bajni Bhat”. There
11.8 centimetres length, width 7.2 centimetres and
is another stone is located as sitting place before this
3.7 centimetre breadth. This tool is prepared on light
shelter. Habitation remains may be seen between both
bluish colour of quartzite stone. Dorsal and ventral
of the stones. Three fine handaxes are collected from
face is totally flaked of this tool. Small flakes are
this area. These tools are comparatively developed
detached from working end while around the edges,
and beautiful.
comparatively bigger flakes are detached. The
working end is comparatively broader and wider.
One of the handaxes is prepared on white
It is assumed that this tool was used for detaching
quartzite stone. It may be placed in developed
the skin of animals as well as similar purposes.
Acheulian culture. This tool has 18 centimetre length,
Striking platform on the dorsal face of the tool in
4 centimetre width and 7.5 centimetre breadth. The
the centre may be seen. There are deeper flakes have
working end portion is in good condition also.
been removed from right side on the dorsal face. It
This tool is flaked by controlled flaking technique.
is also observed that controlled flaking technique is
Sometimes, the small flakes have been detached
used for the same. Stone hammer was used for the
after removing of big flakes. It also informs about
detaching of the flakes. The butt end portion is in
the secondary flaking technology. The cortex can be
“U” shape of the tool.
seen on the ventral face only. Butt end portion is in
Another handaxe tool is prepared on light “U” shape. This tool is prepared on core. On the
bluish colour quartzite stone which length is 10.8 basis of shape and developed size, this tool may be
centimetre, width 7.7 centimetres and 5.2 centimetre placed in later phase of Lower Palaeolithic period.
86 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

It is assumes that this tool was prepared with extra unifacial tool’s length is 11.9 centimetre, width 7.3
ordinary efforts. This tool is in almond shaped. The centimetres and breadth 4 centimetre. There are
flakes are detached by use of wooden hammer. comparatively long and narrow flakes are detached
from working end of dorsal face. The edges are also
Another handaxe prepared on whitish quartzite flaked. Some narrow flakes of minor size are also
stone has 14.9 centimetre length, 3 centimetre width removed from left edge of the tool. The striking
and 7 centimetre breadth. This tools is seems to be platform is seen in the centre. Cortex is also there.
prepared on flake of a core. Both sides of the tool
are properly flaked. Big and small both types of Another core tool, prepared on light brownish
flakes are removed. The butt end portion is properly quartzite stone flake, is of 12.2 centimetre length,
flaked so that the tool can be handled easily. Both 7.2 centimetre width and 3.7 centimetre breadth.
edges are parallel to each other. Cortex is also seen Comparatively this is triangular but the lower part of
on the dorsal face. The butt end portion is in “U” the same is in roundish shape. The butt end portion
shape. There are marks of retouching also seen on is sloppy due to the detaching of flakes. There are
the edges of the tool. There are totally flaking from rectangular and half circular shape flakes are also
ventral face. No cortex is available there. The flakes detached. The striking platform may be observed in
removed are comparatively deeper. It is also seen the central part of the tool. The butt end portion is
that the secondary flaking is also done on both sides comparatively wider.
of the same. Although there are deep flakes are
removed from edges also. This tool is prepared on Another tool named discoid Levalloisian tool,
good quartzite stone. Both of the edges are parallel is prepared on light brownish quartzite stone. It has
to each other. The flakes are removed by controlled length of 8.6 centimetre, width 6.3 centimetres and
flaking technique by wooden hammer. The striking 3.8 centimetre breadth. The tool has been totally
platform is also there. flaked. There are small flakes has been removed
from working end and butt end on the dorsal face.
The third handaxe, has almond shape, is Triangular flakes are removed from butt end portion
prepared on light brown quartzite flake stone. It has also. Same like this, the ventral face is also flaked.
12.7 centimetre length, 4 centimetre width and 8.7 It may be assumed that the prehistoric man was
centimetre breadth. This tool is properly flaked. This detaching the flakes with the use of small sized
tool is made by controlled flaking technique, may stones. There are small flakes are also removed from
be placed in developed acheulian culture. There are edges of ventral face. Both of the edges are parallel
signs of retouching also seen on the edges. Cortex is to each other.
seen on the butt end portion of dorsal face. The both
of the edges are parallel to each other. The butt end Another discoid Levalloisian tool is prepared
portion is of “U” shape. There are secondary flaking on medium brown colour round quartzite pebble
is also seen on the edges of the ventral face of tool. stone flake. It has length of 7 centimetre width 7
Dorsal and ventral faces are comparatively similar centimetres and 2.7 centimetre breadth. There are
to each other. It is also seen that there are deeper small flakes are detached from working end which
flakes are detached from ventral face, make similar also shows stepped flaking on the tool. The big flakes
to dorsal side. are also detached from working end for making tool
for properly working. Both edge of the dorsal face
Some of the Middle Palaeolithic tools are also are flaked properly. The striking platform may be
collected from this site consisted scrapers, triangular seen in the centre of the tool.
core tools, Levalloisian flakes and handaxe (Fig.
10). One of the unifacial scraper tools is prepared Handaxe is made on flake of quartzite stone;
on light brownish quartzite round pebble stone. This which has length of 10.7 centimetres, width
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 87

2.4 centimetres and 6 centimetre breadth. It is Two middle palaeolithic tools consisted medium
comparatively small tool. There are big flakes are size of handaxe and scraper is collected from this
removed from dorsal face. It has almond shape. area (Fig. 11). The handaxe tool is prepared on white
The butt end portion is of “U” shape. It has parallel quartzite stone which length is 13.7 centimetre,
edges. The tool is flaked from both sides. There are width 8.4 centimetres and breadth 4.7 centimetre.
cortex is available on dorsal side also. On the basis It is almond shape. The small flakes are removed
of size, shape and design this tool may be placed in from working end of dorsal face. Subsequently
the category of middle Palaeolithic tool. This tool comparatively bigger flakes are removed from butt
is prepared by the using of wooden hammer. The end. There are striking platform may be seen in the
flakes detached from left sides are sloppy outwards. centre. Indication of controlled flaking technique is
The striking platform may be seen in the centre. also observed. There are evidences of round flaking
There are small flaking work is also done in lower also. Big fakes are removed from ventral face.
part. The butt end portion is in shape of sloppy towards
corners and edges. Cortex is not available on ventral
Another tool of Levalloisian flake is made face. The edges of both side of the tool are not equal
on dark brown chert stone, which length is 6.6 to each other.
centimetre, width 7.5 centimetres and breadth 2.4
centimetre. This tool is prepared on flake. There are Another tool is scraper, made on white quartzite
small flakes have been removed from working end pebble stone. It has length of 11 centimetre, width
of both sides dorsal and as well as ventral. The butt 6.5 centimetres and 3.2 centimetre breadth. The
end portion is similar to as “V” shape. It is assumed working end has round shape of the tool. There are
that this tool was used as scraping purposes. There small flakes are removed from working end. It shows
are small flakes are detached after retouching on controlled flaking as well as secondary flaking also.
ventral face. The edges of both sides of ventral face also flaked
completely. The striking platform can be observed
Another Levalloisian flake is also made on
on the tool. Both of the faces of the tool have cortex
chert stone. There are small flakes are detached from
also. It is noted that wooden hammer is used for
dorsal face of the tool. It has 7.5 centimetre length, 3
preparing this tool.
centimetre width and 8.4 centimetre breadth. Cortex
is also available on dorsal face. The working end is
as similar as a cleaver tool. The butt end portion is
in “U” shape. There are lower number of flakes are Chula
removed in ventral face. The working portion of the
The hill of “Chula” is situated 10 kilometres away
ventral face is retouched. On the basis of size and
from Harsora in southern direction. 4 kilometre length
shape, this tool may be placed in category of middle
lower height hill is located in southern direction in the
Palaeolithic tools.
area. The hill is formed by granite boulders. The area
can be approachable from Bhupsera village, situated
Chatuala 22 kilometres away from Kotputli on Kotputli-
Alwar road. The village of Chula is one kilometre
Another sheltering place is called as “Chatuala” has away from Chula village in eastern direction. The
a tortoise shape shelter located in the foothill of the hill comes under the village of Chula so it is called
same. The shelter has its orientation from north west as “hill of Chula”. A temple of Sundari Devi is
to south east. The ceiling of the shelter bears rock located in northern edge of the hill, so it called as
painting. Stone tools of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic “Devi Ki Dungari”. The water accumulates from the
period are collected from nearby of the shelter. hill merges in River Sahibi through Banganga river.
88 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

There are deposits of archaeological remains in dorsal face, the right side is making as working end.
eastern edge of the foothill. There are some shelters There are no any types of secondary flaking on the
bearing rock painting also. Two scrapers, one cleaver tool.
and one flake tool is collected from here.
Another scraper tool is prepared on milky
The unifacial scraper tool is prepared on white quartzite white stone. It has length of 10.5 centimetre,
quartzite sand stone. It has length of 13 centimetre, width 7.6 centimetres and breadth 4 centimetre. There
width 10 centimetres and breadth 3 centimetre. are small sized flakes are removed from working end
There are two small flakes are removed from left of dorsal face. The small flakes are removed from
side in dorsal face. Although before that, big flakes right side which is working end. Striking platform
were also removed. There are marks of detaching is also seen at there. There are also flaking has been
big flakes also. Left side has given roundish shape done on ventral face of the tool. Small flakes are also
for easy use. There are three big flakes are removed removed from the same area.
for making working end of the tool. Cortex may be
seen on the dorsal face. It is observed that this tool Another bifacial scraper tool is prepared on
is prepared on flake. Three minor flakes are removed light brownish quartzite stone. This tool is prepared
from ventral face also. There are cortex can be seen. on flake. It has 12 centimetre length, 6.1 centimetre
Both of the edges are parallel to each other. width and 3 centimetre breadth. The left portion
of the tool works as working end. Both sides have
Another scraper is made on light brownish controlled flaking and small flakes have been
quartzite stone flake. It has length of 12.2 centimetre, removed from dorsal as well as ventral face.
width 9 centimetres and breadth 3.5 centimetre.
The former portion of dorsal face is comparatively Another flake tool is made on light white
thinner and the surface is in roundish shape. There quartzite stone. It is 8 centimetre long, 4.9 centimetre
are two big flakes are detached from working end width and 3.2 centimetre breadth. This tool is in shape
of the tool. Cortex can be seen in ventral face. The of a triangular. The working end is comparatively
big flakes are detached in sloppy side of butt end straight.
portion. Stepped flaking also observed.

Cleaver is prepared on white quartzite stone. Dadikar Hajipur

This tool’s length is 8.8 centimetre, width 8
centimetres and breadth 3.5 centimetre. The length Behind the fort of Balakot, which is located on the
and width of the tool are comparatively similar to top of the hill in Alwar, a mettle road leads to some
each other. The tool is broken from lower side which interior villages such as Dadikar, Hajipur of Dehara
also indicate that probably this tool was used with Village Panchayat. These villages are located at a
hafted in wooden. There are big flakes are detached distance of 10 km from Balakot fort. These villages
from dorsal as well as ventral face. Cortex is also are surrounded towards north, south and west by two
available. The flakes are removed by controlled parallel lines of hills of Aravali range. Some medieval
flaking technique. This tool is prepared on core. structural remains are also observed in the south east
part of the village of Dadikar. It is very interesting
There are four middle Palaeolithic tools feature that the Dadikar village is also settled on the
consisted 3 scrapers and one flake tool (Fig. 12). The heap of slag. This village lies 2 km south of Hajipur.
one of the scraper tools is made on light brownish Nearby a beautiful bowl shape valley exists, which
quartzite stone. It has length of 10.6 centimetre, has its opening towards the east. It extends south to
width 8.4 centimetres and breadth 3.7 centimetre. north from 27° 34’ to 27° 35.5’ North Lat. and the
This tool is prepared on round pebble stone. On the 76° 34’ East Long. Inner part of the hill, which has
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 89

medium height (537 MSL), have different type of but they are small in size. Cortex is also in ventral
boulders made of granite. There are different types portion. Both of the edges are parallel to each other.
of cavities which were used by human beings for
a long time since prehistoric period for sheltering. Discoid tool is prepared on milky white quartzite
The archaeological remains have been collected stone which has 12 centimetre length, width 3.5
from these shelters. There are total tool number is centimetres and breadth 10 centimetres. This tool is
eight in which one handaxe, 3 scrapers, 2 cleavers prepared on round pebble which is flaked from all
and 1 core tool and 1 discoid consisted (Fig. 13). sides. Although some of the small flakes are detached
The scraper tool is prepared on light bluish quartzite from corners around the pebbles also. This tool may
stone. It has length of 13.3 centimetre, width 3.5 be placed in category of lower Palaeolithic artifacts.
centimetres and breadth 10.1 centimetre. This tool The butt end portion is of “V” shape. There are cortex
is prepared on flake. Although this tool has “V” is seen on the dorsal face. It is observed that the flakes
shaped handle but both of the edges are wider. There are removed through controlled flaking technique.
are striking platform can be seen on the dorsal face. There are similar flakes are detached on dorsal face.
Cortex is not present on the tool. Small flakes have Some of the small flakes are also detached. Secondary
been detached from working end. It is observed that flaking is also done on the tool.
wooden hammer is used for removing small flakes One core tool is also collected prepared on
from the tool. brownish black quartzite stone. It has 13 centimetres
length, width 5.5 centimetres and 10.4 centimetre
This cleaver tool is prepared on milky quartzite
breadth. Small size flakes are detached from this tool.
stone which has length of 14.3 centimetres, width
Evidences of minor flaking are also seen. There is no
8.7 centimetres and 4 centimetre breadth. This tool
cortex on the dorsal face. This tool is asymmetrical
may be placed in category of flake tools. There is
triangular.
cortex is available in some portion of working end
of the tool. The long flakes are detached from both Some of the upper Palaeolithic chert tools are
edges of the same. There are secondary flaking may also collected from these painted rock shelters (Fig.
be seen on the edges also. Some deep flakes are also 14).
removed. Butt end is of “U”. It has comparatively
uncontrolled flaking. There are triangular flake is One middle Palaeolithic handaxe is also
removed from butt end also. The flakes are removed collected from here. It is 12 centimetre long, 4
from both edges are resemblance in size and shape. centimetre width and 9 centimetre breadth. Flakes
Stepped flaking is also seen on this tool. have been removed from both of the edges of dorsal
face. It is made on core. The flakes are removed from
This scraper tool is prepared on brown quartzite working end. The butt end is of “U” shape. Both of
stone which has length of 12.5 centimetres, width 4.8 the edges are parallel to each other. There are only
centimetres and breadth 7.7 centimetres. This tool is edges are flaked from ventral face. Both of the
prepared on flake. There are cortex is available in the corners are retouched. There is no cortex on butt end
central part of dorsal. Flakes have been removed by portion. This tool is prepared on rectangular flake.
controlled flaking technique from edges of the tool. The butt end portion is wide and heavy from using
The butt end portion is also flaked from both of the point of view.
sides a dorsal and as well as ventral side. There are
flaking is also done on working end portion also. Some of these shelters having pictographic
The butt end portion is of “U” shape. There are evidences on their walls and ceilings (Sharma et al
comparatively bigger flakes are removed from left 2008: 83-88, Sharma et al 2012a: 102-111, Sharma
side. Although the flakes are removed from centre et al 2012b: 59-72).
90 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Currently, some of the shelters are using by of the most important rock shelters is located at the
“Sadhus” for isolation from public and perform southern part of hill, in the right side of Shyamsa
meditation in the natural and peaceful environment. temple, approximately 150 meter above the MSL. It
Hence, this hill has some religious importance for has wide front area, facing eastern valley. This
the villagers. At the southern part of foothill area shelter has very important location from the view
there is a small well (Kui), which is called as point of safety. It is the largest shelter in this hill. Its
“Banjara ki Kui” by local villagers. According to a orientation is north to south. It has 11.65 meters wide
legend, once upon a time there was a Banjara opening towards east, 6 meters deep and 4.50 meter
(mobile traders), who constructed it on the occasion height. Its height reduces to 2.00 meter at the end.
of birth of a child. According to the lore, he was the Southern part of shelter is 16.30 meter long and
creator of the rock paintings on the walls and ceiling gradually narrows down to the extent of being closed
of the rock shelters. There is a modern temple known from eastern side. This side is 3.25 meter deep and 2
as Shyamsa temple at the top of the hill. Towards the meter high. The northern part of shelter which is
north, Geena-Manak and Jaipal baba’s small facing east is more important when considered from
temples are located on a rectangular small platform. point of view of availability of rock paintings. Some
Geena-Manak and Jaipal baba are probably those archaeological deposit also observed in this shelter.
monks who were stayed here for meditation and The rock art depicted is in the range of height varying
performed some other religious rituals in the past from 1.5m to 3.15 m and it has colourful diversity of
years. This is the only hill in this area which provided rock art. Paintings are made in different shades of
some natural facilities like sheltering and water for red colour like light red, bright red, dark red, violet
the ritual and meditation purposes. More than 200 red etc. Few pictures are made by black and white
rock shelters have been seen at these places and they colour also. All the pictures are not executed at a
are divided into two groups for study purpose, same time and not also in same colour. In the central
namely (1) Dadikar group and (2) Hajipur group. part of this shelter, a round shape large picture have
There are 173 rock shelters in Dadikar group, in some rays type lines towards the upper and lower
which twenty nine contains rock paintings where as part, indicates some important theme. Towards
Hajipur group has 144 rock shelters; only twenty northern part of it, there is a beautiful depiction of an
three are painted rock shelters. Most of the paintings elephant which is in motion with open mouth because
are depicted by use of Hematite. In the regarding of his trunk also straight and upward, looks like that he
motifs, a rectangular shape design is frequently is climbing to some upward direction. This figure,
drawn in the shelters (Total number of this type though made by simple lines, provides very important
designs: 28, Fig. 15). This type of design has a long information such as the environmental conditions of
tradition in Indian culture. Some human figures are this region and artistic approach of the artist etc.
also painted in this design. It indicates that it has a Downward to this figure, a wild buffalo (90 x 46 cm)
special importance. It may be a family or not. Local is depicted. Its lateral and visible portion is depicted.
people, most of them are Gurjars, believes that it was It is not a solitary figure, a masked hunter ready to
a beautiful home of deity, related to fertility cult hunt (Fig. 21). The hunter is also depicted with his
especially mother goddess of the children (Fig. 16). hunting equipments. It is pictorial evidence of the
Floral design is also frequently depicted in the hunting technique. Downwards, there is a group of
paintings. Execution of swastika is very prominent human beings depicted in this shelter. They are five
and stylistic (Fig. 17-18). These motifs must be in numbers. It may be a family. However, figures are
related with community beliefs and rituals. These depicted in the abstracted form but some facts are
symbols are using in daily life of various functions, clear. First figure (southern) depicts a man (30 X
rituals and festivals. A few shelters have ladder like 8cm), second is a child (10 X 4 cm) and third is a
structures in red and white color (Fig. 19-20). One woman (25 X 7 cm), while fourth and fifth are also
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 91

children (10 X 4 cm, 8 X 3.5 cm). Artist was very hunting process, but he was preferred to select this
careful in the depiction of woman. Though it was movement. It indicates that the Mesolithic artist was
highly abstracted and simple line drawing, but it is very careful for the selection of the themes of the
showing that the children are moving under the paintings. Hence, we must be very aware regarding
protection of the man and woman that may be the the study of rock art. At outer side of this structure,
parents. In this shelter there are two more remarkable upwards, there is a beautiful line drawing of a
figures. Thematically, one of them is fish like animal humped bull which has a prominent tail in realistic
which is presented in the desiccative manner. Inner form. It is very interesting that artist clearly indicated
part of the body is shown by three or four wavy lines the loose skin below the neck. Perhaps, it is not a
from snout to tail. Both the arms and leg are depicted solitary figure but shows some association of the
in the form of the fins. Lines and colour are totally hunting scene. Colour and lines are showing some
different from the previous figures. This colour is similarity with it. Eastern part of the hill has various
slightly violet red and lines are more thick. Similarly, types and size of rock shelters. Among these there
in another figure (60 X 24 cm), two forearms and are some painted rock shelters. Different types of
two legs are executed towards the outer side of the motifs are depicted in these shelters. Some of those
body portion (Fig. 22). Outer line of this motif is are very interesting, such as depiction of hunting
made by red colour and inner portion is filled with techniques and type of tools. Elephant, bull, buffalo,
white colour. This type of tradition is in general, horse and other animals are depicted in these
found at Panchmarhi region in central India. This paintings. Human figures are also depicted in
Figure is clearly superimposed by a light red curved various styles. Rectangular decorated motifs, floral
line drawing. Here is another line drawn abstracted designs and swastikas are also executed in a good
figure, in which nine members of a group of human numbers. Peacock depictions are general at the
beings are painted in black colour. They are in a Shyamsa hill.
queue and with the leader, who is in between and
well equipped with headgear. At northern upper part
of shelter, there is a beautiful hunting scene executed Samdha
with the fine lines. It is very informative figure of the
Mesolithic hunting technique. A double lined oval The village of Samdha (27° 48.95’ North, 76°25.5’
structure with an opening which looks like as an East) is located in Bansur tehsil of Behror subdivision
ambush is depicted. A deer is ready to enter in of Alwar district. A hill formed of Granite boulders is
ambush is executed at the opening and in the centre located in the village. From the area of foothill, some
of the structure; a masked hunter is also ready with of the microliths are collected. Some rock paintings
his equipment (weapon) to hunt this animal. For the of Mesolithic period also observed on the shelters of
hunt, hunter has a long shaft with Mesolithic tools the hill. There are some animal figures are depicted
(barbed shaft). It is very important depiction for the in these paintings.
presentation of Mesolithic technology adopted for
the hunting process. In this picture animal and hunter
both are presented in a special situation. Animal is in DISCUSSION
motion at the opening of ambush and most probable
he is entering in the ambush and in front of it, hunter The study of the archaeological materials in the
is ready to hunt this animal. Thematically, this above pages reveals an interesting image of the
indicates that the artist have selected a particular primitive man in Alwar district. It shows that during
movement of the event for painting. We know that the prehistoric period, the region was also inhabited
he was totally free for the selection of a theme, which by primitive man. We may now try to see how the
could be some time before it and may be after the prehistoric culture was developed through the lower
92 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

to upper palaeolithic in the specified region and also mostly employed in the preparation of core tools.
in nearby area. Prepared core technique is more common in this
culture than in the lower and middle palaeolithic
The lack of palaeontological evidences from
period. Flake scrapers and points bear very fine
any of the sites precludes the establishment of a
retouch on their margins. This could have been
relative chronology on the basis of the comparative
produced by the use of a sharp, pointed instrument,
study of the tools recovered from the different parts
possibly of bone or tooth.
of the country. Typologically, there is homogeneity
among the tools of the all of the sites. Even we did Raw material has its own importance in the life
not picked more than 15 tools from any of the site of human being. Quartzite stone was the first priority
but on the basis of the recovered material we can of lower palaeolithic man for making the tools.
assume that this area was also suitable region for Scrapers, handaxes and cleavers are the main tool of
primate man in ancient period. We have not seen the primitive man. In the middle palaeolithic period,
any of the river section in the area. Spatially the the continuity of handaxes may be observed with the
Acheulian culture is better known in the eastern part variation in sizes on the same raw material. Small
of the Berach basin. sized handaxes are of middle palaeolithic period.
The lower palaeolithic industry was based on core
tools while middle palaeolthic tools are made on
RAW MATERIAL flakes. Upper palaeolithic industry is totally based
on flakes. Although no any site of upper palaeolithic
All the artifacts are made of quartzite of which
period located in the region.
two varieties are discerned. Those from the Alwar
district are of a good conchoidal fracture. The We have collected some Paleolithic and
artifacts of the district have deep flake scars. It Mesolithic stone artifacts from open space area
produces good conchoidal fracture and is suited for near the painted shelters during the exploration. At
tool manufacture. Evidences for three techniques foothill, near Shyamsa point, (local people calls
are seen in the Alwar industry called as, stone it ‘Naitor’), an archaeological mound is located.
hammer, wood hammer and Levallois. The stone Few sherds of Black and Red (B&R), and Painted
hammer technique is seen in the manufacture of a Grey Ware (PGW) were collected from the mound.
small number of handaxes, a majority of cleavers It indicates that this site is very important not only
and in core scrapers and large flakes. All these by archaeological view-point but also by research
exhibits deep, large scars, irregular outlines and opportunities in rock art in this region.
uneven surfaces. The use of cylinder hammer
technique is seen in a majority of handaxes, some Dadikar-Hajipur rock art site is very important
cleavers and in secondary work on flakes. It has site for the rock art study in granite region of
produced small, shallow scars, regular outlines, Northern India. This site is located in the heart of
thin section and even surfaces. Sariska sanctuary which has a dense forest area. This
area is considered as Matsya Janpada and associated
with the epic Mahabharata Period. Archaeologically,
TECHNIQUE we have already mentioned that it was the area
where we had got various type of archaic material
There is no evidence of the use of heavy stone which indicates the continuity of human activity and
hammer seen in the large, thick flakes of the early habitation from Paleolithic period to the present.
Stone Age. In the preparation of tools, all the flakes The technologies for hunting adopted by the humans
were detached either by a light stone hammer or a during the Mesolithic period are depicted in the form
wood or bone hammer. The same technique was of a complete picture.
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 93

More than fifty painted rock shelters have been Probably the early settlers of the rock shelters
discovered at these sites. Most of the paintings have had a pragmatic outlook and vision behind such
been depicted by using different shades of red color. meaningful and beautiful paintings. The painted
It has been noted that thickness of patina is also one figures might be the beginnings of are cord keeping
of very important factors for presenting the variation system by the early settlers to as on the information
in colors. As a long span of time has passed after from generation to generation and appears to be a
execution of paintings, some of them are not clearly beginning of information technology. From these
visible and some of them are faded. Environmental figures or icons the children and younger generation
moisture and sand particles deposited on the ceiling might have given information about herbivores
or wall surface of rock shelters in the form of a thin and carnivores dwelling around, further the animal
glassy layer. During the rainy season humidity goes figures might have been used to team not only about
to higher range in this area. This phenomenon leads their shape habitat and their behaviour but also about
to covering of every shelters open surface by this the danger perspectives. Rock art is the evidence of
type of layers. It has also been observed that the rock earlier art activity in India since prehistoric period.
shelters situated at upper part of hills have a thin Rock art provides an insignificant into the world view
transparent and glassy layer on the paintings, while of hunting gathering population. It tells us about the
foothill shelters are covered with thick layer of sand hunting gathering techniques and weapons and also
particles. Thus in general, lower parts of hill which about their material culture, dress, ornaments and
have painted shelters are covered with thick layer social and cultural life of ancient communities.
made by heavy sand particles. This type of layer on
the paintings towards the upper side of hill gradually
becomes thinner and transparent. This type of REFERENCES
deposition on the paintings is known as patination.
As humidity increases in Monsoon season, this Agrawal, R.C. 1978a, Archaeological Discoveries at
patination phenomenon augments. Though in open Ganeshwar, Rajasthan. Archaeological Studies III: 72-75.
air, it would not be stable due to presence of light, Agrawal, R.C. 1978b, Copper Celts and an Indus Arrow
wind and water but some parts of shelters would Head from Kulhade ka Johad, District Sikar, Rajasthan.
be inaccessible to these environmental factors Man and Environment II: 123-124.
and hence deposition shall become permanent in
form of layer or patina. After a long time, decay Agrawal, R.C. 1979a, More Copper Finds from Rajasthan.
Man and Environment III: 91-92.
of surface of shelter starts to happen. This process
is known as exfoliation and can be seen in form of Agrawal, R.C. 1979b, Three Copper Objects from
tiny chips coming out from the wall or ceilings of Ganeshwar. Journal of the Oriental Institute XXVIII, No.
shelters. 3-4: 159-60.

It is interesting that paintings are not depicted Agrawal, R.C. 1980a, Khurdi (?) Copper Hoard from
in all available shelters in a specific region. Artist Rajasthan. Man and Environment IV: 89-91
may have selected some important shelters for the Agrawal, R.C. 1980b, More copper celts from Rajasthan.
art. The criteria of selection of shelters for paintings Man and Environment V: 92.
may be location of shelter, availability of water,
light and strategy. Thus most of the shelters near Agrawal, R.C. 1981a, Fresh Light on Ochre-Coloured
water sources show signals of art. Such a conducive Pottery from Rajasthan. In Madhu (Ed.) M.S. Nagaraja
Rao. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Pp. 70-80.
environment leads to formation of patina over the
paintings in these shelters; hence these motifs are Agrawal, R.C. 1981b, Protohistoric Copper Objects from
not clearly visible. Rajasthan: New Parameters. In Cultural Contours of India
94 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

(Ed.), V.S. Srivastava. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Cunningham, A. 1873, Bairat, or Virat, in Archaeological
Pp. 25-31. Report, 1964-65. Calcutta: Archaeological Survey of
India. Pp. 242-49.
Agrawal, R.C. 1981c, Recent Explorations in Rajasthan.
Man and Environment V: 59-63. Cunningham, Sir Alexander. 1996, (Reprint). Coins of
Medieval India.  Oriental Book Reprint Corporation.
Agrawal, R.C. 1981d, Some Prohistoric Objects from South
eastern Rajasthan and Malwa. In (Ed.), M.D. Khare Malwa Cunningham, A. 2000, (Reprint) Report of a tour in
Through the ages, Bhopal: Directorate of Archaeology and Eastern Rajputana in 1882-83. Vol. XX. Pp. 54-98; 114-
Museums, Government of M.P. Pp. 69-71. 124.

Agrawal, R.C. 1984a, Aravalli, the major source of copper Dikshit, K.N. 1966-68, A Note on Palaeolithic Site at
for the Indus Civilization and Indus related cultures. In Bairath in Rajasthan. The Researcher, No.7-9:26-30.
Frontiers of the Indus Civilization (Ed.) B.B. Lal and S.P. Fergusson, James. 1848, Picturesque Illustrations of
Gupta. New Delhi: Books and Books. Pp.157-62. Ancient Architecture in Hindostan. London: J. Hogarth.
Agrawal, R.C. 1984b, Ganeshwar Culture-A Review. Fergusson, James. 1876, History of Indian and Eastern
Journal of the Oriental Institute XXXIV (1-2): Pp. 89-95. Architecture. London: John Murray Albemarle Street.

Agrawala, R.C. 1995, Pre and Proto History. In Rajasthan Garrick, H.B.W. 2000, (Reprint). Report of A tour in the
State Gazetteer, Volume II (History and Culture): 1-12. Panjab and Rajputana in 1883-1884. Vol. XXIII.
Jaipur: Directorate, District Gazetteers, Government of
Rajasthan. Indian Archaeology-A Review: 1953-54: 37, 1954-55: 58,
1955-56: 68, 1956-57: 5-8, 1957-58: 45, 1961-62: 38,
Agrawal, R.C. and Vijai Kumar. 1976, The problems of 1962-63: 70, 1972-73: 29-30, 1976-77: 45, 1977-78: 46,
PGW and iron in Northeastern Rajasthan. In Mahabharat, 1978-79: 19-20, 1979-80: 62-65, 1980-81: 51-55, 1981-
Myth and Reality (Eds.) S.P. Gupta and S.K. Ramchandran. 82: 55-62, 99, 1983-84: 71-72, 1984-85: 69-70, 1987-88:
Delhi: Agam Prakashan. Pp. 241-44. 100-102, 1988-89: 76-78, 1990-91: 59-60, 2012-13: 123-
127.
Agrawal, R.C. and Vijay Kumar. 1982, Ganeshwar-
Jodhpura Culture: New Traits in Indian Archaeology in Kumar, G. and Sharma, M.L. 1995, Petroglyph Sites
Harappan Civilization (Ed.) G.L. Possehl. Delhi: Oxford in Kalapahad and Ganesh hill: Documentation and
& IBH. Pp. 125-135. Observation. Purakala 6, No.1-2: 56-59.

Agrawal, R.C. and Vijay Kumar. 1993, Ganeshwar- Misra, V.N. 1967, Pre and Protohistory of Berach Basin,
Jodhpura Culture: New Traits in Indian Archaeology. In South Rajasthan. Poona: Deccan College.
Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, ed. Sankalia, H.D. 1956, Nathdwara, a Palaeolithic Site in
Gregory L. Possehl. Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Rajasthan. Journal of the Palaeontological society of
Pp 125-135. India I: 99-100.
Allchin, B., A.S. Goudie and K.T.M. Hedge. 1978, The Sankalia, H.D. 1974, Prehistory and Protohistory of India
Prehistory and Palaeography of the Great Indian Desert. and Pakistan. Pune: Deccan College. Pp. 58
London: Academic Press.
Sharma, M.L.1996a, The Sahibee River Valley:A New
Brown, J.C. 1917, Catalogue Raisonne of the Prehistoric Region of Rock Art in Rajasthan. In Prehistoric Art in
Antiquities in the Indian Museum. Pp. 66-67. India Eds. R.K. Sharma and K.K. Tripathi. New Delhi:
Aryan Books International. Pp. 153-159.
Carlleyle, A.C.L. 1878, (2000, Reprint). Report of a
tour in Eastern Rajputama in 1871-72 and 1872-73, Sharma, M.L. 1996b, Dakshini Rajasthan Ke Chitrit
Archaeological Survey of India Report VI: 107-108,160- Shailashrya. The Third ‘Rock Art Society of India’ (RASI)
161. Congress: Souvenir, Kotputli. Pp. 13-14.
Prehistory of Alwar District, Rajasthan 95

Sharma, Murari Lal. 1997, Rock Art of Northern Sharma, Murari Lal, Madan Lal Meena and Vineet
Rajasthan. Purakala 8(1-2): 25- 35. Godhal. 2012a, Rock Art of Dadikar-Hajipur Region: A
Study. In Pura-Jagat Indian Archaeology History and
Sharma, M.L. 2001, Rajasthan Ki Shailashrya Chitrakala. Culture (Latest Researches) in Honour of Late Shri Jagat
Ph.D. Dissertation. Jaipur: University of Rajasthan. Pati Joshi edited by C. Margabandhu, A.K. Sharma, B.R.
Mani and G.S. Khwaja; Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Parkashan.
Sharma, M.L. 2005, Shailchitrakala: Uttar-purvee Pp. 102-111.
Rajasthan. Udaipur: Shodh Patrika 56; No.1-4:.5-25.
Sharma, Murari Lal, Madan Lal Meena and Vineet Godhal.
Sharma, Murari lal. 2009, Shail-Chitrakala: Uttar Purvee 2012b, A Study of Hunting Technique of Mesolithic
Rajasthan Ke Vishesh Sandarbh Me Ek Adhyyan. In G.L. Period depicted in the Rock art of Dadikar-Hajipur
Badam, S.K. Bajpai and K.K. Chakraverty (ed), Madhya Region, Alwar District, Rajasthan. In Archaeology,
Bharat Ki Shail-Chitrakala. New Delhi: B.R. Piblishing Museology and Conservation A Review edited by Vibha
Corporation: 57-89. Upadhyaya. Jaipur: Literary Circle. Pp. 59-72.

Sharma, M.L and.M.L. Meena. 2004, Rock Painting in Srivastava, Vijai Prakash. 1981, The Story of
North-east Rajasthan: Content and Significance. Nucleus Archaeological, Historical and Antiquarian Research in
Vol. IV, No. 1:47-52. Rajasthan before independence in Vijai Prakash Srivastava
(ed), Cultural Contours of India: Dr. Satyaprakash
Sharma, M.L., V. Kumar and P.T. Sharma. 1992, New Felicitation Volume. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Pp.
Rock Art Sites Discovered in Sahibee Valley Rajasthan. 19-46.
Purakala 3 (1-2): 84. Stein, (Sir) Aruel. 1942, A Survey of Ancient Sites along
the ‘Lost’ Saraswati River. London : The Geographical
Sharma, Murari Lal, Madan Lal Meena and Vineet
Journal 99: 173-182.
Godhal. 2009a, Distribution of Petroglyph Sites in
Rajasthan. Purakala 19: 130-143. Stein, A. 1943, An Archaeological Tour along the Ghaggar-
Hakra River, 1940-42. American Documentation Institute
Sharma, M.L., M.L. Meena and Vineet Godhal. 2009b, Microfilm No. ADI-4861: 49-52.
An Outline of History of Archaeological Survey in
Rajasthan. Pura Sampada 1: 1-11. Stein, A. 1989. An Archaeological Tour along the Ghaggar
Hakra River in (Ed.) S.P. Gupta. Meerut: Kusumanjali
Sharma, Murari Lal, Madan Lal Meena, Vineet Godhal Prakashan. Pp 1-97.
and Kamlesh Kumar Saini. 2008, Dadikar-Hajipur
Tessitori, Luigi P. 1917-18, Explorations in Bikaner. In
Rock Art Site in Alwar District, North-East Rajasthan.
A.R.A.S.I. 1917-18:21-23.
Purakala 18: 83-88.
AN OVERVIEW OF CHARIOT DEPICTED IN ROCK PAINTINGS OF
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD IN CENTRAL INDIA

ASHISH S. SHENDE*

C ulture is the product of human groups occupying

defined geographical area and geographical
factors prevalent there. These factors exercise great
up to the Gujarat border on the west, Rajasthan on
the north-west and on the east it includes the region
stretched up to Bihar.
influence in moulding the culture of the territory.
Hence, while studying the culture, especially from Madhya Pradesh includes ancient Malwa,
place names of any region, one must first take into Madhya Bharat, parts Bundelkhand and Chhattisgarh
account along with the geographical position the etc. Environmentally, culturally and ethnically it
geographical factors ruling in that region. Coming is indeed a very interesting region and still draws
to our territory- the present Madhya Pradesh which attention of the scholars of various disciplines.
came into existence on 1st November 1956- we have The province, thus created, contains the regions
to state that, it is one of the largest Indian states with varied physical features such as land, climate,
in size covering an area of 4,43,452 Sq. kms. It is fertility of land etc., which greatly affect the life
composed of seventeen districts of former Central style of the residents of the region.
Province and former states of Madhya Bharat,
Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh and Siroj sub-division Even archaeologically this state is very rich and
of the Kota district. has yielded immense archaeological evidences right
from the earliest period to the modern times. Since
Madhya Pradesh, thus created, occupied the the area falls in Madhya Pradesh, it would be useful
region between Indo-Gangetic plains on the one to briefly review the work that has been carried out
hand and Deccan plateau on the other. It is extended in this state. It is not possible to give the details of

* HOD, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Vasnatrao Naik Govt. Institute of Arts and Social Sciences,
Nagpur; E-mail: [email protected]
98 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

all the sites and only the mention of the names of the Painting and engraving drawn by Stone Age
important sites have here been dealt with. Man on bare rock surface in naturally formed caves
and shelters are the earliest written documents of
The Archaeological potentiality of Madhya man. Written in the universal language of drawing,
Pradesh has been recognised since long. The first these documents unveil to us the inner world and
archaeological exploration was undertaken by Le the aesthetic development of prehistoric social
Weiser who brought to light the evidence of Stone groups and provide us with information about their
Age cultures preserved in the form of stone tools society, religion and rituals, their material culture,
from the Kedlari and Barakhera. Although the technology, economy and contemporary fauna and
occasional discoveries of the Stone Age cultures flora.
were known by the publication of Medlicott however,
the systematic work in the state started from the visit The earliest pictures featuring domestic animals
of Yale Cambridge Expedition led by De Terra and appear in a group painting, which is stylistically
Paterson. Having studied the Quaternary sections well demarcated from the pictures of the hunters and
Palaeontological and Archaeological findings on gatherers in the same region. Although the theme of
the Narmada Valley, they tried to build up palaeo- these pictures centres to a large extent around hunting
environment of the area. This work gave an impetus and gathering, new innovations and technologies
to further systematic archaeological work in Madhya make their appearance. Domesticated humped cattle
Pradesh (Pandey :5). Subsequently a number of Stone are frequently shown, as also dog.
Age tool were discovered at various places, Jabalpur,
Duhar Nala and Deori, More, Bhutra, Narmada Cattle are the socio-cultural centre of the rock-
valley, Singhapur, Panchmari, Hoshangabad, art of this period. The style and content of the pictures
Chambal valley, Bastar, Tripuri, Malwa, Adamgarh is very uniform all over India. The uniformity and
and Gupteshwar. These works established beyond the stereotype treatment all cattle figures are at
doubt the existence of the Stone Age cultures in this times so pronounced even between such widely
part of the country. separated regions as the southern- Deccan and the
sites in Central India- that direct contacts between
Man’s predominance in this world had been these cultures have to be considered. The earliest
mainly due to the quality of his brain. It is very depictions of humped cattle appear together with
interesting to note that from considerably early distinct Neolithic/ Chalcolithic cultural traits and
times; human mind visualized art and craft as a innovations, like riding on cattle and most probably
homogeneous concept and had never dissected or on horses too, the yoking of cattle to carts and chariots
divorced one from the other. By art, we mean the and as draught animal for ploughing. Domesticated
end- product of a technical operation which has, and wild animals, as well as fish, birds and plants
aside of its application, an aesthetic aspect that are typical elements known from early Neolithic
appeals to the senses; and by the craft we signify and Chalcolithic pottery designs. A number of rock
the very technological basis and medium of such pictures of this period show fabulous animals, partly
a productive operation. While even for the tool resembling carnivores or monkeys.
making Stone Age Man, craft, such as the various
techniques of chipping flakes out of a core or a part In Central India there were numerous example
thereof produce functional implements of diverse of chariot on rock paintings from Mesolithic to
uses, implied the acquisition of the primary means chalcolithic period. The chariots shown in obviously
towards survival and growth, it was also an integrated cultic procession scenes rather than shown in
symbol of his incipient mode of self- expression and speedily carry warriors to the battlefield and for the
subsistence. pursuit to the vanquished enemy. They are often
An Overview of Chariot Depicted in Rock Paintings of Chalcolithic Period in Central India 99

shown surrounded by jesters, musicians, dancers Arts in Calcutta and an authority on Ancient Indian
and hierarchic elevated personalities. This paper Art (Brown 1917)In another instance Rock brushing
is try to throw light on the contact between chariot was first discovered by Hubert Knox in the eighties
pictures as well as the horse-riding and fighting of the last century in Bellary district of present day
scenes, which shows the agricultural population and Karnataka (Foote, R.B. 1918: 87-89). More rock
people of different social organization and different bruising were found later by F.R. Allchin (1958:
technical equipment existed. 153-55), A. Sundara (1974: 21- 32) and K. Paddayya
(1968: 294- 298) from the same area as well as from
More than 100 years ago, in the cliffs and gorges Gulbarga district.
which form the northern escarpment of the Vindhya
Mountains towards the sprawling lowlands of the In the chain of rock paintings the Adamgarh
Gangetic Plains, the first rock paintings in India group of painted rock shelters near Hoshangabad
were discovered in 1867-68 by Archibald Carlleyle was brought to light by Manoranjan Ghosh (1932:
at Sohagighat near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. He Vol. 24). He also made a study of the paintings of
was probably the first person to realize the antiquity Mirzapur and Raigarh. The first examples of rock
of rock paintings and he firmly believed that the engravings were discovered in 1933 by K.P. Jayaswal
paintings were executed by Stone Age people, who’s (1933: 58-60) in the rock shelter at Vikramkhol in
cultural and physical remains he had excavated on Sambalpur district of Orissa.
the floors of the same shelters.
It was only in the thirties, that another British
Unfortunately, Carlleyle did not publish an officer, Colonel D.H. Gordon, tried to tackle the
account of the great discoveries he made in this area. chronological problems of rock- art, by observing
Fortunately, Carlleyle had placed some of his notes the succession of overlapping paintings and of styles
with a friend, the Reverend Reginald Gatty, and and the technological contents. Gordon’s work was
these were published later by V. N. Smith (Smith mainly based on the rock pictures from the Mahadeo
1906: 185-95). They constitute our only source of Hills in the surroundings of the cantonment of
information for his discovery of rock paintings. Panchmarhi (Gordon 1958: 98-117).
About the same time John Cockburn, an officer in the
Opium Department, took time off from his official These spectacular discoveries brought a new
engagements and visited quite systematically rock- momentum to prehistoric archaeology. The driving
art sites in the Mirzapur District, south of Benaras. force behind these explorations and researches
Cockburn seems to have been the first antiquarians was V.S. Wakankar, has probably made the most
to have contributed to scientific periodicals on the important contribution to the study of Indian rock art.
subject of rock- art in India (Cockburn 1899: 89-97). He has discovered several hundred painted shelters
mainly in Central India, attempted a broad survey of
In South India the Rock pictures were explicitly the rock paintings of the whole country and prepared
mentioned only after a visit of Fred Fawcett to a chronology for the paintings based on the content,
the site of Koppagall (Fawcett, 1901: 409-521). A style and superimposition (Wakankar 1973:12-19,
few years later a pictorial description of the rock 295- 353). The most notable of his discoveries is
paintings in the Banda district was published by Bhimbetka, which has the largest concentration of
C.A. Silberrad (Silberrad 1907: 567-70). C.W. rock paintings in India. Wakankar and S.K. Pandey
Anderson (1918:298-306) discovered a painted sunk several trial trenches in the Bimbetka Region,
shelter at Singanpur in Raigarh district in Madhya in which several pieces of painted Chalcolithic
Pradesh. Likewise the first aesthetic appreciations Malwa-ware were found, which to Wakankar and
came from Percy Brown, Principal of the College of Pandey says were a first indication of possible link
100 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

between the pictorial tradition of the protohistoric pictures of two- wheeled vehicles which are much
cultures and the rock- art of Central India. heavier and obviously meant transport loads. These
vehicles tally in their construction features with
Cattle are the socio-cultural centre of the rock- bullock carts which, till today, are the means of load
art of this period. The style and content of the pictures transport in rural India.
is very uniform all over India. The uniformity and
the stereotype treatment all cattle figures are at Since most of the pictures of chariots are not
times so pronounced even between such widely embedded into narrative groups, the actual use of
separated regions as the southern- Deccan and the the depicted chariots is not clearly established. The
sites in Central India- that direct contacts between chariots shown in obviously cultic procession scenes
these cultures have to be considered. The earliest rather than shown in speedily carry warriors to the
depictions of humped cattle appear together with battlefield and for the pursuit to the vanquished
distinct Neolithic/ Chalcolithic cultural traits and enemy. They are often shown surrounded by
innovations, like riding on cattle and most probably jesters, musicians, dancers and hierarchic elevated
on horses too, the yoking of cattle to carts and chariots personalities (Neumayer 1993: 157).
and as draught animal for ploughing. Domesticated
and wild animals, as well as fish, birds and plants The chronological position of the Indian chariot
are typical elements known from early Neolithic depictions is puzzling, since they appear in the
and Chalcolithic pottery designs. A number of rock very earliest pictures belonging to the agriculturists
pictures of this period show fabulous animals, partly and cattle-keepers (Chalcolithic people). Wheeled
resembling carnivores or monkeys. vehicles are of course known to have existed in
the third millennium B.C. in the Indus Valley. A
The production of wheeled vehicles required considerable amount of model carts made of clay
thorough knowledge of compound materials, the and bronze have been found in Harappan urban
interaction of moveable and static elements and, of settlements.
course, the domestication of animals. The chariot
represents the tip of an economic, technological and The only available chariot from the chalcolithic
social pyramid, at the base of which was a system period in India which can be compared to the
of specialized labour and a complex mechanism of Indian rock pictures is the bronze chariot found in
control over society and resources. Daimabad in a cache together with an elephant, a
rhino and a water-buffalo-all made of copper-alloy.
Depictions of chariots are known mainly from Archaeological inspection of the dug up site could
the rock painting regions around Bhopal and those clear the stratigraphic position of the cache in the
in the Chambal Valley. Stray depictions of carts and chalcolithic level (IAR 1974-75: 29-30).
chariots are also known from other rock- art sites.
In the chalcolithic pictures horses not only figure
The earliest chariot depictions appear in the very as draught animals but as mounts as well, although
stylistic pictures of the agriculturists, and already in ridden horses are very rarely depicted in chalcolithic
these depictions we see besides cattle as draught rock pictures.
animals the use of equips. Although the species of
these animals is not clear, we can presume that as The earliest depictions of ridden animals show
only the horse or the ass have to be considered as humped cattle ridden by a person standing at the back
draught animals (Neumayer 1993: 156). of the animal. It is likely, that these pictures show
heroes or gods or transportations of souls rather than
Besides chariots, which were light- weight “profane” riding.
vehicles, suitable for high speed, there are also
An Overview of Chariot Depicted in Rock Paintings of Chalcolithic Period in Central India 101

The chalcolithic portrayal of horses is other. By art, we mean the end- product of a technical
stylistically quite different from the portrayals of operation which has, aside of its application, an
horses in the historic rock pictures. The chalcolithic aesthetic aspect that appeals to the senses; and by
horses are shown as rather small animals with a the craft we signify the very technological basis and
generally stubby appearance. The tail is indicated as medium of such a productive operation. While even
a straight line from which individual strains of hair for the tool making Stone Age Man, craft, such as the
emanate; the manes are indicated at the neck as well various techniques of chipping flakes out of a core
as at throat. As against this, the horses in the historic or a part thereof produce functional implements of
rock pictures are much more refined, the tail falling diverse uses, implied the acquisition of the primary
in long strands. It could be that the chalcolithic means towards survival and growth, it was also an
horses were still closer to their wild ancestors. integrated symbol of his incipient mode of self-
expression and subsistence.
Chalcolithic paintings of elephant-riders are
even rarer. The riders are generally armed with axes, In fact, as man passed from Paleolithic,
and in one case the rider is girded with a sword, a Mesolithic savagery to the barbarism of Neolithic
weapon which only appears in the later phases of the and reached the early urban culture sitting of
chalcolithic art. Chalcolithic- Bronze Age, living in what were, for
that age, well- appointed villages using characteristic
Pictures of camels are totally absent in ceramics for their daily and ritual use, and given to
chalcolithic rock-art. Camels are only depicted many crafts such as pottery, metallurgy, bead making,
in later historic rock paintings, and even there toys and playthings on terracotta for children and cult
extremely rare (Dhavalikar 1982: 177). usage, ornaments and decorative jewellary for the
demanding women folk, in well ordered community
The chronological position of the chariots and
life, practicing productive agriculture which yielded
the ridden animals in the rock pictures is difficult
a surplus of food grains, etc. contributed to the
to assess. Chariots appear in the very first stylistic
emergence of well settled agricultural communities
groups of these paintings in which domesticated
during chalcolithic period. Along with the above
animals appear for the first time. These pictures are
mode of subsistence the community or the society
stylistically different from the earlier pictures of the
was also involved in various applied technological
hunters and gatherers. Although microlith-barbed
activities like, smelting of copper/ metal for making
weapons are still frequent in these pictures, metallic
tools, weapons etc., pottery- making, cart- wheel
weapons also begin to appear more frequently.
making, bead- making and other terracotta art
Depictions of wild animals in numerous hunting etc. were the symbols of the remarkable technical
scenes are still a common theme in these chalcolithic knowledge they were accumulating and supplying to
pictures, but the central importance of these humped their daily wants, but it could be noticed that each
cattle can hardly be overlooked. of these primary crafts was a blend of the scientific
as well as cultural insight of the people. Indeed, the
multicoloured stone-beads beautifully polished and
CONCLUSION perforated, the copper objects so smoothly beaten
and shaped, the pottery utensils of many forms and
Man’s predominance in this world had been mainly sizes, carefully and cleverly decorated with painted
due to the quality of his brain. It is very interesting to designs over their well- slipped surfaces, the bone
note that from considerably early times; human mind and wood objects which manifested fine skill, were
visualized art and craft as a homogeneous concept actually objects of art, although they were assuredly
and had never dissected or divorced one from the of primary functional value.
102 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

In the sequel, we also observe, the pattern of folk- With all these contradiction, it is possible that
movements, the manner of assimilation of cultures the chariot pictures as well as the horse-riding and
or trade relation between different contemporary fighting scenes show contact situations between the
communities. Like for example, the designs and agricultural population and people of different social
peculiarities on the pottery, their slip and their organization and different technical equipment.
colour- tones are such that they serve as firm indices
of long- distance contacts and help in the assessment It is possible that specialized cattle breeders
of a cultural as much as technical give-and-take. The moved into these peripheral areas of plains and river
channel spouts and wine- glass type vessels with valley settlements with their herds and chariots, at
pedestal, with typical paintings on them, found in the the same time maintaining the trade infrastructure
early chalcolithic levels at Navdatoli help us at least with the settlers of chalcolithic culture living in
in visualizing an Indo-Iranian contact in the second plains and in exchange these village settlers derived
millennium B.C. by similar pottery types occurring raw material from the rock painters, where suitable
at Tepe Giyan, Tepe Sialk, etc. in Iran. rocks are available for making his tools and other
equipments and even forests products are might also
A feature of prime importance noted in the be used as mode of exchange.
fabric of chalcolithic societies of Central India is a
The chalcolithic drawings are neither so vivid
sense of economic well-being of the communities
nor so vigorous. They portray only the individual
constituting it. Their main occupation or their
and collective group of animals with human figures
subsistence was based on agriculture, hunting, fishing
as hunters or cattle rearers. Domestication of animals
and also on animal husbandry and other productive
had started and contacts with the chalco-lithic-
occupation. At the same time, they were the bearers
neolithic settlements were established. The economy
and transmitters of technology and culture acquired
had hardly changed but pottery and metal objects
by the contemporary society (Rajan 1980: 88-96).
were acquired from the adjacent agricultural rural
We do not know if the people who depicted the areas, probably in exchange of jungle commodities.
chariots actually used themselves or only reflected There was a give and take contact of the rock shelter
the inventory of ‘strangers’ with whom they came dwellers with the chalcolithic farmer communities in
into contact of a symbiotic or antagonistic nature. The Central and northern India. The artists tried to depict
rather awkward portrayal of horses, the inaccurate as many aspects of their life, culture, economy and
rendering of technical features, in the chariot surroundings as possible. The painter has tried to
depiction and above all, the scarcity of the chariot depict his daily life through his art. The compositions
depiction in the numerous chalcolithic paintings are usually of scenes of hunting, food gathering,
indicate that horse-riding and the use of chariots fishing, dancing, social and daily life.
were features which the painters only observed but
Objects of material life are often found painted
did not use themselves.
in Rock paintings. The chief objects of early man
depicted in the paintings: tools, weapons, traps,
On the other hand, chariots are integrated into
clothing, masks and ornaments and a large variety or
extensive narrative procession scenes, whose cultic
objects of daily use.
content is quite obvious. But this would mean that
the chariot had a fixed place in the cult practice of The primitive rock- shelter dwelling
these people who produced the pictures, if we do communities of pre- and- proto historic period were
not consider the possibility that even these scenes no doubt the authors of these paintings which are
are only reflections of the activities of ‘strangers’ mirror of the kind of life that they led. These are folk
observed by the rock painters. art traditions of the early man which were borrowed
An Overview of Chariot Depicted in Rock Paintings of Chalcolithic Period in Central India 103

in the later ages by the painters of the Gonds of Antiquities, Notes on their ages and distribution, Madras:
Bastar, the Santhals of Chhotanagpur and the Bhils Government Press.
of Rajasthan and Malwa wherein we find striking
Fawcett, F., 1901, Notes on the Rock Carvings in Edakal
similarity. According to Krishna Ramamurthy, Cave, Wynaad, The Indian Antiquity, Vol. 30.
it is “possible to find links between current tribal
cosmological thought and possible interpretations Ghosh, M., 1932, Rock Paintings and other Anitquities of
of the rock- paintings. This not only suggests Prehistoric and Later times, Memoirs of the Archaeological
an ‘ideological continuity’ between the past and Survey of India (MASA), Vol. 24.
present, but also, following Lewis- Williams; the Gordon, D.H., 1958, The Prehistoric Background of
possibility of cross- trail ‘cosmological network’ for Indian Culture. Bombay.
Central India. This can be seen in the similarities
of focus found among the myths of these tribes” Indian Archaeological Review, 1974-75.
(Ramamurthy 1988).
Jayaswal, K.P., 1933, The Vikramkhol Inscription,
Sambalpur District, The Indian Antiquity, Vol. 62.
In the wall- paintings of villagers all over the
country and even in our houses, there are certain art Neumayer, Erwin, 1993, Lines on Stone- Thsssse
traditions which compel us to believe that these are Prehistoric Rock Art of India, Manohar Publication,
remnants of the rock- art tradition. Thus the primitive Delhi.
rock- painting had tremendous impact on the folk
Pandey, R. P. Pre historic Archaeology of Madhya
and urban art tradition of India.
Pradesh.

Paddayya, K., 1968, Pre and Proto Historic Investigations

REFERENCES in Shorapur Doab, Ph.D. Thesis, Pune University.

Allchin, B., 1958, Morhana Pahar: A Rediscovery, Man, Ramamurthy, K.,1988, The Rock Paintings of Central
Vol. 58. India: An Approach through Myth, Man and Environment,
Vol. XII.
Anderson, C.W., 1918, Rock Paintings in Signapur,
Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol. Rajan, K.V. Soundara, 1980, Glimpses of Indian Culture
4, No. 2. (History and Archaeology), Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi.

Brown, P., 1917, Indian Painting, Calcutta: Y.M.C.A. Smith, A., 1906, Pigmy Flints; The Indian Antiquity, Vol.
(Pub.). 6.

Cockburn, J., 1899, Cave Drawings in the Kaimur Range, Silberrad, C.A., 1907, Rock Drawings in Banda District,
North West Provinces, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 3-1.
Society.
Sundara, A., 1974, Further notices of rock paintings in
Dhavalikar, M.K., 1982, Daimabad Bronzes; in Possehl, Hira Benakal, Journal of Indian History, Trivandrum:
G. L. (ed.), 1982, Harappan Civilization, New Delhi. Vol. 52.

Foote, R.B., 1918, Madras Government Museum: The Wakankar, V.S., 1973, Painted Rock Shelters of India.
Foot Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Proto-historic Ph.D. Thesis, Pune University.
 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK PAINTINGS IN CENTRAL
CHHATTISGARH REGION

SHAMBHOO NATH YADAV* AND MD. ZAKIR KHAN**

INTRODUCTION
Rock painting was one way to present symbols for the marking of most english alphabet “S” shaped
use in our ancestor’s social life, fixing invisible human figurine is achieved in a natural style in
and enduring forms otherwise untouchable and plain and dance posture. Along with this, marking
momentary images, ideas and events. (Encyclopedia of buffalo, deer, reindeer etc. made from plain lines
Britannica). To understand the subject and pattern, is also obtained (Shukla 2001). In the Mesolithic
we focus on the chronology of the selected painted period, sophistication is visible in the subject
rock shelters on the basis of their style from the matter as compared to the former. In this period, the
Middle Palaeolithic to the Historical period (i) drawings of early human figures as well as human
Upper Palaeolithic period (ii) Mesolithic period figures with rectangular shape and pictures with linear
(iii) Neolithic and Chalcolithic period and (iv) embellishments are found. In animal paintings of
Historical period. The contents of rock paintings this period, the filler of linear embellishments is also
include hunting scenes, war scenes, animal, birds, found. In animal figures deer, reindeer, tiger, panther,
human figures, drafting etc. For execution of such buffalo, elephant etc. are depicted prominently.
paintings, red ochre colour, kaolin, and many other
The rock paintings of the Neolithic and the
natural colours have been used by the then humans.
Chalcolithic periods reflect wild life, hunting scene,
In the Upper Paleolithic period rock paintings, agricultural and animal husbandry activity of the

*
Archaeological Survey of India, Raipur Circle, Raipur. E-mail: [email protected]
**
Research Scholar, Sos in Ancient Indian History and Archaeology, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur. E-mail: zakir.pre@
gmail.com
106 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Neolithic period. This indicates the existence of or Purana sedimentary rock and the Archean granites
permanent life of early humans. During this period, and gneisses the surrounding uplands respectively.
humans have been shown hunting with a bow and The Central part of Chhattisgarh area comprises
arrow. Carrying large herds of animals, grazing and granite gneiss, phyllites, schists, amphibolite, and
scenes of forest produce, material on the head etc. metadolerites (intrusive) belonging to the Archaean.
are abundantly obtained. Illustrations of this period The schists mainly quartz-biotite schist, biotite-
include zigzag patterned illustrations, ornamentation chlorite schist, and talc are found occurring as lenses
containing grays, animal shapes with filler, within the gneisses and the basic intrusive in the
ornamentation with spiral lines is found in abundance. phyllites and gneisses extend for small distances
forming mounds and small ridges (Tiwari 2001: 09).
In the historical period, the depictions of the
horses are found. In the depiction of this period,
equestrian warriors carrying shield, sword, spears PREVIOUS WORKS
etc. are visible equipped with weapon. In this period,
the methodological pictures are also depicted. The first discovery of rock art in Chhattisgarh was
made in 1910 by C.W. Anderson, an engineer in
The prehistoric painting described with a the Bengal/Nagpur Railways, duly assisted by
rich inclusion of the art of living life with form C.J. Wellington (from 1910 to 1913) mentioned
combination. Art was an expression of his effortless such work, especially at Singhanpur in Raigarh
process, as a result of which he would have done it District, was made in 1918 and subsequently in a
with the purpose of furnishing his residential sites few publications. It was followed by the works of P.
in accordance with his social, religious, economic Brown, M. Ghosh, 1932, Amar Nath Dutta, 1939,
activities (Raijada 1997:41). L.P. Pandey, D.H. Gordon, 1939, J. P. Gupta, P.
Mitra, Dr. M.G. Dikshit, 1955-56. First information
of Microliths in painted rock shelter of Kabrapahar,
GEOLOGY
S.K Pandey and V.S. Wakankar, B.K. Sinha, 1977-
Chhattisgarh is belonging to the central part in 78 reported of Microliths in painted rock shelter
India. The area has a great comparative advantage of Onganapahar, adding considerably to our
in untapped human and natural resources. Its natural knowledge about rock art in this area. However, no
resources in energy, minerals, forests, land and water proper work has been undertaken on this subject
are some of the richest in the country. Its human in Chhattisgarh during the last two decades in the
resources provide a vast network of eco-specific light of new techniques of study that have become
knowledge and skills. Geologically the Chhattisgarh available in recent years. Although some scholars
region is structurally belonging to the peninsular like G. L. Badam, S. S. Yadav, A. K. Pradhan,
India, which is a part of Gondwanaland and one of B.Shroti, J. R. Bhagat, S. N. Yadav, Minakshi
the oldest landmarks of the earth (Khullar 2006). Dubey Pathak etc. highlighted some discoveries in
The area is almost conterminous with the Cuddapah the State.

Sites discussed in the paper are mentioned below:

Sl. No. Name of the Site District Block Number of Shelters Number of Painted Shelters
1 Chitwa-dongari Balod Dondi-lohara 1 (Boulder) 2 (Boulder)
2 Ongna Raigarh Dharamjaygarh 5 4
3 Kabarapahar Raigarh Raigarh 1 1
4 Siroli-dongari Raigarh Sarangarh 10 6
5 Rainkhol Korba Kartala 1 (Bolder) 1 (shelter)
6 Sar Bahar Korba korba 2 2
Critical Analysis of Rock Paintings in Central Chhattisgarh Region 107

Chitwa-Dongari: (20°43’51”N 81°06’04” figures are made on this boulder; all the ornaments
E):-The site is situated in the left side of Balod- have been painted in red colour.
Gundardehi road about 2 km away from Boirdih
village. Some more rock art sites are associated in this Another figure is made of bright red colour,
region like Naragaon, Bilaidongari, Madvapathra which looks as of a full vessel (Yadav 1982: 100),
(Tiwari 2000) but at present time the hill is on the outer surface of which is embellished with both
mining area of the State Government and almost all vertical and horizontal lines. While the shape is
the sites are disturbed. Now the site is developed as not clear due to excessive spreading of red colour
a tourist place by the Government. The site is almost in the lower part, it is probably considered by some
approachable by vehicle through 200 m sloppy hill to scholars to be a human of the Mongoloid species.
get the painting boulder. Fine grain quartzite boulder
Another design is made on top of a pedestal.
is used for making the painting. A single cluster
The basic shape is a square structure painted by
painting is found here. The size of painted cluster
vertical lines. The middle is also embellished with
is 4.30 m wide. The pitches in front of boulder are
the dotted line.
yellowish soil and the length is 5.5 m. Natural Lake
is the main water source of this area. Today the dam Another figure is of a human figure depicted
located here is Matyamoti Dam. The Tribal people by vertical lines. The portion below the waist part
lives near the shelter are Auahelia, Begri, Bahana, is like a triangle and it is also made through lines.
Gond, Sunkar, Chidar, Pasi, Andh, Chita pardhim, On one side of it, figure like plants of cereals has
Langoli, Shikari, Manjhi, Binjhwar. The Forest been created; on the basis of which scholars equate
located here is a mixed forest which includes – Saja, it with agricultural work. Few figures resembling
Sal, Beeja, Salai, Bamboo, Kahwa, Harra, Katha etc. honeycomb are also noticed here.

The description of painting - flower design Information about these shelters was obtained
– 8.5cm length, Vertical line – 50 cm in length, for the first time by the Members of Mahakosala
geometric design – 20 cm in length, human painting Itihas Parishad in 1979 after Mr. Yadu Visited the
– 41 cm length X 7.70 cm wide, geometric design – site. Nyamdavaa Oidor was mention that Manohar
21 cm in length, Honeycomb pattern– 21 cm length Lal Yadu of Government College, Raipur points to
X 22 cm wide, vertical line – 106 cm in length. the discovery of 17 rock paintings in three shelters
in the dense forest of Chitwa-Dongari (Leopard hill).
A human figure is depicted in standing posture But this name is not correct. Correct name is Hemu
with both hands supported at the waist. The Yadu. The site is situated 114 kms from Raipur,
illustration has been completely filled with bright capital of Chhattisgarh state, which provide startling
red colour and an outline has been executed all evidence of the presence of Mongolian settlers in
around in red. Several other geometric figures are Central India in the Neolithic, age (2500 BC to 600
created on the right side of this illustration. A mesh- BC). Perhaps long before the advent of the Gupta
like structure is built at the bottom. period (Nyamdava 2003: 30).
The second depiction is made in a vertical Ongna – (23026’18’’N 83014’39’’ E): The Rock
posture with outlines on either side. The spaces in shelter is located,with a distance of 1 Km from the
the central part are furnished with figures like dots village. Local people have known this shelter as
line. Apart from this, two circles are formed, inside Shankarparvati-gufa. In front of the shelter, it is
which the circle is also formed. In one circle 5 pair of possible to reach the site through a vehicle up to
small lines are made on the outside and 4 pair small a distance of about 200 meters. It is located at a
lines are made in the other. A number of sun-like distance of about 5 Km from Dharamjaigarh, which
108 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

has an asphalt road from here; the site is 1 Km on is also obtained in which three circles have been
the kuchha road of Ongna village. Natural water formed with the help of a vertical line. A double line
spring is available in rock shelter No.2. Bhirhor, is used in the top and bottom circles while four lines
Urav, Rathiya, Khorta Tribes are living in this area. are used in the middle circle. In another illustration,
Microliths and Cupules are found in the shelter and three human figures are drawn through a single line.
nearby area. Microliths were reported for the first All these three are standing and holding each other’s
time by B.K. Sinha (Sinha 1977-78), and further few hands. One hand print has been also found in front
Neolithic artifactswere found during the re-visit by of them. In addition, the depictions found are several
authors in these shelters. human figures in dancing posture. It is all formed
by a single line and is holding each other’s hands.
This painting of group dancing is a symbol of early
DESCRIPTION AND MEASUREMENT OF human unity and happiness (fig. 2). Dancing scene
ROCK SHELTERS shown in the paintin gresembles present tribal dance
from which may be correlate with living tradition
Shelter No. 01: This is the largest Rock Shelter, and cultural continuity of the region.
with the height of 5.70m, width 31m and depth is
more than 10m. The shape of this rock shelter is Another important human figure is depicted in
oval. Painted motifs in the shelter are executed up to dance posture, which at first sight seems to be similar
a width of 12.20m. The direction of all rock shelters to that of a Harappan dancing lady (fig. 3). Apart
is towards northwest side.The highest numbers of from these, many more depictions have been done
rock paintings are found in this rock shelter. Most of in this rock shelter, but it is not possible to mention
the illustrations are done in dark and light red ocher them all due to location.
colour. Evidence of super imposition is also found in
this rock shelter. Some of the prominent illustrations Shelter No. 02: The height of this rock Shelter
are mentioned below. is 4.30m, width is 23.40m and depths are 7.60m.
Paintings are also found here and there is a deposition
A triangular shaped human figure marked with of friable soil on its surface. Some of the human figures
dark red colour, as well as both the grazing humped in this rock painting are painted in red ocher colour
bull & non humped bull are marked in a row. Two with two important ones. Some such decorations have
bulls are visible on the right side of human figure, been done on the heads of both of them, which gives an
out of which the outside is a hump and the inside impression of Ravana (Pathak & Colottes 2017: 309).
is hump less. This entire creation is designed with The important thing is that the local people come here
linear pattern (Fig. 1). once in a year to worship and assimilate this picture
with Ravana. Painted walls are being degraded due to
A handprint has also been obtained just above which the paintings are getting dim.
the inner bull which is a creation overlapping the
bull. The marking of two bulls is also found on the Shelter No. 03: This rock shelter having height
left side of human figure in which the face of the is 2.10m. & width is 9.20m. These shelters also
inner one is towards the outside while the face of used for paintings. In this rock shelter, some human
the outer one is towards the inside; thus, both are figures are painted in the group, in which the human
facing each other. This appears to be the authentic form on the left side is the longest and one monkey is
evidence of animal husbandry. The bottom shows depicted on both sides. Some blurry geometric shape
a rectangular decoration made through a line on a is also noticed above it. Another human figure made
square pattern. Two human figures have also been by lines is also depicted. It seems that this human
depicted in the standing posture. Another depiction figure is expressing some happiness. Two other
Critical Analysis of Rock Paintings in Central Chhattisgarh Region 109

human figures are created below this picture and it, superimposition of a goat-like animal. This
holding of the plant is obtained in both hands. This testifies that the linear figures date back to the earlier
painting is found in the lower part of the rock shelter. period over which the later painting was created by
superimposition (fig. 5).
Shelter No. 04: Shelter No.4 is small and
height is1.35m, width 0.90m. This is the smallest The just bottom of the first illustration shows
rock-shelter. A human figure is depicted in red a honeycomb shaped painting in white above a red
ochre colour. The entire image has been created by surface near which another goat-like shape is created.
linear pattern. From a primary observation of human Another non geometric drawing is made of red ochre
figure, it appears to be type of anthropomorphic colour. Another group has a number of illustrations
figure. Another human figure is also depicted in in which a picture of a circle is prominent, inside
red ochre colour. But its entire body is filled with which a small circle is marked. The inner circle
this color. This picture looks like a drum beater. A is completely filled with red ochre colour while
swastika symbol has also been depicted, with only its outer part is filled with 36 strokes. A lizard is
three arms visible. One arm appears to have been depicted near it; its main feature is that its abdominal
destroyed, possibly due to stone erosion. A depiction part is formed through linear design while the rest
of a circle has also been found in the middle of which of the body is made completely of red ochre colour.
the mark of the cross is made. Some of the earlier There is another similar depiction near it;its body is
scholars have equated this sign with death (fig. 4). A completely filled with red paint (fig. 6).
linear human figure is depicted in red ochre colour
in a standing posture. The right side of this picture These entire paintings are drawn upon each
depicts an elephant in the same colour while the left other. These superimpositions are so intermixed with
depicts a tiger. each other that they are hard to discover. It becomes
very difficult to identify the different strata of the
Kabara Pahar: (21°50’46 “N 83°27’46”E): paintings (Pandey 2001: 254).
This site is known as Kabara Pahar and local name
of the pahar is Gajmarpahar. Nearest village of this In group 3, animals and human figures are
site Bhojpali is locted approx 1 Km from the site. depicted together and evidence of cover is also
A total of 8 Km away from Raigarh, this entire site found here. In the preceding notations, human
can be reached by vehicle, only 400m is about to figures are depicted in the stick-shaped from and a
reach. hunting-gathering pose, while in the latter pictures;
most of the animals are depicted moving in the same
Description of shelter: The Shelter is more direction. In these, the main characteristic can be the
than 78 meters wide. The height of which is more reindeer, deer, blue bull etc. (fig. 7).
than about 800m. Its shape is elliptical and, in this
shelter; painting has been done at different places. In a second group, four human figures are drawn
Its front surface is of 7m, height is about 600m. The in red ochre colour in a dancing pose holding each
right corner surface of this shelter is 2.90m. This other’s hands together. All these human figures have
shelter has the fore face. Near the Rock shelter, tribal been made as if the skins of a small animal have been
lives are still continuing, these are Gond, Kharsiya, spread. A human figure is also depicted below them,
Kulta, Soura, Urav. River Kelo behind the shelter which has been made on the check pattern method.
is sources of water here. From this site first time It’s both hands are spread upwards.
Microliths reported by M.G. Dikshit (1955-56).
Siroli Dongari (21°38’12.3”N 83°03’17.3”E):
An animal is depicted through red ochre colour About 5 km North West of Sarangarh Town, nearest
lines with a linear triangular structure just below village is Siroli for the site. This mountain has more
110 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

than 10 rock shelters, out of which pictures are found colour. Some footprint marking and geometric and
in 6 rock shelters. The nullah flowing closed to it, is non-geometrical designs have also been obtained.At
the primary water source here. First time microliths one place two circles are depicted; out of which one
were reported by the Authors during re-visiting the has a plus symbol within the circle while the other
site. Tribal living near the shelter is Urav, Siddar, is embellished like a mesh pattern.One hand stencil
Gond, Kawar. also been found in same place painted in red ochre
colour. This is made with the help of a brush. But
Shelter No. 01. Its width is 4.57m and height the exception to this is that there is evidence of more
2.43m. There is soil deposition in the surface in than 5 fingers.
front of this rock formation. In this rock shelter, a
rectangular shape is marked by means of 11 vertical Shelter No. 06. Its width is 5m and height is
lines of red ochre color. In the second place, a 2.43m approx. Among the most important rock
handprint has been made, but that figure is very faint. paintings of this rock shelter is the depiction of
deer that have been made into groups. Some human
The foot impression is also founded near it, figures are depicted dancing in groups. All the rock
which is marked by applying red ochre colour on formations here are made of granite stone. Due to
both feet. Apart from this, there could be other rock the environmental and human impact, they are also
paintings, but due to excessive encroachment, their being eroded, due to which most of the paintings are
visibility has become almost negligible. slowly deteriorating.
Shelter No. 02. This shelter is approximate Rainkhol - (22° 10’ 11” N 82° 52’ 03” E): It is
width is 24m and height is 7m. There is soil deposition located on a hill at the height of 2000-2200 feet in
in the surface in front of this rock formation. Some Korba District of Chhattisgarh. One who is interested
hand impressions have been found which have been in visiting the site should start from Raipur by train
made with the help of red ochre colour and brush. to reach Champa Junction. After that the traveler has
Along with this, a figure of a reptile creature has to reach Rishabha Teerth which is also famous as
been depicted. Damau Dhara. An inscription of a Satavahana king
Shelter No. 03. The width of this shelter is26m has been reported earlier from this place. Further
and height is 6.80m. In front of this rock formation, right to this famous place at the distance of 5-8 kms,
there is deposition of soil in the surface. In this rock there is a village Rainkhol. This village is occupied
shelter, the figure of a deer is found prominently, by the Pahari Korba tribes. The distance between
which is made through the red ochre colour. His Rishabha Teerth and Rainkhol is approachable by
body has also been completely filled with this color. any two wheelers. The rock shelter is about 2-3
Some other rock paintings might have been in this kms away from this point at a straight height. It is
shelter, but these are not clear now. advisable to cover this distance with the company of
any local person.
Shelter No. 04 & 05. Rock shelter No. 4 is
having width 10m and height 4.5m approx. There It is very interesting to note here that there is a
is soil deposition in the surface in front of this rock long and plain strip on the hill below the rock shelters
formation. The width of Rock shelter No.5 is 13m containing rock paintings at Rainkhol to which the
and height is 4.5m approx. Plants are depicted in local people mention as helipad of Ravana. Above
groups red ocher colour at one place in this rock this point there are two rock shelters comprising
shelter. Some human figures are also depicted in paintings. The first rock shelter locally known as
red as unsightly. A special type of illustration is Dulha-Dulhi contains two standing human figures
found which is drawn through 6 vertical lines of red with raised hands. The second rock shelter known as
Critical Analysis of Rock Paintings in Central Chhattisgarh Region 111

Sita-Chauki has a group of four figures in a panel. It of 1997 feet in Korba District of Chhattisgarh. (Md.
has four figures from left to right. The first of it has Zakir khan Personal communication) This site is
a combination of geometric objects which the local situated towards south-east direction of Hasdeo
people mention as PushpakViman of Ravan. The Bango reservoir. First information of Rock Shelter
second is a rectangular figure which can be identified was received through collector, district korba. And
as cattle pen. The third figure is bigger in size than they were informed about it by Sanjay Joshi, a local
the second, but it can also be identified as cattle pen person, city Korba.In the first rock shelter, many
because in fourth scene there is the depiction of two horse pictures made with red ochre colour have
antelopes facing this figure. But here is the question, been obtained, which have been adopted by linear
were antelopes domesticated here during the time method. Along with these, depiction of birds is also
of painting? If not so, then it can be identified as observed. Horses, birds, human figures, warrior with
net. The hunters can make their effort to catch fast horse, geometric designs are also found here in white
running animals through this media. pigment. Hand print impression has also come to
light. The leaves of the plants are also depicted with
Korba presents a depiction of story as narrated white colour, which is made by superimposition on
in the Ramayan written by Valmiki. There is a clear the previously painted figures (fig. 8).
mention of PushpakViman in Ramayan (Valmiki
Ramayan) which was made by Vishvakarma for The second rock shelter most important feature
God Brahma. Kuber got it from him after a great of this rock shelter is that some hand impressions
penance but Ravana occupied it after defeating have come to light from here, which are made by
Kuber (Valmiki Ramayan). Rama occupied it after red lines on the white surface. Some subject matter
killing Ravana (Valmiki Ramayan) and finally experts consider these types of paintings to be made
returned it to Kuber after reaching at Ayodhya from by blowing or pressure technique (fig. 9). One such
Shri Lanka (Valmiki Ramayan). The Padma Purana painting has recently been found from Indonesia;
also supports the existence of this vehicle during that the date of which is believed to be around 37,000
period (Padma Purana). The mention of Pushpak B.C (Pike W.G., Alistair, & et. al., 2017: 1-31).
Vimana is also found in Vimanika Shastra (Swami Some geometric figures are also made of red ochre
Bramha muniparivrajak 1959). colour. Many other types of analysis have also been
received.
The area of Chhattisgarh falls in the ancient
boundary of South Kosala which was a part of Rama’s Chronology: The rock art of this region
empire and the story of Ramayan can be popular are non-figurative motifs besides being depicted
in that region as well. Some scholars co-relate the independently has profusely been used for decorating
area of Bastar to the Dandakaranya of Ramayan. The and filling the body of the animal and human figures.
local people also believe that the native of Kaushalya This concept is, however, subject to correction on
the wife of Dasharath was Chhattisgarh. There are the availability of new evidence, which appears
many depictions of Ramayan and Mahabharat stories encouraging, particularly in the Kabrapahad and
on the wall of temples of this region. Therefore, it Ongana areas. Generally, this type of painting belongs
is possible for the locals that they think about these to Neolithic-Chalcolithic periods (Pandey 1993:
pictures as helipad of Ravana and Pushpak Vimana 123-125). The Ongana and Potiya rock painting are
of that time. associated with Mesolithic or early period because of
Microlithic artifact are recover from those sites. V. S.
Chhati Bahar – Shelter 01 (22° 33’ 21.50” N Wakankar, Robert R. R. Brooks (Wakanker & Brook
82° 47’ 43.09” E): Shelter 02 (22° 33’ 11.72” N 82° 1976: 22-26) propose the likelihood that some of the
48’ 01.46” E): It is located on a hill at the height rock pictures were painted during a long interval of
112 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

time, beginning in early Mesolithic age. In historic In rock shelter, Sar Bahar of Korba District, some
era rock paintings color is based on the study of the hand impressions have come in such a light, which
superimposition and subject matter, then the time after preparing the surface in different colours, with
frame of the rock paintings of those sites are from the help of other colours on it. Some such evidences
the Mesolithic period, Neolithic/Chalcolithic, Early have also been obtained from abroad, concerning
Historic and Historical periods. This chronology which scholars believe that such hand impressions
fixed is typological methods not based on the any were made by blowing or pressure techniques. The
scientific dating methods. ancient date of such depictions has been obtained
from ancient Spain for about 37000 thousand
years B.P. This can be considered as an important
OBSERVATIONS AND COMMENTS achievement in the art of rock painting of the
Central Chhattisgarh region. And this painting can
After studying and observation the rock paintings of be considered as the oldest artwork of Chhattisgarh
the Central Chhattisgarh region, it came to light that region on the basis of design.
none of the rock paintings of Chitwa-Dongri was
found to be able to confirm the theory of Mongolian
or Chinese people mentioned by earlier scholars. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All rock paintings are full of agricultural life and
religious and social sentiments of the time. The The paper is the outcome of the revisiting of painted
depiction of the large storage vessel seems to be the rock shelters of central Chhattisgarh region with a
main feature of the rock paintings here. view to throw fresh light on rock art activity. We wish
to express our sincere thanks to Mr. Patel local villager
Similarly, after the study of Raigarh rock of Boirdih, Shri I. R. Khute (DFO) Raigarh District,
paintings, some unique facts came to the fore whose Forest Guards of those regions, Photographer Mr.
discussion seem necessary. There is a symbol Samrath Tiwari. Md. Zakir khan thanks to Deputy
represented by a circle with a cross inside it in red Collector District Korba and Sanjay Joshi, local
ochre color. It appears to be related with the death. person for extending the overall co-operation for
There is a live practice of liberating a bull in the accomplishing the work, Pandra Ram & Gendaram,
memory of a respected person in the village after Pahari korba tribes’ person village Chhatibahar
his death. Some marks are made on his back, one of and Sarbahar during the exploration. Also, we are
them is a circle with plus mark inside it. indebted to Shri S.S.Verma, Photographer of the
Archaeological Survey of India, who accompanied
Secondly, making hand impressions on both us during the field survey at Korba and his invaluable
sides of the main entrance of the house doorson suggestions.
the auspicious occasion to protect from the death
and immortal souls is still in the practice. Hand
impressions are also made as good memories.In the REFERENCE
sanctum of the temple built in memory of Maharaja
Man Singh of Jodhpur, his wives made their hand Encyclopedia Britannica, 1976, William Benton
impressions as the token of their affection and sweet Publishers, Vol. 18.
memories with the king. (https://www.atlasobscura.
Pandey, S.K., 1993, Indian Rock Art, Aryan book
Com) similarly, we found a carving of hand in the
international, New Delhi.
upper central part of most of the sati stones. Thus, in
our country there is a practice of using hand stencils Shukla, Pradip Kumar 2001, Kharbai (Raisen) ke
as a commemorative sign. pragaitihasik shailchitra, Puratan.
Critical Analysis of Rock Paintings in Central Chhattisgarh Region 113

Vol. XII, Ed. Man Dahima, Commissioner, Archaeology, (ed.) Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary
Archives & Museum, Bhopal, 107-.110. Studies, Department of Archaeology, Deccan College
Pune.
Raijada, Ajit, 1997, Hoshangabad ke shailchitra, R. K
Publishers, Delhi. Dikshit M. G. 1955-56, Microlithic in Kabrapahad
Madhya Pradesh, Indian Archaeology -A Review, 69
Khullar, D.R. 2006, India A Comprehensive Geography,
Kalyani publishers, New Delhi, 41. Pandey, S. K., 2001, Central Indian Rock Art, (ed.)
Michel, Lorblanchet, Rock Art in the old world, Aryan
Tewari, Vijay Kumar, 2001, Geographical Study of Books International, Delhi.
Chhattisgarh, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, 09.
Valmiki Ramayan, Ramnarayan, Lal, Publisher &
Tiwari, S.K., 2000, Riddles of Indian Rock shelter Bookseller Allahabad, Sundar Kand. 7/8-13; 8/1-8; 9/11-
paintings, Sarup & Son, New Delhi. 12. 13-19.

Yadav, Soberan Singh, 1982, Newly discovered painted Padam Purana, Shrishti Khand, 122.
rock shelters at Chitwa-dongari, Prof. K.D. Bajpai (ed.)
Swami, Bramhamuniparivrajak, 1959, (ed.) Vimanika
Prachya Prathibha vol-IX-X, Birla Institute of art and
Shastra,Sarvadeshik Arya pratinidhisabha, Dyanand
music, Bhopal, 100
Bhavan, New Delhi, 229 &235.
Nyamdava A, OIDOR, 2003, Mongolia-India Relations, Pike W.G., Alistair, & et. al., 2017, Dating Paleolithic
Bhavana Book & Prints, New Delhi, 30 cave art: why U-Th is the way to go, Durham Research
Sinha, B.K., 1977-78, Exploration in district Raigarh, online.
Indian Archaeology -A Review, 34 https://www.atlasobscura.com>places>sati-handprints.
Pathak, Meenakshi Dubey & Jean Colottes, 2017, Rock Wakankar, Vishnu S., Brook, Robert R.R., 1976, Stone
Art in Chhattisgarh, An Overview, Rethinking the past: Age Painting in India, D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. Pvt.
Attribute to Prof. V. N. Misra, Susham G. Deo & Others Ltd..
 DISCOVERY OF LOST - III
EXPLORING ŚRAMAṆA CULTURE IN
THE TIGRAY REGION OF ETHIOPIA

RAJMAL JAIN*

1. INTRODUCTION
In the early or little before first millennium polity and its Sabaean traits – especially in the sense
BCE new features indicative of complex socio- of monumental objects like architecture – remained
economic structures appeared in the northern Horn limited to a few core sites concentrated in the south
of Africa. A number of these features, for example of the central highlands of Eritrea and in the northern
the emergence of a distinctive sacral architecture, part of Tigray, especially around Aksum and Yeha,
characteristic sculptures, and inscriptions indicating which is considered to be the ceremonial centreof
religious beliefs related to the Sabaean pantheon, that kingdom. As a result, the approach to the
resulted from cultural interchange with South- spatial extent of that period and a polity of as well
Arabia, especially with the flourishing kingdom as towards generalizing and ambiguous terms like
of Saba. The excavations in the 1950s and 1960s “Pre-Aksumite” or “Ethio-Sabaean”, is now being
at prominent sites with apparently strong Sabaean reviewed rather critically (Finneran 2007: 117–
contact, such asYeha, Hawlti, Melazo, and Matara, 122, 143– 145). The social impact of the Sabaean
suggested theperiod labelled “Ethio-Sabaean” and contact is regarded as being largely confined to
a “Pre-Aksumite” kingdom of DΚMT, however, the elite only and the rarity of sites are indicative
based on very poor epigraphic evidence. It was of the polity of the DKMT. This may be considered
characterized as a strongly South Arabian stimulated as a somewhat local phenomenon. For example,
polity. However, archaeological evidence of that the area of Wuqro and Κ AddiAkaweh, just about

*
Physical Research Laboratory, Department of Space, Government of India, Ahmedabad, India; E-mail: [email protected]
116 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

80 km was recently designated as being “beyond its Jainism even in the Vedic period. Zimmer (1953:
conventionally recognized south-eastern borders”. 182-83) observed the existence of the Śramaṇa
Beside this reasonable critical approach, however, culture before the Aryans in India suggesting
the question arises as to whether such statements are existence of Jainism before arrival of Aryans.The
justified as regards the still inadequate coverage of Jainism is like the universe, which has neither been
data on archaeological sites beyond the prominent created, nor it will be destroyed i. e universe/ nature
centers and especially south of the Aksum-Yeha has no beginning and no ending (Kanaknandi and
region. In view of that situation, rescue excavations Vigyan 1983: 192).
under the auspices of the Tigray Tourism and
Culture Commission (TCC) have led in 2007 to the Thus, in view of the aforesaid two contradictory
discovery of a site of more than local significance: opinions about the artifacts, archaeological, historical
MeqaberGaΚewa, just a short distance away from and anthropological evidences viz. Sbaean tradition
the church of Abuna Garima which houses three and Śramaṇa Culture we at All India Digamber
incense burners with Ethio-Sabaic inscriptions found Jain Heritage and Preservation Organization
in the vicinity of ΚAddi Akaweh, situated about 5 (AIDJHPO), a unit of Shri Bharatvarshiya Digamber
km south-west of Wuqro; co-ordinates: 39.56E, Jain Mahasabha, New Delhi felt to explore the
13.76 N (Datum and Godet 1977). The TCC rescue Jainism outside India under the leadership of Shri
excavations revealed several cult objects: a perfectly Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, National President of the
preserved libation altar with a royal dedication, Mahasabha. Shri Sethi gave me responsibility to
a seated female statue, architectural blocks, and take the lead to explore the Śramaṇa culture/ Jainism
limestone incense burners. Their Ethio-Sabaic in African continent in general and in Ethiopia and
inscriptions, which are paleo-graphically dated to Kenya in particular.In the current paper we present
the eighth–sixth centuries BCEinclude references study of exploration of śramaṇa culture in the Tigray
to Almaqah and to a hitherto. On the other hand, it Region of Ethiopia.
is widely known that the Śramaṇa culture and the
religion practicing this tradition known as Jainism
is a fundamental and independent religion (Jacobi 2. THE TIGRAY REGION
1973). The Śramaṇa culture has existing all over
the globe since thousands of years before present Tigray Region is the northernmost regional state
(Jain 1928: 93) in various forms such as Nirgranth in Ethiopia. Tigray Region is the homeland of the
(Nigantha) religion, Śramaṇa culture religion etc. Tigrayan, Irob and Kunama peoples. Its capital and
Recent investigation and excavation at Mohenjodaro largest city is Mekelle. Tigray is the fifth-largest
and Harappa has shown that Jainism existed before by area, the fifth-most populous, and the fifth-
five thousands year ago, even though Jainsbelieve it most densely populated of the 10 Regional States
to be eternal. Rajmal Jain (2012, 2017, 2021) claims of Ethiopia.Tigray’s official language is Tigrinya,
antiquity of Jainism to be since the evolution of rather similar to that spoken in nearby country
humanity on the planet. According to him Jainism namely Eritrea just to the North (cf. Figure 1). The
is not a religion rather it is a science of Nature, total population is more than 7 million. Almost 80%
Earth and Cosmic order. The Nirgrantha or nigantha people are engaged in agriculture and contributing
(nudeness) was, therefore, adopted to be in tune with 46% to the regional gross domestic product. The
the nature. He described (Jain 2021), in this context, highlands have the highest population density,
that Jainism appears to be eternal since the evolution especially in eastern and central Tigray. The much
of human beings with intelligence (sometimes less densely populated lowlands comprise 48%
between 50000 and 400000 years BCE). According of Tigray. Tigrayans are predominantly Orthodox
to Jacobi Herman (1908-1927), there are traces of Christians, making up 96% of the population
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 117

Fig. 1: The map of Ethiopia showing neighboring countries. Especially the Red Sea and across it the countries
Yemen and Saudi Arabia may be noted. The Tigray region is close to these countries as well as
Eritrea which was earlier an integral part of it.

(“Census 2007”, Tables 1, 4, 5, 6, Govt. of Ethiopia). the current investigation we wish to emphasize on
Shown in Figure 1 is the Tigray region bordered by the presence of a large temple complex and fertile
Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, the Amhara surroundings, the capital of the 3,000 year old
Region to the south and the Afar Region to the east kingdom of Dʿmt may have been near present-day
and southeast. The Red Sea and across it the Yemen Yeha (Shaw 1995: 612). We also study other parts
and Saudi Arabia may be noted. Besides Mekelle of the Tigray region to explore the Śramaṇa Culture.
the Tigray has many historically important cities and
towns such as Adigrat, Aksum, Shire, Humera,
Adwa, Adi Remets, Alamata, Wukro, Maychew, 2.1. Dʿmt Kingdom
Sheraro, AbiyAdi, Korem, Qwiha, Atsbi, Hawzen,
Mekoni, Dansha and Zalambessa. There is also Dʿmt (Daʿəmat) was a kingdom located in Eritrea
historically significant town of Yeha. and northern Ethiopia that existed during the 10th to
5th centuries BC. Few inscriptions by or about this
Since the 3rd millenium the Tigray is often kingdom survive and very little archaeological work
regarded as the cradle of Ethiopian civilization as has taken place. As a result, it is not known whether
well as the sacred land. It was also here in Tigray, Dʿmt ended as a civilization before the Kingdom of
that few hundred years back two religions, Judaism Aksum’s early stages, evolved into the Aksumite
and Christianity, arrived in Ethiopia. However, in state, or was one of the smaller states united in the
118 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Kingdom of Aksum possibly around the beginning Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen and Saudi Arabia (cf. Figure
of the 1st century (Siegbert 2005: 185).This kingdom 1). The capital city of the empire was Axum, now
developed irrigation schemes, used ploughs, grew in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community,
millet, and made iron tools and weapons. Some the city of Axum was once a bustling metropolis
modern historians including Stuart Munro-Hay, and a cultural and economic hub. Two hills and two
Rodolfo Fattovich, Ayele Bekerie, Cain Felder, streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city;
and Ephraim Isaac consider this civilization to be perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling
indigenous, although Sabaean-influenced due to the this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city,
latter’s dominance of the Red Sea, while others like the Aksumites had cemeteries with elaborate grave
Joseph Michels, Henri de Contenson, Tekletsadik stones called stelae, or obelisks. Other important
Mekuria, and Stanley Burstein have viewed Dʿmt as cities included Yeha, Hawulti-Melazo, Matara,
the result of a mixture of Sabaean and indigenous Adulis, and Qohaito, the last three of which are now
peoples (Phillipson 2009: 257-74).The most recent in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late 3rd
research, however, shows that Ge’ez, the ancient century, it had begun minting its own currency and
Semitic language spoken in Eritrea and northern was named by Mani as one of the four great powers
Ethiopia in ancient times, is not derived from of his time along with China and the Sassanid and
Sabaean (Kitchen and Andrew et al. 2009: 594). Roman empires. It converted to Christianity in 325
There is evidence of a Semitic-speaking presence or 328 under King Ezana and was the first state ever
in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia at least as early as to use the image of the cross on its coins ( “Aksum”,
2000 BC (Durrani 2005:121; Siegbert 2005: 189). It UNESCO World Heritage Centre.; “Mountain
is now believed that Sabaean influence was minor, Constantines: The Christianization of Aksum and
limited to a few localities, and disappeared after a Iberia1”(PDF), users.clas.ufl.edu.
few decades or a century, perhaps representing a
trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire
or military alliance with the civilization of Dʿmt or rooted in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia (Phillipson and
some other proto-Aksumite state (Phillipson 2009: David 2012: 257-74). It existed from approximately
275; Stuart 1991: 189). 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron
Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence
After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the by the 1st century AD.As shown in Figure 2 Aksum
plateau came to be dominated by smaller unknown became a major player on the commercial route
successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of between the Roman Empire and Ancient India via
one of these polities during the first century BC, the Red Sea. Aksum managed trade between India and
Aksumite Kingdom. This Aksumite Kingdom was the Mediterranean in ivory, gold, emeralds, silk,
able to reunite the area (Pankhurst, Richard K.P.; spices, agricultural products, salt, exotic animals,
Addis Tribune) and is effectively the ancestor of manufactured goods, and much more. In the first
medieval and modern states in Eritrea and Ethiopia century CE, Aksum flourished. They could afford
using the name “Ethiopia” as early as the 4th to build a powerful navy to patrol the Red Sea and
centuryAD (Henze and Paul 2005: 235-38; Stuart protect their trade routes.
1991: 189).

2.3. Cultural Transformations

2.2. Aksum Kingdom
The trade between Aksum and India was through
The Empire of Aksum at its height at times extended Red Sea and via presently known Yemen, and Gulf
across most of present-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, countries since last more than 5000 years BCE
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 119

(McLaughlin 2007: 4). India was well developed dominated by six successive civilizations which
and highly cultured country with sound economic rivaled each other, or were allied with each other and
conditions as well as in trading of various products. controlled the lucrative spice trade: Ma’in, Qataban,
The high culture society and tradition of art and Hadhramaut, Awsan, Saba, and Himyar (Arabian
education, defense and agriculture and producing Peninsula, 2000–1000 B.C.; Timeline of Art History,
agro-products etc. were basically a follow up of The Metropolitan Museum of Art). With its long sea
Śramaṇaculture established by Shri Rishabhdev, border between early civilizations, Yemen has long
the first tirthankar of Jainism (Jain 2021). The existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic
Śramaṇaculture developed around few tens of location in terms of trade on the west of the Arabian
thousands of years BCE all over the globe in general Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in
and in Euro-Asia and Africa in particular (Jain 1924). the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000
The history of Yemen describes the cultures, events, BCE (McLaughlin 2007: 4). Although little is known
and peoples of what is one of the oldest centers of about ancient Yemen and how exactly it transitioned
civilization in the Near East (Arabian Peninsula, from nascent Bronze Age civilizations to more trade-
2000–1000 B.C; Timeline of Art History, The focused caravan kingdoms, but since long it has been
Metropolitan Museum of Art). Its relatively fertile known that Yemen and nearby countries/ settlements
land and adequate rainfall in a moister climate helped were greatly influenced by Śramaṇa culture.
to sustain a stable population, a feature recognized
by the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, who The Sabaean Kingdom came into existence
described Yemen as Eudaimon Arabia (better known before the eleventh century BC (Kitchen 2003). There
as “Happy Arabia”). Yemenis had developed the were four major kingdoms or tribal confederations
South Arabian alphabet by the 12th to 8th centuries in South Arabia namely Saba, Hadramout, Qataban
BCE, which explains why most historians date all of and Ma’in. Saba is believed to be cultured Sheba
the ancient Yemeni kingdoms to that era. Between and was the most prominent federation (Bromiley
the 12thcentury BCE and the 6th century CE, it was 254). The Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib

Fig. 2: The trade route between Roman and Aksum Empire with India through Red Sea.
120 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

i.e.”unifier”, which means a “priest-king”, similar to

Śramaṇa Culture tradition in the past. The role of the
Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the
kingdom and preside over them all (McLaughlin 2007:
5). The Sabaensbasically were highly influenced
with Śramaṇa culture which was expanding from
east to west. In this process transformation of
Śramaṇa culture took place and Sabaens perhaps
adopted Śramaṇa religion as evidenced from the
Saba’s knowledge of agriculture, alphabets, defense,
culture etc., which are the fundamental concepts of
Śramaṇa culture (cf. Inscription - Figure 3) as well
as the Priest-King philosophy. However, between
700 and 680 BCE Sabaean Mukarrib Karib’ilWatar I
changed his ruling title to that of a king (Daum 1987)
and conquered the entire realm of Awsan, expanding
Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South
Arabia (The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia”.
British Museum. Archived from the original on
2013-12-03. Retrieved 7 February 2014.). Lack
of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the
Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula. Instead,
they established various colonies to control trade
routes. As shown in Figure 3 evidence of Sabaean
influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the
South Arabian alphabet religion and pantheon, and
the South Arabian style of art and architecture were
Fig. 3: Sabaean inscription addressed to the moon-
introduced (George 2013: 19; Teshale 1995:xv11; god Almaqah in the Tigray region, Ethiopia, mentioning five
Schmidt 2006:281), which are the integral concepts South Arabian gods, two reigning sovereigns, and two governors,
of Śramaṇa culture (Jain 2021). Further, the Sabaean 7th century BCE. The Moon-god temple exists in Yeha, near
Aksum, Ethiopia, looks more likely to be a Chandra Prabhu
created a sense of identity, harmony, uniformity, temple of Jain tradition.
equality etc. through their religion which are also
nuclide around Śramaṇa culture (Rajmal 2021). For
centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade 1993: 14). The Śramaṇa tradition includes Jainism
across the Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the (Zimmer 1952: 182-83), Buddhism, and others such
Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa and the as the Ājīvikas, Ajñanas and Cārvākas (Svarghese
Red Sea from the Indian Ocean (Potts 2012: 1047). 2008).The followers of the Śramaṇa culture believe
in the existence of Atma (jiva, soul) and its liberation
to achieve Moksha. Śramaṇians further believe that
3. THE ŚRAMAṆA CULTURE the whole universe is full of Jiva (soul) and pudagala
(ajiva/ matter). The śramaṇaculture arose from the
Śramaṇa (Sanskrit: Je.k; Pali: samaṇa) means “one time of the first tirthankar Shri Rishabhdev, almost
who uplifts himself by performing acts of austerity, few thousands of years BCE, when he taught new
ascetic” (Williams: 1096). The term Śramaṇa is found professional ways to begin the human civilization.
in both Buddhist and Jain canonical texts (Olivelle It continued for thousands of years and evolved and
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 121

spread all over the globe. The 24th tirthankar Mahavir Buddhist texts, and they were a well-established sect
reviewed the Śramaṇa tradition and described in when Buddha began preaching. He states that “Jains”
greater detail to adopting in daily life. The Śramaṇ appear to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and
culture became very popular particularly in the Śramaṇas who may have been ultimately connected
circles of mendicants in ancient India that led to with pre-Vedic civilization”. The śramaṇasystem is
the development of meditation and yogic practices believed by a majority of Jain scholars to have been
(Samuel 2008: 219), probably in the sixth or of independent origin and not protest movements
fifth century BCE, around the period of Mahavir of any kind, and was pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic
(599-527 BCE). Yogic and meditation practices (Marwaha 2006: 97-99). On the other hand, some
developed in the same ascetic circles as the early scholars posit that the Indus Valley Civilization
Śramaṇa movements observed in Jains, Buddhists, symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the
and Ajivikas.The Śramaṇic traditions have beliefs in bull icon may have a connection to Rishabhanatha
the concept of soul, fatalism to free will, idealization (Bilimoria2007: 315; Scharlemann 1985: 106-109)
of extreme asceticism to that of family life, wearing and Institute of Indic Studies. The Śramaṇa tradition
dress to complete nudity in daily social life, strict includes Jainism of 9th-century BCE, Buddhism
ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism (Jaini of 6th-century BCE, and others such as Ājīvika,
2000: 94). Ajñana and Cārvāka. The Śramaṇians believe in
the principles of Jainism and thereby worship 24
Rajmal Jain (2021) described that long back tirthankaras.
Shri Rishabhdev started the religion of Nature
and cosmic order, which after Mahavir known as
Jainism, the followers of it are known as Śramaṇic. 4. EXPLORING THE ŚRAMAṆA CULTURE
Shri Rishabhnath also taught six main professions IN THE TIGRAY REGION
to the folk of his kingdom viz. (1) Asi (defense), (2)
Masi (writing skills), (3) Krishi (agriculture), (4) In order to exploring the Śramaṇa culture All India
Vidya (knowledge), (5) Vanijya (trade/ commerce) Digamber Jain Heritage and Preservation Organization
and (6) Shilp (crafts) (Pande 1957: 26). In other (AIDJHPO), a unit of Shree Bharatvarshiya
words, he is credited with introducing karma-bhumi Digamber Jain Mahasabha, and Dept. of Philosophy,
(land of actions) by founding arts and professions Mekelle University, Ethiopia jointly organized a
to enable householders to sustain themselves two day international conference on “African and
(Olivelle 1993: 14). Rishabhanatha is also credited Jain Philosophies: Indigenous Enlightenment in
in Jainism to have invented and taught fire, cooking Peace Building” at Mekelle University during 17th
and all the skills needed for human beings to live. In and 18th May 2017. It was attended by more than 18
total, Rishabhanatha is said to have taught seventy- Indian and 20 Ethiopian scholars.During the various
two sciences to men and sixty-four to women presentations and discussions we found that there
(Olivelle1993: 14). The institution of marriage is are few ethnographic and anthropological evidences
stated to have come into existence after his marriage in current religious and functional traditions of the
marked the precedence. Rishabhanatha, in Jain present Orthodox Christian community. Some of the
culture, is thus not merely a spiritual teacher, but the practices like fasting, vegetarianism during fasting
one who founded knowledge in its various forms, period, offering of things by both the hands and
and therefore he is depicted as a form of culture hero observation of Maun (silence) etc. are still prevalent
for the current cosmological cycle (Jaini 2001:91). in this society. Moreover, the belief by this Orthodox
Christian society in the soul and its liberation to
According to Prof. Govind Pande (1957: 20) achieve the moksha employing the concept of
Jains were same as the Niganthas mentioned in the Karma, similar to the Śramaṇa Culture was a major
122 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

motivation for the Indian scholars team to gather in South Arabia to around 700 BC, which has
more knowledge and investigate the evidences, been confirmed by radiocarbon dating conducted
which may prove that this community was pertaining by German archaeologists. Its “excellent state of
to Jainism before the arrival of Orthodox Christian preservation” has been attributes to its rededication -
Religion in the 4th century AD. In this context, we perhaps as early as the sixth century AD - for use as a
planned to visit Churches of this community and Christian church. This suggests that the community
to hold discussions with the priest, and to visit the belonging to Sabaean tradition was primarily or
archeological sites in the Tigray region. With these Śramaṇa Culture (cf. section 2 and 3) in the Tigray
aims we visited the Almaqah, Yeha, and Aksum sites region, andwas forcefully converted to Christianity.
for further research to probe the linkages with the Perhaps this community is the Orthodox Christians,
Śramaṇa Culture in general and with Jain heritage who still follow the traditions of their originality in
in particular. Our discussions with many Ethiopian many ways described later in this section.
scholars and demonstrators of the sites and museums
revealed that almost many sites are excavated The site of Yeha is in a modern town hidden by
or under excavation by German archaeologists the Adwa chains of mountains about 53km to the
through a bi-lateral agreement between German and west of the World Heritage Site of Aksum in Tigray
Ethiopian governments. Therefore we organized State, northern part of Ethiopia. It is located in a
several discussions with German Embassy in Addis fertile basin with an altitude of 2150m surrounded
Ababa and archaeologists. by spectacular volcanic mountain chains. The
place is a sacred area for the Ethiopian Orthodox
Christians, a living memory and religious practices
4.1. The Great Moon Temple of Yeha of the same believers with the original religion, since
the foundation of the Monastery of Abune Aftsie in
The German archaeologists dated the YEHA the 6th century AD by one of the Nine Saints who
Temple, known as the Moon Temple, of 7th century came to the Northern Horn from the Europe and
BCE on the basis of carbon dating conducted by the Middle East for evangelization i.e. to convert
them. This suggests that the temple was constructed Sbaaean/ Śramaṇa culture folk to Christian.
between the period of 23rd tirthankar Parshwanath
and 24th tirthankar Mahavir. On the other hand, the The site preserves two complex monumental
inscription of historical events and records posted buildings known as the GratBe’al Geubri Palace and
on the walls of the museum of Aksum reveal the Grand Temple of Yeha and two cemetery areas
the civilization and construction around 12th century called the rock cut shaft tombs of Da’ero Mikael and
BCE, much before the birth of Parshwanatha. the rock cut tombs of AbiyAddi dating to the early
The temple appeared to us to be of 8th tirthankar of the first millennium BC. It also preserves rich
Chandraprabhu of Jain tradition. We describe below intact underground archaeological structures located
the evidences in terms of iconography, artifacts and around these monumental structures and around the
remnants observed by us during our two visits of tombs mentioned above dating to the same period.
the Tigray region in general and the Aksum and the
The Great Temple of Yeha which dates back to
Yeha Moon temple in 2017. Shown in Figure 4 is the
about the 7th century BC was dedicated to the god
entrance of the Moon temple.
of Almaqah. It was built on a hill top in excellent
The oldest standing building in Ethiopia is engineering techniques of dry masonry by joining
located in the village of Yeha: the great Yeha Temple large dressed blocks of stones. It is a rectangular
of the Moon. This is a tower built in the Sabaean building measuring 18.5 by 15meter with a single
style or similar to Sravanbelgola in Soth India, and entrance that survives up to a maximum height of 14
dated through comparison with ancient structures meter. Regular rectangular dressed block of stones
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 123

Fig. 4: Left panel: The sign board of the great temple of Yeha along with archaeological excavation mission between Ethiopia and
Germany. Right panel: Main entrance gate of the temple, similar to many Jain temples in India.
The temple is located on a small hillock.

up to 3meter long were used to build its walls without known (Hodd 2002: 859). Further, the Temple was
mortar. This kind of construction technology had converted to Church in 6th Century AD (Phillipson
been in practice in India particularly in building Jain 2009:257-74). The Monastery was moved to its
temples viz.Shravanbelgola, Moodbidri in South and nearby present location in the early 20th century
Rishabhdev in Rajasthan, and Goricho Jain Mandir AD. It is, thus, considered by Ethiopians as a sacred
currently in Pakistan. place, symbol of national pride and cultural identity
which is deep rooted in Ethiopian history in general
Meticulous attention was given to dress the and the Northern Horn in particular.
outer faces, edges and corners giving an impression
that the lines among the blocks that were carved The second monumental structure of Yeha is the
into a superb monolithic structure. The walls of Palace of Be’al Geubri dating to the 8th century BC
the temple are well preserved. The interior of the which is located about 200m to the Northeast of the
building presents an amazing construction style Moon Temple. It measures at least 27 m high with five
where it is possible to see the wall, of which its total floors on a squared ground plan of about 60 x 60 m as
thickness is about 60 cm. The floor is also superbly shown in Figure 6. It has a protruding stepped podium
built with five layers of different size of dressed measuring up to 6 m high, built with local stones
block of stones, some measuring 1m by 50cm, and lime mortar similar to palace and temples were
others 1m by 1m and 50cm by 50cm. In Figure 5 being constructed in Rajasthan until hundred years
we show few iconographic images of the different before present. It was told to us that this palace was
parts of this Chandraprabhu Temple. Specially, the of the same king who built temple and was practicing
symbol of the Moon may be noted which all Jain Sabaean/ Śramaṇa culture i. e the ruler was a priest-
temples employ to represent idol/ statue of Jaina’s 8th king. This suggests that the king was from Jain origin.
tirthankar Chadraprabhu. The details of images are The structures of palace found during excavation by
described in the caption of the figure. German archaeologists are shown in Figure 6.

However, transition from the D’mt Kingdom The palace building has axial symmetry with
(before 700 BCE to the Axumite Kingdom is not projections at the corners and in the middle sides
124 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 5: A. Main and single entrance gate to enter into the Moon temple. The large and high walls may be noted, and about 4-feet thick walls
may be seen in B. In order to stop further erosion and damage to the structure, walls and artifacts, restoration work started by archaeology
department of Ethiopia. The panel C shows the two shafts projecting out of the main wall, shown by black arrow, on which, perhaps, either
the structure of the statue was mounted or else were being used to stand for conducting the process of Abhishek (Anointment). The Abhishek
water was flowing into the channel, below the statue, shown in the figure by white arrow, and then was flowing into the outlet channel made
inside the temple as shown in Figure panel D. This is well-known process and engineering technology in Jain temples of old era. The panel E
is outlet of the same water as seen from outside of the temple. Purified water was always being preserved in the Abhishek (Anointment) well
which still exists and may be noted in the panel F. Most important evidence of this temple to be of tirthankar Chandraprabhu is the symbol of
Moon on the main pillars of the grabhgrah. Piece of the pillar with the great symbol of the Moon was obtained, shown in the panel G, inside
the room of nearby building which is currently under the priest. Inside this room many other artifacts, stone inscriptions, pieces of the various
structures of the temple (panel H) and scriptures (panel I and J) in Sabaean language are stored, which reveal enriched culture of Jainism
before 700 years BCE. The baptistery (shower room) was also found inside the temple, which is unique feature in Jain temples constructed
until few hundred years back, to take shower by those who offer Abhishek on the statue.
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 125

Fig. 6: The Palace of Be’al Geubri dating to the 8th century BC, which is located about 200 m to the Northeast of the Moon Temple. Shown
in panel (A) is the protruding stepped podium approaching to floor. The excavated ground floor reveals (panel B) it to be at least 27 m high
with five floors on a squared ground plan of about 60 x 60 m. A broken but the large standing stone graved with statue structure may be noted.
The other big stone pieces may also be seen, which were used in building the palace. In the panel (C) a statue of the Jain tirthankar, although
broken and not clear, marked by yellow arrow, in the side pose as in padmasan posture may be seen, and it further suggests the king might be
of Śramaṇa culture origin. One of the underground rooms may be noted in panel (D) that was used to store most precious and expensive items
126 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

like the Axumite palaces of the first millennium AD. eastern sides of the Red Sea. They are only common
The entrance is located at the south-eastern flank in the stratified communities of the Northern Horn
and is designed as monumental propylene with six dating from the first millennium BC to the early first
monolithic pillars built with local sandstone, and was Millennium AD as it can be understood from some
accessible by ascending wide flight of stairs. The pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites.
pillars originally had the heights of more than 10 m,
The above archaeological evidence shows that
of which 3.60 m are still preserved and each pillar
the site of Yeha has outstanding universal values that
weighs about 20 tons. The main stone gate which was merit for the inclusion to the World Heritage List. It
built with local sandstone of more than six meter in testifies the earliest evidence for the emergence of
height has an entrance of 1.10 m wide. The interior complex culture in the Northern Horn in particular
of the building has two corridors running in an east- and in the sub Saharan Africa in general. This
west direction from which all rooms were accessible. testimony is traceable in the construction techniques
Further, it was a multi-storied palace, constructed in and designs of the Palace of GratBe’alGeubri and
wood-stone architecture. It is the largest known timber the Great Moon Temple and religion and cultural
framed building in East Africa and South Arabia and practices, artistic handicrafts and inscriptions.
the oldest example south of the Sahara. It marks The site of Yeha was also a political, religious
the beginning of a long tradition of wood-framed and cultural Centre of highly centralized complex
constructions which is crucial for understanding the societies that flourished at Yeha in the early first
building traditions in the Northern Horn. Millennium BC, as described earlier, in the form of
Śramaṇa, Sabaean and other cultures, largely similar
As researches indicate, seventeen series of rock-
to Nirgrantha philosophy, particularly in the Tigray
cut graves dating to the first millennium BC that may
region. Thus Yehawas also the first capital city of the
have belonged to the rulers who probably lived at the
Ethiopia state before its transfer to Aksum.
palace of Grat Bea’l Geubri were excavated. These
vertical shafts lead to one or more tomb-chambers.
The grave contents of these tombs included abundant 4.2. Almaqah Temple
pottery, copper-alloy sickles, zoomorphic seals,
other tools, and an alabaster vessel that witness the Almaqah or Almuqh was the Sun God of the ancient
artistic and technological sophistication of the time. Yemeni kingdom of Saba’. He was also worshipped
in the kingdoms of Dʿmt and Aksum in Eritrea
We found other cemetery areas called the rock
and northern Ethiopia.Almaqah’s symbol is bull’s
cut shaft tombs of Da’ero Mikael and the rock cut
head and the vine motif associated with him may
tombs of AbiyAddi dating to the early and middle
of the first millennium BC. The tomb found at the have solar (head 0f the family) and nature/ earth/
foot hill of AbiyAddi, across the valley of Shillanat environment attributes. He was therefore a male
to the Southwest of the Grand Temple, is shown in counterpart of the Sun goddess Shamash / Ishtar /
Figure 7. Nine rock-cut tombs were partly observed Isis, who was also venerated in Saba, but as a tutelary
located next to each other in various orientations in goddess of the royal Egyptian dynasty (Ryckmans
an area of 500m². They were cut into the rock up to 1987: 172). It may be noted that the symbol of bull
two to three meters deep. A rectangular shaft of 2 x also belongs to the Rishabhdev, the first tirthankar
0, 6 m leads to one or two sub-rectangular chambers of Jainism and founder of Śramaṇa culture, and who
with different sizes of up to 0.9 m height and 2-3.8 developed the philosophy to worship and protect the
in length where collective burials took place, most nature/ environment or in other words philosophy of
probably successively over a long period during the the earth and cosmic order. In this context, it was
first millennium BC. Similar rock cut tombs dating very motivational to us to explore the Almaqah
to the first millennium BC are not known in the Temple.
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 127

MeqaberGaΚewa is a recently discovered site BC and perhaps at that time the well-developed craft
that indicates Sabaean cultural contacts with the of Indus civilization was already extinct.
Ethiopian highlands. Its main temple, dedicated to
Almaqah, was unearthed under the auspices of a joint In the excavated Almaqah temple we found
Ethiopian-German co-operation established in 2008 a white stone pedestal of rectangular shape with a
(Wolf 2010: 363-76). The single-roomed templewith provision to install the idol for anointment, as shown
a portico and a tripartite sanctuary, situated within in Figure 10, at the location of the depression at the
a large temenos, clearly resembles South Arabian center using the holes. The pedestal has two projected
prototypes and represents the southernmost bull mouthed outlets (paranala), one inside and
architectural evidence of Sabaean influence hither the other outside, for the flow of anointment water
to discovered in Ethiopia. However, many temples offered as ablution for the idol which is especiallya
of above architecture of the single-roomed may be culture only in the Jain tradition since the period of
found in South India of Jain origin. The Jain temple Rishabhdev. Further, the presence of two bull headed
of Halebidu in Hassan district of Karnataka in outlet projection, inside and outside of the pedestal
particular is of similar structure. in the Almaqah temple with the possible mounting
of the idol in the center, suggests the temple to be of
A number of well-preserved cult objects of Bull god Shri Rishabhdev/ Aadinath, firsttirthankar
outstanding quality – among them a completely of Jain tradition.
preserved libation altar and a seated female statue
The entry to the temple is from the east, which
– were found at their original places in the temple.
has three landings leading to libation altar. On the
Their Ethio-Sabaic inscriptions, paleographically
rear side of the central pedestal i.e. in the west, there
dated to the early first millennium BC, mention the
are three chambers and thereby the entire structure
ancient name of Yeha for the first time and refer to a
is enclosed within a compound wall which further
hitherto unknown king. At the same time, they reflect
suggest that the Almaqah temple to be a Jain temple.
an African aspect by mentioning the king’s mother
The Wukro Museum displays original pedestal of
in his affiliation. A cult installation in the central
the Almaqah temple along with the other excavated
sanctuary, potteryand votive objects such as incense
material (cf. Figure 11).
burners, miniature vessels, and female figurines,
illuminate liturgical practices predominating inthat In Figure 11 we show many evidences in the
particular region and period, which are similar to form of artifacts, remnants of statue and temple and
practices in Jain/ Śramaṇa culture and conducted inscription. The artifacts and pieces of the statue as
even today.Thus it was further motivational to us to well as the remnants of temple pillars and mounting
visit this temple of Almaqah. In Figure8 we show the base etc. may be noted in the left panel. In the
far-view of this temple, when it was in the process right panel we show the inscription on the white
of excavation by German team.The architecture sandstones blocks that made to mounting one above
and artifacts reveal it to be a Jain Śramaṇa culture other. The fractured/ broken statue of the idol, shown
temple, which further endorses that Sabaean by red arrow, in standing/ kayotsarg or khadgasan
culture was basically a Śramaṇa culture. Further, posture above the inscription block of the stone may
as shown in Figure 9 the idols, few centimeter in be noted.
size, of female and male protection goddess and
god appear similar to Rakshak Dev in Jain tradition The museum displays excavated objects in
viz. Chakreshwari and Gomiukh, mostly found in many individual show cases exhibiting the material
Rishabhdev/ Aadinath temples. The statues are not culture of that period. We found that except few
highly engraved and well-crafted quality because articles or relics or antiquities, by and large, most
the temple appears to be earlier than first millennium of them are in the form of beads, which are in
128 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

similarity with the Indian culture. Besides it, there salvation, which is the fragment of alleged incense
are antiquities as Amphora port of Roman trade burners, and above the middle world while the lower
found all over South East Asia and other countries of part depicting the seven Hells signifies important
the World. The pottery displayed of greater variety evidence. However, from the excavations Germans
appears to be handmade and not well baked. The have identified this object as incense burners which
Black and Red ware of Indian Cultural affinity are need to be probed further.Germans attempted to
also of handmade. There are presence of Mullar and identifythe script on the Pedestal and other fragments
Quern of granite stone with deep depression in the as Ge-ez and interpreted by mistake as sacrifice altars
specimen which depicts their continuous use in long instead of ablution of Idol by placing on the pedestal
run for the preparation of pastes. Further, there is and associated bull head outlets (parnala) to drain
presence of multi segmented round clay or terracotta out the ablution water. (cf. Figure 10). This type of
oven which in similarity with the Indian culture provision is invariably found in the Jain Temples for
found in Karnataka and Rajasthan region even panchamrit Abhishek (ablution) comprised of water,
at present. The storage jars etc. have affinity with milk,sandal, saffron etc.
South Arabian culture. There are many specimens of
We also found evidence as the presence of
the round pots that were in use as incense burners
rolled elephant trunk in pilasters of wooden frame
as part of worshiping in the temple complex, which,
of entrance gate remnants of the temple complex,
however, are identified without any burning marks
which are basically features of Indian architecture.
by the Germans explorers.
In fact theartifacts seen in Figure 13 resemble and
Shown in Figure 12 (top panel) is the alleged represent the six symbols of Jain Cosmic universe,
pedestal engraved with the sign of the Moon along particularly inscribed on the item just below the
with a dot at the center of the rectangular stone and Moon arch, and visible as an Indus Text, readable
9 incense burners like sharp spiked arrows that from right to left as per lexicon given in the book
are made at the top of this rectangular stone. This “Guide book to decipher the Indus script” by Sneh
structure resembles with the Sidha Sila (Right panel) Rani Jain (2017). The second line on the same
of Śramaṇa Culture. The engraved 9 incense burners pedestalis written in Geez of Sabaeantradition as
represent the sidhhas as may be noted in the right identified by German experts.However, we found
panel. The SiddhSila is a sacred symbol in Jainism many stone slabs with inscriptions in the Moon
and being worshiped in the Śramaṇa Culture. Jain Temple at Yeha and Almaqah Temple in Wuqro. The
religious literatureshave invariably discussed the inscription appears to be of Brahmi script written
SiddhSila and referred under the Jain cosmology. in Mirror image from right to left and in retro
Siddhsila is an area in Jain cosmology at the apex words. Therefore, in contradiction to the German
of the universe, which Jains believe that who have Archaeologists who proclaimed this templeto be of
become arihants and tirthankaras go afterattaining the Sabaean Culture, our observations reveal these
moksha, and known as siddhas (Kuiper, 2010: 150). are inverted images and retro words of Indian oldest
Brahmi Script and in Sanskrit language.
According to Jain tradition the lower part of the
Therefore we conclude that the Śramaṇa culture
pedestal, non-Moon part, isdesignated as the seven
highly influenced the Sabaean culture and they
Hells, while the middle part refers the zone for human
followed as well as practiced.
and all other living beings. The upper middle partis
referred as the Sixteen Heavens. The resemblance of A bronze metal caldron that found in the
the pedestal engraved with the Moon along with the museum with a message inscribed on it in the script
big dot with the Sidha Sila is important evidence.The of ancient times is shown in Figure 14. The mirror
dot depicts the seat of pure souls i.e.who attained image of the inscription on it read as follows.
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 129

“The Sun God appeared 100 years after in the and upon knocking them they produce sounds of
summer seasons to revive the Dharma/ Religion”. different frequencies. The entrance rolling stone
door will be opened upon knocking with special
In this inscription there are three numerical sound. Similarly we found long stone slabs, perhaps,
signs of Aramaic and others are in Brahmi script of were used as sleeping beds for the saints and sounds
3rd century BC of India, period of the Chandragupta, were used to communicate with each other or to
great king of Maurya dynasty. The preliminary give calls for the wake-up/ meditation time/ meeting
translation has been carried out by Mrs. Arpita
etc.Such stone pedestals with different sounds are
Ranjan, Assistant Superintending Epigraphist
also found in theJain Basadi complex in Halebidu,
from Archaeological Survey of India. On the other
Hassan district, Karnataka, India. The sleeping stone
hand according to Prof. Norbert Nebes of DAI
slabs were given a small curvature on one side to
German Team the text corresponds to old Sabaean
use it as a hard pillow. The monastery has small and
inscription from Saudi Arabia of 1stmillennium
big rooms for conducting Dhyaan (meditation) and
BC. However, the inscriptions are to be edited and
Pratikraman (retrogression) etc.
translated against the background of the entire old
South Arabic text Corpus published so far (by Helen
The large scale meeting of the saints, teaching
Weighs). Moreover, the German team could not give
by acharyas and upadhyais to all saints, joint
satisfactory response about the Sabaean Culture,
discussions, debates and seminars (pravachan) as
which they have assigned to Ethiopia region.
well as jointly practicing the ethics of Śramaṇa/
Jainism (Swadhyai/ self-education) were being
conducted in the open air halls and rooms. The
4.3. Aksum’sEndorsement
remnants of the same are shown in Figure 16. It
We visited the Aksum, the historic capital of the may be noted that this culture is still prevailing in
Aksumite Empire (Phillipson 2009: 257-74). The India. The monastery and nearby existence of this
Aksumite Empire was a naval and trading power saint school endorse that large number of Digamber
that ruled the region from about 1000 BCE due to its sadhus (nude saints/ monks) weretravelling and
closeness to Red Ocean. In 1980, UNESCO added rambling in the Tigray region. It may be noted that
Axum’s archaeological sites to its list of World until the salvation of 24thtirthankar Mahavir (599-
Heritage Sites due to their historic value.Axum is 527 BCE) only Digamber Jain sect was prevailing.
located in the Maekelay Zone of the Tigray Region, Digambara Sādhu (also muni, sādhu) is a Sādhu
near the base of the Adwa Mountains. in the Digambar tradition of Jainism, and as such
an occupant of the highest limb of the four-fold
Aksum endorsed the existence of Śramaṇa sangha. They are also called Nirgranth which means
culture around one millennium BCE in the Tigray “one without any bonds”. Digambar Sādhus have
regionin view of evidences revealed by well- 28 primary attributes which includes observance
preserved artifacts, remnants, historical inscriptions, of the five supreme vows of ahimsa (non-injury),
culturalresiduum and discussions with priests truth, non-thieving, celibacy and non-possession.
etc. Shown in Figure 15is the major evidence of A Digambar Sādhu is allowed to keep only a
existence of Monks Residency (Monastery) where feather whisk (pichhi), a water gourd (kamandal)
the large group of Śramaṇa saints was living and and scripture (shastra) with him as shown in
meditating. It may be specially noted that the Figure 17 (left panel). We were fortunate to see
entrance gate to this underground monastery was incidentally the well preserved and protected water
made of high-tech of that era. The covering door is gourd in the Museum of Addis Ababa University
made of single-piece rolling stone slab. Further the (cf. Figure 17, right panel) which further endorses
stones used in this monastery have special sound that the Tigray region was highly dominated by
130 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

the folk of Digamber Jain tradition sometimes one and is an important destination of pilgrimages Kay.
millennium BCE. However, the Ten Commandments, also known as
the Decalogue, are a set of philosophical principles
Almost joint to Monks Residency/ monastery relating to ethics and worship that play a fundamental
we found a large open ground wherefew Obelisks role in the prehistoric or ancient religion of few
(Manak Stambh) were constructed as shown in thousands of years BCE. The artifacts and other
Figure 18. To build an obelisk, four-sided tower evidences of Aksum suggest that the philosophy
(prq"dks.klrEHk), also called Stelain front of the temple transformed to Aksum from Jerusalem was perhaps
or monastery is a tradition in Jainism. However, based on the “Laws of Nature”, which is same as the
the organizational and technological skills of the Śramaṇa culture in view that the commandments are
Aksumites were represented by the construction of similar to ethics of Śramaṇa tradition, for example
stelae (singular: stela/stele). These monuments were practicing the fasting, non-possession, non-violence
created in line of older African traditions and made etc.Thus it may be concluded that Jerusalem was
of single pieces of local granite. In most cases, the perhaps the capital/ main center of Śramaṇa culture
obelisks/ stelae mark elite and royal burial tombs. in the prehistoric era on larger continent on the Earth,
The largest stelae appear to decorate the graves of which included Asia and Africa.This may also be
the Aksumite kings. The monoliths are spread over endorsed in context to similarity between Sabaean
multiple terrains, including fields in the northern and Śramaṇa traditions, which slowly expanded and
and southeastern sides of the city, the Gudit Stelae propagated all over the globe (Jain 1928:84). It may
Field, and the Central Stele Park. The latter began be further noted that the Jerusalemis one of the oldest
to emerge as a regional ceremonial and settlement cities in the world, and is considered holy/ sacred
centre around 100 AD, and houses the finest city even to the three major Abrahamic religions
manufactured and decorated monoliths of Aksum. viz. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israelis
Due to their height and weight, the erection of stelae and Palestinians claim that the Jerusalem as their
was not an easy task, and the fact that many had capital (Smith 2017). However, it is very important
probably already toppled before finishing the job tomention that these three religions evolved in last
should not come as a surprise. However, in view of two millenniums before present, while the Śramaṇa
history of these Obelisks, we are not sure to consider culturewas in existence at least few millenniums
them as Manak Stambh. years BCE.

Further, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has
Church claims that the Church of Lady Mary of Zion been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times,
in Axum houses the Biblical “Ark of the Covenant”, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52
in which lie the Tablets of Stone upon which the Ten times. There are many evidences suggesting that the
Commandments are inscribed (Hodd 2002: 869). Jerusalem had the first settlement much before the
Ethiopian traditions suggest that it was from Axum 4thmillennium BCE, in the shape of encampments
that Makeda, the Queen of Sheba, travelled to visit of nomadic folk (Raphael 2013). However, it is
King Solomon in Jerusalem and that the two had a important to note that in the Canaanite period (14tth
son, Menelik, who grew up in Ethiopia but travelled century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim
to Jerusalem as a young man to visit his father’s , evident from the inscriptions on ancient Egyptian
homeland. He lived several years in Jerusalem tablets, probably meaning “City of Shalem” or the
before returning to his country with the Ark of the City of Śramaṇaafter a Canaanite deity. Thus we may
Covenant. According to the Ethiopian Church and infer that the Śramaṇa culture in Yemen (Sabaean)
Ethiopian tradition, the Ark still exists in Aksum. The and Tigray region entered from Jerusalem.The above
Aksum is considered to be the holiest city in Ethiopia description and evidences also suggest that Makeda,
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 131

the Queen of Sheba was inclined towards Śramaṇa Christians who came for regular worshiping got
culture and therefore she travelled to Jerusalem, excited and accompanied us, and helped in translating
married to Solomon and then sent to her son to learn their Amharic language to understandable English.
the Śramaṇa culture and bring to the Tigray region The lady priest who knew English to some extent
of Ethiopia.However, later, after the evolution of briefed the history, original philosophy and ethics of
Christianity and Islam in 1st century and 7th century Orthodox Christians. According to her the original
AD respectively, Jerusalem as well as the Tigray religion came from other side of the Red Ocean
region were destroyed significantly including very in the Tigray region about few thousands of years
recently built the highest obelisk. before present, and it was significantly in Sabaean
Ge-ez language of Yemen and Saudi Arab of present
On the other hand, forcefully conversion of the
time. The philosophy of the original religion, by
Śramaṇatradition people to Christianity or Islam
and large, was to attach the people with the “Earth
was not fully successful as the larger section of the
and Cosmic Order”, and more nature oriented. It
Śramaṇafolk refused to adopt Christianity in complete
was about one millennium or more BCE when
order. This community is called Orthodox Christian
only two religious philosophies (Śramaṇa and
and still follows and practices ethics of Śramaṇa
Brahmanism) were in existence and dominance in
culture. They also consider the whole Tigray region
Asia in general and in India in particular. In view of
as sacred and holy land of their original religion.This
closeness with nature and environment, the Śramaṇa
motivated us to study Orthodox Christianity folk in
culture propagated and expanded very fast from
view of their current practicing the ethics and life
Asia to Africa and later all over the globe. We all
style etc.Shown in Figure 19 are the images of the
team members were very much impressed with the
Orthodox Church built in last century in Aksum. We
historical knowledge of the Lady Priest. She as well
noticed that the structure of the church was greatly
as the Chief Father Priest told that the forefathers of
different from the traditional old Churches in Europe,
current Orthodox Christians community were most
USA and Asia, and rather it was more similar to Jain
likely followers of the Sabaean culture, which was
temples. We also found that orthodox Christians
derived from the Śramaṇa culture but modified to
when they visit the church follow the same practices
some extent in view of the oceanic region and time.
as Jains. For example they put on white cloths on
However, few ethics of the fundamental philosophy
the upper part of the body and kneel in front of
were retained until thousand years AD such as non-
the main entrance door as shown in the left panel
violence, non-possession, non-stealing, forgiveness,
of Figure 19. However, following some rules of
meditation etc. The Orthodox community was
Christianity, they light up wax candlestick (eksecÙkh) forcefully converted to Christianity in the 1st century
instead of Indian candle (nhid). In order to study the AD, and later to Muslims in 7th-10th century after
ethics and practices of the orthodox Christians we evolution and propagation of Islam. However,
visited inside the Church and discussed with both Orthodox community still follows and practices a
Lady Priest and Father. We were astonished inside few ethics of mixed Sabaean/ Śramaṇa culture such
when we heard the lyrics of the worship/ devotion as observance of fasting for more than 50-200 days
prayers (cf. Figure 19 right panel) matching with in a year, worship the God in the Church in a similar
Jain holy prayers (iwtk) that sung in the temples in way as was done in the past i.e. putting on white
India. However, the script/ language were different cloths and then seating and kneeling (cf. Figure 19),
but could be understandable. Further, the dress code praying the God with Bhajans/Puja along with music
of prayer team and seating ethics may also be noted. etc.We were further surprised looking at the high-
tech crafted and carved Donation Box, kept in the
In Figure 20 we have shown the Lady Priest central hall of this Church similar to that found in
(left) and Father of the Church (right). Few orthodox Jain and Buddha temples even today.Lady priest as
132 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

well as many Orthodox folk accompanied with us of human evolution. Based on archaeological and
mentioned that they donate some money every day anthropological evidence, we think that hominids
after completion of worship practice. This is in similar diverged from other primates somewhere between
practice followed by Ssabaean and Śramaṇa culture 2.5 and 4 million years ago in eastern and southern
followers. In spite of so many wars and attacks, Africa. Though there was a degree of diversity
cultural transformations, modifications and forceful among the hominid family, they all shared the trait of
religion conversion etc. over last 3 millenniums bipedalism, or the ability to walk upright on two legs.
still many similarities between Śramaṇa culture and The aridity hypothesis suggests that early hominids
Orthodox tradition were found suggesting profound were more suited to dry climates and evolved as the
existence ofŚramaṇa Culture in present Yemen, Africa’s dry savannah regions expanded.According
Saudi Arab in general and in the Tigary region in to the savannah hypothesis, early tree-dwelling
particular. Local legend claims the Queen of Sheba hominids may have been pushed out of their homes
lived in this town. as environmental changes caused the forest regions
to shrink and the size of the savannah expand. These
The last visit camp was the archaeological and changes, according to the savannah hypothesis, may
ethnographic museumin Aksum, near and opposite have caused them to adapt to living on the ground
to the above mentioned Church, constructed in the and walking upright instead of climbing (Strayer
extended area of Monk’s Residency (Monastery) 2016: 3-4).
and Oblesiks site.
The inscriptions displayed in the Archaeological
Shown in Figure 21 is an ancient stele of the and Ethinographic Museum of Aksum (cf. Figure
Ezana Stone, which is still standing in modern 22) explicitly endorse the human evolution before
Axum, the centre of the ancient Kingdom of Aksum. 500000 BCE in the Aksum area and later at about
This stone monument, that probably dates 4th 1 milleneum BCE human settlements in the Tigray
century AD, documents the forceful conversion of region when perhaps the philosophy started.
King Ezana to Christianity and later his conquest The inscription also evidences that the Aksumite
of various neighboring areas, including Meroë. empire expanded and became welathy through
This ancient Ezana Stone/ inscription is a strong the buisnessmen. The trade was in the Nile valley
evidence of entry of Christianity into the Tigray as well as through the Adulis port – up and down
region in 4th century AD, and earlier to it was a the Red Sea. They traded as far as to India and Sri
different religion as described above. However, Lanka where the Śramaṇa Culture was already
we found many documented inscriptions displayed existing.
in the museum as fundamental evidences about
the evolution of civilization and religion in the
Tigray region in general and in Aksum in particular. CONCLUSION
The documented inscription shown in Figure 23
unambiguously reveals that the earliest people in In the current investigation we presented the
the Tigray region may have lived 500,000 years or exploratory study of the Tigray region in Ethiopia.
even much before present (B.P). They used the stone The Indian scholars team visited Ethiopia to attend
tools to hunt and to gather the wild food. However, the international conference held in the Mekelle
according to scientific researches development of University and also visited Almaqah, Yeha and
talent in human beings started sometimes around Aksum sites to explore the Śramaṇa culture in
400,000 years B.P (Jain 2021). Thus we may not the Tigray region. With this aim we observed the
expect great civilization or society with religion. artifacts, analysed the iconography details, and
It is also noteworthy that the Ethiopia is the cradle archaeological, anthropological and historical
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 133

evidencs. The study unambiguously reveals that ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

almost one milleneum BCE the Tigray region was
largely dominated by the community of Śramaṇa I am honored dedicating this article to Late Sh.
culture, and the ruling kings of the empire were Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi who gave me wonderful
also from this community (priest-king). This may opportunities to explore the Jainism outside India.
be further endorsed from the inscription written on The current article is an outcome of these exploring
the stele/ flagstone in Sabaean Geʽez, language. We visits. With his passing away, I am missing his
showed that the ancient South Semitic language guidance, motivation and support to undertake future
of the East African came from the present Yemen explorations of Jainism in the overseas countries. I
and Saudi Arabia, earlier Sabaean region. We found kneel in his feet and pray for the peace of the eternal
many evidences to prove that the Tigray region soul. I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to
was thickly populated and under dominance of all Indian scholars who attended the International
Śramaṇa culture viz. the artifacts and archaeological conference held in the Mekelle University, Ethiopia
evidences found at the Great Moon temple and the during 17-18 May 2017. I am humbled with their
Almaqah temple, the monastery (Sant Bhavan) and kind support during visit of the sites in the Tigray
the inscriptions found in the Aksum etc. The ethics region described in the current paper. I greatly value
and practices followed by Orthodox Christians as the discussions held with them and suggestions
well as the discussions held with priests regarding provided by them. I am also overwhelmed with
this community further endorsed that Sabaean support and discussions with Ethiopian scholars
culture was either Śramaṇa culture or it was highly during our visit and later until writing of this article.
influenced by the presence of Śramaṇa community
in the Tigray region. Shown in figure 23 is Late Shri
REFERENCES
Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, former president of Shri
Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha, New Acharya Kanaknandi,1995, Vishwa Dravya Vigyan, Baraut:
Delhi, visiting the stele in the Ethnological and Dharm Darshan Vigyan Shodh Prakashan, UP, India.
Archaeological museum of Addis Ababa University.
The inscription on the stele/ flagstone is in Sabaean Aksum Ethiopia, 1968, 2019 (Retrived), Encyclopedia
Britannica: (UK) Ltd.
Geʽez language, which is an ancient South Semitic
language of the East African branch and came from Basham, A, L., 1951, History and Doctrines of the
the present Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The open book Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Delhi: Motilal
kept on the wooden head may be noted, which is Banarsidass Publishing House.
perhaps written in the Sabaean script. Although Bilimoria, Puruṣottama, Prabhu, Joseph and Sharma,
we could not derive the exact translation of the Renuka M., 2007, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and
script written on the flagstone but the process of contemporary challenges, Volume 1 of Indian Ethics,
understanding and learning the script is in well Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
progress. However, it is very important to mention
Bromiley, Geoffrey W., 1979, The International Standard
that the Jerusalem, the oldest city of the world, was
Bible Encyclopedia, 4, Eerdmans Publishing.
the headquarter or the central place of Śramaṇa
culture, and we showed in this study that the Ten Catherine D’Andrea, A., Andrea Manzo, Michael J.
Commandments,also known as the Decalogue, are Harrower and Hawkins, Alicia L, 2008, The Pre-Aksumite
a set of philosophical principles relating to ethics and Aksumite Settlement of NE Tigrai, Ethiopia, Journal
of Field Archaeology, Vol. 33 (2), Taylor & Francis Ltd.
and worship that played a fundamental role in the
prehistoric or ancient religion of few thousands of Clapp, Nicholas, 2002, Sheba: Through the Desert
years BCE. in Search of the Legendary Queen, Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt.
134 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Durrani, Nadia, 2005, The Tihamah Coastal Plain of Kitchen, Andrew, Christopher Ehret, and others, 2009,
South-West Arabia in its Regional context c. 6000 BC Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages
– AD 600, Society for Arabian Studies Monographs, identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the
Oxford: No. 4, Archaeo press. Near East, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 276 no. 1665 (June 22).
Greenberg, Raphael and Mizrachi, Yonathan, 2013, From
Shiloah to Silwan – A Visitor’s Guide, EmekShaveh, Kuiper, Kathleen, 2010, The Culture of India, Rosen
Retrieved 2018. Publishing Group.

Hanke, George, 2013, Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Marwaha, Bhatt Sonali, 2006, Colors of Truth:
Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Religion, Self and Emotions: Perspectives of Hinduism,
Africa, New York University. Buddhism. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Islam, Sikhism, and
Contemporary Psychology, Concept Publishing Company.
Henze, Paul B., 2000, Layers of Time: A History of
Ethiopia, International Journal of Ethiopian and Eritrean McLaughlin, Daniel, 2007, Yemen, The Bradt Travel
Studies, New York: US. Guide.
Herausgegeben von Uhlig, Siegbert, 2005, Encyclopaedia Olivelle, Patrick, 1993, The Āśrama System: The History
Aethiopica, Ge’ez, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag. and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford:
University Press.
Hodd, Mike, 2002, Footprint East Africa Handbook,
New York: Footprint Travel Guides. Pande, Govind, 1995, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism,
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House.
Holt, P. M., Holt, Peter Malcolm, Lambton, Ann K. S. and
Lewis Bernard, 1977, The Cambridge History of Islam, Pankhurst, Richard K.P. and Tribune, Addis, 2003, Let’s
Cambridge: University Press. Look across the Red Sea, archive,org mirror copy.
Institute of Indic Studies, Kurukshetra University, 1982, Phillipson, David W., 2014, Foundations of an African
Prāci-jyotī: digest of Indological studies, Kurukshetra: Civilisation: Aksum and the Northern Horn, 1000 BC -
Vol. 14–15, University. AD 1300, Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 69.
Jain, Gokul Prasad, 1928, Videsho Main Jain Dharm, New
Phillipson, David W., 2009, The First Millennium BC in
Delhi: Shri Bhartvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha,
the Highlands of Northern Ethiopia and South–Central
Fifth edition, July, 2017.
Eritrea: A Reassessment of Cultural and Political
Jain, Panna Lal, Siddhantacharya, 1944, Adipurana of Development, African Archaeological Review 26.
Acharya Jinasena, New Delhi: Bhartiya Gyanpeeth.
Phillipson, David, W., 2012, Neil Ashe Silberman,
Jain, Rajmal, 2020, Antiquity of Jainism, ICON-Journal (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Oxford:
of Archaeology and Culture, 7 (in press). University Press

Jain, Sneh Rani, 2017, The Guide Book to Decipher the Pankhurst, Richard, 1982, History of Ethiopian Towns,
Indus Script, New Delhi: Shree Bharatvarshiya Digamber Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, vol. 1
Jain Mahasabha.
Potts, D. T., 2012, A Companion to the Archaeology of the
Jaini, Padmanabh, 2001, Collected papers on Buddhist Ancient Near East, John Wiley & Sons.
Studies, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House.
Rogers, Jerry R., Brown, Glenn Owen, Garbrecht, Jürgen,
Jaini, Padmanabh, 2000, Collected papers on Jaina 2004, Water Resources and Environmental History, ASCE
Studies, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House. Publications

Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson, 2003, On the Reliability of Ryckmans, Jacques, 1992, South Arabia, Religio,, In
the Old Testament Wm, B. Eerdmans Publishing. Freedman, D.N. (ed.), The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6.
Excavating a Brick-Built Wharf at Pakkakot–An Unique Evidence of Existence of Riverine Navigation... 135

Ryckmans, Jacques, 1989, Le Panthéon de l’Arabie du Strayer, Robert W. and Eric W. Nelson, 2016, Ways of
SudpréIslamique: Etat des problèmesetbrèvesynthèse, the World: a Global History, New York: Bedford/ St.
Revue de L’Histoire des Religions 206 (2) Martin’s

Ryckmans, Jacques, 1987, The Old South Arabian Stuart, Munro-Hay, 1991, Aksum: An African Civilization
Religion, Yemen: Daum, W. (ed.), 3000 Years of Art and of Late Antiquity, Edinburgh: University Press
Civilization in Arabia Felix.
Varghese, Alexander P., 2008, India: History, Religion,
Schmidt, Peter R., 2006, Historical Archaeology in Africa: Vision and Contribution to the World, New York:Vol. 1,
Representation, Social Memory, and Oral Traditions, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, State University of
Rowman Altamira New York Press
Scharlemann, Robert P., 1985, Naming God, the
Teshale, Tibebu, 1995, The making of modern Ethiopia:
contemporary discussion series, Paragon House
1896–1974, Lawrenceville: NJ: Red Sea Press.
Samuel, Geoffrey, 2008, The Origins of Yoga and Tantra,
Werner Daum, 1987, Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and
Cambridge: University Press
Civilization in Arabia Felix, Pinguin-Verlag
Shaw, Thurstan, 1995, The Archaeology of Africa: Food,
Metals and Towns, Routledge Wolf, P. and Nowotnick, U., 2010, The Almaqah temple of
MeqaberGa’ewa near Wuqro (Tigray, Ethiopia), PSAS 40
Siegbert, Uhlig, (ed.), 2005, “EncyclopaediaAethiopica”,
D-Ha, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag Zimmer, Heinrich, 1952, Campbell, Joseph (ed.),
Philosophies of India, London: E.C. 4: Routledge &
Smith, William, 2017, Donald Trump confirms US will Kegan Paul Ltd.
recognize Jerusalem as capital of Israel, The Guardian
 THE HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF MIRRORS IN HARAPPAN
SOUTHEAST ASIA: TECHNOLOGY REVISITED

PRANAB K. CHATTOPADHYAY*

1. INTRODUCTION
Harappan Civilisation is contemporaneous with object of everyday life and their introduction
other early state level societies but it has some withthe Harappan Civilisation or Sindhu Saraswati
unique and challenging issues. In Old World the Civilisation and continuing still today. This paper
major state level societies include Harappan or reports the origin of mirrors in Southeast Asia, throws
Indus, Mesopotamian, Chinese and Egyptian. even a clearer pattern of intercultural links and
trading exchanges over a very wide area in the late
MIRROR is anessential material object of third and early second millennia BCE. The extent of
everyday life, and their introduction was related to Harappan civilization includes an area of 1.8 million
the Harappan Civilisation, and those are continuing square km in this sub-continent. Archaeologists have
still today. The paper includes the available mirrors identified about two thousand Harappan sites, which
found in this part of subcontinent, along with its include 1500 in Pakistan, 500 in India and a few in
metallurgical composition in Harappan period. Afghanistan in number.
From excavation reports several mirrors are known
but many of those are missing or misplaced- and not Harappan Civilisation has been divided into
updated with their present locations. three periods: Early Harappan, Matured Harappan
and Late Harappan. Chronologically the span of
The present paper includes MIRROR or Early Harappan period was 3000 BCE to 2600 BCE.
DARPAN or ᾹDARŚÁ or ARSI or MUKUR Matured Harappan period had a span extending
orAYNA and many others– anessential material from circa 2600 BCE to about 1900 BCE; and the

*
History of Science, Indian National Science Academy; E-mail: [email protected]
138 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Late Harappan phase, which lasted from about 1900 was published in two volumes, where mirror was
BCE to 1500 BCE. Circular metallic mirrors were incorporated under toilet objects.The emergence of
known from all the major Harappan sites, except mirror in Southeast Asia throws even a clearer pattern
Chanhudaro. of intercultural links and trading exchanges over
a very wide area in the late third and early second
millennia BCE (During Caspers 1996). This vast area
2. ORIGIN OF MIRRORS includes the Indus Valley Civilization, comprising
India and Pakistan –and its neighborhoods in North
From the beginning of human Civilisation, people West Afghanistan (ancient Bactria), Baluchistan -
were fascinated by reflections of the nature, observed Central, Southern Pakistan and Iranian; Uzbekistan,
in the still water of pond. Prehistoric people had Arabian Gulf areas and Mesopotamia. Evidence
noticed the basic property of reflection. Gradually of direct cultural and mercantile economic contact
the material concept of the mirror was developed.The between Bactria and Indus Valley cities has been
earliest evidence of mirrors is noted with the polished amply demonstrated by M-H Pottier (1984), (as
ore-minerals such as obsidian, from Anatolia around quoted by During Caspers). Mirrors, pedestal goblets
6000 BCE. Obsidian is a form of volcanic glass. and other antiquities support that links. From South
This site is located at modern Turkey. Excavations at Baluchistan of Pakistan, Kulli culture is known
Çatalhöyük unearth funerary gift mirrors. Later when from one Mehi cemetery, which very rich in copper-
human discovered metal from ore, metal was also bronze artifacts. An outstanding example is a copper
used to make mirrors. One of the earliest discoveries mirror with the handle representing a stylized female
of metallic mirror was from Armenia where earliest (Agrawal 1971:18). A mirror with anthropomorphic
evidence of this object has been traced in Necropolis handle from Mehi burial deposit and Bactrian mirrors
of Sisian, belonging to Middle Bronze Age (Avetisian also with similar styles have been demonstrated (in
et al. 2000). This is one of the earliest mirrors in this pl. 10.16 and 17, by During Caspers op cit). On the
subcontinent. The mirror was obtained in fragments, other hand Possehl (2002:226) stated that handle
from a destroyed grave, that reconstructed and from the Babar temple is not comparable to the
shown in (Fig. 1.) The context under study was from mirror from Mehi.
the upper and lower levels of Uzerlick Tape, dated
between 18- 17th century BCE. From South Balochistan of Pakistan, Kulli
culture is known from one Mehi cemetery, which
The mirrors were extensively used in Ancient very rich in copper-bronze artifacts. The use of
India though scanty of specimens is available mirrors was initiated in Harappan sites in Southeast
now. The first in-depth study on the copper bronze Asia. Regarding periodization the use of mirrors
objects of this part of the subcontinent was made began in mature Harappan Phase, 2600-1900 BCE.
by D.P. Agrawal (1971) who initiated in-depth The Harappan burials were full of clay pots. Most of
multidisciplinary studiesin Archaeometallurgy. He the mirrors from Harappan sites were recovered from
has further highlighted the Harappan technology and the burials. It is alsoknown that most of the burials
its legacy (2009). An outstanding example he quoted had been disturbed by the burial hunters, or better
was a copper mirror with the handle representing grave-robbers. That was the reason of incomplete
a stylized female with an anthropomorphic handle information about the mirrors used by the Harappan
from Mehi burial deposit. women. The few women who were interred with a
copper mirror may have been from the elite, only one
The first study on the mirrors of this subcontinent section of the society was buried. Polished mirror
was incorporated in the Encyclopedia of Indian from Harappancivilization was a utility item as well
Archaeology- edited by A. Ghosh (1989). This as the part of Sharmanik paraphernalia for looking
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 139

into the future. Similarly shaped mirrors, made hazy are relatively clear types: mirrors, figuresand tablets/
through a thin deposit of smoke are also used for the tokens (Hoffman and Miller 2009). Mirrors represent
purpose of divinity in some areas of modern Pakistan a clear functionalcategory but are very rare but are
(M. Ahmed 2014: 81, 233). not yet fully studied.

Burial as mentioned earlier is the most important Recent studies on mirrors of Ancient India have
source of Harappan mirrors. Excavations revealed been made by Chatterjee et al (2015). Most important
in different Harappan sites of this subcontinent. study has been contributed by Sharma, D.P. (2020-
Scanty presence of mirror is noted in some of those 21) who has incorporated in-depth studies on this
excavations. In rare cases ivory combs were also subject in the Sindhu Saraswati Civilisation (vol.1
discovered there. The Harappan culture essentially pp. 109-110, pl. 6.15-16). In this paper a brief
belonged to an egalitarian society- where the people discussions have been made mentioning the present
enjoyed equal social, political, economic rights and locations of the specimens.
opportunities. The people had the power of creating –
presented the world true saws ‑ both flat and circular;
needle and hollow drills. Only one hoard known so 2.1. Literary Sources for Mirrors
far,recovered a mirror as a chance discovery from
In ancient literatures the scholars including Srini
Harinagar, recently.
Kalyanaraman have discovered several synonyms of
Agrawal and other scholars have referred the mirrorsfrom Vedas, Upanishads and Jatakas.Mirror:
archaeological evidence of new Central burials ādarśá m. ‘mirrorʼ (Brihadarnayaka Upanishad
revealed also Asian elements appearing in the 2.1.9). R̥ gveda uses the word vk&n’k’k in a third
Harappan zone. The bronze cosmetic flagon known person singular perfect passive form as vk- √n’k’k in
at Hissar, Altyn-depe and in Bactria also, occurs at RV 10.111.7 with the meaning ‘mirroring’. This is a
Chanhudaro. Round bronze mirrors with tangs for clear indicator that the high-tin-bronze mirror attested
fitting into wooden handles, as at Hissar, Altyn-depe, archaeologically from ca. 4th m. BCE finds a verbal
Gonur I, Sapalli, Dashly, Shahdad and Khinaman, form in a vivid R̥ gveda metaphor related to Ushas.
and Mehi–some of them with a handle shaped as
a human body. Those also occur at Harappa and In Ancient Indian literatures there are scanty
Mohenjo-Daro . Twelve such mirrors occurred in references of mirrors, or even mentioning some terms
graves at Harappa and one in Kalibangan (Agrawal related to mirrors. For example some illustrations
1971).The site of Tilla-Bulakwas excavated by have been cited in ŚibīJātaka, where it is mentioned
German-Uzbek joint excavation, was identified as that ornamented ivory handles fixed to the mirrors
Sapalli Culture (Fig. 2). Spatial distribution of those (ādd.. āsadantātharupaccavekitam (mukhani)
would be discussed onwards.The Harappan culture (Krishna Murthy 1972:154).
essentially belonged to an egalitarian society- where Thus we have mentioned the earliest beginning
the people enjoyed equal social, political, economic of mirrors from Armenia, and then we have mentioned
rights and opportunities. The people had the power the discovery of mirrors in Uzbekistan. Now we can
of creating art. They presented the world true saws ‑ begin to study the earliest mirrors of Afghanistan,
both flat and circular, needle and hollow drills. Pakistan and India of Harappan periods.
Several copper-bronze objects and artifacts have
been discovered from Harappan sites. Unfortunately 3. AFGHANISTAN
archaeologistscould not classify three groups of
objects. They simply identified those objects and Afghanistan has a long connection with mirrors. The
kept those in a group categorised as ‘Others’- which total collection of mirrors in Kabul Museum was
140 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

looted in civil war. Only clue for the mirrors could incrustations donation to the diameter would have,
be traced back from the published information. so that it carried in 245 mm (A) is of the quoting
Example may be cited as follows. A few ancient compares where it would have delimited a reflective
mirrors are known from this country. One of the field of 165 mm (B) (Fig. 4). Due to the political
specimens, stated to be of Chinese handle-bearing problem in Afghanistan most of the antiquities
mirror was reported from Kunduz, Kataghan of the museums of the country were ransackedin
province. It was reported by Trousdale (1961). That course of 1992-1994. The published mirrors are
mirror, made of bronze, cast in one piece has been not traceable now. Only the future excavations in
acquired by Kabul Museum. This mirror disk is 9 this country would reveal the history of mirrors.
cm in diameter and overall length is 17 cm. So far its Recently Archaeological Department of Afghanistan
presence concerned it is presumed to been lost now. has excavated several sites including three Gandhara
That mirror was probably made in China toward sites – Shewaki (34o27’0” N, 69o 13’0”E), MesAynak
the end of the eleventhor beginning of the twelfth and Ningrahar. From MesAynak, (34o24’0” N,
century CE. 69o22’0” E) a few mirrors were discovered by the
Archaeology Institute of Afghanistan, which is
Rapin (1992: 183,186-187, pl. 80, P3) has studied working to preserve and promote the rich heritage
not only the mirror of Aȉ-Khanoum, (37o10’10” of Afghanistan.
N, 69o23’30”E) at the same time he discussed the
available literatures pertaining to mirrors of India. MesAynak: literally means “little source of
This Hellenistic site is located in Takhar Province, copper”. This Buddhist site of Afghanistan is located
northern Afghanistan and excavated by the French 40 km southeast of Kabul, in Logar Province of that
Archaeological Mission (DAFA), 1964-1978, country. The name is originated from its location on
under Paul Bernard. The advancement of scientific a copper mine. The excavation revealed 5000 years
knowledge of a section of the people could be old Bronze Age site. The excavated finds include
identified from their archaeological findings. Dating mirrors and are under research of Mr Noor Agha
of the site was contemporary to third century BCE Noori.
till 145 BCE. Aȉ-Khanoum had trade relations with
India. The mirror found in this site is shown in Fig.
3. It was made of a convex plate without a handle in Harappan Sites of Pakistan
that specimen. However, there had some possibilities
to attach a handle to the curvature of the specimen. The first discovered site of Harappan culture is
The difference with other mirrors of AȉKhanum is known from Harappa. Since we are discussing in
that it was a convex circular plate (mirror) with a alphabetic form we shall begin with Chanhudaro,
thin thickness and thus it was not very durable. In the then other sites in connection with mirrors.
present case the form of the curve of the fragment
shows that the handle was perhaps not decorated.
4. CHANHUDARO: NO MIRROR
According to Rapin, fragment of semi-
cylindrical section, 200 mm broad and thickness of The site Chanhudaro (26°10′25″ N, 68°19′23″ E) is
85 mm curve on its length, belonged to a puffed out belonging to the post-urban Jhukar phase of Indus
annular border which had to act as supervision in the valley civilization, excavated by N.G. Majumder and
disc. The internal edge is there effect lightly flattened, then by E.J.H. Mackay and others. Mackay has called
as if to allow a better fitting with an adjoining surface. that site as the Sheffield of India. The antiquities
They can imagine two restitutions in this border: she include the remains of bead, shell bangles along with
could set up is of the quoted meme which the plate of several metal objects. The structural components of
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 141

excavated furnaces were used for highly specialized 4.2. Harappa

ceramic manufacture. It is known, that site also
yielded copper bronze mirrors as mentioned in The site Harappa (30.6110° N, 72.8929° E) of Pakistan
some unauthorized reports, but those were totally is one of the largest and most important cities of the
ignored in the excavation report of Mackay (1976 Indus Valley Civilisation, consists of a series of low
R). However, there was a mention that the settlement archaeological mounds and cemeteries to the south of
inhabited between 4000 and 1700 BCE. Ivory a dry bed of the Ravi River. The site was originally
combs are recorded from this site as mentioned in excavated by M.S. Vats of Archaeological Survey of
excavation report. Recently French Archaeological India between 1920-21 and 1933-34 (Vats 1940).
Mission is excavating the site for last five years
Presences of several Harappan mirrors are
till 2019-20 but not revealed any mirror specimen
available in the collection of National Museum
(personal communication Rukhsar Ahmed).
of Pakistan, Karachi. Recently Dr. A.G. Lone,
the Superintendent of the National Museum of
Pakistan has offered extensive support to the present
4.1. Gandi Umar Khan: Little known Harappan
researcher to study the collection of mirrors. One of
Site where mirror was discovered.
those specimens is a unique one, shown in (Fig. 6).
Beside the larger Harappan sites of Pakistan a This mirror has the accession no 54372.
few sites are also known to exist. One of the most
Next important Harappan specimen is an oval
important sites that yielded mirror is Gandi Umar
copper mirror (No. 29, Accession Number 2602).
Khan, Professor Zakirulla Jan (2008) has discovered
That specimen had a long tang of 248 mm in length
the presence of a fragmentary copper bronze mirror
with diameters of 159 and 178 mm (Fig. 7). At
in the mature Harappan phase at Gandi Umar Khan
present this specimen is preserved at the National
(31.7085599° N, 70.5401461° E) in the Gomal Plain,
Museum of India, New Delhi.
northwest Pakistan in 2003-04 (Jan 2008, 2012). This
is included at Fig. 5. The specimen is now lying with We are aware the recovery of several mirrors
the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. from Harappa’s burials. Wheeler (1946:87, 125) had
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar. The specimen discovered a circular handled copper mirror from
was however not discovered from burial. burial 2. (pl. LII C). That burial revealed an extended
female skeleton along with pots, round water jar and
The specimen however is a fragmentary one. It other objects. A copper mirror was recovered in the
is in a highly corroded state and visually it appears said jar (Fig. 8). The mirror was recovered in cracked
to be made from an ingot which was most likely condition and both the side of the mirror was shown
a corroded forged copper-product. This mirror is in that figure. The mirror face was slightly oval, 107
an oval one. Because of severe breakage proper mm X 110 mm. The total height of the mirror face
measurement was not possible. The total height and handle was 194 mm. The handle was 84 mm in
of the mirror including face and handle is 334 length and average 22 mm in breadth, handle end was
mm. Mirror face is oval its height is 200 mm and slightly spread at bottom. That helped it to grippe it
breadth is 197 mm. Handle is 134 mm in height. better. The skeleton was identified as adult female,
For better gripping, the breadth of the handle was 162.6 cm long and aged 30 years. This mirror was
kept minimum at the middle and that was 28 mm. analysed by the Chemists of ASI.
The bottom of the handle was curvy about 40 mm
in width. The maximum width of the handle is 65 After post-independence period in Pakistan,
mm at the top where it is attached with the mirror several excavations were conducted in Harappa.
face. Dales and Kenoyer (1989) had excavated this site
142 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

in 1988 which revealed two mirrors shown (in Fig. to be organized. We could not also found any such
9) is the mirror in situ, the other specimen shown information neither in the form of excavation reports
(in Fig. 10) indicates as a sketch. One of the pre- nor as catalogue of Museum specimens.
Independence excavated specimens from Harappa
is preserved now in the National Museum of New Mirror, of that figure, shown earlier, is 104mm
Delhi (Acc. No. 2602). in diameter, round, slightly dished, loop riveted one
side, and there exist a hole for another rivet. On the
Several mirrors were discovered in recent otherhand bull’s eyes border on convex side was
years by the Harappa Archaeological Research noted. We are awaiting for the excavation reports of
Project under the Department of Archaeology and the mirrors of this site.
Museums, Government of Pakistan. Two such
mirrors are shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The specimens
are made of copper/bronze and heavily corroded. 4.5. Mohenjo-Daro
Small circular mirrors found associated with burials,
shown there has appeared (shown in Dales, G. F. and The site Mohenjo-Daro (27.3243o N, 68.1357o E)
J. Mark Kenoyer, 1990). in Pakistan is one of the largest and most important
cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation.It is located
at the Larkana district of Sindh province. Till 1928
4.3. Mehi there was no evidence of mirror in the excavation at
Mohenjo-Daro. Mackay (1938: 483-486) is the first
This site (27.2803oN, 65.7308o E) is perhaps belonged excavator who recorded five mirrors from excavation
to that of Kulli culture, a local variation of Harappan from the DK area of Mohenjo-Daro. The first two
culture in South Balochistan (Gedrosia) in Pakistan mirrors were recovered from upper level. Fig. 16
2500-2000 BCE. From several burial deposits III.6 is is the first one in this paper, which was (Pl. CXIV,
rather important where from several metal objects and 1 - after Mackay) is made of bronze, with the edge
mirrors were recovered. Stein had published two such of the face is slightly raised to 4.3 mm. The length
mirrors, shown in plate XXXII, in that illustration, of that mirror was 266.7 mm, its width is 151 mm
one was probably shown as Mehi III.6.5 (Fig. 13). and thickness of blade is 10.2 mm. The back which
The other one, confirmed as a mirror shown in II.2.1.a, is quite plain is somewhat irregular. The polish has
included in the mentioned as Fig. 14. The diameter of completely disappeared from the recessed face of
that mirror is 127 mm and it has an elegant handle. that mirror. The handle is rectangular in cross section
at the end and it looks as if there had been another
hole close to the mirror itself, but if it was so, then it
4.4. Mehrgarh
has been filled up by corrosion afterwards).
This is one of the most important Neolithic sites The second mirror one, Fig. 17 (Pl. CXVIII, 10)
of the Southeast Asia (29.3873 N, 67.6096 E) in is a bronze specimen, slightly with the edge of the
Baluchistan and it had been a precursor to the Indus face raised 4.3 mm. The length of that mirror was
Valley Civilisation.More than one mirror is known 266.7 mm, its width is 151 mm and thickness of blade
from this site. We could not explore yet the details is 10.2 mm (Fig. 18). It is interesting to identify that
of the mirrors of Mehergarh. We are tempted to mirror now accessioned (Acc. No. 13303 A2601) in
describe a mirror made of copper bronze shown in the National Museum, New Delhi. The tang, however,
Fig. 15. Unfortunately we are unable to explore its was, broken now and is under conservation.
context or museum’sdetails or excavation report.
Most likely several mirrors might have located at From lower level the third mirror, (Pl. CXXX,
the Mehergarh Museum and that organization is yet 24) was 229.4 mm, its width is 165 mm and
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 143

thickness of blade is 4.32 mm was recovered, (Fig. Dholavira is located at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka
19). Another specimen fourth mirror is shown in in Kutch District of Gujarat and excavated by Dr
(Pl. CXXX, 25) (Fig. 20). The fifth mirror was also R.S. Bisht. Along with other Harappan antiquities,
recovered from lower level. Mackay rightly claimed it has also revealed a mirror, from stage-V (IAR
that it was made for a child for its smaller in shape, 1996-97: 11-19, plate VII C),that copper/bronze
(Pl. CXXX, 26). The length of that mirror was 229.4 mirror was found in the solitary inhumation of a
mm, its width is 51 mm and thickness of blade is lady during excavation. The specimen was found in
5.59 mm (Fig. 21). At present this mirror is located cracked condition, which is due to the corrosion of
in the National Museum of Pakistan. the metal. Recently the specimen has been shifted to
the National Museum, New Delhi, whose accession
The recessing of the faces of all these mirrors no. is 22132. Thetwo different view of this mirror is
was perhaps intended to protect them and to preserve known shown in Fig. 23.
their polish. It is almost certain that the handles at one
time encased with wood and therefore than they now This mirror is oval in shape; mirror face is 93
are, for these mirrors are very heavy and difficult mm x 100 mm. The total height of face and handle is
to hold in their present condition. The slightly pear 145 mm. The handle is 45 mm in height; breadth of
shaped from of all the three is in noticeable contrast the handle at bottom is14 mm.
with the round or elliptical mirrors of early Egypt,
Sumer and Elam (Mackay 1938: 478).
5.2. Harinagar, DistBijnore
Mirror at Mohenjo-Daro Museum: One
specimen’s photograph of this museum has been The Harappan metallic antiquities a copper/bronze
shared to the present author by Mohammad Zahir mirror was recovered as a chance discovery by a
Quomi. The specimen is totally in fragments. We farmer in his field in village Harinagar. The find spot
don’t have any measurements. Only a pencil marking lies in the Harinagar village (Mubarakpur) (29o 11’
of 1155 perhaps indicate its accession number (Fig. 17.0” and 780 10’ 28.1”), Post Heemapur Deepa,
22). tehsil Chandpur of Bijnor district, Uttar Pradesh.
This mirror is at present in the custody of the Agra
Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India.The
5. HARAPPAN SITES OF INDIA mirror was found in a big cauldron 71 cm. in size.

In National Museum of India, New Delhi there This mirror is oval in shape; mirror face is 133
are only two Harappan mirrors of Pakistan origin. mm x 144.4 mm. The total height of face and handle
The first oneis from Harappa and the second is 224 mm. The handle is 79.6 mm in height; breadth
one from Mohenjo-Daro.After independence of the handle at bottom is 25 mm. Its weight is 254
Indian archaeologists took special drive to locate gram. The above specimen has been conserved
Harappan settlements within the newly formed recently and preserved in Agra Circle, ASI. Both
country after partition. S.R. Rao discovered Lothal sides of the mirror are shown in Fig. 24.
and Kalibanganwere discovered by B.K. Thapar.
Alphabetically, the sites are as follows:
5.3. Kalibangan

5.1. Dholavira This site (29.4701o N, 74.1328o E) is located at

District Hanumangarh, Rajasthan and was excavated
This site (23.8809o N, 70.2140o E)is one of the five by B.K. Thapar. Like other Harappan sites, Burials
largest Harappan sites of this subcontinent. The site were detected in rectangular or oval pit, with corpse
144 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

laid down straight (extended), head northwards excavation report as specimen 25, as a flat piece with
amidst pottery. In one pit a copper mirror was found a curved edge and one side is nicely smoothened, the
among these objects. Pits were mud filled after excavator is nicely identified as a part of Harappan
burying. This mirror was obtained from mound mirror. That was revealed from early level of period
KLB-8 Period II i.e. Harappan Period(Thapar 1975) I (KTS-1, G2 (12) 687.Second fragment is identified
and preserved now in Kalibangan Site Museum of as specimen 24. This is also a flat piece with a thick
ASI (Fig. 25). This mirror is 110 mm in length in edge. In all likely hood the fragments belongs to a
total including handle, and 60 mm in diameter. mirror (KTS-1, OF 1 (6) 183). Both the specimens
are incorporated in Fig. 27. The mirrors of Kuntasi
are missing or misplaced. We have checked with the
5.4. Karanpura Museum of Deccan College but could not sort that
that problem.
This Harappan site (29o22.09’27” N, 75.05o51’83”
E) has been excavated by V.N. Prabhakar (2013).
The excavation in Area E, revealed a highly corroded
5.6. Lothal
copper mirror, the detail dimension is given in the Fig.
26. The mirror blank is 100 mm in length, 90 mm in The excavated site of Lothal (22.5195o N,
width, and the handle is 94 mm in length and10 mm 72.2423oE): is the only industrial port-town of the
thick. Unlike other mirrors of Harappan sites it was a Indus Valley Civilisation. This site is located in
rare discovery of obtaining it from a room. That artifact DholkaTaluka in Ahmedabad district of Gujarat. The
posses a delicate handle having a slight curvature site provides evidence of Harappa culture between
towards the mirror side. The mirror portion is circular 2400 BCE to 1600 BCE. This site was discovered
in shape and not solid as in the case of other Harappan in 1954 and excavated by S.R. Rao during 1955-62.
examples. The mirror portion is a thin copper sheet The excavation has revealed a fully corroded copper-
bent at the edges to create an impression of a solid bronze mirror, from unstratified- period A (Accession
one. The shape and style of copper mirror indicates no. 15030). That was in apple green in colour due to
its Harappan affinity. At present this specimen is corrosion. It was ovoid in shape;surface is slightly
located at Excavation Branch II, ASI, Purana Quila as concave and 93 mm in diameter. However, the tang/
communicated by Dr Prabhakar. handle is broken. It is shown in Fig. 28, left hand side
of the figure is shown in sketch with cross section
5.5. Kuntasi and in right side represents the photograph of it. The
specimen was analysed by Dr. B.B. Lal earlier (Rao
This Harappan site (22.9088o N, 70.5916oE): is located 1985, Agrawal 1971:31). The specimen is totally
in the Rajkot district of Gujarat and was excavated corroded. At present that mirror is preserved at Lothal
by M.K. Dhavalikar of Deccan College during 1987- Site Museum of ASI with accession no. 1052 (Fig.
1990. Two mirror fragments were discovered in that 29). Though no published information is available,
excavation (Dhavalikar et al. 1996). From this site, yet the efforts of the personnel of Lothal Museum
situated on the right bank of the river Jhinjhoda, 7 have detected the fragments of the second mirror
km away from Gulf of Kutch where settlement began now available in the gallery as shown in Fig. 30.
in matured Harappan phase in 2400 BCE. The site
yielded lot of copper-bronze objects which was
analysed by Park and Shinde 2014. 5.7. Rakhigarhi

The excavation revealed two fragmentary The site of Rakhigarhi (29.2881o N, 76.1131oE) is
copper mirrors. The first piece identified in the one of the largest and most important cities of the
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 145

Indus Valley Civilization.It is an ancient megacity June 2018 (in newspaper- Ahmedabad Mirror).
site which yielded mirror and other objects. The site Other noted findings are two chariots, Royal
is located in district Hissar in Hariana, on the alluvial wooden coffin, copper antenna sword andcopper
plains of now dried up the Drishavati, attributor torch, etc.
of ancient Sarasvati. The excavation carried out
by Institute of Archaeology under direction of The mirror from Sanauli was recovered
DrAmarendraNath revealed a copper mirror from from a burial where a skeleton of a woman was
matured Harappan level (IAR 1999-2000: p. 33) discovered. The mirror has no metallic handle
(Fig. 31). The excavation revealed a mound RGR- like other Harappan mirrors. On the other hand it
7, which was a burial site. Neither in IAR report, was attached with a wooden handle that clearly
nor Dr Nath’s report clearly indicates the source of reveals the structure of the wood in the back side
that mirror. The most burials within the cemetery of impression on the soil. The dimension of the mirror
this site remained uninvestigated. The photograph of in situ is 151 mm in diameter; the mirror appears
this mirror was closely observed. This mirror is most to be with a rim of 20 mm breadth with internal
probably made from a sheet of copper-bronze. This diameter of 110 mm.
is oval in shape, 76 mm in breadth and 70 mm in
height; total length of this mirror is 97 mm, including The most important news of the recent
the portion kept as 29 mm long. The handle portion excavation is the discovery of an ivory comb which
is having a hole of 1 mm in diameter where a thread was found together. This comb is a unique art object
was supposed to be used. Recent excavations carried which bears the icon of a peacock at top. It has a
out by Dr. V.S. Shinde, who also discovered good maximum height of 135 mm and a breadth of 69
number of copper objects from the Harappan levels mm. There are 17 teeth of the comb and that area
of Rakhigarhi. is designing with 18 small dotted rings arranged as
‘W’ shaped.
The brief information published in the
‘Rediscovering India’ indicates about this mirror The mirror discovered at Sanauli belongs to
which mentioned as 10.0 x 8.0 cm, Rakhigarhi post Harappan period around 2000 BCE. Dr.Manjul
Unit in Excavation Branch II, with Reg. No. 3890. clearly identified that culture belong to the OCP/
That mirror specimen is an oval shaped one made copper hoard culture and not to the Late Harappan
of copper bronze sheet, one of the toiletry items of phase. Most of the mirrors of Harappan culture were
the Harappan assemblages. The second specimen is with handle whereas Sanauli mirror has no handle- it
known to be in the personal collection of an antiquity is made of thin sheet shown in Fig. 34. It has a rim
collector (Fig. 32). that was absent in Harappan mirrors but would be
visible in Taxila mirrors. Thus this is the transition
between Harappan and Early Historic period.
5.8. Sanaulior Sinauli
The back side of the mirror shown in Fig. 35,
clearly left impression of wood that was attached to
This archaeological site (29.1454° N, 77.2132° E)
the mirror as a handle.
is located in Barot tehsil in Baghpat district of Uttar
Pradesh; where 125 graves belonging to Harappan
Civilisation was discovered in 2005. The site is a
prominent cemetery site of late Harappan period.
These graves are dated c. 2200–1800 BCE. In a
recent trial excavation, since March 2018, the site
has revealed mirror and ivory combs (Fig. 33), in
146 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

6. DIMENSION OF MIRRORS

TABLE 1: DIMENSION OF THE HARAPPAN MIRRORS IN MM.

Site Accession Dia./width Length/ Thick Handle Handle Present Reference Fig. No.
No Height Length Breadth Location Arch
Aï Khanoum 200 mm Not known Rapin 1992 Pl 80 p3
(Afghanistan)
Gandi Umar 197 mm 200 mm 134 Dir ArchKP, Jan2008
Khan mm Peshawar
Harappa 107X110 194 mm Not known Wheeler Pl.LII C
mm (1946:87)
Harappa H88-1193 51.8 mm 85.7 2 mm Deptt. of
Lot 444-1 mm Arch. Pak.
Harappa H88-756 49 mm 79 mm Deptt. of
Lot 145-17 Arch. Pak.
Harappa 2602 159X178 248 Nat. Museum Vats 1999 CXXIV,
mm mm New Delhi 29
Harappa 54372 Nat. Museum
Karachi
Nat. Museum
Karachi
Mehi Not known Stein, A
MASI 43
Mohenjo-Daro 13303 Nat. Museum
A2601 New Delhi
Mohenjo-Daro 10781 DK 151 mm 266.7 110.16 Not known Mackay 1938 XIV(1)
(g) mm mm
Mohenjo-Daro DK5467 165.1 mm 229.4 4 mm Not known Mackay 1938 CXXX
mm (25)
Mohenjo-Daro No 90.9 mm 91. mm 5.59 Not known Mackay 1938 CXXX
accession mm (26)
Dholabhira 22132 93X 100 145 mm Nat. Museum IAR 1996-97:
mm New Delhi 11-19
Harinagar 133 x 224 mm 79.6 25 mm Agra Circle,
144mm mm ASI
Kalibangan 11296 60 mm 110 mm Site Museum
Kalibangan
Karanpura 90 mm 194 mm — 94 mm 10 mm Purana Quila Prabhakar
thick ASI, Exc II 2013
Kuntasi 2 pcs in Deccan Dhavalikar Couldn’t
fragments College 1996 been
traced
now.
Rakhigarhi 3890 76X70 29 mm Purana Quila
mm ASI, Exc II
Rakhigarhi Red. India Private
collec-
tion?
Sanauli 151 mm No handle Institute of
Archaeology
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 147

7. TECHNOLOGY REVISITED (2009). From the given analyses in the earlier phase
most of the cases the analytical methodology was
7.1. Copper-bronze Technology of Harappan’s not mentioned by the chemists, moreover, with the
advancement of technology the analysis of the later
The earliest evidence of copper was known from period may not be compared. In Table-2 Composition
Mehrgarh in Baluchistan dated to circa 6500 BCE. It of Harappan mirrors are shown.
wasin the form of a tiny copper bead which was from
the grave of a child. Copper bronze technologies One mirror specimen from Harappa cemetry
of Harappans are well established now with the R-37 includes the chemical composition, shown
contribution of several scholars. Overall studies have by Wheeler (1946: 125). That the composition
been made recently by Tripathi (2018: 279-295). percentage was Cu 81.90, Sn 0.34, Pb2.39, Fe trace,
Several metallurgicalinnovations like the intricate Sb<0.57, Zn trace, S 0.64, Ni absent, As absent, Si
ciréperdue or lost wax technique, true saw, drill and 0.20 and O (by difference) 14.53 (Total 100.00).
the eye needle go to thecredit of the Harappan metal
One specimen of Harappa (H88/444-1) was
smiths.
analysed by Pigott et al 1989. The composition
percentage was Cu 77.20, Sn<0.38, As 0.93, Pb
0.50, Fe 0.051, Ni 0.25, Sb<0.57, Zn < 1.10, S 0.38,
7.1.1. Compositional analysis of Mirrors
Ag <0.22, Co 0.22 and Cl 18.90 (Total 98.21).
Before discussing the copper- bronze technology
Percentage composition of Lothal Mirror
of Harappan mirrors first of all we must recall the
(15030) has been established by Dr. B.B. Lal
contribution of Sana Ullahaand his team members
(1985: 651-66). 235- 0244 Atomic absorption
(1931, 1940) who pioneered the analyses of
spectrophotometric analysis by Nautial, Agrawal
specimens from Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and
and Krishnamurthy (1981). The composition of that
otherHarappan sites; even without the modern
mirror recorded by them is (Cu- 54.78, Fe- trace,
sophisticated instruments.
Sn- 5.47, Pb–, Ni – and Zn –). (‘–’ means absence).
Hardly a few mirrors as discussed have been That indicated that during manufacturing process it
archaeometallurgically analysed. Example may was made with copper bronze alloy, with 10% Sn in
be cited for Nautiyal, Agrawal and Krishnamurthy copper. Analyses clearly indicated that the specimen
et al (1981), Rao (1985), and Hoffman and Miller was already been corroded during buried period.

TABLE 2: COMPOSITION OF HARAPPAN MIRRORS

Site Cu Sn Pb Fe Sb Zn Ag Co Ni As Si O Cl S
Harappa 81.90 0.34 2.39 Tr <0.5 Tr -- -- -- -- 0.20 14.53 -- 0.64
Cemetry R-37 7
Harappa H88/44 77.20 <0.38 0.50 0.051 -- -- <1.10 0.22 -- 0.93 -- -- 18.90 --
/4-1
Lothal (15030) 54.78 5.47 -- Tr -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

7.1.2. Technology of Harappan Mirror Making polishing the mirror surface; the second technique is
casting the mirror blank, then subsequent finishing
Two techniques might been employed by Harappans techniques. The second technique is easier and
to make mirrors – forging the mirror blank straight experimentally reproduced by Jonathan Mark
from copper-bronze ingots, then grinding and Kenoyer, leading excavator of Harappa in Pakistan
148 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

(Personal communication, 20 May 2015). He pottery, copper, bead making including development
reproduced a mirror by using sand bivalve mould of a port (Shinde et al 2016: 39).
and finished those with grinding and polishing. Thus
the manufacturing technique has been established. Shinde et al 2016 have studied the in-depth
Chalcolithic cultures over a vast area of South Asia.
Those include Gujrat, Sauratra, Kachchh, Ganeswar-
7.2. The Dating of the mirror Jodhpura and Aharcultures of Rajasthan etc. They
have found wide use of copper but not any mirror in
The dating of mirror is rather complicated. Dating that region.
is possible from the associated charcoal specimen,
if any, obtained from the archaeological context. Amongst those sites Sanauli is the most
Dating the antiquities in an excavation is always significant one which is considered as a Post
very interesting, but more interesting and puzzling Harappan site. But the excavator clearly indicates
are those stashed away at place outside the limits of the site as the OCP/copper hoard culture. Whatever
inhabited area. Such finds pose challenges as they it was that might be transition phase of Harappan to
do not provide the archaeological context to estimate early historic phase.
the time and circumstances of their burial. In this
regard the Harinagar hoard proved special as many
of the 10 pots had soot attached to them. Soot from 8. CONCLUSION
two pots one from a Pan and other from a Handi was
collected and dated from Beta Inc. Beta 444001 – This overall discussion reminds the new thought on
BC 2225, Beta 444002 – BC 2245. the origin of Harappan mirrors on this subcontinent.
Particularly in Balochistan region of Mehergarh or
Mehi mirror was likely to begin. The excavation
7.3.
Theend of Harappan-overlapping with at Gandi Umar Khan has also revealed a mirror.
Chalcolithic This was little known earlier. Herewe are fortunate
to include that specimen. Unfortunately mirrors
The dates convincingly settle the find at BCE 2200 obtained from graves of Pakistan and Museums
as the last use of the material, which is the period of Afghanistan created a vacuum in information.
of mature Harappan phase. Though the Harappan Hope museum authorities of this subcontinent
presence is attested to about 24th century BCE east will extend their support to open their reserve
of Yamuna at Hulas and besides these, few other collections.
sites like Sinauli or Sanauli, Chandayan, Badagaon
and few others, yet beyond the river Ganga to the After Harappan culture absence of mirror was
east it is the first reporting of Harappan finds which noted in the post Harappan period. Even in small
is of singular significance. pockets in the extended Chalcolithic region, only the
Harappan people had used mirrors. The Chalcolithic
We have mentioned earlier about Kuntasi, which people definitely came into contact with Harappans
was aSorath-Indus site and the settlement is deeply but they have not influenced with mirrors.
embedded in the mature Indus inter regional trade
(Dhavalikar 1993: 562-63).The first occupation None of the mirrors discussed here were made
of the site (2350 BCE) was used for storing raw of high tin bronze. Those can be simply called low tin
material acquired from the local area before being bronze. However the absence of this might be very
exported. During the late or mature Indus phase, less amount of analysis were made earlier. Only high
Kuntasi emerged as an important industrial centre for tin bronze were known from Taxila in mass scale.
The History and Origin of Mirrors in Harappan Southeast Asia: Technology Revisited 149

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Archaeology and Museums, Government of West Bengal,

Calcutta.
I am thankful to the Indian National Science
Ghosh, A. (Ed.) 1989, An Encyclopedia of Indian
Academy for extending support to the investigation
Archaeology, New Delhi: MunshiramManoharlal
of the History of Mirrors in Ancient India: Origin Publishers Private Ltd.
and Technology Transfer. I am grateful to Prof. D.P.
Agrawal, Prof. Vasant Shinde, Dr. B.R. Mani and Hoffman, B.C. and Heather M.-L.Miller, 2009, Production
Dr. Sanjib K. Singh, Dr. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, and Consumption of Copper- base Metals in the Indus
Dr. Sanjay K. Manjul, Dr. BhuvanVikram, Prof. Civilization, Journal of World Prehistory 22.
VibhaTripathy. Prof. D.P. Sharma, Dr. Zakirullah Jan, Z. 2008, The Bronze Age Culturesof the Gomal
Jan, Dr. A.G. Lone, Dr. Shakirullah and a number of Valley (An Analysis of Cultural Traits with Special Focus
archaeologists of this subcontinent as well as of ASI. on Gandi Umar Khan), unpublished PhD dissertation,
University of Peshawar.

Jan, Z. et al. 2015, The mature Harappan Occupation at

REFERENCES Gandi Omar Khan in the Gomal Plain, Ancient Pakistan,
22.
Agrawal, D.P., 1971, The Copper Bronze Age in India,
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Mackay, E.J.H. 1976, R. Chanhudaro Excavations: 1935-
36.Varanasi: Bharatiya Publishing House.
Agrawal, D.P., 2009, Harappan Technology and its
Legacy, New Delhi: Rupa & Co. Mackay, EJH., 1938, Further Excavations at Mohenjo-
Daro , 2 vol. Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
Avetisyan, P., Badalyan, R. Gevrkyan, A. and Khnkikyan,
O., 2000., The 1998 Excavation Campaign at the Middle Mukhter Ahmed, 2014, Ancient Pakistan: An
Bronze Age Necropolis of Sisan Armemia; in Estratto da, Archaeological History, vol. 4, Harappan Civilization –
Studi Micenei (Ed) Egio-Anatolia, Roma: CNR Istituto per. Theoretical and the Abstract, Foursome Group.

Chatterjee, S., Sabikun Naher and P.K. Chattopadhyay. Park, J.S. and Vasant Shinde 2014, Characterization and
2015, Mirrors of Ancient India: From Harappa to comparison of the copper-base metallurgy of the Harappan
Mahasthangarh, Puratattva 45165-177, plate 18-19. site at Farmana at Hariana and Kuntasi at Gujarat in India,
Journal of Archaeological Science. 50.
Dales, G.F. and J. Mark Kenoyer, 1989, Excavations at
Harappa 1988, Pakistan Archaeology 24. Possehl, G.L. 2002, The Indus Civilization: A
Contemporary Perspectives, Walnut Creek: Altamira
Dhavalikar, M.K., M.R. Raval, Y.M. Chitalwala. 1996, Press.
Kuntasi: A Harappan Emporium on West Coast. Pune:
Prabhakar, V.N. and Shahida Ansari, 2015, Recent
Deccan College, PGRI.
Archaeological Investigations of the Harappan Site at
Dhavalikar, M.K. 1993, Harappans in Saurashtra: the Rupnagar, Punjab, Puratattva 45.
Mercantileenterprise as seen from the recent excavations Rao, S.R., 1985, Lothal: A Harappan Port Town (1955-
of Kuntasi. In Harappan Civilization: A Recent 62), vol. 2, Ed. S.R. Rao, Memoirs of Archaeological
Perspective. (Ed.) G.L. Possehl. New Delhi: Oxford and Survey of India, No 78, New Delhi: Archaeological
India Book House Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Survey of India.
During Caspers, E.C.I. 1996, The reliability of Rapin, C., 1992, Fouiles D’AȉKhanoum, viii, La
archaeological evidence for mercantile/ intercultural Trėsorerie Du Palais HellėnistiqueD’AȉKhanoum, Paris:
contacts between Central and South Asia, the Arabian De Boccard.
Gulf, and the Near East in the late third and early second
millennium B.C. in Explorations in Art and Archaeology Sana Ullah, M., 1940, The sources, composition, and
of South Asia, (ed. Debala Mitra), Directorate of technique of copper and its alloys. In M.S. Vats (Ed.),
150 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Excavations at Harappa, New Delhi: Government of Thapar, B.K., 1975, Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis
India Press. beyond the Indus Valley, Expedition 17 (2) 19-32.

Sana Ullah, M., Copper and bronze utensils and Tripathi, V., 2018, Metals and Metallurgy in the Harappan
other objects. In J. Marshall (Ed.), Mohenjo-daro and the Civilization, Indian Journal of History of Science, 53(3):
Indus Civilization, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, Vol. 279-295.
2.
Trousdale, W.A., 1961, Chinese handle-bearing mirror
Sharma, D.P., 2020-21, Art of SindhuSaraswati from Northern Afghanistan, Artibus Asiae, 24, 1, 11.19.
Civilization. New Delhi: BR Publishing Corporation, vol.
Vats, M.S., 1940, Excavations at Harappa, New Delhi:
1.
Government of India Press.
Shinde, V., Deshpande Sinha, Shweta and Sarkar Amrita,
Vikrama, B. and Pradhan A., 2017, Implications of a
2016, Chalcolithic South Asia: Aspects of Crafts and
recent hoard of copper objects from Harinagar, district
Technologies, New Delhi: Pentagon Press.
Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh, Puratattva 47.
Stein, Aurel, 1931, Archaeological tour in Gedrosia, Wheeler, REM., 1946, Harappā: The defences and
Memoirsof Archaeological Survey of India 43. cemetry R-37, Ancient India 3.
 A STUDY OF URBANIZATION IN EARLY MEDIEVAL NORTH
INDIA: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW (600 A.D -1200 A.D.)
(With Special Reference to Siyadoni and Ahar Stone Inscriptions)

SANTOSH KUMAR SINGH

T he urban study in India as yet is in formative

stage. Recently a few attempts have been
made to analyze the process of urbanization and its
3. Each primary producer paid over his
surplus to the deity and divine beings.

multifarious facets. The varied causes and processes 4. Monumental buildings.

of urbanization are being closely scrutinized by
5. The presence of a ruling class (e.g.
scholars, and as a result various theories have been
Sumerian temple on Egyptian Pharaoh).
propounded by them. These theories set forth certain
common conceptual framework in the light of which 6. Invention of art of writing.
the rise and growth of urban centers can be examined.
V. Gordon Childe (1936) was the first to formulate 7. The development of exact and productive
the concept of ‘urban revolution’ and in 1950 he put sciences e.g. arithmetic, geometry and
forth ten important traits associated pre-eminently astronomy.
with the cities, in his research paper written in 1950
(Childe, 1979:12-17) these traits are as follows: 8. Presence of full time artist craftsmen like
sculptors, painters and seal engravers etc.
1. Comparatively dense population.
9. Regular foreign trade over long distances.
2. Surplus production of food/cereals for
supporting full time specialist craftsmen, 10. Presence/import of raw materials for
merchants, officials and priests etc. specialist craftsmen to work upon.

Assistant Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Devendra P.G. College, Bilthara Road,
*

Ballia, U.P. E-mail: [email protected]

152 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

These traits presented by Childe are not unprecedented agrarian expansion that resulted in
universally accepted. Paul Wheatley remarks that the rise of forts, temples and monasteries (Sharma,
Childe failed to establish functional interaction 1987:6,185 & 122-31). His work shows the growth
between these criteria, thus these features are not and decay of one hundred and thirty-two urban
represented uniformly and are not specific to cities. centres in India which have been either excavated or
(Wheatley, 1971) partially explored. In his view a mild urban renewal
became possible after AD 1000 and urbanization a
Robert McC Adams lays great stress on recognizable process only after AD1300 (Sharma,
increased size and density of population as crucial 1987:185). Sharma links growth of towns with the
to urban centres. He does not see craft specialists history of trade. In his words ‘once long-distance
attributing to the primary urban needs in society. overland and overseas trade suffered, urban centres
(Adams, 1979:18-26) Henri Pirenne attributes began to decline’(Sharma, 1987:9). Sharma heavily
rise of medieval cities of Western Europe to large relies on H. Pirenne’s thesis. Pirenne attributes the
scale commercial expansion. (Pirenne, 1956:48-53) rise of medieval cities of Western Europe to large
Sjoberg closely associates urban growth with the scale commercial expansion in the eleventh century
political apparatus. (Sjoberg 1965:68) Almost all (Pirnne, 1956:48-53). According to Pirenne, prior
these works on urbanization have been haunted by to the eleventh century there was ‘economy of no
the idea of generalizing about the city as a distinctive markets’, in which production had no other aim
social entity and maintain that a town is always a than the sustenance of land owning group (Pirnne,
town wherever it is located in time as well as in 1956:31). However, Pirenne’s theory is no more
space as F. Braudel maintained (Braudel, 1981: 480- acceptable now. Adrian Verhulst, a critique of
1). Philip Abrams has elegantly criticized this notion Pirenne thesis has admirably shown that garrisons,
and points out that path to urban analysis must palaces, pilgrim centres had great purchasing power
run through a broader societal analysis (Adams & and played a leading role in the economy of that
Wrigley, 1978:3-4,19). particular place (Verhulst, 1989:7-8). The capital
towns (rajadhanis) and administrative headquarters
The present paper proposes to discuss (Pura or Nagara) developed into urban units during
contributions to Indian urban studies especially early medieval period.
on early medieval India by R.S Sharma (Sharma
1972:94 and 104, 1987), and B.D. Chattopdhyaya The scope of the present paper is rather limited.
(Chattopdhyaya, 1994). According to him in the Here only a few known documents have been picked
absence of archaeological reports on excavation of up for detailed analysis-documents which bear upon
early medieval sites, epigraphy remains the only the close link between trade and urbanization. These
source for reconstruction of urban history of this pertain to several distinct geographical regions and
period. He considers early medieval period as the it can at least partly be tested whether what emerges
beginning of third phase of urban growth. from them will have uniform applicability for
different parts of north India. In the final part of the
R.S Sharma’s Urban Decay in India paper an attempt has been made to review the entire
(c.300c.1000) has grown out of a paper presented problem of decline of trade and urban centres in the
to the thirty-third session of the Indian history light of the documents selected as well as some other
Congress in 1972, and a talk he gave to the Nehru material.
Centre, Bombay on “Town and Country in Early
Middle Ages’, in 1983. His foremost argument is We may start with a site in the Indo-Gangetic
that the post-Gupta period witnessed a period of divide which, if at all it has to be given the label
urban decay. He correlates urban shrinkage with “urban”, may at best be called an incipient urban
A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India 153

centre. This site is Prithudaka, modern Pehoa in the gift of two shops in a specified market place from
Karnal district of Haryana. Prithudaka is called an a merchant; (10) gift of a shop from a merchant;
ahisthana in an inscription (A.D.882-3) (Buhler, (11) 1,350 coins of a particular denomination
184-90) of the Gurjara-Pratihara period which also (Srimadadivarahadramma) invested by a merchant
provides some details of a fair at this place in which with the distillers of alcohol who were to pay every
different animals –the most important of which was month a certain amount of money per cask of liquor
the horse-were sold and bought. produced by them; (12) gift of an endowment which
would pay a certain sum two Kapardakas); (13) gift
of a shop in a particular market from a merchant;
INSCRIPTIONS FROM SIYADONI (14) donation of three shops from a merchant;
(LALITPUR, UP) AND AHAR (15) a merchant’s gift of a hereditary shop, which
(BULANDSHAHR, UP) SIYADONI would pay a certain sum; (16) gift of two houses
from a merchant; (17) gift of an Uvataka (a betel
The Siyadoni stone inscription was edited and plantation?) from a betel-seller to a Saivite Uma-
published by F. Kielhorn in 1892.It is a collective Mahesvara) temple; (18) an endowment set up by
public copy of a series of deeds recording 27 a betel seller for the payment of a particular sum of
donations made at different times by the traders and money per unit of betel-heaves; (19) gift of a shop
artisans of the town of Siyadoni near Lalitpur in by a person; (20) a measure of oil from the owners
the present Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. It was of oil-presses; (21) gift of a monthly payment of a
a mercantile town intersected by roads of different particular sum of money from the moneylenders/
types and contained a number of market centres. A merchants of a particular market-place to the Sri-
number of professional writers of legal documents Bhailasvamideva (Sun god) temple established
prepared the document, charting the donations made by the merchant Vikrama; (22) gift of a particular
at different times between AD 903-4 and 968-9. Most sum of money from what appears to be a guild of
of the donations were made to a Vishnu temple set stone cutters; (23) gift of a specified quantity of
up by a merchant named Chanduka in the southern oil from oil merchants to a particular god set up in
part of the town. Here the Lord Vishnu is mentioned a Vishnu temple; (24) gift of three houses by two
under a number of appellations. The list of donations merchants to a Vishnu temple set up by somebody
made to this temple is as follows: named Pappaka; (25) gift of some houses and shops
from a few merchants; (26) gift of a shop from three
(1) a piece of measured land from the whole persons; (27) gift of the rental income of a shop.
town; (2) an endowment from a feudatory chief,
which secured the daily income of two specified This is a remarkable inscription for a number
sums of money in two coin units; (3) a residential of reasons. First it brings out the general economic
unit comprising four houses from 3 merchants; (4) an and social ambience of the market town of Siyadoni.
endowment involving potters, according tot which The Lalitpur area where this early medieval town is
the makers of alcoholic drinks, would donate, per located lies on the Betwa route from the Ganga plain
cask produced, a specified amount of liquor worth a to central India; the fact that there was a market town
specified amount of money; (5) an endowment from on this route in this sector is in itself a testimony of the
a merchant securing the daily payment of a certain fact that the commercial signification of this sector,
sum from ‘suger-boilers’; (60 gift of a residence which we notice in the early historic period, did not
from a merchant; (7) gift of a shop located in a die out in the early medieval. Second, the economic
particular market centre and gift of four hereditary and social ambience of the town is clearly brought out
shops form a single merchant; (8) gift of a hereditary by the inscription: a number of marketplaces bearing
shop in a particular market from a betel-seller; (9) specific names, residential units and individual
154 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

houses, betel seller, oil merchants, makers of liquor, The impression one gets from the records is that the
and stone cutters, at least three Vishnu temples, a sun eastern market area (purvahattapradesa) was one
temple and a temple of Uma-Mahesvara, and above of the nerve-centres of the towns, dotted as it was
all, an organized and monetized economy where the with shops and residential building. The reference
income from houses and shop can easily be donated to the eastern market implies that there were severl
to temples and where nobody was concerned with other such centres which, as is clear from the eastern
the social status of the donors. Socially, stone market cluster, were not necessarily located in one
cutters, oil merchants, liquor-seller, and merchants part of the town, but were dispersed among different
had their own assured positions in the social scheme residential areas. The inscriptions mention six
and none of these groups seems to be economically temples (those of Kanca-nasridevi or Kanadadevi,
superior/inferior in relation to the rest, whatever Nandabhagavatidevi, Vamanasvami, Gaandhadevi,
their ritual status. It is also apparent that there was Dasavatara and Sarvamangala) which formed a
an administrative body of the town; otherwise the distinct part of the urban set-up. At least two of them,
donation of a measured plot of land could not come enshrining Nandabhgavatidevi and Kancanasridevi,
from the town itself (donation 1). In the background, seem to have been located a little away from the
of course, there are feudatory chiefs, one of whom town (ihaiva pattanadvahi daksinayam disi), but
assigned an endowment for the temple (donation both owned property in the eastern market area.
2), but the focus of this inscription is on ordinary thirdly, the constructional details and dimensions
people, including the writers of judicial deeds, and of some of the buildings are given in the records
their market economy (Chakrabarti, 2006:453-54). in clear terms. Two types of building are generally
mentioned: avaris (shops and enclosures) and grhas
(residential buildings). The avaris seem in some
TATTANANDAPURA /AHAR cases to have combined the functions of a shop and
a residential building. In one case an avari with its
Tattanandapura, identified with Ahar near elevations is said to have consisted of three rooms of
Buladshahar and situated on the western bank of burnt bricks; in another it has a few inner apartments.
the Ganga, was on the other hand a fully developed the grhas were also constructed with burnt bricks.
township of the upper Ganga basin. It has yielded The inscriptions abound in references to house sites
a set of 10 inscriptions dated between A.D.867 (grhabhumi) contiguously situated and belonging to
and 904, (Sahni, 52-54) which show it to have persons of different castes.
been included in the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. The
urban character of the settlement emerges from The Ahar inscription was edited and published
a number of indications in the record. First, the by Daya Ram Sahni, the first excavator of Harappa,
suffix pura in tis name and the fact that is called in 1927-8 in Epigraphia Indca. Like the Siyadoni
pattana distinguish it from grama, palli or agrahara inscription, the Ahar inscription also is a collective
by which village settlements of the period were public copy of a series of 10 separate documents
known. Secondly, whatever meagre information is recorded at different dates in the second half of AD
available regarding its lay-out confirms this. It was 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries. Document
intersected by a number of roads, kurathya (small 1 seems to be a eulogy in honour of Bhojadeva, the
or narrow roads, lanes?), brhadrathya (big roads) reigning king of Kanauj. Document 2 states that two
and hattamarga (road leading to the market area). person of a mercantile caste purchased, with the
Since such expressions have been used in relation money (Dramma) belonging to the Kanchanadevi
to townships in early medieval literature, (Gopal, temple, a shop or enclosure which stood in the
1965:96) some functional differences between them centre of the town of Tattanandapura (modern
in the context of urban settlements may be inferred. Ahar in Bulandshahr) in the middle portion of the
A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India 155

eastern market. The rental income of this shop or lease from a Brahmin of Bharadvaja gotra with the
enclosure was assigned to provide for the cleaning, money belonging to the Kanakasridevi temple. The
plastering, saffron, flowers, incense, lamps, flags, rental income of this property was to be spent on the
whitewashing, and the repairs of broken and craked worship of the goddess and the maintenance of the
building of this temple. Document 3 simply records worship of the goddess and the maintenance of the
that the inscription in question was engraved at temple (Chakrabarti, 2006:454).
Tattanandapura at the bidding of a messenger named
Kaluva and under the order of an assembly called This is only an enumeration of the bare content
Uttara-sabha (an urban assembly?). Document 4 of the 10 records. There are other deails, such as
states that four persons, apparently of the same the boundaries of these properties. On the whole,
family, bathed in the Ganges on the occasion of a Tattanandapura or modern Ahar was in the 9th-10th
lunar eclipse, and donated, for their own and their century a trading centre of many burn-brick houses
parents’ religious merit, ensuring that every month a and temples, among which the temple of the goddess
particular sum of money would be paid to the temple Kanchanasridevi or Kanakasridevi was apparently
of Kanakasridevi out of the rental income of a house the most important. One of the merchants mentioned
which was acquired by their grandfather on 99-year in the records came from Bhillamalla or Bhinmal
lease and to which two inner apartments and a large in southern Rajasthan (south of Jodhpur) and one
pillared hall were added by themselves. The house may assume that it was a trade centre to which
in question stood in the central portion of the eastern merchants from other parts of India congregated. It
market of the town. Document 5 records the purchase, is interesting to come across references to different
on a 99-year lease, of the southern half of a building castes in this set of inscriptions; Kshatriya merchants
site in the southeastern portion of the town and two or Mathura seller of perfumes are interesting in the
shops or enclosures near it from a Brahmkin of the sense that Kshatriyas are not traditionally supposed
lineage versed in four Vedas with the consent of the to be merchants and modern Mathurs are Kayasthas
Brahmin’s mother, and gave it to the temple. The who do not traditionally sell perfumes. Ahar is still
purchasers were said to represent a Gosthi or a proup a huge mound overlooking the Ganga and was a
of people (presumably the managing committee major crossing point on the way to Kashipur at the
of the temple) and the purchase money belonged foot of the Nainital hills from Mathura (Chakrabarti,
to the temple. Document 6 also records a similar 2006:455).
transaction where a particular building with three
rooms in the centre of the eastern market of the town That Tattanandapura was an important urban
was acquired, on a 99-year lease from a Kahatriya settlement of the early medieval period is confirmed
merchant, with the requisite money coming from by archaeology as well, (ASI-AR, 1925-26:56-
the Kanakasridevi temple. Document 7 is almost 58) although no attempt at correlation between
identical except that the property was acquired on epigraphic and archaeological material is possible
lease from a Brahmin of the ‘four Vedas group’. at present. The mounds at Ahar cover a total area
Document 8 records that two Kshatriya men and two of 3.800 acres “ Trial trenches were sunk at place
Kshatriya women donate the rent of a house to the scattered over nearly 1½ miles and their sites are
same temple. Document 9 states that a moneylender/ termed A,B,C,D and E. Sites B and C lie on the
merchant of the Savarnnika (Suvarna-vanik) caste south and north of the village respectively, while
purchased, on a 99-year lease, a house from a A lies to the east. But A and C belong to the late
merchant of the Mathura caste, who was a seller Muhammadan period and are on the same level as
of perfumes. The purchase money belonged to the the modern village, while B, which is appreciably
temple of Kanchanasridevi. According to Document lower than they, dates back to about the 9th century
10, six such house units were acquired on a similar A.D. Site C was excavated to 21’ and A to 18, and
156 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

both of them yielded Muhammadan copper coins in dating the other antiquities is the discovery of
ranging from the 14th to the 16th centuries A.D. and five silver coins. Four of them are circular and one
specimens of glazed Muhammadan pottery were rectangular. Of the former, three bear the legend Sn,
reclaimed at varying depths. Site C was somewhat Sn, Vi and Sn Vi and Sn Vigra, and can, therefore,
barren of buildings and smaller antiquities, but be ascribed to one or another of the Vigra-hapalas,
A showed no less than seven strata, of which of magadha. (Cunningham’s Archeological Survey
the upper five are placed one above. The other Reports, Vol. XI,) But being the least barbarous
without intervening debris and follow each other in specimens they may, perhaps, be assigned to about
quick succession. There is an interval between the 900 A.D. or a little earlier. The fourth coin is struck,
sixth and seventh strata, the remains of which are in imitation of the coins of Sassanian Firoz which are
composed of whole bricks as against smaller and placed by V.A Smith among the north-western 500
larger brickbats in the remaining five (Plate II, fig. and 1000 A.D. It is a very decadent specimen and
d). Apart form Muhammadan antiquities, fragments rudely caricatures on the obverse a Sassanian head
of several stone sculptures were recovered form with winged headdress, and snows indications of fire
site A. These belong to the mediaeval period, and altar and supporters on the reverse. Being degraded
must, like the inscription referred to above, have and found with the coins of Vigrahapala it may
been brought from elsewhere and preserved as relics possibly be assigned to the 8th or 9th century A.D. The
of ages gone by. The treatment, for instance, of a fifth coin is rectangular but unfortunately not clear,
conventional peacock wit foliated tail standing on a though it is possible to recognise on its obverse the
lotus is reminiscent of the medieval period, like the figure of an animal (bull?) facing left.
two human heads shown in Plate II, fig. e.
“Site D locally known as the khera near
“In site B, a wide trench measuring 88’x60’ Rukmini tal rises only a few feet above the level
revealed the existence of a large house with several of the low lying fields and is situated about three
rooms and four strata of building, of which the first quarters of a mile south of the principal mounds.
and the fourth are poorly represented, while the For want of time the trench (90’x60’) had to remain
second and the third are much better preserved. Their shallow and yielded nothing except a number of
depth from the existing surface is 3’1”,3’8”,8’6” and carved Hindu bricks. The stone head of a bearded
10’ respectively. Most of the interesting finds made male with upturned moustaches and elongated eyes
here were found in association with the third stratum picked up from the surface, like the other head from
which consists of a series of oblong chambers on site E, probably belongs to the 10th or 11th century
either side of a long wall running east and west, and A.D. Among the buildings unearthed here, attention
yet another series across the chambers to the north may be drawn to a strange circular brick structure
(Plate I, fig. a). The westernmost chamber in the placed on a sort of temporary platform two bricks
latter series contained a chulha or family hearth at deep. It is 2’ 8” high and has a rectangular cavity in
a depth of 8’. Pottery from this site comprises some the centre found bricked up even below the level of
excellent specimens of large spouted vases, hancis, the platform on which it stands (Plate I, fig. b).
etc., evidently superior to the Muhammadan pottery
form sites A and C (Plate II, figs. B and C). Other “between Rukmini tal site B there is a girdle of
antiquities include two lower members of hand six or seven mounds strewn over with brickbats and
grinding mills (Plate II, fig. e) a mortar (ukkhal), some fragments of stone sculpture. These have been named
household articles of copper such as a casket, a saucer, E but could not be examined properly and five trial
a spoon and a scythe (iron), a trefoil (kirtimukha), a trenches laid at the site are scattered over a stretch of
star-shaped boss, a bell and a rattle (Plate II, fig. f). nearly one and a half miles. At it B which dates back
But what lends special interest to the site and helps to about ninth century A.D. were discovered, apart
A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India 157
158 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture
A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India 159

from burnt brick structures of residential character, Kallapalanamsatkahatta (hatta belonging to the
excellent specimens of pottery, hand-grinding mills, Kallapalas) and Vasantamahattakahatta (possibly
a mortar, household articles of copper, an iron scythe named after the chief of a guild). Vithis or shops
and early medieval coins of at least three varieties. owned by merchants and manufacturers of different
cvategories constituted the nucleus of a hatta, though
These two inscriptions from the Siyadoni and
not the entirc hatta complex. Although, as in the case
Ahar inscriptions are only four among a considerable
of the Kallaplanamsatkahatta, the entirc hatta appears
number of such inscriptions and categorically
to have been owned by and to have specialized in
demonstrate that early medieval India had a vibrant,
the merchandise of the Kallapalas, this was not the
monetized, and trading economy. These inscriptions
general pattern. At Caturhatta, for example, the vithi
belong to different parts of India and different
owned by grahapatika tambulka Kesava is mentioned
periods. It is unfortunate that urban decay and a
along with that of a kamsaraka. Nor was there any
corresponding decline in trade gave been envisaged
clear distinction between commercial and residential
for this period by some historians.
areas and in this regard too the lay-out was similar to
Even if, a suggested by the hypothesis thus that at Ahar. The residence of a brahmana or a religious
outlined, trade and urban centres suffered a setback shrine could be a part of the total hatta complex. As
in early India, resulting in the growth of closed at Ahar, temples formed a part of the urban set-up;
village economy over a considerable stretch of there were several of them at Siyadoni dedicated to
time, one cannot still view this validly in terms of Narayana-bhattaraka, Sivabhattaraka, Bhaillasvami,
“production for use” as opposed to “production for Sigakiyadeva, etc. Siyadoni was, however, primarily
exchange”(Takahasi, 1954:35). While, therefore, it a commercial centre, as is suggested not only by the
is necessary to examine closely to what extent and number of its hattas, but also by a customs house
in what precise form trade and urbanism survived attached to it (siyadonisatkmanapika). A mint also
(Sharma, 1965:238) in the post-Gupta period. seems to have been located there. Siyadoni served
as a political centre as well, but this point will be
All the urban characteristics of Tattanandapura or; elaborated later on.
Ahar revealed by epigraphy were present at Siyadoni
near Lalitput in Jhansi district. The dates of its records; Though not quite close to Siyadoni yet in the
ranging between A.D.907 and 968 (Epigraphia same geographical region was Gopagiri (Gwalior)
Indica, 162-79 & Chattapadhyaya, 1974:203-19). which, as the analysis of its two inscriptions dated
relate, as in the case of the other inscriptions cited, A.D.875 and 876 shows, appears to have been a
to the Gurjara-Pratihara period. It was also a pattana fort town. The settelement was administered by a
intersected by a variety of roads, rathya, hattarathya, chief of the boundaries (maryadadharya), appointed
etc. The functional differences between different by a Gurjara-Pratihara king. The second record
varieties of roads may be assumed here again; besides, refers to the presence at the plains, as suggested
there is clear mention in one case of a road belonging by an incidental reference to the dwellers of the
to the merchants (vanijoonijarathya). The residential plateau of Gopagiri (Gopaginitalapari).Gopagiri
sites included aparasaraka (houses with porch or was a commercial centre as well, as sresthis and
vestibule), avasanika (dwellings) and grhabhitti sarthhavahas were counted among its residents and
(house site) owned by different communities. The as members of a loval council. Two hattika, Cacchika
spatial dimensions of the town may be assumed to and Nimbaditya, are mentioned as those parts of
have been larger than those of Ahar, considering the Gopagiri where oil-millers (tailikas) lived, and on
number of its market certres. Five of them figure in the strength of this indication it may be inferred
the records: Dosihatta, Prasannahatta, Gaturhatta that Srisarvesvarapura and Srivatsavatsasvamipura,
(possibly identical with Gatuskahatta of no.12), residential areas of several other oil-millers
160 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

mentioned in the records, were also parts of the upper Ganga basin, and (3) the Malwa plateau.
Gopagiri urban compelx (Singh, 1998-99:237-253. This location pattern is crucial since it is known
& Singh , 2004:133-135). that in at least two of them, the upper Ganga basin
and the Malwa plateau, important urban centres
The geographical areas to which the documents had developed in the early historical period
relate are (1) the Indo-Gangetic divide (2) the (Map-1).
A Study of Urbanization in Early Medieval North India 161

Of the most important guilds of early historical Cunningham;s Archeological Survey reports. Vol. XI.
times at least seven existed at Tattanandapura, Plate XLIII, No.1, pp. 176-77; and V.A. Smith;s Catalogue
Siyadoni and Gopgiri, those of the goldsmiths, the of coins in the Indian museum, Calcutta, Vol. 1, Part III,
stone-masons, the braziers, the oil-pressers, garland- Plate XXV, No.10 and p. 239.
makers, potters and caravan traders. Dutt, B.B., 1925, Town Planning in Ancient India,
Calcutta.

Ghurye, G.S., 1962, Cities and Civilization, Bombay.

REFERENCES
Gopal., L. 1965, The Economic Life of Northern India
Abrams, Philip and E.A. Wrigley, eds. 1978, Towns in (700-1200 A.D.) Varanasi.
Societies: Essays in Economic history and Historical
Gosh, A., 1973, The Cities in Early Historical India
Sociology, Cambridge, pp. 3-4, 19.
Simla.
Adams, Robert MaC. 1979, The Natural history of
Jha, Kalpana, Urbanization in Early Medieval North India
Urbanism, in Ancient Cities of the Indus: p. 20.
(An Analysis of the Samaraichchakah), Janki Prakashan,
Ayyar, C.P.V. 1911, Town Planning in Ancient Deccan New Delhi: 1998.
Madras, Jha, S.K., 1998, Beginning of Urbanization in Early
Braudel, Fernand, 1981, Civilization and Capitalism 15th Historic India Patana.
– 18th Century, vol. I, The Structure of Everyday Life; The Kielhorn, F. siyadoni stone inscription, Epigraphia
limits of the Possible, tr. and rev., Sian Reynolds, London, Indica, i, 162-79
pp. 480-1.
Mumford, Lewis, 1975, The City in History, Pelican
Chakrabarti, D.K., 2006, The Archaeological Foundation Books.
of Ancient India Stone age to AD 13th Century. New
Delhi. Pirenne, Henri, 1956, Medieval Cities (Their origin and
Revival of Trade), tr. Frank D. Halsey, Princeton, pp. 48-
Chakrabarti, D.K., 1995, The Archaeology of Ancient 53.
Indian Cities, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,.
Prasad, Kameshwar, 1984, “cites, crafts and commerce
Champaklakshmi, R, 1996 Trade, Ideology and under the Kusanas” pp. 50-51.
Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300 New Puri, B.N., 1966, Cities in Ancient India, Meenakshi
Delhi. Prakashan.
Chattopadhyaya, B.D., 1997, The Making of Early Roy, Udainarain, 1965, Prachin Bharat Men Nagar Tatha
Medieval India, New Delhi, 1994, rpt. Nagar-Jivan, Allahabad (in Hindi).
Chattopadhyaya, B.D, 1974, Trade and Urban centres Sahni, D.R, 1927-28, Ahar stone inscription, Epigraphia
in Early Medieval North India, The Indian Historical Indica XIX, 52-62; Also C.D. Chatterje, the Ahar
Review Vol 1, Number 2, pp-203-19. stone inscription, The journal of the United Provineces
Historical society, iii, pt. iii ,1926,. 83-119.
Childe, V. Gordon, 1936, Man Makes Himself London,.
Shamra, R.S. 1965, Indian Feudalism, C. 300-1200,
Childe, V. Gordon, 1950, The Urban Revolution, Town Calcutta: University of Calcutta,.
Planning Review, Vol. 21, , pp. 3-17.
Sharma, R.S., 1973, Decay of Gangetic Towns in Gupta
Childe, V.G. 1952, What Happened in History, and Post-Gupta Times, JIH, Golden Jubilee Vol. pp. 135-
Harmondswarth. 150.

Cunningham, A., 1963, The Ancient Geography of India, Sharma, R.S., 1985, Material Culture and Social
Varanasi, (rep.) pp. 343–8 Formations in Ancient India, New Delhi.
162 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Singh S.K. and et. al, 2006-07, Proto- Historic Singh S.K., 1998-99, Purva Madhya Kal Mein Uttar
Urbanization in India: A Archaeological Perspectives Bharatiya Nagaro Ki sthiti (600-1200. A.D.), Bharati No.
Bharati No. 30, Journal of the Department of AIHC and 25, Journal of the Department of AIHC & rchaeology,
Archaeology, B.H.U. pp.111-130. B.H.U., pp. 237-253.

Singh S.K., beginning of Urbanization in Middle Ganga Singh S.K., 2004, Uttar Bharat Mein Nagaron Ka Vikas,
Plain: A Technological and Ecological prospective, Joint (600-1200 A.D.) Book India Publishing Co. Delhi .
annual Conference IAS, ISPQS and IHCS Central College
Campus, Banglore, 15-18 December, 2005, abs, 75-77. Sjoberg, Gideon. 1965, The Preindustrial City of Past and
Present New York, p. 68; Mumford considers institution
Singh S.K., 2019, Concept of Urbanization in the Mid- of kingship crucial for Urbanization.
Ganga Plain: New Archaeological Evidence (with Special
Reference to Agiabir), ICON Journal of Archaeology Thakur, V.K., 1981, Urbanization in Ancient India,
and Culture, Vol. VI, pp.103-119, Wakankar Rock Art Abhinav Publications, NewDelhi,.
and Heritage Welfare Society, Bhopal, B.R. Publishing
Verhulst, Adriaan, 1999, The Origins of Towns in the Low
Corporation New Delhi,
Countries and the Pirenne Thesis, Past and Present, no.
Singh S.K., 2004-05, Emergence of Cites in Middle Gange 122, 1989, pp. 7-8; also see The Rise of Cities in North-
plain New Archaeological Evidence, Pragdhara, No 15, West Europe, Cambridge, , preface.
Journal of the U.P. state Archaeological Department, pp.
Weber, Max., 1958, The city collier-Macmillan Canada,
119-126.
Ltd. Toronto, Ontario,.
Singh S.K., 2003, Guptottar Kalin Bharat Mein Nagar
Wheatley, Paul, 1971, The Pivot of the Four Quarters, a
Nirman, Triratna Heritage, Governace and Equity
Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of
(Honrable shri t. N. chaturvedi, Festschrift), vol. IV, pp.
the Ancient Chinese City, Edinburgh.
123-142.
 NOTABLE STONE ANTIQUITIES FROM KOLHUA
EXCAVATIONS (YEAR 1989-93)

JALAJ KUMAR TIWARI*

INTRODUCTION
Archaeological site Kolhua (260 00’ 51” N; Long 850 Before independence Cunningham (1883: 14)
06’ 32”E) is situated 10 km north of Vaishali Railway carried out excavation, around the pillar to reach its
station and about 36 km south- east of Muzaffarpur bottom in 1862 but due to high water level he traced
in block Saraiya of Muzaffarpur district of Bihar. only 14 feet below the ground level. In the year
It is a part of ancient Vaishali where Mauryan 1880 he again conducted small scale excavations
emperor Ashoka, had erected lion pillar made of (Cunningham 1883: 14) at various spots at site.
sandstone. The place finds mention in the Chinese
After independence of India, systematic and
accounts of Fa-Hien (Legge 1993: 72-75) and Yuan
scientific excavations have been conducted in and
Chwang (Watters 2012: 63-79) in connection with
around the Asokan pillar by Archaeological Survey
Buddhist activities. It was situated 4.8 km north
of India in field season of 1976-77 (IAR 1976-77:
west of ancient city Vaishali (Raja Vishal ka garh).
13).This excavation proved that pillar and stupa were
It is highly venerated due to its connection with the
contemporary and the earliest occupation of the site
life events of Buddha. According to M.H.Kuraishi
is characterized by NBP period (Gupta 1980: 147).
(Kuraishi 1931: 8-9), Kolhua may be representing
ancient Kollago, a suburb of Vaishali. Cunningham After a gap, extensive excavations in the years
try to identified the site with mahavana (great forest) 1989-93 has been carried out by Late L. C. Singh,
(Cunnigham 1871: 63) which was mentioned near the then S.A. of A.S.I., Excavation Branch III of
Vaishali in Buddhist texts. Patna; in and around the Asokan pillar; exposing

Assistant Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Archaeological Museum, Vaishali, Vaishali, Bihar;
*

E-mail: [email protected]
164 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

the remains of a tank, two monasteries and cluster padmasana, his right hand extending over the
of votive stupas of various shapes and sizes (IAR right leg in bhumisparsa mudra, while his left
1989-90: 11-13; 1990-91: 3-4; 1991-92: 5-6; 1992- hand is resting in the lap with the palm open
93: 5-6). outward. He is clothed in sanghati, which is
transparent and leaves the right shoulder bare.
The excavation revealed following cultural An end of sanghati is spread on the lotus seat.
sequence divisible in three periods: The folds of cloth are schematic and incised
Period I : NBPW over those parts of body which are carved. The
head of Buddha and upper part of back slab
Period II : Sunga- Kushana (first century BC to are missing. Back slab is also remarkable for
second third cen. AD) intricate carving. Behind the back of Buddha
Period III : Gupta and Post Gupta (c. 4th to 6th – 7th a decorated cushion is carved. Throne lintel is
cen. AD) supported by pillars. A horse-lion vyala motif
with a string of pearls in his mouth appears at
The excavations (year 1989-93) has discovered each end of the throne lintel. The decorative
total number of 552 antiquities which include 413 elements of the back slab consist of the
terracotta ,60 stone, 25 copper, 21 iron,15 glass, 14 conventional motifs of 11th-12th century AD.
bone, 3 shell, and 2 others. Pancharatha pedestal contains at centre a frontal
view of lion with his forelegs between a pair of
In the present paper intends to study of notable
carved pillars and two lions.The whole figure is
stone antiquities encountered from the excavations
perfectly modeled and well proportioned .Super
(years 1989-93) at Kolhua in district of Muzaffarpur,
workmanship is evident in the treatment of the
Bihar.
whole composition. The sculpture is in a good
state of preservation. Size 6.0 x 5.8 x 3.4 cm.
From upper level of period III (KLH-329).
STONE OBJECTS

Sixty stone objects have been recovered during FIG. II

the course of excavation. Out of which two belong
to period I, fourteen to period II and remaining 1. Stone plaque depicting figure of Visnu, broken
nineteen objects belong to period III. It includes in two parts. The lower portion of plaque from
35 beads, 5 sculptures, 3 gem of rings, 7 weights, 2 middle and upper right portion of the plaque is
balls, 3 pestles, single specimen of quern, ear lobe missing. Four armed Visnu holding gada in his
and fragment of lid and 2 unidentified/others objects. upper right hand and chakra in upper left hand.
The distribution of these objects is shown in the He is decked with kirita mukuta and necklace.
Table No.1 Carving shows inferior workmanship. Size
8.5x 9.3x2.2 cm. From upper level of period III
Descriptions of selected stone objects (Fig. (KLH-420).
I-VI) are given below:
2. Female head, basalt stone, Female has a
charming flashy face tilted side wards. Head
FIG. I gear supported by a band. Nose, lips and mouth
are mutilated. Eyes are indicated by incised
1. Buddha in bhumisparsa pose, black basalt.
lines. Size 7.7x 4.9x1.7cm. From upper level of
The Buddha is shown seated on a double
period III (KLH-76).
lotus supported by a pancharatha pedestal, in
Notable Stone Antiquities from Kolhua Excavations (Year 1989-93) 165

3. Fragment of Male deity, broken. His hair raises 6. Weight of red jasper, cylindrical, top portion is
up-wards in the shape of a flame, and he is decked convex and bottom is flat, unpolished, complete
with circular ear ring, necklace and wristlet. specimen. Diameter 1.3 cm and height is 1.0 cm.
His face is recognized by bulging round eyes, Weight: 3.45 gm .From lower level of period III
beard and a pair of moustaches; his eyebrows (KLH-118).
are distorted in a frown. Most probably it is a
fragment of Buddhist semi god Hayagriva. Size
9.3x5.4x2.0cm. From upper level of period III FIG. IV
(KLH-564).
1. Earlobe of jasper, broken, depressed round
4. Human head, upper part of head, nose and section with incised concentric circles having
mouth are missing, wide open eyes with incised a raised disc at the centre on one side only.
eye lid, sand stone, Size 9.3x 11.2x4.2cm. From Diameter 2.2 cm and height is 1.3 cm. From
upper level of period III (KLH-85). lower level of period II. (KLH-155).
2. Ball of agate, Diameter 2.0 cm. From lower
level of period III (KLH-108).
FIG. III
3. Gem of ring, crystal, plano-convex in shape.
1. Weight of red jasper, slightly broken, cylindrical, Diameter 1.8 cm and height is 0.8 cm. From
mirror like polished at top but bottom is middle level of period III. (KLH-37).
unpolished. Bangle, thickened at the ends,
circular section, corroded. Diameter 2.8 cm and 4. Gem of ring, carnelian, plano-convex in shape.
height is 1.5 cm. Weight: 25.77 gm. From upper Diameter 1.4 cm and height is 0.9 cm. From
level of period II (KLH-210). middle level of period III. (KLH-6).

2. Weight of red jasper, cylindrical, broken, mirror 5. Fragment of lid, soap stone, four incised
like polished at top but bottom is unpolished. concentric lines in the upper portion and one
Diameter 2.2 cm and height is 1.3 cm. Weight: incised circular line observed in lower part of
11.45. From upper level of period II (KLH-294). lid. . Size 4.6x 2.5x1.1 cm. From upper level of
period II. (KLH- 292).
3. Weight of red jasper, cylindrical, complete
specimen, mirror like polished at top but bottom
is unpolished. Diameter 1.8 cm and height is FIG. V
1.4 cm. Weight: 12.51 gm .From lower level of
1. Double convex bead cum pendant with tapering,
period II (KLH-527).
rectangular section, translucent, light pink
4. Weight of red jasper, cylindrical, broken, mirror colour, made of carnelian. Maximum length 1.6
like polished at top but bottom is unpolished. cm and thickness 0.3 cm. From lower level of
Diameter 2.0 cm and height is 1.1 cm. Weight: period II. (KLH- 433).
7.19. From lower level of period II (KLH-162).
2. Bird shaped bead cum pendant made of Banded
5. Weight of red jasper, cylindrical, complete agate with high class finish, partially broken,
specimen, mirror like polished at top but bottom partially opaque, black colour with white
is unpolished. Diameter 1.8 cm and height is bands. Bird is standing on a short pedestal.
1.4 cm. Weight: 2.7 gm .From middle level of Unfortunately its end part of tail is missing. The
period III (KLH-48). wings of bird is decorates with slanting engraved
lines. It has a vertical perforation. Maximum
166 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

length 2.0cm. height 0.5 cm and thickness 0.4 in Archaeological Museum Vaishali (Tiwari 2019:
cm. From lower level of period II. (KLH- 452). 564). Some unfinished broken stone beads in the
shape of peacock, fish, bird and insect are also
3. Roughly triangle shaped bead cum pendant, preserved in Vaishali museum which suggest that
made of quartz, hexagonal section, translucent. these beads were manufactured locally and lapidary
Maximum length 1.2 cm and thickness 0.7 cm. art was very developed in Vaishali (Tiwari 2019:
From lower level of period III. (KLH- 394). 559).

Cylindrical stone weights also recovered in

FIG. VI previous excavations. From the excavation at Raja
Vishal ka Garh in year 1950, jasper weights have
1. Pestle, broken, sand stone, flat working edge, been found from period I b (c. 300-150 BC) and
roughly square in section. Size 27x 6.7x5.5 cm. period III (c. 100-300 AD) (Deva and Mishra 1961:
From lower level of period III. (KLH- 286). 64). Similarly in the excavations in the year 1958-
62, thirty two weights of different sizes were found
2. Fragment of legged quern, broken, sand stone,
from various levels of site (Sinha 1969: 202). These
flat working surface. Size 6.8x12x4.6 cm. From
are generally of red jasper but few specimens were
lower level of period III. (KLH- 498).
of soap stone and steatite (Sinha 1969: 202). It is
3. Fragment of pestle, sand stone, roughly elliptical matter of common knowledge that jewelers in India
in section. Size 14.2x6.6x3.9 cm. Fragment preferred to have stone weights made from hard
of pestle, sand stone, elliptical in section. Size stones like jasper, agate, chalcedony and carnelian
8x6cms. From middle level of period I. (KLH- etc. for the sake of accuracy as the loss of weight
105). after constant use was very negligible (Dixit 1968:
132). Vaishali being an active centre of trade since
4. Fragment of pestle, sand stone, rectangular in ancient time lies on the famous trade route from
section. Size 9.8x4.6x3.5 cm. From lower level Pataliputra to Nepal, finding of stone weights in
of period III. (KLH- 55). various grades are quite natural.

Earlobes made of jasper also reported from

CONCLUSION Vaishali excavations in year (1958-62) from period
II (N B P) and period III ( Sunga- Kushana period)
Excavations at Kolhua (1989-93) have discovered (Sinha and Roy: 1969: 191-192). It is interesting to
various types of stone antiquities in the category note that well polished cylindrical stone weights and
of beads, sculptures, gem of rings, weights, balls, ear lobes made of jasper are common at Vaishali
pestles, quern, ear lobe and fragment of lid. Among and good quantity of these objects found in surface
the stone objects, sculpture of Buddha, bird shaped collection which are preserved in Archaeological
bead cum pendant deserves the mention for its fine Museum Vaishali. Stone bead cum pendent and
workmanship. These were was found in good state earlobe also prove the aesthetic sense of Vesalians.
of preservation.
Such stone weights and ear lobes are also
Bird shaped agate bead cum pendent from reported from other early historic sites of Bihar and
Kolhua excavation is highly interesting. A jasper are commonly found in association with the N.B.P.
bead in the shape of dog found at Vaishali (Sinha horizon. Stone weights found from excavations at
1969: 187) from the Sunga –Kushana level. Chirand (district Saran) (Verma 2007), Chandahadih
Zoomorphic stone beads in various shapes including (district Muzaffarpur) (IAR 1977-78: 15) and
tortoise, elephant, bird, cock, frog and hare preserved Sonpur (district Gaya) (Sinha and Verma 1977: 140)
Notable Stone Antiquities from Kolhua Excavations (Year 1989-93) 167

TABLE 1: PERIOD WISE DISTRIBUTION OF STONE OBJECTS

S. No. Object Period I Period II Period III Total
01. Beads 2 14 19 35
02 Sculptures …. …. 5 5
03 Weights …. 4 3 7
04 Gem of ring …. …. 3 3
05 Pestles …. …. 3 3
06 Quern … …. 1 1
07 Lid …. 1 …. 1
08 Ear lobe …. …. 1 1
09 Ball …. 1 1 2
10 Unidentified/ other …. 1 1 2
Total 2 21 37 60

from N.B.P. period. Similarly stone earlobe made of Krishna Deva and Vijayakanta Mishra,1961, Vaishali
semiprecious stone recovered from Chirand (Verma Excavations: 1950, Vaishali Sangh, Vaishali.
2007: 139), Sonpur (Sinha and Verma 1977: 141)
Kuraishi, M.H., 1931, List of Ancient Monuments
from N.B.P. horizon. Protected under Act VIII of 1904 in the province of Bihar
and Orissa, Calcutta.
Thus these stone artifacts proved, without any
doubt, the wealthy and prosperous character of Legge, James,1993,The Travels of Fa-Hien or Records
Vasalians and also throw the light on socio- economic of Buddhistic Kingdoms(reprint), Patna: Eastern Book
and religious aspects of glorious past of Vaishali. House.

Sinha, B.P. and Sita Ram Roy, 1969, Vaishali Excavations

(1958-62), Patna: Directorate of Archaeology and
REFERENCES Museums.

Cunningham, A., 1871, Archaeological Survey of India, Sinha, B.P. and B.S.Verma, 1977, Sonpur Excavations
Four reports made during the years 1862-63-64-65, Vol. 1956 and 1959-1962, Bihar: Directorate of Archaeology
I, Shimla: Government Central Press. and Museums.

Cunningham, A., 1883, Archaeological Survey of India, Tiwari, J.K., 2019, Zoomorphic stone beads from Vaishali
Reports of tours in North Bihar and South Bihar in 1880- (Bihar), Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in
81,Vol.XVI, Calcutta: Office of the Superitendent of Archaeology, Volume 7, Thiruvananthapuram: University
Government Printing. of Kerala.

Dikshit, M. G., 1968, Excavations at Kaudinyapura, Verma, B.S., 2007, Chirand Excavations Report 1961-
Bombay: The Director of Archives and Archaeology 1964 and 1967-1970, Department of Youth Art and
Maharastra State. Culture, Government of Bihar-Patna.

Gupta, K. P., 1980, New Evidence from Kolhua Pillar, Watters, Thomas, 2012, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels
Puratattva 11. in India, Volume II (reprint), New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publisher Pvt. Ltd.
IAR 1976-77: 13; 1977-78: 15; 1989-90: 11-13; 1990-91:
3-4; 1991-92: 5-6; 1992-93: 5-6
 vfgPN= ,oa mldh iqjklEink

jRuk flag*

çk phu Hkkjrh; bfrgkl ,oa dyk dh èkjksgj dks vius

vk¡py esa ftu lkaL—frd uxjksa us latks, j[kk
vkSj ;Fkk volj mls mtkxj Hkh fd;k] mlesa vfgPN=
uxj dk Lo:i pØkdkj ;k xksykdkj jgk gksxkA egkHkkjr
esa *ifjpdz* ds LFkku ij bl uxj dk uke *vfgPN=*
feyrk gS ¼egkHkkjr vkfnioZ % 2½A ;g mÙkj ikapky dh
dk egRoiw.kZ LFkku jgk gSA çkphu eè;ns'k Hkkjrh; laL— jktèkkuh FkhA gfjoa'k iqjk.k rFkk ikf.kuh dh v"Vkè;k;h
fr ds vkjfEHkd fodkl dk {ks= jgk gSA iapun çns'k esa *vfgPNs=* rFkk *vfgPN=* :i ik, x, gSaA jkeuxj
¼iatkc½ ls vkxs c<+us ds ckn vk;ksZa us gfLrukiqj] vfgPN=] rFkk mlds vkl ikl ls çkIr dbZ vfHkys[kksa esa *vfgPN=*
dkfEiY;] eFkqjk vkfn LFkkuksa dks viuk dsUæ cuk;kA ;s uke vk;k gS] tks *vfgPN=* :i esa bykgkckn ftys ds
dsUæ èkhjs&èkhjs cM+s uxjksa dk :i xzg.k djrs x,] ftuesa iHkkslk uked xqQk esa Hkh [kqnk gS ¼dfua?ke 1861 % 3½A
jktuhfr] èkeZ] n'kZu] dyk vkSj lkfgR; dk fodkl gqvkA ;g ys[k 'kqaxdkyhu gSA gky esa gh vfgPN= dh [kqnkbZ
vfgPN= lkfgR;] èkeZ ,oa dyk rhuksa dh gh f=os.kh jgh
esa xqIrdkyhu feêh dh ,d eqgj çkIr gqbZ gS] ftlesa *Jh
gSA bUgh dkj.kksa ls bldk xkSjoe; vrhr jgk gSA ;gk¡ ls
vfgPN= HkqäkS dqekjkekR;kfèkdj.kL;* ys[k vafdr gSA
çkIr iqjk vo'ks"kksa ds vkèkkj ij bldh çkphurk 300 bZåiwå
1951 ds var essa jkeuxj ls ,d vfHkfyf[kr ;{k izfrek
ls igys rFkk 1100 bZ0 rd çekf.kr gSA ;gk¡ ls çkIr
çkIr gqbZ gSA bl ij nwljh 'krkCnh dk ys[k gS] ftlesa
iqjklEinkvksa ds voyksdu ls Li"V gksrk gS fd ;gk¡ czkgE.k]
ckS) ,oa tSu lHkh erksa ds vuq;k;h jgrs FksA vfgPN= *vfgPN=* uke feyrk gS ¼oktis;h 1954 % 4½A blls ;g
ls 1953 essa feêh dh 39 ewfrZ;k¡ çdk'k esa vk;h tks jkT; Li"V gksrk gS fd bl uxj dk 'kq) uke *vfgPN=* FkkA
laxzgky;] y[kuÅ esa lq'kksfHkr gSaA
tSu xzUFk *fofoèkrhFkZdYi* ds vuqlkj bl uxj dk
oSfnd lkfgR; esa vfgPN= dk çkphu uke *ifjpdz* iqjkru uke *la[;korh* Fkk vkSj og dq:tkaxy çns'k dh
feyrk gS ¼'kriFk czkgE.k % 1½A laHkor% ml le; bl jktèkkuh FkhA bl xzUFk esa mfYyf[kr gS fd & ,d le;

*
iksLV&MkWDVjy Qsyks] Hkkjrh; bfrgkl vuqlaèkku ifj"kn~] ubZ fnYyh( E-mail: [email protected]
170 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Hkxoku ikÜoZukFk la[;korh uxjh esa Bgjs gq, Fks] ogk¡ dky esa vfgPN= uxj ds lEcUèk esa fo'ks"k mYys[kuh;
deB uked nkuo us muds Åij o"kkZ dh >M+h yxk nhA fooj.k çkIr ugha gksrs gSaA dkSfVY; us vius xzUFk vFkZ'kkL=
rc ukxjkt èkj.khUæ liRuhd ml LFkku ij vk, tgk¡ esa vfgPN= ds eqäkvksa dk mYys[k fd;k gS ¼'kkL=h 1909 %
ikÜoZukFk Bgjs Fks rFkk mUgksaus Hkxoku ds 'kjhj dks pkjksa 7½A lEHkor% ekS;Zdky esa vfgPN= uxj eqäk&O;olk; ds
vksj ls ifjosf"Br dj fy;k vkSj Q.kksa }kjk muds flj dh fy, çfl) gks x;k FkkA bl dky dh dyk—fr;ksa esa feêh
j{kk dhA bl çdkj vfg ¼liZ½ dk Q.k cu tkus ls ml dh dqN ewfrZ;k¡ ekS;Z dky rFkk mlds igys dh gSaA blesa ls
LFkku dk uke *la[;korh* ds LFkku ij *vfgPN=* çfl) vfèkdka'k eFkqjk ls feyh ekr` nsoh çfrekvksa dh rjg gh gSaA
gqvk ¼lwfj 1934 % 5½A ;g dgkuh jktk vkfn dh ml dFkk gkFk dh cuh gqbZ ,d ekr` nsoh dh e`.k ewfrZ tks vfgPN= ls
ls feyrh&tqyrh gS ftlesa æks.k ds }kjk vghj dks ojnku çkIr gS] eFkqjk laxzgky;] jktdh; esa laxzfgr gS ¼fp= 1½A
nsus dk dFku gSA *vfgPN=* dk tSu rhFkZadj ikÜoZukFk
ds lkFk lEcUèk dsoy lkfgR; esa gh ugha oju~ ,d çkphu
vfHkys[k essa Hkh feyk gSA ;g ys[k fdys ds lehi gh mÙkj
dh vksj dVkjh[ksM+k uked Vhys ls çkIr ,d oSfnd LrEHk
ij [kqnk gSA blesa egkpk;Z bUæufn ds f'k"; egknfj ds }
kjk ikÜoZifr ¼ikÜoZukFk½ ds efUnj esa nku dk mYys[k gSA
bl efUnj dk fuekZ.k xqIrdky esa gqvk FkkA ys[k ds çkfIr
LFkku ds fudV ikÜoZukFkth dk vkèkqfud efUnj fo|eku
gSA dVkjh[ksM+k ls vusd çkphu tSu ewfrZ;k¡ çkIr gqbZ gaSA
ckS) lkfgR; esa Hkh *vfgPN=* ds ukedj.k ds lEcUèk esa
mä tSu dFkk ls feyrh&tqyrh vuqJqfr ik;h tkrh gS
¼dfua?ke 1871 % 6½A ckS) rFkk tSu lkfgR; ds vuq'khyu
ls Kkr gksrk gS fd cq) ds iwoZ Hkkjr esa lksyg cM+s jkT;
Fks tks *lksyg egktuin* dgs x,A buesa ikapky tuin
ds nks Hkkx crk, x, gSa] mÙkj vkSj nf{k.kA mÙkj ikapky
dh jktèkkuh vfgPN= rFkk nf{k.k ikapky dh jktèkkuh
dkfEiY; FkhA fp= 1% ekr` nsoh] e`.kewfrZ] iwoZ ekS;Z dky]
jktdh; laxzgky;] eFkqjk

exèk lkezkT; ds vUrxZr vfgPN=

mä lksyg egktuin cgqr dky rd ;FkkiwoZ fLFkfr esa u 'kqaxdky ls xqIrdky rd vfgPN=
jg ldsA xkSre cq) ds le; rd exèk] dks'ky] oRl vkSj
ekS;Z lezkV v'kksd ds ckn ekS;Z lkezkT; dk gzkl vkjEHk gks
vofUr&;s pkj çèkku jkT; mÙkj Hkkjr esa jg x, vkSj vU; x;kA fofHkUu çkUrksa esa 'kkld LorU= gksus yxs vkSj mÙkj
tuinksa dh fLFkfr xkS.k gks xbZA cq) dh e`R;q ds yxHkx Hkkjr dh jktuSfrd ,drk foJ`a[kfyr gks x;hA bZåiwå
,d lkS o"kZ ckn rd ikapky LorU= jkT; ds :i esa jgkA 185 esa vfUre ekS;Z 'kkld c`gæFk dh gR;k dj iq";fe=
rRi'pkr~ egkin~euUn ds }kjk exèk lkezkT; esa feyk 'kqax us 'kqax lkezkT; dh LFkkiuk dhA vU; çns'kksa dh Hkk¡fr
fy;k x;k A ekS;Z 'kkludky esa ikapky ekS;Z lkezkT; ds gh ikapky Hkh ekS;Z lkezkT; ls LorU= gks x;kA ;g LorU=rk
vUrxZr jgkA dkSfVY; ds vFkZ'kkL= esa la?k lka[; ds :i esa mls yxHkx 200 bZåiwå esa çkIr gqbZA rc ls ysdj rhljh
ikapky dk uke vk;k gSA ijUrq v'kksd ds rsjgosa f'kykys[k 'krh bZ- ds eè; rd ikapky esa dbZ jktoa'kksa us 'kklu
esa vU; jkT;ksa ds lkFk ikapky dk uke ugha vk;k gSA ekS;Z fd;kA bu jktkvksa dh jktèkkuh vfgPN= gh jghA bl
lkaLÑfrd uxjh vfgPN= ,oa mldh iqjklEink,¡ 171

uxj esa rFkk mlds vkl&ikl tks flDds feys gSa muls 15 o"kZ ekuk tk; rks fe= oa'kh mä jktkvksa dk dqy
Kkr gksrk gS fd bZåiwå 200 ls ysdj yxHkx 50 bZå rd jkT; 200 o"kZ vkrk gSA tgk¡ rd muds jkT; foLrkj dk
vfgPN= ij xqIr] iky rFkk lsu uke okys jktkvksa us jkT; ç'u gS] ,slk çrhr gksrk gS fd çk;% mudk 'kklu mÙkj
fd;kA exèk ds 'kqaxoa'kh 'kkldksa ds lkFk bu jktoa'kksa ds ikapky rd gh lhfer jgk gksxkA xaxk ds nf{k.k esa ikapky
D;k lEcUèk Fks] ;g fuf'pr :i ls Kkr ugha gSA *xqIr* flDds cgqr de feys gSaA
ukekUr rhu 'kkldksa ds flDds vc rd feys gSa] ftuds
uke gSa&*#æxqIr* *t;xqIr* rFkk *nexqIr*A buesa :æxqIr fe=oa'kh 'kkldksa ds ckn lEHkor% *ufUn* uke okys ,d
laHkor% lcls igyk 'kkld FkkA blds flDds xqIr 'kkldksa ;k vfèkd 'kkldksa dk ikapky tuin ij vkfèkiR; jgkA
esa lcls vfèkd la[;k esa çkIr gq, gSaA t;xqIr rFkk nexqIr gky esa gh f'koufUn uked jktk ds dqN flDds vfgPN=
ds flDds vis{kk—r cgqr de la[;k esa feys gSA rFkk ihyhHkhr ftys ds iwjuiqj rglhy ls çkIr gq, gSa
¼dfua?ke 1891 % 9½A ;s flDds ikapky ds fe= jktkvksa dh
ikyoa'kh jktkvksa esa caxiky dk uke mYys[kuh; gSA
rkezeqækvksa ds lkFk feys gSa vkSj mudh cukoV Hkh muls
lEHkor% mlus nexqIr ls jkT; Nhuk gksxkA caxiky dk
feyrh&tqyrh gSA f'koufUn ds bu flDdksa ij ikapky
uke dkS'kkEch ds lehi iHkkslk ls feys nks vfHkys[kksa esa
ds fpUg ugha gSaA lhèkh vksj jktk dk uke nks iafä;ksa esa
Hkh feyrk gSA bldk le; bZåiwå f}rh; 'krh dk vfUre
*f'koufUnl f'kfjl* fy[kk gSA f'kfjl 'kCn *Jh* dk "k"B;Ur
Hkkx ekuk tk ldrk gSA caxiky ds mÙkjkfèkdkjh foÜoiky
:i gSA bu flDdksa dh fyfi rhljh 'krh bZ- dh gSA ;fn
rFkk ;{kiky gq,A buds uke dsoy flDdksa }kjk gh çkIr
fe= jktkvksa dk 'kkludky 200 bZå eku fy;k tk; rks
gks lds gSaA 'kk;n bu nksuksa us cgqr FkksM+s le; rd jkT;
f'koufUn dk jkT;dky mlds ckn dqN o"kksZa rd ekuuk
fd;kA iHkkslk ds ,d vU; ys[k esa vfgPN= ds jktoa'k
gksxkA ,slk çrhr gksrk gS fd ikapky ds mi;Zqä jktk
esa caxiky ds ckn mlds iq= Hkkxor vkSj fQj Hkkxor ds
dq"kk.k lezkVksa ds vkfèkiR; esa u jg dj LorU= 'kkld
iq= vk"kk<+lsu dk uke fn;k gSA Hkkxor o vk"kk<+lsu dk
cus jgsA dq"kk.kksa ds dksbZ f'kykys[k iapky esa ugha feys
dksbZ flDdk iakpky esa ugha feykA laHkor% bu nksuksa us
gSaA gky esa gh vfgPN= esa vfHkfyf[kr dq"kk.kdkyhu cq)
viuk vfèkd le; dkS'kkEch esa fcrk;k gksxkA vk"kk<+lsu ds
çfrek feyh gSA og eFkqjk ds yky cyq, iRFkj dh gSA
vfrfjä ok;qlsu uked ,d vU; lsu ukekUr okys 'kkld
mldh fuekZ.k 'kSyh dks ns[kus ls Li"V gS fd og eFkqjk ls
dk irk pyk gSA dkS'kkEch iHkkslk ¼çHkkl½ ds bu ys[kksa
vU; vusd çfrekvkssa dh rjg vfgPN= Hksth x;h gksxhA
ls ;g ifjKku gksrk gS fd vk"kk<+lsu us mä xqQkvksa dk
mÙkj Hkkjr esa dq"kk.kksa ds 'kkludky esa vusd uxj fofoèk
fuekZ.k vius Hkkats ds jkT; esa djk;k gksxkA
O;olk;ksa vkSj okf.kT; ds dsUæ cusA buesa vfgPN= vius
xqIr rFkk lsu ukekUr okys jktkvksa ds i'pkr~ ekf.kD;&fuekZ.k O;olk; ds fy, çfl) FkkA dqN o"kZ iwoZ
fe=oa'kh jktkvksa ds uke feyrs gSaA vc rd fuEufyf[kr ;gk¡ ls çkIr ,d f'kykys[k ls Qjxqy uked fogkj dk
fe= jktkvksa ds flDds ikapky tuin ls çkIr gq, gSa& irk pyk gSA
vfXufe=] v.kqfe=] çtkifrfe=] vk;qfe=] bUæfe=]
t;fe=] èkzqofe=] QkYxqfufe=] Hkkuqfe=] Hkwfefe=] xqIr 'kklu ds iwoZ ;gk¡ ukxoa'kh jktkvksa dk vkfèkiR;
o#.kfe=] fo".kqfe=] c`gLifrfe= rFkk lw;Zfe= ¼oktis;h FkkA fo}kuksa ds erkuqlkj *vP;qr* uked ftl jktk ds
1976 % 8½A bu 'kkldksa ds dsoy rk¡cs ds flDds feys flDds ikapky eas cM+h la[;k esa feys gSa og ukxoa'kh jktk
gSaA buesa vfXuufe=] bUnqfe= rFkk Hkkuqfe= ds flDds gh FkkA 1940&44 esa Hkkjrh; iqjkrRo foHkkx }kjk fd, x,
vis{kk—r vfèkd feyrs gSaA ;s flDds xksy vkdkj ds gSaA mR[kuu esa vfgPN= ls vP;qr ds flDds i;kZIr la[;k esa
fe=oa'kh jktkvksa ds flDds vfgPN= ds vfrfjä vkaoyk] miyCèk gq, gSaA vP;qr ds flDdksa ij ,d vksj mldk uke
cnk;w¡ rFkk :gsy[k.M ds vU; dbZ LFkkuksa ls feyrs gSaA *vP;q* vafdr gS rFkk nwljh vksj pØ cuk gSA dqN flDdksa
bu flDdksa ds vkèkkj ij mä jktkvksa ds jkT; dk irk ij lkeus dh vksj jktk dk psgjk vkSj nwljh vksj ukx dk
yxkuk dfBu gSA lEHkor% ;fn ,d 'kkld dk jkT;dky Hkh vadu feyrk gS ¼fp= 2½A
172 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

dq"kk.k dkyhu feêh rFkk ik"kk.k dh ewfrZ;k¡ i;kZIr

la[;k esa çkIr gqbZa gSaA blesa L=h&iq#"kksa dh çfrek,¡]
i'kq&i{kh rFkk fofoèk çdkj ds crZu gSaA laxhrKksa dh Hkh
dqN ewfrZ;k¡ feyh gSa ftu ij 'kd&igyo çHkko ifjyf{kr
gksrk gSA cksfèklRo eS=s; dh ,d dykiw.kZ vfHkfyf[kr ewfrZ
vfgPN= ls feyh gS tks jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh esa
laxzghr gS ¼fp= 5½A
fp= 2% vP;qr dk flDdk] jktdh; laxzgky;]
eFkqjk
bl dky dh dyk—fr;ksa esa feêh dh yky jax
dh ewfrZ;k¡ vfèkd la[;k esa feyh gSaA 'kqax dkyhu dyk
fodflr <ax dh gS vkSj b~Ugsa ns[kus ls Kkr gksrk gS
fd ;s ewfrZ;k¡ lk¡pksa esa <ky dj cuk;h x;h gksaxhA
buesa nEifÙk ;k feFkqu ewfrZ;ksa dh la[;k vfèkd gSa ¼fp= 3½A

fp= 5% cksfèklRo eS=s;] dq"kk.k dky

jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh
fp= 3% nEifÙk feFkqu ewfrZ] 'kqaxdky] jktdh; laxzgky;]
eFkqjk cq) vkSj cksfèklRo dh dqN çfrekvksa ds vfrfjä
'kqaxdkyhu L=h&iq#"kksa ds dykiw.kZ ds'k foU;klksa rFkk cq) ds thou –';ksa ij mRdafVr f'kyk iê Hkh çkIr gq,
vyadj.kksa dk Kku bUgha ewfrZ;ksa ls gksrk gS ¼fp= 4½A gSaA

xqIrdky esa vfgPN=

xqIr lezkV leqaæxqIr ds ç;kx LrEHk ys[k ds mÙkjkiFk

ds vusd 'kkldksa ds lkFk vP;qr dk uke vk;k gSA ;g
vP;qr fu%lansg ikapky 'kkld Fkk] ftldk mPNsn dj
leqaæxqIr us mlds jkT; dks xqIr lkezkT; esa feyk fy;kA
;g ?kVuk 350 bZå ds yxHkx gqbZ gksxhA rHkh ls vfgPN=
ds LorU= jktoa'kksa dk vUr gks x;kA xqIr 'kkludky esa
vfgPN= xqIr lkezkT; dh ,d Hkqfä cukA vfgPN= ls
fp= 4% L=h&iq:"k ds'k foU;kl] 'kqaxdky] jktdh; laxzgky;] çkIr ,d feêh dh eqæk ij ys[k [kqnk gS& ÞJh vfgPN=
eFkqjk HkqäkS dqekjkekR;kfèkdj.kL;ß vfgPN= Hkqfä esa dqekjkekR;
lkaLÑfrd uxjh vfgPN= ,oa mldh iqjklEink,¡ 173

ds dk;kZy; dh eqækA xqIrdky esa vfgPN= ds lEcUèk esa fo".kq dh vR;ar eueksgd ewfrZ;k¡ vius ds'k lTtk ,oa
u lkfgfR;d fooj.k çkIr gksrs gSa vkSj u gh ml le; dk eLrd lTtk ds dkj.k fo[;kr gS] tks jk"Vªh; laxzgky;
dksbZ mYys[kuh; vfHkys[k feys gSaA xqIrdkyhu vfgPN= esa laxzghr gSA tSu rhFkZadjksa dh vusd ewfrZ;k¡ vfgPN= ls
fu%lansg ,d cM+k uxj Fkk vkSj ;gk¡ fo'kky bekjrsa fo|eku çkIr gqbZ gSaA vfgPN= ls çkIr rhFkZadj ikÜoZukFk dh ,d
FkhA ckS) vkSj tSu Lrwiksa rFkk eBksa ds vfrfjä ;gk¡ vR;ar lqUnj ewfrZ tks jktdh; laxzgky;] eFkqjk laxzgky;
f'ko vkSj fo".kq ds Hkh cM+s efUnj Fks ¼f=osnh 1953 % 10½A esa lqjf{kr gS rRdkyhu dyk dh vewY; fufèk gS ¼fp= 9½A
bl dky dh vusd e`.kewfrZ;k¡ rFkk lqUnj dyk—fr;k¡
vfgPN= ls feyh gSa] ftUgsa ns[kus ls Kkr gksrk gS fd
;gk¡ ds rRdkyhu dykdkj fdrus dq'ky FksA xqIr dky esa
fgUnw] ckS) rFkk tSu èkeZ ls lacafèkr vusd dykiw.kZ ewfrZ;k¡
mR[kuu esa çkIr gqbZ gSaA xqIr dkyhu xaxk dh e`.kewfrZ
vR;ar mYys[kuh; gS] tks jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh esa
laxzghr gS ¼fp= 6½A

fp= 9 % rhFkZadj ikÜoZukFk] xqIrdky] jktdh;

laxzgky;] eFkqjk

iwoZeè;dky esa vfgPN=

xqIrdky ds i'pkr~ vfgPN= dk fo'ks"k o`rkUr ugha feyrkA

lkroha 'krh bZloh esa ikapky çns'k oèkZuoa'kh g"kZoèkZu ds
fp= 6 % xaxk e`.k ewfrZ] xqIr dky]
lkezkT; esa lfEefyr FkkA phuh ;k=h ºosulkax ;gk¡ vk;k]
jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh ftlds fooj.k ds vuqlkj rRdkyhu vfgPN= uxj yxHkx
rhl ehy esa QSyk FkkA ºosulkax us bl uxj ds ckgj ,d
f'ko ,oa ikoZrh dh dqN ewfrZ;k¡ xqIr dkyhu dyk dh ukx>hy dk mYys[k fd;k gS] ftlds fdukjs ekS;Z lezkV
mR—"B dyk —fr;k¡ gSaA f'kYih us ikoZrh ds eLrd dks v'kksd }kjk cuok;k gqvk ,d Lrwi FkkA vuqJqfr ds vuqlkj
vya—r ds'kfoU;kl ,oa f'ko ds eLrd dks tVktwV ls Hkxoku cq) us mlh LFkku ij ukx jktk dks lkr fnu rd
ltk;k gS tks jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh esa laxzghr gS èkeZ dk mins'k fn;k FkkA ºosulkax ds erkuqlkj vfgPN=
¼fp= 7&8½A esa ckS) erkoyEch yksx vPNh la[;k esa fo|eku Fks vkSj
174 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

fp= 8% f'ko ,oa ikoZrh eLrd] xqIr dky]

jk"Vªh; laxzgky;] ubZ fnYyh

;gk¡ dbZ Lrwi vkSj eB FksA muds HkXuko'ks"k iqjkus Vhyksa

esa çkIr gksrs gSaA lkroha 'krh ds vusd 'kSo efUnj rFkk
f'ko&ikoZrh dh ewfrZ;k¡ Hkh ;gk¡ ls çkIr gqbZ gSaA g"kZoèkZu dh
e`R;q ds i'pkr~ mÙkj Hkkjr dh jktuSfrd fLFkfr vfLFkj
gks xbZ] fofHkUu çns'kksa esa vusd NksVs 'kkld mB [kM+s fp= 10 % prqHkZqth nsoh] e`.kewfrZ] iwoZ eè; dky]
gq,A uoha 'krh bZ- ds çkjEHk esa dUukSt ij çfrgkj oa'k ds jktdh; laxzgky;] eFkqjk
jktkvksa dh çHkqrk LFkkfir gqbZA rRdkyhu Hkkjr dh rhu
çeq[k 'kfä;ksa&çfrgkjksa] ikyksa rFkk jk"VªdwVksa esa çHkqRo ds orZeku esa vfgPN=
fy, la?k"kZ pyrk jgkA çfrgkjksa us bu la?k"kksZa dk lkeuk
djrs gq, mÙkj Hkkjr ij viuk vkfèkiR; dk;e j[kkA vfgPN= uxj dk çkphu oSHko vkt ogk¡ ds Vhyksa ds
bl oa'k esa fefgjHkkst] egsUæiky rFkk efgiky cM+s çrkih vUnj fNik gSA vfgPN= uxj ds vo'ks"k mÙkj çns'k ds
'kkld gq,A buds le; ikapky çns'k çfrgkj lkezkT; ds cjsyh ftys esa orZeku jkeuxj uked xkao ¼v{kka'k 28-5*
gh varxZr jgkA nloha 'krh ds vUr esa jk"VªdwV jktkvksa us må ns'kkUrj 79-25*iwå½ rFkk mlds vkl&ikl ds lehi
mÙkj dh vksj c<+dj çfrgkjksa ls mudk ,d cM+k Hkw&Hkkx Vhyksa ds :i esa fc[kjs iM+s gSaA cjsyh ds vkaoyk ls yxHkx
thr fy;kA lkezkT; ds dqN vU; çns'kksa esa lkeUr yksx 10 ehy mÙkj pydj vfgPN= igq¡pk tk ldrk gSA blds
LorU= gks x, vkSj çfrgkjksa ds lkezkT; dk vUr fn[kkbZ ,d vksj jkexaxk vkSj nwljh vksj xkaèku unh iM+rh gSA
nsus yxkA laaHkor% mlh le; vfgPN= ds 'kkldksa us Hkh çkphu le; ls vc bu ufn;ksa dh èkkjkvksa esa vo'; dqN
viuk LorU= jkT; LFkkfir dj fy;kA X;kjgoha 'krkCnh esa ifjorZu gks x;k gSA jkeuxj ls Ms<+ ehy vkxs vfgPN=
vfgPN= uxj dk foèoal gqvkA egewn xtuoh ds yxkrkj ds iqjkus fdys dk vo'ks"k gS] tks vktdy *vkfndksV* uke
vkØe.k blds çèkku dkj.k FksA ls çfl) gSA LFkkuh; yksx bls *ik.Mo fdyk* dgrs gSaA
;gk¡ bZVksa dk ijdksVk Li"V fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA bl ijdksVs
iwoZ eè; dky esa Hkh vfgPN= esa dyk dh mUufr tkjh dk ?ksjk yxHkx 3 ehy gSA bls ns[ksus ls Kkr gksrk gS fd
jghA bl dky esa tSu çfrek,¡ vfèkd feyh gSAa L=h&iq#"k çkphu uxj dh vk—fr djhc&djhc vk;rkdkj FkhA mlds
dh vusd y?kq çfrek,¡ rFkk gkFkh] ?kksMs+ vkfn i'kqvksa dh pkjksa vksj tyiw.kZ [kkbZ Fkh vkSj fQj ,d nhoky ;k çkdkj
ewfrZ;k¡ vfèkd la[;k esa çkIr gqbZ gSAa fgUnw nsoh&nsorkvksa dh FkhA pkjksa fn'kkvksa esa çkdkj ds eè; esa ,d&,d njoktk
ewfrZ;k¡ Hkh çkIr gqbZ gSAas vfgPN= ls çkIr prqHkZtq h nsoh dh ¼}kjdks"B½ FkkA ckgj ls vkus okys dks [kkbZ ikj djds }kj
feêh dh ,d ewfrZ vR;ar lqUnj gS] tks jktdh; laxgz ky;] rd igq¡pus ds fy, iqfy;k cuh gqbZ FkhA pkjksa çeq[k }kjksa
eFkqjk esa laxgz hr gSA ¼fp= 10½A ls lM+dsa vkdj uxj ds eè; Hkkx esa feyrh FkhA orZeku
lkaLÑfrd uxjh vfgPN= ,oa mldh iqjklEink,¡ 175

fLFkfr esa vfgPN= ,d rhu ehy ds f=dks.kkdkj bZVksa dk Vhys dh [kqnkbZ lcls fupys rg rd djus ij fofHkUu
Vhyk gS ¼fp= 11½A dkyksa esa fufeZr bekjrksa ds HkXuko'ks"k çdk'k esa vk, gSaA
bl mR[kuu esa fofHkUu dkyksa ds feêh ds crZu o euds
cM+h la[;k esa feys gSaA dqN ij LokfLrd] ufUnin] 'ka[k]
eRL; vkfn dykiw.kZ vyadj.k fpf=r gSa ¼vxzoky 1948 %
11½A vfgPN= dh [kqnkbZ ls çkIr feêh ds crZuksa ds lEcUèk
esa vyekuUn ?kks"k rFkk ikf.kxzkgh us foLrkj ls fy[kk gSA
fofHkUu jktoa'kksa ds flDds Hkh çkIr gq, gSaA buesa iakpky ds
LFkkuh; jktoa'kksa ds flDdksa dh vfèkdrk gSA

fofHkUu Lrjksa ls çkIr vo'ks"kksa ds vkèkkj ij tks dky

fp= 11% vfgPN= dk Vhyk ¼orZeku fLFkfr½
dk oxÊdj.k fd;k x;k gS] og bl çdkj gS&
uoka Lrj & 300bZåiwå ls igys
vkBoka Lrj & 300&200 bZåiwå
vfgPN= dk mR[kuu dk;Z
lkroka Lrj & 200&100 bZåiwå
19oha 'krh ds eè; esa dSIVu gkTlu uked ,d loZs;j us
vfgPN= ds fdys dk fooj.k fy[kkA mlds ckn tujy NBk o ikapoka Lrj & bZåiwå100 ls 100bZå
dfua?ke us 1862&63 esa bu iqjkus Vhyksa dk loZs{k.k fd;k pkSFkk Lrj & 100&350 bZå
vkSj dqN Vhyksa dk mR[kuu djk;kA bldk fooj.k mUgksaus
rhljk Lrj & 350&750 bZå
viuh fjiksZaV dh çFke ftYn esa fy[kk gSA dfua?ke egksn;
dk vuqeku Fkk fd v'kksd }kjk fufeZr ckS) Lrwi ;gk¡ nwljk Lrj & 750&850 bZå
fo|eku FkkA bUgksaus ijdksVs dh yEckbZ 19]400 QqV crkbZA çFke Lrj & 850&1100 bZå
dfua?ke ds ckn 1888 bZå esa jkeuxj ds ,d tehankj us
dqN [kqnkbZ djokbZA blesa yky cyq, iRFkj dh vusd vLrq lkfgR;d fooj.kksa vkSj lqO;ofLFkr mR[kuuksa ls
ewfrZ;k¡ vkSj dkenkj bZVsa çkIr gqbZ] tks vc jkT; laxzgky;] vfgPN= ds xkSjoe;h bfrgkl ij i;kZIr çdk'k iM+rk gSA
y[kuÅ esa lqjf{kr gSA blds ckn 1891&92 esa Qqgjj fofHkUu dkyksa ls lEcfUèkr iqjklEink,¡ Hkh çkIr gqbZ gaSA
us dbZ Vhyksa ds mR[kuu dk dk;Z djk;kA ;g Hkh igys mR[kuu dk dk;Z vfgPN= ds dqN vU; Vhyksa ij Hkh fd;k
dh rjg vO;ofLFkr [kqnkbZ Fkh vkSj og lQy ugha jghA tkuk vko';d gS] ftlls bl lkaL—frd uxj ds çkphu
Hkkjrh; iqjkrRo foHkkx ds }kjk lu~ 1940&44 rd ijdksVs oSHko dk iw.kZ fp= yksxksa ds lEeq[k vk ldsA
ds Hkhrj dbZ LFkkuksa ij [kqnkbZ djk;h x;hA vuqeku Fkk
fd ;gk¡ çkd~ ,sfrgkfld dky dh oLrq,¡ çkIr gksaxh] ijUrq
,slh dksbZ Hkh oLrq ugha fey ldhA tks vo'ks"k bl fiNyh lanHkZ
[kqnkbZ ls feys gSa og bZ0 iw0 300 ls ysdj 1100 bZå rd vxzoky] oklqnso 'kj.k] 1948] VsjkdksVk fQxfjUl vkWQ vfgPN=k
ds gSaA ,sfU'k,aV bf.M;k] la- 4A

bu mR[kuuksa esa fofHkUu dkyksa ds Hkou] lM+dsa rFkk dfua?ke] vyssDtsaMj] 1891] Dok;al vkWQ ,fU'k,aV bf.M;k] yanu
bZaV ds efUnj gSaA bu efUnjksa dh cukoV ckS) Lrwiksa ds ch% DokfjVp 15 ihdkMhyhA
vuq:i gSA buds pkjksa vksj çnf{k.kk ekxZ cuk gqvk gSA dfua?ke] vysDtsaMj] 1861] vkfdZ;ksykWftdy loZs vkWQ bf.M;k]
vfèkdka'k efUnj dq"kk.k vkSj xqIrdky ds gSaA ,d Å¡ps ywMlZ % lwph laå 905A
176 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

dfua?ke] vysDtsaMj] 1871] ,sfU'k,aV ftvksxzkQh vkWQ bf.M;k] 'kkL=h] 'kke] 1909] dkSfVY; dk vFkZ'kkL=] bafM;u ,safVDosjh
yanu% VcZuj ,.M dEiuhA rFkk eSlwj fjO;wA

oktis;h] —".knÙk] 1954] , U;w bULØkbCM ;{k best ÝkWe oktis;h] —".knÙk] 1976] bf.M;u U;weslesfVd LVMht] ubZ
vfgPN=k % tuZy vkWQ ;wåihå fgLVksfjdy lkslkbVhA fnYyh% vfHkuo ifCyds'kuA

lwfj] ftuçHkq] 1934] fofoèk rhFkZdYi 'kkafrfudsru% flaèkh tSu f=osnh] ,p-oh-] 1953] n tuZy vkWQ fn U;wfeLesfVd lkslk;Vh
KkuihBA vkWQ bf.M;k] ftYn 13] Hkkx&1A

ABSTRACT

Ahichchhatra, near the modern Ramnagar Village in Aonla tehsil, Bareilly districrt
in Uttar Pradesh, India was the ancient capital of Nothern Panchala, a Northern
Indian Kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata. Several significant finds of
sculpture, in both stone and terracotta of the early centuries CE, have been made
at the side and are now in various museums. Excavation have uncovered nine
strata, the lowest from before the 3rd century BCE and the latest from the 11th
century- The site was briefly explored by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1871 and
then excavated by the ASI from 1940 for about five years. The excavations founds
bricks, Coins, pottery beads and sculptures. It is necessary to excavate on some
other mounds of Ahichchhatra, so that a complete picture of the ancient splendor
of the city can be revealed.
 AN ANALYSIS OF THE ANANTHASHAYANA SERIES COINS OF
VENAD DYNASTY FROM ST. THOMAS FORT, THANGASSERY,
KOLLAM DISTRICT, KERALA

RANIMOLE S.J*, VINURAJ B** AND ASWANI O.K***

INTRODUCTION
The coast of Kerala popularly known as Malabar Christiania (522 CE). Cosmos refers Kollam as
Coast has been in direct contact with the sea- faring Male and it is quite evident from his description
people of the West and East from very early period that this city had the earliest evidence of Christian
onwards (Panikkar 1929, 01). Kollam port, a major activity in Kerala (Mackenzie 1901, 4).The historical
port on the Malabar Coast had a long history when it redemption of Kollam as a Metropolitan port and
comes to its maritime intercourse; it was a thriving an important trade centre has continued even with
port with trade connections between the East and the arrival of colonial and European powers in the
West (Kumar et al 2016, 3-7). It is known in ancient 16thCentury CE. The arrival of Europeans changed
records as Colon, Kulam, Ku-lin, Gu-lin, and Mahlai the political and Economic scenario of the Malabar
(Sarasan 2014, 09). Earliest reference of Kollam Coast, and a drastic change of replacing the old and
is obtained from an account of oceanic outlets of traditional trading guilds and foreign traders, the
Western India in the Sixth Century CE as given by Europeans soon acquired the monopoly of Trade in
Byzantine monk and Alexandrian traveller Cosmos the Malabar Coast. The Thangassery Fort or the St.
Indicopleustus in his book TopographiaIndika Thomas Fort is one of the earliest forts constructed

*
Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Trichy Circle, E-mail: [email protected]
**
Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Trichy Circle, E-mail: [email protected]
**
Department of Archaeology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom Campus, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, E-mail: aswaniok@gmail.
com
178 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

in Kerala. The Fort became a focal control point of Portuguese remains from Kollam. During 1750 CE,
trade based from Kollam port and thus an important Carel Kamron, a Dutch official from Rotterdam was
source for analysing the trade manifestations of the keeper of the Dutch warehouse at Thangassery
Kollam port in the colonial period. Fort and during this period the fortress seems to have
been in a ramshackle state with its walls in ruins
and the fortified area was covered with vegetation.
ST. THOMAS FORT, THANGASSERY The fortress was heavily encroached by the sea.
Because of this the fort was in a poor state, attention
Kollam was one of the earliest places that Portuguese was not paid for its maintenance (Singh 2007, 27).
established its trade relations. They had gained the The Dutch was later replaced by the British.The St.
right to trade and by the relations entered into with Thomas Fort or the Than gassery fort is presently
Cochin, Kollam and Kannur. The rulers at Kollam maintained by Archaeological Survey of India. Only
made good relations with Portuguese. In 1501 CE a small portion of the fort survives as of now, but
the rulers of Kollam and Kannur had contacted different sources state that the complete fort had a
Pedro Alvarez Cabral, the next Portuguese trader length of 2.5 Furlongs (503m) and a mean breadth
came to Kerala after Gama, and they wanted to of 1 furlong (210m) (Kumar and Vinuraj 2017, 177).
strike an alliance with the Portuguese King since During the time of the completion of the fort it had
the ruler of Cochin had already a good relationship a sentry box, three towers, four bastions which were
with Portuguese and this helped them to establish fully equipped with artillery, and other missionary
their trade connections to Europe, and soon Cochin buildings (Mathew 1988, 170-171). At present,
emerged as the hotspot of Spice trade in Kerala, fragmentary remains of a large tower could be seen
marginalising the ports of Kollam and Kannur, which is extended towards the west and had a gable
The Queen of Quilon had offered Cabral a promise roof. This portion of the fort is depicted in the old
to supply pepper and spices at a cheaper rate than maps as fortaleza or fortress. These towers also
currently he is obtaining them from Cochin, but known as castle keeps or maritime towers built at
Cabral didn’t wanted to end their stint with Cochin, vantage points to keep a watch over the sea (Kumar
thus he declined this offer. However in 1502 CE, and Vinuraj 2017, 178).
Vasco-da-Gama had successfully established a
trade connection with the Kollam. In 1503 CE
Afonso d’ Albuquerque received a hearty reception
from the queen of Quilon and he was permitted
to establish a factory towards the end of the year
1503 or in January 1504. In 1515 CE LopoSoares
was appointed as the Portuguese Governor in India
and he concluded a treaty with the King of Quilon
to help Kollam in times of war. In 1519 CE, the
Queen of Kollam permitted the Portuguese to build
a fort at Kollam in Thangassery. The fort was built
under the supervision Captian Heytor Rodrigues
and completed in September 1519 CE (More 2003,
9-10). The fort occupied by the Portuguese was Fig. 1: The Remains of Fort at Thangassery
captured by the Dutch Army in 1661 CE led by
Dutch Admiral Ryklof Van Goens. The glory of Scientific Clearance at Fort, Thangassery
Kollam Fort and Port seems to have diminished
by the time of its occupation by the Dutch East A Scientific Clearance at the Remains of St. Thomas
India Company, as they had rapidly eradicated the Fort in Thangassery was conducted by Archaeological
An Analysis of the Ananthashayana Series Coins of Venad Dynasty from St. Thomas Fort... 179

Survey of India, Thrissur Circle mainly intended to

remove the debris of sand, soil and other forms of
materials accumulated in a portion of the present
structure for undertaking conservation activities in
those selected areas. High concentrations of soil
mixed with sand were noticed inside the castle
keep, which was then systematically excavated and
removed. The process met with the discovery of
several antiquities including Both Local and foreign
ceramics, Dutch tobacco pipes, Shell bangles, coins,
Terracotta discs, Canon balls and gun, Copper and
iron objects.  Fig. 4: The Hall with Brick Pillar and Arched niches exposed
after the Scientific Clearance

THE ANANTHASHAYANA COINS

A total of sixty seven copper coins were recovered

during the clearance. All these coins have a
representation of Ananthashayana Vishnu on the
obverse side and symbols include conch, turtle,
elephant andankusha which were characteristics
symbols of the Venad dynasty on the obverse and
reverse sides. Venad, which later developed and
transformed into modern Travancore, witnessed the
Fig. 2: Soil Accumulated with Sand- Before rise of a large number of coins. The Venad dynasty
Scientific Clearance was separated into different family divisions and
unified by one king. Each of these families or
branches had their own coinage and mint (Joseph
2014, 177-179). As per different epigraphical records
of Venad Kings, the use of terms such as kasu, achu,
panam, salagai are noticed which are the units used
to denote the currency. One of the earliest inscription
having a reference of Kasu is from the Cholapuram
Inscription by Virakeralavarman in 1127 CE. The
1189 CE Padmanabhaswamy Inscription of King
KoadaiMarthandavarma also specifies of two
important terms of Currency as Salagaiandalagachu.
These references points out that Venad, from its
initial period of existence itself had a well-organized
Fig. 3: The fort after the Scientific Clearance currency system and different monetary values.
One of the earliest coins issued by a Venad King
is believed to be by the King Virakerala, having a
legend on the coin Gandaramkusasya meaning
‘goad (Ankusha) to the heroes’. The ankusha symbol
180 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

is associated with many coins issued by the Venad by Travancore King Marthandavarma from 1750 CE
kings, signifying it as one of the official emblem of onwards. Barbara Mears, on the basis of an analysis
the dynasty (Joseph 2014, 182).  of the symbols and the composition of the coin
suggest that they were issued from mid-16thcentury
CE or 17thCentury CE onwards (Mears 2000, 21).
FEATURES OF ANANTHASYANA COINS The scientific clearance also yielded ceramics which
FROM KOLLAM could be dated to 17th-18thCentury CE and all the
other associated artefacts found with the coins also
The Major symbols found in the coins of Venad kings indicate a date of late 17thCE and Mid-18thCE, which
are Ankusha, elephant, spider, crocodile, battle-axe, also synchronises with the time of Marthandavarma,
Vajrayudhams (Thunderbolt), ankusha in between  thus Anathasayana coins might have been issued.
vajrayudhams, Turtle, lamp, conch etc. The issue It is interesting to note that no coins of Portuguese,
of coins under various rulers during different time Dutchor British were discovered during the debris
periods undoubtedly prove the origin and circulation clearance apart from the Ananthashayanacoins. It is
of coins in Venad during the medieval period and quite possible that it was issued during the time of
it clearly describes the presence of a coin based Marthandavarma who had defeatedthe Dutch.The
economy (Joseph 2014, 183-192). Like most of the Ananthashayana coins are treated as one of themost
other dynasties, the minting and issuing of coins unique and exquisite varieties of coins issued by the
during Venad was a royal affair since all the coins Venad rulers. 67 such coins were retrieved from the
have official emblems engraved on them and these fort and they seem to have been issued or reissuedin
authorities always had a connection with the Lord large numbers during the time of Travancore ruler
Padmanabha temple which is their tutelary deity. Marthandavarma. They surely indicate themonetary
Special issues dedicated to Lord Padmanabha are the exchange which was in vogue between the Dutch
Anathashayana Type of coins. The major features and the Venad-Travancore Kings.The chronology of
of Ananthashayana coins are that they always have the coins goes well with the historical data of the
the image of Padmanabha in his Ananthashayana fort and also with that ofclay pipes. Several shreds
mode. They are circular coins, and are made of of late blue and white porcelain were found from
copper. Majority of the coins were encrusted with the fort which is alsotentatively placed to the 17thto
soil and sand particles due to the deposition in soil 18thcentury CE period.
and as a result details and identification of some of
the coins are very difficult. The weights of the coins
range from 1 gm. to 4 gm. There are about 32 coins REFERENCES
between the ranges of 3-4 gm. The diameter of the
coins range from 12 mm to 20 mm. Joseph, A., 2014, Coins and Currency of Pre-Modern
Kerala till 1600 AD. (Unpublished PhD Thesis).
Kottayam: Mahathma Gandhi University.
CONCLUSION Kumar, A., and Vinuraj B., 2017, The Contribution of
West Asians in the Growth of Kollam as an International
An identification of the exact chronological details Maritime Trade Centre: a Review of Citations and
of the Ananthashayana type coins are very difficult, Artefacts, New Delhi: Puratattva: Journal of the
there are many uncertainties regarding the issue of Indian Archaeological Society Number 47. Indian
these coins. Historians like K. Lekshmanan points Archaeological Society.
out that Ananthashayana coins were issued from
Mackenzie, G. T., 1901, Christianity in Travancore.
14thCentury CE onwards by the Venad Kings whereas
Trivandrum: Travancore Government press.
Beena Sarasan argues that these coins were struck
An Analysis of the Ananthashayana Series Coins of Venad Dynasty from St. Thomas Fort... 181

Mears, B., 2000, Anatashayanam and Thirai Cash of Sarasan, B., 2008, Traversing Travancore through the
Venad and Travancore, England: Oriental Numismatic Ages on Coins. Calicut: Poorna Publications.
Society.
Sarasan, B., 2014, Chinese Cash in Ku-Lin Vestiges
More, L., 2003, English East India Company and the of Kollam’s Maritime History, Thiruvananthapuram.
Local Rulers in Kerala: a Case Study of Attingal and Akshara Offset.
Travancore, Telicherry: Irish Publication
Singh, A., 2007, Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750-1830
Panikkar, K. M., 1929, Malabar and the Portuguese: the Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an
Being a History of the Relations of the Portuguese with Indian Milieu (Unpublished PhD Thesis), University of
Malabar from 1500 to 1663, Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Leiden.
sons & Company.
 HYPOTHETICAL OBSERVATION OF WINE USE IN
EARLY HISTORICAL SANGHOL

ARDHENDU RAY*

INTRODUCTION
The Kushāṇa empire stretching from the banks of of large sized baked bricks during the Kushāṇa
river Oxus to the Ganges, combined parts of Central phase. According to ancient texts, geographically,
Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and north India into a Punjab corresponds under Udichya division of
distinct political unification of land and people with Uttarāpatha, or the northwestern division of
diverse ethnic backgrounds, languages, cultures Āryāvartā in ancient period. It was known as Sapta
and religions. The Central Asian, Hellenistic and Sindhu, watered by seven rivers. Greek historians
Indian town planning blended into a single form called it as Pentapotamia, region of five rivers (Ray
under them. This fusion gave rise to a unique 2017: 1-24). The area of Ravi, Beas and Sutlej was
Kushāṇa culture with features reflecting unity but referred as Trigarta, which was further divided into
with regional variations. Along with Kushāṇa coins cities of that period. At the time of Kushāṇa Empire
and inscriptions, the presence of large size bricks one of the major cities of Trigarta was the city of
of approximately 37-35x 23-24x 7-5 cm, terracotta Sanghol. During Kushāṇa period Sanghol was a
tiles, brick structures, coin moulds, votive tanks, well-flourished and one of the largest metropolis
brick stupas, red ware, red polished ware etc., are on the route between Gandhara and Mathura.
some important features of Kushāṇa period sites. Among all the famous cities of Punjab, Sanghol
Mud constructions of Northern Black Polished was the major and popular centre of Historico-
Ware phase gave way to well-planned structures Archaelogical linkage on Uttarāpatha.

Assistant Professor of History, Department of History, Chatra Ramai Pandit Mahavidyalaya, District-Bankura, West Bengal;
*

E-mail: [email protected]
184 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Sanghol, consisting of a group of high ancient

mounds, locally known as Ucha Pind, is located
in the tahsil Khamanon, district Fatehgarh Sahib,
Punjab. It lies at a distance of 40 km of the west
of Chandigarh on Chandigarh-Ludhiana road and
is at a distance of 32 km from Ropar. According to
the local tradition, Sanghol was formerly known
as ‘Sangaladvīpa’, and the folk tale of Rup Basant
was associated with it like Ropar. The present name
might have been derived from Saṅghapura, a name
which may have been given for its being a stronghold
of Buddhist congregation or Saṅgha (Handa 2010;
Joshi, 1976, Sharma & Kumar 1986). Terracotta clay
sealing with Gupta Brāhmī legend discovered from
Sanghol mentions the name ‘Nandipurasya’ and
carries a representation of a bull to right above.

Some scholars interpreted this as the evidence of Fig. 1: Routes and Nodes of the Uttarāpatha and
Sanghol was known as Nandipura in the 5th century the location and strategic position of Sanghol,
CE (Bhattacharya 1987: 11; Handa 2010: 184). The (After Neelis, 2011: 185)
river Sutlej once flowing by the side of the village
but now it has shifted to a distance of about 10 km. various liquor uses in ancient India and the drinking
The results of excavation and explorations of this habits of people of ancient India. Dhirendra Krishna
site have provided evidence of continued habitation Bose’s ‘Wine in Ancient India’ written in 1922 was
at this site from 2000 BCE to modern times with one of the earliest monograph on wine in ancient
short breaks in between. India (1922). He delineated chronological evolution
and use of wine from Vedic times to Kushāṇa period.
Sanghol was an important town on an ancient The famous book ‘Wonder that was India’ was
trade route, which served as a meeting place for written by A. L. Basham also discusses the Soma and
traders, pilgrims, artists and other people from Surā, the two Vedic alcoholic drinks (Basham 2004:
Madhyadeśa and Gandhāra during the Kushāṇa 37). He also discusses in details the kind of liquor,
period. Standing on the main Uttarāpatha, Sanghol winemaking processes, sale and consumptions based
connected Taxila with Mathura, Kauśāmbī, Sarnath, on Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra (Basham 2004: 216-17).
Pāṭaliputra and Chandraketugarh (Fig. 1.). The But the most vivid account has given by Om Prakash
present paper is an attempt to make an assumption in his book ‘Food and drinks in ancient India’
that Sanghol being a wine production centre and (Prakash 1961). He listed around hundred types of
naturally people consume alcohol. beverages out of more than fifty were intoxicating
beverages used in ancient India (Prakash 1961: 298-
301). Mahdi Hassan, a botanist, published few works
HISTORIOGRAPHY especially the controversial drink Soma in the Vedic
period (Mahdihassan 1973: 91-102). Harry Falk has
There is a dearth of researches on wine use in ancient also thrown much light on the famous Vedic drinks
India. One of the earliest works done by Rajendralal Soma (1989: 77-90; 2002-03: 142-155).
Mitra (1878) entitled “Spirituous drinks in ancient
India” published in the journal of Asiatic Society There is no consensus among scholars on what
of Bengal in 1878. He offered us an overview of exactly Soma was and different scholars have come
Hypothetical Observation of Wine use in Early Historical Sanghol 185

up with different contesting theories. It is generally of sources show that there was a robust drinking
believed that Soma was both an inebriating drink culture in ancient and mediaeval India, ranging from
and also the presiding deity over that drink. Soma public carousing at breweries and drinking houses
certainly corresponds to avestan Haoma. Among the to consuming at festivals and weddings. Medical
Indo-European speakers, only the Vedic and Iranian texts describe how to balance alcohol and health,
traditions perceived the Soma rituals (Chakravarti and literary literature depict an elite drinking society
2013: 71). Some scholars have tried to identify Soma (typically in an erotic form). However, not everyone
plant with ephedra (Fig. 9) growing in the north- drank, and there were very complex religious
western mountains. Other proposal is to associate grounds for abstinence.
it with the Amanita muscaria commonly called fly
agaric mushroom. This mushroom is psychoactive McHugh (2021) starts by studying the inebriating
and hallucinogenic and contains alkaloids muscimol, drinks that were accessible, including grain lagers,
ibotenic acid and muscazone. The extract of the Soma palm drink, and imported wine, specifying the
plant was drunk on ritual occasions and the drink acted manners in which individuals utilized grains, sugars,
as hallucinogen (Chakravarti 2013). F. R. Allchin, organic products, and spices over the course of the
on the basis of ethno-archaeological data argued hundreds of years to create an amazing exhibit of
that there were distilleries in ancient India (Allchin alcohols. He presents legends that clarify how the
1979: 55-63). K. T Acharyas’ (Acharya 1991: 123- drink came to be and how it was distributed, as well
29) work based on the Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra had as the customs and legal position it now has. The
demonstrated the method of alcohol production, the book additionally investigates Hindu, Buddhist, and
material and additives used, fermentation and kind Jain moral and legal texts on drink and abstinence,
of drinks produced. James McHugh (2013: 29-44) just as how drink is utilized in some Tantric customs,
offered us a brief overview of Alcoholic beverages and deciphers a detailed picture of the goddess
in ancient India based on Sanskrit literature. An Liquor, Suradevi. Marijuana, betel, soma, and opium
anthology volume on alcoholic drinks in ancient India are likewise thought of. Finally, McHugh (2021)
entitled “Drink of Immortality: Essays on Distillation investigates what has happened to these beverages,
and Alcohol use in Ancient India” recently edited by stories, and hypotheses over the last few of centuries.
D. N. Jha (2020). He mentioned in his introduction, An Unholy Brew rejuvenates the neglected, complex
the present volume intended to create an awareness universe of preparing, drinking, and abstaining in
of the need to study the history of liquor consumption pre-modern India, and offers enlightening contextual
in ancient India (2020: 6). The collection contains analyses on subjects like law and medication, as well
ten articles, the first four of them dealing with the as drink recipes.
antiquity of distillation process in India which is
central to the manufacture of alcohol. The remaining Harry Falk’s excellent work on ‘Making Wine
six articles discuss the evidence of alcohol use in in Gandhara under Buddhist Monastic Supervision’
ancient India. inform us on wine particularly on North-Western
region (Falk 2009: 65-78). He discussed in detail
Most recently James McHugh (2021) regarding the wine making process i.e., treading
published the first comprehensive book on alcohol the grapes; filtering the wines through textile bags;
in pre-modern India entitled, “An Unholy Brew: fermentation in wineskins or large bowls; opening
Alcohol in Indian History and Religions.” He uses the storage bowls; using a krater; (1) distributing the
extensive kind of sources from the Vedas to the filtered wine in wineskins, sieve and so on. He also
Kamasutra to explore drinks and styles of drinking. included the discussion on inscribed large bowls
India is nearly seldom mentioned in books about and the term kunda, suyikunda uses for particularly
the global history of alcohol. However, a variety making wine. In the Gandhāra region, many large
186 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

bowl and also some architectural fragments, toilet (Agrawala 1953: 118). After Arthaśāstra, Amarakośa
tray etc. have been found. One of these kinds of (Amarakośa 2.10.103-115) has a vivid description on
tray from Taxila (Fig. 2), Marshall insisted that the different aspect of liquor, i.e., names of alcoholic
this ‘toilet tray’ was purely Graeco-Roman in style, beverage, types of liquor, distilling process, types
and not locally Hellenistic, although its production of food/snacks for consuming liquor, drinking pots,
might be regarded as local (Falk 2009: 66, 67, 72). places where people drinks together and so on.
Large bowls with inscription also have been found
in the Peshawar region (Fig. 3) seems to come from Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (2) also writes
the area of Charsadda (11 cm high with a diameter frequently on wine consumption and production in
of 33 cm). It carries an inscription in large and clear ancient India in his travel account (Watters, 1904).
letters. Leaf decoration on the outside of the bowl There are discrepancies in the use of wines and other
suggests connection to winemaking. drinks mentioned in the literature. The Kshatriyas
consumed wines from the vine and the sugar-cane;
the Vaisyas used to drink a strong distilled spirit;
WINE USE IN EARLY INDIAN LITERATURE the Buddhist monks and the Brahmins used to have
syrup of grapes and of sugar-cane; and for the low
Wine has been cited quite freely and frequently in mixed castes no distinction has been mentioned
Sanskrit literature. For the first time we get enough (Watters 1904: 178). He also points to the fact that
information of varieties of wines, production process Kashmir was renowned for its grapes and wine made
in details, their sale, consumption from the Arthaśāstra from juice of grapes (Watters 1904: 263).
(Arthaśāstra 2.25, 25.). The Arthaśāstra advises the
manufacture of liquor and the appointment of a
‘superintendent of liquor’ (Suradhyaksha) suggests URBAN CHARACTER OF SANGHOL
that not only control the sale and consumption of
alcoholic drinks but also to organize their production The emergence of cities was made possible not
under the government control (Basham, 2004: 2016- merely by surplus produce in agriculture but also by
17). The Arthaśāstra of Kautilya reckons as many as the formation of states and trade networks. The site
six varieties of alcoholic drinks viz. medaka (wine Sanghol extends over an area of 7, 50,000 sq. metre
made of rice beer), prasannā (grain liquor fermented and excavations revealed that the site of Sanghol
with areca nut), āsava (sweet liquor made with wood was a fortified settlement with a mud fortification,
apple), arishṭa (various kinds were decoctions used and three successive moats (Margabandhu & Gaur
for medicinal purposes), maireya (a liquor made of 1986: 73). R.S. Bisht has said that this system of
raw sugar, the bark of meṣaśṛņga tree and pepper) fortification tailed with the description prescribed
and madhu (McHugh 2021: 120-123) (Madhu was in the Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra and the commentary
grape wine). Another term kāpiśāyana, meaning a to Udai Jātaka (IAR 1970-71: 30.). There are two
good quality wine or madhu was used by Paṇinī. distinct phases of construction of the rampart
Paṇinī has revealed six terms in connections with (Kumar & Ray 2015: 49-57). During the Kushāṇa
wine, amongst these madya (intoxicating liquor), period in the Hathiwara area, excavations have
Surā (wine in general), Maireya and kāpiśāyana, revealed a very large structural complex. Outside
names as special wines and these words were absent the habitational area towards the east a huge spoked
in Vedic literature (Agrawala 1953: 114-15). A stūpa along with a monastery and another stūpa
second term for wine found in the Arthaśāstra is with a monastic complex and a third stūpa has
hārahūraka or Kandhar wine produced from black been exposed during the excavation. Very rich in
grapes which is located in the south Afghanistan in antiquities, which shows the prosperity of Sanghol
the valley of the Harahvaiti or Arghandab region in the form of numerous coins, seals and sealings,
Hypothetical Observation of Wine use in Early Historical Sanghol 187

terracotta and other miscellaneous objects attest the Both Mathura and Sanghol sculptures indicate to
flourishing period of the Sanghol during the Kushāṇa the fact that the Kushāṇa artists were very affectionate
period. The 117 exquisite stone sculptures buried on to present adorable damsels fully immersed into
the railing pillar found at the main stūpa are the most drinking wine and in a state of drunkenness. Amongst
outstanding discovery. Sanghol was an important them one of the sculpture represents the figure of a
town on an ancient trade route which served as standing lady on a jewelled cushion holding bunch
meeting place for Madhyadeśa and Gandhāra of mango fruits in her hanging right hand while the
region during the Kushāṇa period as supported by left hand is bent and raised upward holding a wine
numismatic evidence (Handa 2010: 194). Sanghol vessel (Surapatra) (Fig. 6). Above the lady figure a
was a mint site and coins were minted locally as male figure is shown from the balcony and his left
coin moulds found from excavation (Ray 2020: 81- hand hangs down and receiving the surapatra (wine
95). Distinct Kushāṇa housing remains, drainage vessel). But the head of the male figure is missing.
system, religious complex, assembly hall, stūpa and The backside of the pillar is decorated with lotus
monastery complex with a well of Kushāṇa period, medallions (Ray 2014: 200-220).
stone sculptures and numerous artefacts certainly
marked the glorious days of Kushāṇa and their Amongst the pillars, one of them from
suzerainty in Sanghol. Xuan Zang refers to this city Sanghol presents a couple, in which the female
as the city of ten monasteries and was known as appears highly drunk, supported only by her male
SHE-TO-T’U-LU (Watters 1904: 299-300). companion in a half kneeling posture with carving
shoulder (Fig.7). The back is decorated with lotus
medallions. Two figures, one male and other female
MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF are shown under the sala tree. The lady is shown
WINE IN THE CONTEXT OF SANGHOL in a half kneeling position on a cushion, seems to
be the state of intoxication. The Bacchanalian scene
The depiction of madhupāna (a yakshī drinking from Maholi in the Mathura Museum, and on a pillar
wine) on a Sanghol railing pillar (Fig. 5.) assignable from Mathura, resembles the above-mentioned
to second century CE (Gupta 2003: 120,137) may sculpture (Asthana 2006: 55-66). However, for the
be significant for the fact that Kāpiśa was famous first time at Sanghol the artist attempted to present
for excellent wine and drinking scenes in the a youthful woman busy in taking the last drop of
sculptures are taken to indicate western impact and wine from a tall tumbler (Madhupana, Fig. 5). At
imports from Kāpiśa (Handa 2010: 188). Wine may both Mathura and Sanghol several pillars have
have been produced at locally also, grape seeds been noticed through the lights which are carved
(vitisvinifera) were recovered from the residential with lady attendants who are carrying beautiful
complex from Sanghol. These were identified from globular wine pots for their mistresses, along with
the fire-altars in the form of seeds and stem charcoal the āmramaňjarī or grapes, flute, etc. are found.
further corroborating the importance of grape-vine These attendants sometimes known as prasadhikās
in the economy (Pokharia and Saraswat 1998- in ancient literature are portrayed as carrying a toilet
99: 84-85). In the pre-Harappan and Harappan tray for their mistresses.
levels, seeds and stem charcoal of vitisvinifera also
found at Rohira in district Sangrur (Pokharia and And both at Sanghol and Mathura, on some
Saraswat 1998-99: 75-121). Other tradeable crops pillars, the mistresses are seen busy ornamenting
include pulses, cotton, spices, fruits like custard themselves with beautiful floral garlands, ear-rings,
apple, pomegranate (Punicagranatum), etc. also etc. Very often they are shown looking into mirrors
found from excavation (Margabandhu & Pande adjusting the necklace or the locks of hair. But
2014: 208-12). sometimes the mirror performs in total dissimilar
188 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

role, where the heroine or the nāyikā is exposed Saraswat has identified ephedra (celebrated Soma
herself shyly fondling the teeth or nail marks of her plant of the Vedic age) in the palaeobotanical remains
lover left behind on her cheeks. It is sometimes called from the Kushāṇa level at the site. (Margabandhu &
paribhogadarshinī. (Gupta 2003: 124) As many as Pandey 2014: 208-12).
three sculptures representing this theme have been
found at Sanghol.
CONCLUSION
In this connection Harry Falk’s study of wine
making process and its association with Buddhist Amidst all the information acquired from various
monasteries are quite fascinating (Falk 2009: sources it seems plausible that Sanghol was a
65-78). His study mainly based on scenes from wine-producing center during the Kushāṇa period.
architectural depiction of Buddhist monasteries, The discovery of grape seeds in excavations and
toilet tray objects and few inscriptional evidence confirmation by palaeobotanists, further supported
from large bowls, which were used for making wine. by sculptural images of Sanghol depicting a woman
Surprisingly he also mentioned that, from Sanghol, drinking wine are testimony to this proposed theory.
one large hemispherical bowl with loti form leaves Harry Falk (2009) also noted in his study that one
on the exterior was found but still it is unpublished large vessel found at Sanghol was probably used
(Falk 2009: 75). He also did not give any references to make wine. He also studied similar vessels
to this fact. Falk says that the monasteries also pertaining to wine production and consumption in
involved with wine cum merry-making festival the Gandhara region. Saraswat’s future research
and it was adopted by such monasteries because will highlight the issue of ephedra recovered from
of the attractiveness of this festival. He included Sanghol during excavation (2014).
Mathura and Sanghol for such kind of activities and
may have been adopted from the Gandhāra region
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
(Falk 2009). Sculptural depictions from Sanghol,
drinking wine, serving wine and all that (Figs. 4, I am indebted to National Mission on Monuments and
5, 6) attest people not only consumption wine but Antiquities (NMMA), Archaeological Survey of India
also produced locally. It is further evidenced by for permission of using the photographs (Fig. 4,5,6,7) of
Pokharia and Saraswat’s study, and grape seeds Sanghol Sculptures.
(vitisvinifera) (Fig. 8) were recovered from Sanghol
excavation during Kushāṇa period (Pokharia and
Saraswat 1998-99: 84-85). It is interesting that NOTE
grape seeds also found from Rohira, Punjab from
1. Krater or crater: A Jar or vase of classical antiquity
pre-Harappan and Harappan context (Pokharia and
having a large round body and wide mouth and used
Saraswat 1998-99: 75-121). for mixing wine and water.

A preliminary report on Sanghol has been 2. Though it is a foreign travel account, excellent
published by one of the excavator Dr. C. Margabandhu information provided on alcoholic drinks and
from Archaeological Survey of India (Margabandhu drinking culture.
& Pandey 2014). In this excavation report, there is a
treatise on botanical studies of Sanghol Excavations
REFERENCES
in appendix I by renowned palaeobotanist Dr. K. S.
Saraswat, whereas he summaries and updated the Acharya, K. T., 1991, Alcoholic Fermentation and its
data from earlier report. (Margabandhu & Pandey products in ancient India, Indian Journal of History of
2014: 208-12). It is quite fascinating to note that Dr. Science, 26 (2).
Hypothetical Observation of Wine use in Early Historical Sanghol 189

Agrawala, V.S., 1953, India as known to Panini, Kumar, Deepak & Ardhendu Ray, 2016, Archaeological
Lucknow:: Lucknow University. Perspectives on the Fortification System at Sanghol
during Kushāṇa Period, Shikha Jain and Rima Hooja
Allchin, F. R., 1979, India: The ancient home of (eds.), “Conserving Fortified Heritage: The Proceedings
distillation?, MAN 14. of the 1st International Conference on Fortifications and
Asthana, Sashi, The Kushaṇa Art of Sanghol, Lalit Kala World Heritage, New Delhi, 2015”, Newcastle upon
24. Tyne, UK : Cambridge Scholars Publishing & ICOFORT,
Lady Stephenson Library.
Basham, A. L., 2004, The Wonder that was India, 3rd edn.,
London: Picador. Mahdihassan, S., 1973,Soma, in the light of comparative
pharmacology, etymology and archeology, Janus, 60 .
Bhattacharya, D. C., 1987, The Glory that Was Sanghol’ J.
S. Ahluwalia (ed.), Historico-Archaeological Linkages of Margabandhu, C. & Pradeep Kumar Pandey, 2014,
Punjabiat, Chandigarh: Department of Cultural Affairs, Excavations At Sanghol (1985-86 To 1989-90), New
Archaeology and Museum, Punjab. Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.

Bose, Dhirendra Krishna, 1922, Wine in Ancient India’, McHugh, James, 2013, Alcohol in Pre-modern South
Calcutta: K.M Connor & Co. Asia.’ In A History of Alcohol and Drugs in Modern
South Asia: Intoxicating Affairs, (ed.), Harald Fischer-
Chakravarti Ranabir, 2013, Exploring Early India: Up to
Tiné and Jana Tschurenev, London: Routledge.
C. AD 1300, 2nd Edn., New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers
India Ltd. McHugh, James, 2021, Grape wine in ancient and early
Medieval India: The view from the centre, The Indian
Falk, Harry, 1989, Soma I and II, Bulletin of the School
Economic and Social History Review, 58, 1
of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
52, (1). McHugh, James, 2021, An Unholy Brew: Alcohol
in Indian History and Religions, New York: Oxford
Falk, Harry, 2002-2003, Decent drugs for decent people:
University Press.
Further thoughts on the nature of Soma, Orientalia
Suecana, 31-32. Mitra, Rajendralal, 1878, Spirituous Drinks in Ancient
Falk, Harry, 2009, Making Wine in Gandhara Under India, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal (42).
Buddhist Monastic Supervision, C. A. Bromberg, T. J. Prakash, Om,1961, Food and drinks in ancient India:
Lenz and Jason Neelis (eds.), Evoṣuyadi: Essays in Honor From the earliest times to C. 1200 AD, Delhi: Munshiram
of Richard Salomon’s 65th Birthday, Bulletin of the Asia Manoharlal.
Institute, New Series/ 23.
Pokharia, A.K. and K.S. Saraswat, 1998-99, Plant
Fauja ,Singh, Appendix A: Sanghol and Dholbaha, L. M. Economy During Kushana Period at Sanghol, Punjab,
Joshi (ed.), 1976, History of the Punjab, Patiala: Punjabi Pragdhara, 9
University.
Ray, Ardhendu, 2014. “A Study of Early Historic Sanghol
Gupta S. P., 2003, Ed., Kushana Sculptures from Sanghol
(200 BCE – CE 400)”, Unpublished PhD dissertation
(1st-2nd Century A.D.), Vol. I, 2ndedn., New Delhi: National
submitted to the Centre for Historical Studies, School
Museum.
of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Jha, D. N., 2020, Ed., Drink of Immortality: Essays on Delhi.
Distillation and Alcohol use in Ancient India, New Delhi:
Ray, Ardhendu, 2017, Geography of Early Historical
Manohar.
Punjab, Journal of Sikh and Punjab Studies, 24 (1&2).
IAR, 1970-71.
Ray, Ardhendu. 2020. ‘Urbanization and Interactions in
Handa, Devendra, 2010, Sanghol Coinage System and Trade Early Pubjab: Some Reflections’ in Kapila Vatsyayan,
networks, H. P. Ray (ed.), Sanghol and the Archaeology of Ravindra Kumar and C.B. Patil eds., Asian History
Punjab, New Delhi: Aryan Books International. and Indology: Asitayana, Commemoration Volume of
190 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Late Professor C. Mani, Vol. I, Delhi: B.R. Publishing Varadpande, M. L., 2006, Women in Indian Sculpture”,
Corporation. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications.

Sharma, G. B. and Manmohan Kumar, 1986, Coins Seals Watters, T., 1904, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India’,
and Sealings from Sanghol, Chandigarh: Department of London: Royal Asiatic Society.
Cultural Affairs, Archaeology and Museum, Punjab.
 NRrhlx<+ dh ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk vè;;u

dkerk izlkn oekZ* ,oa c`ts'k jkor**

lkekU; ifjp;
NRrhlx<+ Hkkjr ds yxHkx eè; esa fLFkr eè;izn's k jkT; Hkw&Hkkx Hkh lfEefyr Fkk tks esdy] jk;x<+] vkSj flgkok
dk nf{k.k&iwoZ {ks= gS] ftldk fuekZ.k o"kZ 2000 esa gqvkA dh igkM+h J`a[kykvksa ls f?kjk gSA NRrhlx<+ dh izeq[k unh
NRrhlx<+ izkphu bfrgkl ,oa iqjkrRo ds {ks= esa egRoiw.kZ egkunh gS ftldh lgk;d ufn;k¡ f'koukFk] ekan] [kk:u]
LFkku j[krk gSA NRrhlx<+ ds eè; esa fLFkr izkphu nf{k.k tksad] glnks vkfn gSaA
dksly dk {ks= Hkkjrh; jktuhfr vkSj lkaLd`frd bfrgkl
esa fo'ks"k LFkku j[krk gSA nf{k.k dksly esa oS".ko èkeZ ds dksly jkT; dh lhek ds vUrxZr izkjaHk esa fcykliqj]
lkFk&LkkFk 'kSo rFkk 'kkDr èkeZ dk izlkj bZ-NBh 'krkCnh ls jk;iqj] nqxZ rFkk jk;x<+ ftys gh vkrs FksA 'kjHkiqjh 'kkld
14ohsa 'krh rd gqvkA ujsUnz ds le; bldk foLrkj iwohZ mM+hlk esa gqvk rFkk
lEcyiqj] lksuiqj] dkykgkaMh vkfn {ks= nf{k.k dksly ds
vUrxZr lekfgr gks x;sA lkseoa'kh dky esa ;g fonHkZ ds
HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr pk¡nk ftys rd QSyk rFkk Hknzkorh dks nf{k.k dksly ds
vUrxZr lekfgr dj fy;k rFkk mRrj esa ljxqtk dk cgqr
NRrhlx<+ ,d uoxfBr jkT; gS ftls izkphu dky esa cMk+ Hkkx blds vUrxZr lfEefyr FkkA dypqfj;ksa ds izkjafHkd
nf{k.k dksly dgk tkrk FkkA blds vUrxZr orZeku 'kkldksa ds le; rd ;g {ks= nf{k.k dksly dgykrk Fkk]
jk;iqj] cLrj] ljxqtk] fcykliqj rFkk nqxZ lEHkkxksa ds ysfdu 14oha 'krh esa bldk ukedj.k NRrhlx<+ gks x;kA
vykok orZeku mM+hlk jkT; ds lEcyiqj ftys dk vfèkdka'k NRrhlx<+ esa izeq[k :i ls NRrhlx<+h] fgUnh] ljxqftgk]
*
milapkyd ¼ls-fu-½] jk;iqj] NRrhlx<+( E-mail: [email protected]
**
bfrgkl foHkkx] MkW- 'kdqUryk feJk jk"Vªh; iquokZl fo'ofo|ky;] y[kuÅ( E-mail: [email protected]
192 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

mfM+;k] mjkao] xksM+h] Hkrjh] gyoh] dqM+qd] vkfn Hkk"kk;sa ,Sfrgkfld i`"BHkwfe
vyx&vyx {ks=ksa esa cksyh tkrh gSaA
NRrhlx<+ esa 'kjHkiqjh;] ik.Mqoa'k] lkseoa'k] f=iqjh ds
ioZr% NRrhlx<+ pkjksa vksaj ls ioZr J`a[kykvksa ls dypqjh] jruiqj ds dypqjh] jk;iqj ds dypqjh] dkadsj
f?kjk gS ftlls bldk Lo:Ik ,d dVksjs ds leku curk ds lkseoa'kh] cLrj ds fNand ukx rFkk doèkkZ ds Qf.kukx
gSA iqjk.kdkj ;gk¡ foaè;] _`{k] esdy] 'kqfDreku] lkse vkfn oa'kh 'kkldksa dk izHkqRo FkkA NRrhlx<+ ds jk;iqj ftys esa
vusd ioZr J`a[kykvksa dsk lekfgr dj nsrs gSaA ueZnk ds jkfte ,d egRoiw.kZ iqjkrRoh; LFky jgk gS tks èkkfeZd]
mRrj dh ioZr Jsf.k;ksa dks foaè; uke ls iqdkjk tkus yxk ,sfrgkfld rFkk lkaLd`frd n`f"V ls egRoiw.kZ gSA
rFkk ueZnk ds nf{k.k esa _`{k dks ekuk x;k ftls ckn esa
lriqMk+ dgk tkus yxkA vejdaVd ds ioZr Üka`[kyk dks NRrhlx<+ esa jk;x<+ ftyk izkxSfrgkfld dky ds
esdy uke fn;k x;k vkSj blh vkèkkj ij ueZnk esdylqrk fufeZr fHkfRr fp=ksa dh n`f"V ls vR;ar izkphu rFkk le`)
dgykbZA 'kqfDrer ioZr ls fudyus okyh J`f"kdqY;k] gSA ml dky ds ekuo lH;rk ds izek.k bl ftys esa
'kqDrsy] ekn] egkunh] vjik] f'koukFk] tksad] lsanqj] vkfn cgqrk;r ls izkIr gq, gSaA ik"kk.k ;qx ds ckn rkez;qx
ufn;ksa dh NRrhlx<+ rFkk mM+hlk esa fLFkfr ds dkj.k mDr ¼dkaL; ;qx½ rFkk mlds ckn ykSg ;qx vk;kA rkez ;qx esa
ioZr dh iqf"V gksrh gSA iRFkj ds LFkku ij rkacs ds vkStkj fufeZr fd;s tkus yxsA
rkacs ds ckn ykSg ;qx vk;k ftlds vkStkj ckyk?kkV ftys
ufn;k¡% NRrhlx<+ dh thou js[kk egkunh rFkk ds xqaxsfj;k uked LFkku ls izkIr gq;s FksA oSfnd ;qx esa
mldh lgk;d ufn;ksa esa f'koukFk] vjik] yhykxj] tksad] NRrhlx<+ dh fLFkfr dk Kku ugha gksrkA _Xosn esa ueZnk
glnks] ekan] izeq[k gSaA egkunh dk mYys[k egkHkkjr ,oa unh rFkk foa?;kpy ioZr dk dksbZ mYys[k ugha feyrk gS]
vusd iqjk.kksa esa feyRkk gS ftls fp=ksRiyk ds uke ls tkuk ysfdu mRrj oSfnd dky esa bl {ks= dk mYys[k feyrk
tkrk gSA egkunh ds Ik'pkr Narthex<+ dh nwljh izeq[k gSA jkek;.k ls Kkr gksrk gS fd v;ksè;k ds jktk n'kjFk
rFkk cM+h unh f'koukFk gSA glnks unh egkunh dh lgk;d dh cM+h jkuh dkSflY;k] dksly dh Fkha rFkk vuqJqfr ds
unh gS tks nf{k.k dh rjQ cgrh gqbZ eusUnzx<+] dksjck] vuqlkj jk;iqj ftys ds rqjrqfj;k uked LFkku ij ckYehfd
tkWtxhj gksrs gq;s f'kojhukjk;.k ds vkxs 9 fd- eh- nwjh ij vkJe Fkk] tgk¡ ij jke ds nksuksa iq= yo vkSj dq'k dk
egqvkMhg ds lehi egkunh esa feyrh gSA ekan] egkunh tUe gqvk FkkA
dh lgk;d unh gS rFkk ekan dh lgk;d unh dkjkosy]
rFkk ck;sa rjQ ls fa>d ,oa vVse unh izeq[k gSaA vjik ;g NRrhlx<+ izkar izkphu jktoa'kksa uanksa vkSj ekS;ksZa ds
is.Mªk dh mPp leHkwfe ls fudyrh gS vkSj ekfudpkSjh ds foLr`r lkezkT; ds vUrxZr vkrk FkkA phuh ;k=h g~osulkax
Åij efV;kjh ds lehi f'koukFk esa fey tkrh gSA efu;kjh us vius ;k=k ds nkSjku mYys[k fd;k gS fd ekS;Z 'kkld
unh esdy igkfM+;ksa ls fudyrh gS vkSj nf{k.k&iwoZ dh v'kksd }kjk nf{k.k dksly dh jktèkkuh esa Lrwi rFkk vU;
vksj cgrh gqbZ vkxs pydj f'koukFk esa feyrh gSA lksu bekjrksa dk fuekZ.k djk;s tkus dh tkudkjh izkIr gksrh
unh] is.Mªk jksM jsyos LVs'ku ds yxHkx 12 ehy ;k 19 gSA ekS;ksZa ds Ik'pkr nf{k.kkiFk esa lkrokgu le`) gq;s rFkk
fd-eh- nf{k.k iwoZ esa 22-420] 30]] mRrj rFkk 82-20] 10] iwoZ buds oa'k ds u`ifr vius dks nf{k.kkiFk ifr dgrs FksA
esa lksudq.M ls fudyrh gS ftls lksueqMk+ dgrs gSaA ;g dq"kk.k jktkvksa ds rkacs ds flDds Hkh fcykliqj ftys esa
eè; izns'k ds 'kgMksy ftys ls gksdj mRrj dh vksj cgrh feyrs gSa ftlls ;g vuqeku yxk;k tkrk gS fd dq"kk.kksa
gqbZ xaxk esa feyrh gSAa tksad unh dk iqjk.kksa esa iykf'kuh ds lkekzT; dk NRRkhlx<+ esa Hkh izHkko Fkk] pkgs og FkksM+s
uke feyrk gS ftldk ekdZ.Ms;] czg~ek.M] ok;q ,oa dweZ le; ds fy;s gh jgk gksA rhljh 'krkCnh bZ- esa lkrokguksa
iqjk.k esa mYys[k gSA bldk mn~xe mM+hlk jkT; ls gqvk gSA ds i'pkr okdkVdksa dk jkT; LFkkfir gqvkA exèk ds xqIr
;g egkunh dh lgk;d unh gS tks [kjksn ds lehi rFkk oa'k dk izHkko NRrhlx<+ esa leqnzxqIr dh iz;kx iz'kfLr ds
f'kojhukjk;.k ds igys nka;s rjQ egkunh esa feyrh gSA vkèkkj ij nf{k.kkiFk dh fot; ds mYys[k ls Kkr gksrk gSA
NRrhlx<+ dh ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk v/;;u 193

leqnzxqIr dh nf{k.kkiFk ;k=k ds le; NRrhlx<+ esa egsUnz ;s jruiqj ds dypqfj;ksa ds fojksèkh FksA ;s ukxoa'kh 'kkld
uked ,d jktk dh tkudkjh feyrh gS mlh izdkj cLrj fNand dqy ds Fks rFkk pdzdksV ds jktk dgykrs Fks vkSj
vkSj flgkok ds taxyh izns'k ¼ftls egkdkUrkj dgrs Fks½ ds Hkksxkorhiqjojs'oj dh mikfèk èkkj.k djrs FksA NRrhlx<+ esa
vfèkifr O;k?kzjkt us Hkh leqnzxqIr ds lEeq[k viuh ijkt; dYpqfj;ksa ds ledkyhu doèkkZ ds Qf.kukxoa'kh 'kkldksa dk
Lohdkj dj yh FkhA mlh le; ls xqIrksa dk izHkko nf{k.k Hkh 'kklu Fkk] tks jRuiqj ds dypqfj oa'k dk izHkqRo ekurs
dksly ij dze'k% c<+rk gh x;k vkSj ogk¡ ds 'kkldh; FksA dypqfj 'kkld i`Fohnso f}rh; ds le; ds jkfte esa
dk;ksZa esa xqIr laor dk iz;ksx gksus yxkA izkIr gq;s f'kykys[k dypqfj laor~ 896 ds vuqlkj lsukifr
txiky }kjk dkadsj izns'k dks thrus ds ckn dkadsj ds
uy oa'k ds 'kkld cLrj {ks= esa jkT; djrs Fks ,slk
'kkld vius ys[kksa esa dypqfj laor~ dk iz;ksx djus yxs
mRdh.kZ ys[kksa ls Kkr gksrk gSA cLrj esa uyksa ds lksus ds
FksA dkadsj ds lkseoa'kh 'kkld iEijkt dks nks rkezi= ys[k
flDds izkIr gq;s gSaA uyksa dk izFke 'kkld HkonRr oekZ
965 vkSj 966 esa egke.Mfyd dgk x;k gSA
Fkk tks ukxiqj vkSj cjkj rd 'kklu djrs Fks rFkk laHkor%
okdkVd jktkvksa dks ijkLr fd;k FkkA nwljk 'kkld
vFkZifr HkV~Vkjd rFkk rhljk jktk LdanoekZ Fkk tks egku~ ikoZrh izfrek,a
'kfDr'kkyh Fkk rFkk ¼iks<+kx<½ mM+hlk esa Hkxoku fo".kq dk
eafnj fufeZr djk;k FkkA uyksa dk pkSFkk ys[k jk;iqj ftys rSRrjh; vkj.;d esa ikoZrh dks #nz dh iRuh dgk x;k
esa jkfte ls izkIr gS tks ckn dk gSA bl izdkj uy oa'k gSA egkHkkjr esa fxfjjkt fgeky; dh iq=h mek dh laKk
ds jktk NRrhlx<+ vkSj cLrj ds HkwHkkx ij dkQh le; ikoZrh] fxfjiq=h] 'kSylqrk vkSj ukxdU;k ls dh xbZ gSA
rd jkT; djrs jgsA Jhen~Hkkxor esa Hkh ikoZrh dk ukeksYys[k gSA xkSjh rFkk
vi.kkZ Hkh ikoZrh ds gh uke gSaA iqjk.kksa esa f'koiRuh ds #i
ik¡poh 'krkCnh bZ- ds vafre pj.k esa vFkok NBoha esa ikoZrh dk o.kZu fd;k x;k gSA ikoZrh vius iwoZ tUe
'krkCnh ds izFke pj.k esa nf{k.k dksly esa ,d rhljs esa n{k iztkifr dh iq=h lrh FkhaA os f'ko ls fookg djuk
izeq[k jktoa'k dk mn; gqvk ftldh jktèkkuh 'kjHkiqj esa pkgrh Fkha ijUrq muds firk n{k iztkifr f'ko dks voSfnd
FkhA ik.Mqdqy ds 'kkld lkseoa'kh Fks ysfdu ijorhZdky ekurs Fks ftlds dkj.k viuk nkekn cukus ds fy;s v;ksX;
lkseoaf'k;ksa esa vUrj j[kus ds fy;s ik.Mqoaf'k;ksa ds uke ls le>rs FksA ysfdu lrh us gB djds f'ko ls fookg dj
mudh tkudkjh nh tkrh gSA dksly dk ik.Mqoa'k lkseoa'k fy;kA fookg gks tkus ij Hkh ikoZrh ds firk n{k nkekn
Hkh dgykrk Fkk ysfdu ckn esa lkseoa'kh vius dks ik.Mqdqy dks voSfnd gh ekurs jgsA bl dkj.k tc mUgksus ;K
dk ugha crkrs Fks rFkk bl oa'k ds jktk vius dks dksly] dk vuq"Bku fd;k rc f'ko dks vkeaf=r ugha fd;kA lrh
dfyax vkSj mRdy dk Lokeh ekurs Fks rFkk budh mikfèk vius firk ds ;K esa fcuk cqyk;s rFkk f'ko ds euk djus
^f=dfyaxkfèkifr* FkhA rRi'pkr lkseoaf'k;ksa ds gkFk ls ij Hkh pyh xbZA ysfdu tc mUgksus ns[kk fd vU; nsoksa
dksly ges'kk ds fy;s fudy x;k rFkk bl le; rd ds leku f'ko dk u rks ;K Hkkx fudkyk x;k vkSj u gh
f=iqjh ds dypqjh 'kklu dh ,d ygqjh 'kk[kk dh LFkkiuk mudks lEeku fn;k x;kA rc mUgksus f'ko vieku u lg
gqbZ] ftldh jktèkkuh rqEeku FkhA ikus ds dkj.k ;K dq.M esa dwndj vius izk.k R;kx fn;sA
dypqjh jktoa'k dk izkphu bfrgkl esa egRoiw.kZ ,slk tkudj f'ko dh vkKk ikdj f'kox.kksa us n{k dk ;K
;ksxnku gSA budh 3 'kk[kk;sa Fkha& ekfg"erh] f=iqjh vkSj fo?oal dj fn;kA lrh us ioZrjkt fgeky; dh iq=h ds
jruiqjA bl jktoa'k dh loZizFke jktèkkuh ekfg"erh esa #i esa Hkh tUe fy;kA ioZr iq=h gksus ds dkj.k os ikoZrh]
Fkh ftudk 'kklu NBoha 'krh bZ- esa FkkA bZ- lu~ 620 ds fxfjtk rFkk 'kSyiq=h vkfn ukeksa ls tkuh xbZaA ikoZrh tUe
yxHkx ,d cM+k Hkw&Hkkx iqydsf'ku }kjk Nhu fy;k x;k ls dkys o.kZ dh Fkh ftlds dkj.k mudk ,d uke dkyh
rFkk dypqfj oa'k dk dze'k% iru gksrk x;kA X;kjgoha 'knh Hkh FkkA ukjn dh izsj.kk ls f'ko dks ifr :i esa ikus ds
bZ- ds izkjaHk esa cLrj esa ukxoa'kh jktkvksa dk 'kklu FkkA fy;s tc mUgksus ri djus dk ozr fy;k rc mudh ekrk
194 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

eSuk us dgk&mek vFkkZr ikoZrh] ,slk er djksA rc ls ds;wj] ik;tsc] dq.My] fdjhV eqdqV] vkHkw"k.k bR;kfn
mudk ,d uke mek Hkh iM+kA dBksj ri djrs le; ikoZrh gSaA izfrek ds fljksHkkx esa izHkke.My fufeZr gSA izfrek
us igys vUu ty NksM+dj dsoy lw[ks csyi= [kk;s fdUrq ds 'kjhj esa dfV ds uhps rd fyiVk mRrjh; fufeZr gS
vkxs pydj mUgksus os lw[ks csyi= [kkuk Hkh NksM+ fn;kA ftls nsoh vius ck;sa gkFk ls idM+h gqbZ gSA izfrek ds nk;sa
rc ls os vi.kkZ Hkh dgykbZa ¼JhokLro 1998% 89½A Åijh gkFk esa ryokj] fupys gkFk esa f='kwy rFkk ck;ka
Åijh gkFk [kf.Mr gS ,oa fupys gkFk ls dfV esa oL=
ikoZrh dk ,d vkSj uke vfèkd izfl) gS] xkSjhA ,d
idM+s gqbZ gSaA izfrek dh tygjh dk eki 105 × 73 × 7
ckj HkLe jek;s f'ko ls vkfyaxu djrh ikoZrh dks f'ko us
ls-eh- ,oa izfrek dk eki yxHkx 69 × 33 × 12 ls-eh- gSA
galh&glha esa pUnu ij fyiVh ukfxu dg fn;kA os dkys
izfrek dk dky yxHkx 5&6oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gS ¼fp=&1½
jax dh rks Fkh gha] mUgs f'ko dh ckr vPNh ugha yxhA fl)s'oj eafnj iykjh ftyk cyksnk cktkj eafnj ifjlj
blfy;s lekfèk esa yhu f'ko dks NksM+dj os vius firk ds esa riL;kjr ikoZrh dh izfrek orZeku esa nf{k.k iwoZ dksus
?kj fgeky; ij iqu% riL;k djus pyh xbZaA nwljh ckj esa dusj isM+ ds uhps j[kh gSA izfrek dk flj [kf.Mr gSA
ikoZrh us dBksj ri ls czg~ek dks izlUu fd;k vkSj muds ;g izfrek v"VHkqth gS ftlds lHkh gkFk HkXu gSaA nsoh ds
ojnku ls xkSj o.kZ izkIr fd;k vkSj xkSjh dgykbZaA bl mjkst mHkjs gq, gSa rFkk Lru ds uhps rd ikjn'khZ oL=
izdkj ikoZrh] mek vkSj xkSjh muds fof'k"V uke vfèkd èkkj.k fd;s gSaA nsoh nkfgus iSj ls [kM+h gS rFkk ck;ka iSj
izfl) gq;s ¼JhokLro 1998% 90½A dej ds ikl mBk;s gq, gSaA nsoh vèkksoL= rFkk dfVlw=
foosdnRr >k us cLrj {ks= esa ikoZrh izfrekvksa dh èkkj.k fd;s gSaA nsoh dk ck;ka iSj dqguh ds ikl [kf.Mr
la[;k ux.; cryk;k gS ¼>k 1989% 91½A NRrhlx<+ gSA nsoh ds nk;as rjQ ,d _f"k ;ksxh dh izfrek gSA psgjk
esa vHkh rd izkIr ikoZrh izfrekvksa dh lwph fuEukuqlkj Li"V gSA d.kZ dq.My] xys esa xqfj;ksa dh ekyk ,oa vU;
gS&iqjkrRo laxzgky;] txnyiqj] fl)s'oj eafnj] iykjh] vkHkw"k.k gSaA ;ksxh ck;as gkFk ls vLi"V oLrq rFkk nk;sa gkFk
ftyk cyksnk cktkj] dqys'oj eafnj] uokxkao] ftyk ls de.Myq idM+s gSA blds mjkst uhps dh vksj yVds
èkerjh] lker ljuk] MhikMhg ftyk cyjkeiqj] fljiqj gSa] ftuds chp esa ekyk gSA ;ksxh dh yVsa nksuksa daèkksa rd
ftyk egkleqan] csylj] ftyk cyjkeiqj] pUnzkfnR; eafnj] yVdh gSA ;ksxh ds uhps rFkk lkeus ,d cSBh gqbZ iq#"k
ckjlwj] ftyk nUrsokM+k] bafnjk dyk laxhr fo'ofo|ky;] izfrek LFkkfir gS tks vius nksuksa gkFk ls xksykdkj vklu
laxzgky;] [kSjkx<+] ftyk jktukanxkao] vkjax ls izkIr xkSjh idM+s gS ftlds Åij nsoh ikoZrh dk nk;ka iSj iats ds cy
izfrek ftyk jk;iqj] xzke cM+sMksaxj] ftyk ukjk;.kiqj] ij j[kk gSA uhps iq#"k ds flj esa tVk dh yVsa gSA xys
nUrs'ojh eafnj] nUrsokM+k] ftyk nUrsokM+k] HkSjex<+] ftyk esa gkj] d.kZ dq.My] cktwcan] daxu] dfVes[kyk bR;kfn
nUrsokM+k] MhikMhg] ftyk cyjkeiqj] xzke xqM+k?kkV] ftyk vkHkw"k.k gSaA nsoh ds ck;sa fdukjs ij ,d f}Hkqth nsoh [kM+h
iznf'kZr gS ftlds flj esa ds'k foU;kl] d.kZ dq.My] xys
cykSnk cktkj] LFkkuh; laxzgky; ckjlwj] ftyk nUrsokM+k]
esa ,d yM+h ekyk] mjkst mHkjs gq, rFkk ck;sa gkFk ls ?kV
Me#] ftyk cyksnk cktkj] rFkk jruiqj ls izkIr ikoZrh
idM+s gSA blds ihNs dsys ds iRrs dh vkd`fr fufeZr gSA
izfrek,a izeq[k gSaA budk vè;;u Øe'k% dkyØekuqlkj
bl izfrek ds iSj ds lehi ikoZrh dk okgu flag dk
fuEufyf[kr gS&
eq[kHkkx fn[krk gSA blds lkeus ,d iq#"k izfrek f}Hkax
ftyk iqjkrRo laxzgky;] txnyiqj esa iznf'kZr ;g eqnzk esa [kM+s gq, nksuksa gkFk ls dy'k èkkj.k fd;s gSA iq#"k
izfrek xzke ikFkjh] ftyk dks.Mkxkao ls izkIr gqbZ gS tks ds flj esa twM+k] d.kZ dq.My] ikap ekyk] gkFkksa esa daxu]
txnyiqj eq[;ky; ls 65 fd-eh- nwjh ij cdkoaM Cykd dfVlw= rFkk vèkksoL= èkkj.k fd;s gq, iznf'kZr gS ftldh
esa ekdZ.Mh unh ds fdukjs fLFkr gS ¼xksLokeh 2006&2007% xnZu ihNs dks eqM+h gSA ikoZrh ds nk;sa rjQ xnZu esa rhu
101&102½A izfrek prqHkqZth gS tks yky cyqvk izLrj ls yVsa yVdh gqbZ iznf'kZr gSaA ;g izfrek yky] cyqvk rFkk
fufeZr gSA izfrek LFkkud eqnzk esa ,d pkSdksj ihfBdk ij xBhys iRFkj ls fufeZr gS ¼oekZ 2014½A izfrek dk dky
ewy voLFkk esa iznf'kZr FkhA izfrek esa xzsos;d] gkj] dad.k] 8oha 'krh bZLoh gS ¼fp= 2½A
NRrhlx<+ dh ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk v/;;u 195

dqys'oj eafnj uokxkao] ftyk èkerjh ds eafnj ds Hkwjs rFkk cyqvk izLrj ls fufeZr gSA xkSjh dh fupyh
e.Mi es v)ZLraHk ds #i esa fHkfRRk ds lgkjs ikoZrh dh ,d ck;ha Hkqtk ojn eqnzk esa gSA 'ks"k rhuksa Hkqtk;sa [kf.Mr gSaA
izfrek LFkkfir gSA izfrek LFkkud eqnzk esa leHkax in~eihB izfrek dh pkSdh ij ck;sa rjQ flag dk vadu gS rFkk
ij LFkkfir gSA izfrek prqHkqZth gS ftldk eq[k Hkkx] mjkst lkeus pkSdh ij mudk okgu xksèk iznf'kZr gS ftldk
rFkk nksuks gkFk dykbZ ls [kf.Mr gaSA izfrek ds Åij 5 eq[k [kf.Mr gSA izfrek ds nk;sa ik'oZ Hkkx esa canj tSlh
in~ekLkuLFk izfrek;sa fufeZr gSa tks {kfjr gSaA buds ihNs vkd`fr gS ftldk ck;ka gkFk Åij rFkk nk;ka gkFk uhps
izHkke.My fufeZr gSA izfrek ds flj esa tVkeqdqV] xksy twM+s gSA nk;sa gkFk ds ihNs ,d y?kq vkdkj dh i{kh dk
ls caèkk ds'k foU;kl gSA xys esa ,dkoyh] Lru ls gksrk gqvk vyadj.k gSA izfrek vR;fèkd {kfjr voLFkk esa gS ftldk
ukfHk rd mRrjh;] dfV ls pj.k rd vèkksoL= gSA izfrek oke ik'oZ [kf.Mr gSA bldk eki 143 × 50 × 35 ls-eh-
ds nksuksa daèks esa flj ds cky yVds gq, iznf'kZr gSaA iSjksa ds rFkk fuekZ.k dky 9oha 'knh bZLoh gSA ¼fp=&5½ ¼jk;dokj
lehi nsoh dk okgu flag vafdr gSA ikoZrh ds ck;sa rFkk 2013% 233½A
nk;sa Åijh Hkkx esa dsys ds iRrs dh 5 vkd`fr;ka fufeZr gSa
xzke csylj] ftyk cyjkeiqj ls prqHkqZth xkSjh dh ,d
rFkk nk;sa ik'oZ esa xksg dk vadu gS ftldk eq[k [kf.Mr
izfrek izkIr gqbZ gS tks orZeku esa ftyk iqjkrRo laxzgky;]
gSA ck;sa ik'oZ esa liZ dk vadu gS ftlds Åij f'kofyax
vfEcdkiqj esas LFkkfir gSA ;g izfrek yky rFkk cyqvk izLrj
tygjh lfgr LFkkfir gS ysfdu f'kofyax [kf.Mr gSaA
ls fufeZr gSA prqHkqZth nsoh fupys nk;sa gkFk esa de.Myq
izfrek ds Åijh Hkkx esa 5 izfrek;sa in~eklu esa fojkteku
èkkj.k fd;s gSa rFkk 'ks"k Hkqtk;sa HkXu gSaA muds fljksHkkx
gSa tks iapkfXu gks ldrh gSa] buds nksuksa gkFk [kf.Mr gSaA
mHk;ik'oZ esa t;k rFkk fot;k f}Hkax eqnzk esa fLFkr gaSA ij tVkvksa dk ds'kcaèk gSA os pdzdq.My] gkj] mRrjh;]
izfrek ds mHk; ik'oZ esa nk;sa rjQ f'kofyax ,oa ck;sa rjQ dfVlw=] vèkksoL=] pwM+h rFkk dad.k bR;kfn vkHkw"k.k èkkj.k
x.ks'k dk vadu gSA izfrek dk eki 160×50×20 ls-eh- gS fd;s gSaA f'kjksHkkx ds ihNs vyad`r izHkke.My gSA Åij dh
rFkk dky 8&9oha 'krh bZLoh gSA ¼fp= 3½ ¼jk;dokj 2013% iafDr esa izkjaHk esa ekykèkkjh fo|kèkj rFkk dqy 5 xzgksa dk
231 ½A 'kh"kZ Hkkx vof'k"V gSA uhps nk;sa rjQ f'kofyax rFkk mlds
uhps e;wjklhu dkfrZds; dk vadu gSA ;g izfrek [kafMr
fljiqj mR[kuu ls o"kZ 2009&10 esa izkIr ;g ikoZrh voLFkk esa gS] tks fd fdlh y?kq eafnj ds xHkZx`g esa pkSdh
izfrek Hkwjs cyqvk IkzLrj ls fufeZr gSA izfrek dk fupyk ij LFkkfir jgh gksxhA bl izfrek dk eki 58×40×6 ls-eh-
nk;ka Hkkx [kf.Mr gSA izfrek ds Åijh Hkkx esa dze'k% ,d gSA izfrek dk fuekZ.k dky 10&11 oha 'knh bZLoh vuqekfur
iafDr esa lw;Z] rRi'pkr iapkfXu ds izrhd] ikap eq[kkd`fr;ka gS ¼oekZ 2010% 25½A
rFkk var esa pUnz dk vadu gSA izfrek LFkkud eqnzk esa
leikn iznf'kZr gSA muds nk;sa rjQ f'kofyax rFkk ck;sa pUnzkfnR; eafnj] ckjlwj] ftyk nUrsokM+k ds ckg~;
rjQ x.ks'k dk vadu gSA izfrek ds riL;kjr gksus ds ta?kk Hkkx esa mRrjh fHkfRRk ds fupyh iafDr esa ikoZrh dh ;g
izek.k Lo#i ;Kdq.M] dPNi] fiNys Hkkx esa dsys dk izfrek LFkkud eqnzk esa LFkkfir gSA izfrek dk nk;ka Åijh
iRrk] ck;sa daèks dh rjQ Åij dh vksj p<+rk gqvk xksg] gkFk [kf.Mr gS rFkk fupyk gkFk ojn eqnzk esa gS ysfdu
dq.Mfyr liZ] uhps ck;sa iSj ds lehi ifjpkfjdk rFkk gFksyh [kf.Mr gSA ck;sa Åijh gkFk esa gFksyh esa x.ks'k cSBs
okgu flag dk vadu gSA izfrek ds fljksHkkx ds Åij gq, rFkk fupys gkFk esa de.Myq èkkj.k fd;s iznf'kZr gSA
twM+s ds ln`'; xksy caèkk gqvk ds'k foU;kl dk vadu gS izfrek dk flj fdjhV eqdqV] dkuksa esa vkHkw"k.k] xys esa gkj]
¼fp=&4½ ¼oekZ 2010% 52½A rFkk o{k rd yVdh ekyk] dfVes[kyk] gLroy; rFkk ta?kk
esa vyad`r vkHkw"k.k yVdk gqvk iznf'kZr gSA izfrek ds nk;sa
xzke MhikMhg] ftyk cyjkeiqj fLFkr lker ljuk dksus esa uhps flag cSBk gS] ftldk eq[k fodjky rFkk vka[ksa
eafnj ds e.Mi esa fHkfRr ds fdukjs xkSjh dh ,d izfrek d<+h gqbZ iznf'kZr dh xbZ gS ¼oekZ 2008% 82½A fuekZ.k dky
LFkkfir gS tks nks [k.Mksa esa tqM+h gqbZ iznf'kZr gSA izfrek 10&11oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gSA
196 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

doèkkZ] ftyk dchjèkke ls xkSjh dh ,d izfrek izkIr ds nksuksa ik'oZ esa nks&nks ifjpkfjdkvksa dk vadu gSA izfrek
gqbZ gS tks orZeku esa bafnjk dyk laxhr fo'ofo|ky;] dk eki 62x38x25 lss-eh- gS rFkk dky 11oha 'krkCnh bZLoh
[kSjkx<+ ds laxzgky; esa iznf'kZr gSA ;g izfrek Hkwjs cyqvk gS ¼fp= 8½ ¼lwph i= 2012% 33½A
izLrj ls fufeZr gSA izfrek prqHkqZth gS tks leikn eqnzk esa
ekrkxqM+h eafnj] HkSjex<+] ftyk chtkiqj ds lehi
deyklu ij [kM+h gSA izfrek ds uØdq.My] gkj] xzsos;d]
ikoZrh dh ,d fof'k"V izfrek j[kh gS tks v)Zi;Zadklu
Lrugkj] ds;wj] dfVlw=] dfVes[kyk] m#tkyd] ikndVd]
eqnzk esa iznf'kZr gSA izfrek prqHkqZth gS ftlds gkFkksa esa dze'k%
uwiqj ,oa ouekyk vkHkw"k.k gSaA izfrek ds pkjksa gkFk rFkk
Me#] e`x] f='kwy rFkk diky iznf'kZr gSA tVkeqdqV]
ck;sa rjQ ds Åijh dksus dk Hkkx ,oa izHkke.My dk ck;ka
#nzk{kgkj] xzsos;d] Hkqtcaèk] gLroy;] dfVes[kyk] vkSj
Hkkx [kf.Mr gSA izfrek ds Åijh nkfgus Hkkx esa prqHkqZth
lkM+h ls foHkwf"kr mUuro{kk nsoh dk okgu ew’kd uhps
czg~ek dk v)Zi;Zadklu eqnzk esa vadu gSA nsoh ds nksuks
iznf'kZr ¼lwph i= 1989% 92½ gSA nUrs'ojh eafnj nUrsokM+k
rjQ nks ifjpkfjdk;sa f=Hkax eqnzk esa rFkk nks mikfldk;sa
dh ,d izfrek esa f}Hkqth ikoZrh dks nksgjs deyklu ij
Øe'k%+ vatfyc) eqnzk esa iq"iekyk fy;s [kM+h gSaA deyihB
yfyrklu eqnzk esa iznf'kZr fd;k x;k gSA Hkqtcaèk rFkk
ds uhps okgu xksèkk] flag ,oa fgj.k dh rhu vkd`fr;ka
vU; izpfyr vkHkw"k.kksa }kjk lqlfTtr nsoh dk nkfguk gkFk
f'kYikafdr gSa rFkk nksuksa vksj nks&nks mikfldk;sa vkluLFk
ojneqnzk esa gSA izfrek ds ck;ha ta?kk ij j[ks ck;sa gkFk esa
gSaA izfrek dk eki 119 × 55 × 23 ls-eh- rFkk dky
vLi"V vk;qèk gSA izfrek ds uhps uanh dk vadu gSA dky
10&11oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gS ¼fp=&6½ ¼f}osnh 1991% 79&81½A
11&12oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gS ¼fp= 9½A
xzke cM+s Mksaxj] ftyk ukjk;.kiqj ds nUrs'ojh eafnj jk;iqj ftys esa vkjax ls [kjksjk lM+d ekXZk ij fLFkr
ds xHkZx`g esa prqHkqZth ikoZrh dh vkd"kZd izfrek dkys izLrj iapeq[kh egknso uked LFky ij eafnj dh fHkfRr esa xkSjh
ls fufeZr gSA leHkax eqnzk esa deyklu ij [kM+h nsoh ds dh ;g izfrek tM+h gqbZ gSA ;g izfrek va'kr% [kf.Mr
Åijh gkFkksa esa iznf'kZr dey ds vUnj nk;sa vkSj ck;sa nksuksa gSA LFkkud f}Hkqth nsoh ds ojn~ eqnzk ;qDr nk;sa gkFk esa
gkFkksa esa dze'k% f'kofyax vkSj x.ks'k dk vadu gS rFkk fupys v{kekyk rFkk ck;sa gkFk esa ?kV gSA izfrek mRrjh; rFkk
nkfgus gkFk esa v{kekyk rFkk ck;sa fupys gkFk esa de.Myqq vèkksoL= èkkj.k fd;s gq, gSA izfrek ds nk;sa rjQ e`x ds
èkkj.k fd;s gSaA nsoh ds xys esa ouekyk vkSj vU; izpfyr leku Ik'kq] dPNi ,oa ck;sa rjQ ;Kosnh rFkk xksg dk
vkHkw"k.kksa ls ;qDr nsoh ds nksuksa ik'oksaZ esa dze'k% t;k vkSj vadu gSA ;g izfrek va'kr% [kf.Mr gS rFkk iwftr gksus ds
fot;k f=Hkax eqnzk esa iznf'kZr gS ¼>k 1989% 91½A nUrs'ojh dkj.k bldk vyadj.k vLi"V gS ¼jk;dokj 2013% 233½A
eafnj ckjlwj ftyk nUrsokM+k esa nksgjs deyklu ij f=Hkax xzke xqM+k?kkV] ftyk cykSnk cktkj esa f'koukFk unh ds nk;sa
eqnzk esa [kM+h tVkeqdqV èkkfj.kh prqHkqZth ikoZrh laxzfgr gS] rV ij jsyos ykbu ds fdukjs ,d èoLr eafnj ds lehi
ftldk fupyk nk;ka gkFk [kf.Mr gSA Åijh nk;ka gkFk ikoZrh dh ;g izfrek j[kh gSA izfrek prqHkZqth gS ftldk
vHk; eqnzk esa] ck;sa gkFk esa liZ rFkk fupys ck;sa gkFk esa psgjk [kf.Mr gSA izfrek ds Åij jaxhu isaV iqrs gksus ls
ekrqfyax gSA izfrek ds fupys Hkkx esa uanh dk vadu gSA vyadj.k vLi"V gSA ikoZrh pkSdh ds Åij v)Zi;Zadklu
dky 11oha 'krh bZLoh gS ¼fp=&7½A eqnzk esa iznf'kZr gSA izfrek dk eki 42×29×14 lsa-eh- rFkk
dky 11&12oha 'krh bZLoh gS ¼fp=&10½ ¼oekZ 2012% 76A½
xzke flyhipjkgh] ftyk dchjèkke ls xkSjh dk vèkksHkkx
izkIr gS tks orZeku esa bafnjk dyk laxhr fo'ofo|ky;] MhikMhg] ftyk cyjkeiqj ls izkIr ikoZrh dh ;g
[kSjkx<+ ds laxzgky; esa iznf'kZr gSA ;g izfrek Hkwjs cyqvk izfrek orZeku esa egar ?kklhnkl Lekjd laxzgky;] jk;iqj
izLrj ls fufeZr gSaA izfrek leikn LFkkud eqnzk esa riL;kjr esa iznf'kZr gSA izfrek prqHkqZth gS ftlds vk;qèk Li"V gSaA
xkSjh izfrek dk mnj Hkkx ls Åij dk Hkkx [kf.Mr gSA izfrek ds fupys nk;sa gkFk esa v{klw= vkSj fupys ck;sa gkFk
izfrek esa dfVes[kyk] dfVlw=] iknoy; rFkk ikntkyd esa laHkor% de.Myq gSA izfrek ds nksuksa rjQ ,d&,d
n`"VO; gSA izfrek ds iknihB ij xksèkk dk vadu gSA izfrek f}Hkqth ikfjpkfjdk vkSj ,d&,d vfXudq.M gSaA ikoZrh
NRrhlx<+ dh ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk v/;;u 197

ds nkfgus rjQ okgu flag dk vadu gSA izfrek dk dky lanHkZ

yxHkx 12oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gS ¼ukenso% 132½A
xksLokeh] nhfIr] ikFkjh ls izkIr uy ;qxhu nsoh izfrek] dyk
jruiqj] ftyk fcykliqj ls izkIr ikoZrh dh ,d izfrek oSHko 6A
tks orZeku esa egar ?kklhnkl Lekjd laxzgky;] jk;iqj esa
iznf'kZr gSA izfrek prqHkqZth gS tks ,d vkys esa deyklu ij >k] foosdnRr] 1989] cLrj dk ewfrZf'kYiA
lEeq[k iznf'kZr gSA ikoZrh ds flj esa tVkeqdqV] d.kZkHkw"k.k]
f}osnh] ,l- ds-] 1991] vkVZ vkQ n dypqjh] pØorhZ] ds- ds-]
xys esa gkj rFkk gkFkksa esa cktwcan vkHkw"k.k gSA izfrek ds Some Kalachuri Brahmanical sculptures.
fljksHkkx ds ihNs izHkke.My fufeZr gSA nsoh ds fupys nksuksa
gkFk [kaf.Mr gSaA Åij ds nk;sa gkFk esa f'kofyax gS tks ,d jk;dokj] th- ;y-] 2013] nf{k.k dksly dh xkSjh izfrek;sa]
o`Rr ds eè; esa fLFkr gS rFkk ck;sa gkFk esa x.ks'k dh izfrek Raipur, Proceedings of the seminar on Art and
Architecture of Central India with special Reference to
vafdr gSA ikoZrh ds fljksHkkx ds nksuksa rjQ ,d&,d south Kosala, Directorate of Culture and Archaeology,
ekykèkkjh fo|kèkj dk vadu gSA nsoh ds iSjksa ds lehi Government of Chhattisgarh.
ck;sa rjQ [kM+h gqbZ pkaojèkkfj.kh dk vadu gS rFkk nkfgus
rjQ mudk okgu gS tks vLi"V gSA izfrek dk vkdkj oekZ] dkerk izlkn] 2014] NRrhlx<+ dh LFkkiR; dyk] eè;
NRrhlx<+ ds fo'ks’k lanHkZ es] jk;iqj% laLdf`r ,oa iqjkrRo]
79 ls-eh- rFkk dky 13oha 'krkCnh bZLoh gS ¼ukenso% 132½A
NRrhlx<+A
blds vykok egar ?kklhnkl Lekjd laxzgky;] jk;iqj esa
,d izfrek iapkfXu ri djrh gqbZ eè; izns'k ds tcyiqj oekZ] dkerk izlkn] 2010] NRrhlx<+ dh LFkkiR; dyk ¼ljxqtk
ls izkIr gSA izfrek dk Åijh ck;ka dksuk [kf.Mr gSA ftys ds fo'ks"k lanHkZ esa½] jk;iqj% laLd`fr ,oa iqjkrRo izFke
izfrek ds dku] xys rFkk gkFkksa esa ikjEifjd vkHkw"k.k gSaA laLdj.kA
ikoZrh prqHkqZth gS ftlds Åijh nksuksa gkFk [kf.Mr gSa rFkk
fupys nksuksa gkFk ikyFkh ij j[ks gq, in~eklu esa riL;kjr oekZ] dkerk izlkn] 2008] cLrj dh LFkkiR; dyk ¼5oha “krkCnh
ls 12oha 'krkCnh rd½] jk;iqj: izdk'kd&'krk{kh izdk'ku]
fojkteku gSaA
NRrhlx<+A

oekZ] dkerk izlkn] 2012]laLd`fr lfjrk f'koukFk] jk;iqj:

fu"d"kZ
lapkyuky;] laLd`fr ,oa iqjkrRoA
bl izdkj NRrhlx<+ ls Kkr mi;qZDr ikoZrh izfrekvksa dk
lwph i=] tuojh 2012] bfUnjk dyk laxhr fo'ofo|ky;
vè;;u djus ij Kkr gksrk gS fd ikoZrh izfrek;sa lEiw.kZ
laxzgky;] [kSjkx<+A
izns'k esa izkIr gksrh gSa tks fofHkUu dky [k.Mksa dh gSaA ikoZrh
dh izkjafHkd izfrek;sa vR;f?kd vyad`r rFkk ijorhZ dky JhokLro] ,- ,y-] 1998] izkphu Hkkjrh; nso&ewfrZ;ka] y[kuÅ%
dh de vyad`r gSaA izkjafHkd izfrekvksa esa dsys ds iRrs dh laLd`fr foHkkx] mRrj izns'kA
vkd`fr dk fuekZ.k] iapkfXu ri djrh gqbZ izfrek;sa rFkk
riL;kjr izkIr gqbZ gSaA bu izfrekvksa esa f'kofyax ,oa x.ks'k ukenso] f'kodqekj] 1991] vkVZ vkQ n dypqjh] Hkksiky%
dk vadu Hkh fd;k x;k gSA dqN izfrek;sa foyx #i esa lapkyuky;] iqjkry] vfHkys[kkxkj ,oa laxzgky;] eè;
e.Mi dh fHkfRr LraHkksa dh txg Hkh fufeZr dh xbZ gSaA izns'kA
198 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

ABSTRACT

Generally, the sculptures of Parvati can be obtained from almost all parts of the
country, but still Chhattisgarh is the Inventory of Archaeology from where the
archaeological remains of every kind has been obtained. Of these remains most of the
sculptures are of Parvati. In this state, the sculptures of Parvati from the Bastar area
belongs to the period of the dynasty of Nala rulers i.e. from 5th to 6th century, and
up to the Soma dynasty in middle and north are, Bharabhapuri, Tripuri, Kalchuri,
Chhindanag and Kalchuri rulers i.e. up to the period of 11th and 12th century A.D.
These sculptures of Parvati are two armed, four armed and eight armed. The sculpture
of Parvati obtained from Siddheshwar temple Pallari is in meditative pose standing
on her right leg only. The sculpture of Parvati obtained from Kuleshwar temple
Nawagaon, has five images on its upper portion which depicts panchagni. Similarly
the images found from Sirpur too, have the depiction of panchagni. Parvati images
belonging to the period of Soma dynasty has the depiction of Banana leaves at the
back of its head. The image of Parvati that has been obtained from Velsar village of
Sarguja district has the depiction of Shivalinga on its right side and Kartikeya on its
left. The sculpture of Parvati has been constructed with some distinctive features in
whole of the state. The sculptures of Parvati are highly decorative during the early
phases as compared to the later sculptures that are comparatively less ornamental.
The earlier images of Parvati has the depiction of the banana leaves, panchagni
were in meditative pose, along with the depiction of Shivalinga and Ganesha. In this
manner Chhattisgarh has remained the center of Shaivism.
 DEPICTION OF POWER IN THE JAIN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE OF SRAVANBELGOLA

VARSHA RANI*

P ower is a primordial cosmic energy, a dynamic

force driving the entire Universe. In human terms
it is defined both as physical might and authority
infinite positive power or Godliness, which leads
him to infinite bliss. In worldly terms this translates
into an ethical lifestyle which bequeaths enormous
and mental or moral efficacy (Merriam Webster positive power capable of influencing people in an
Dictionary), which enables us to be in motion, shape everlasting manner. One such character who walked
our lives and influence, control and sway others this path and stands out in the Jain tradition for being
both positively and negatively. Emerging from the first mortal to gain omniscience and liberation
our intense and potent thoughts and desires and is Bahubali. His name literally translates as a
reflecting in our corresponding deeds, it harnesses strong armed man, which by default has a negative
our inner strength positioning us to be creative or connotation in today’s context. However an insight
destructive, progressive or regressive, static or into his life reveals just the opposite - how the
dynamic, eventually moulding and transforming us renunciation of all worldly powers beginning with
into good or bad sentient beings. In human context political power led him to becoming an epitome of
both its positive and negative connotations are such infinite spiritual power which not only lent him
therefore obvious, yet the ideal is always to align a divine status but also made him an outstanding and
and identify with the former, for that alone is capable eternal role model for all humanity.
of sustaining humanity.

Jainism regards that every perfect human ROLE OF POWER

soul through infinite perception, can gain infinite
knowledge or Kevala Jnana, and summon its inherent Among many factors crucial to creating and

*
Independent Author, Gurugram, Haryana; E-mail: [email protected]
200 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

shaping history the quest for infinite political power or hill of Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta, who in
invariably remains the major driving force. Political the 3rd century BC spent 12 years here till his death
Power which is accrued from immense intrigue, as an ascetic and disciple of Jain Guru Srutakevali or
control, conflict, war, defeat, killings, subjugation, ‘Master of Knowledge,’ Bhadrabahu, 8th in the line
acquisition and aggrandizement therefore acquires a of succession of the 24th and last Jain Tirthankara
negative connotation on its own. History has stood Bhagwan Mahavira. Chikkabetta or smaller hill is
witness and lent distinction to the powerful pursuits 3052 feet from the sea level and 295 feet above the
of these victors, who however have come and gone ground level.
after attaining dizzying political heights and glorious
material achievements. But it has immortalized the
attainments of those achievers who have ascended THE DOMAIN OF POWER
and scaled down these ephemeral worldly heights to
gain the sublime and infinite spiritual power guiding Materially, Sravanabelagola’s art and architectural
humanity to salvation. From time immemorial treasures make it an open archaeological park for
victors of the first kind have taken recourse to art and commoners and connoisseurs of history, art and
architecture to perpetuate their acquisition of power culture, but metaphysically for the ardent Jain
symbolically, whereas the latter through the same devotees, it constitutes a supreme domain of spiritual
medium have been immortalized by their followers power embodied both in its natural and built up
for having renounced the same worldly power. The environment. The town and its neighbourhood
fame of the former has often been transient but that dotted with ancient relics including hill caves,
of the latter has turned out to be everlasting. The natural water bodies, inscribed rocks, free standing
small town of Sravanabelagola proves this point true pillars, memorial stones, footprints, shrines, temple
at every step by several narratives of power etched complexes , icons, sculptures, murals, monasteries,
in stone. libraries, manuscripts and numerous other historical
sites and sacred structures , one way or the other
reiterate and reinforce the supremacy of infinite
THE NUCLEUS OF JAIN FAITH and indomitable spiritual power over finite material
power.
Situated in the state of Karnataka and located 145
kms from Karnataka’s capital city Benagaluru, 51
kms from its district headquarters Hassan and 13 REDEFINING POWER
kms from Channarayapatna, the taluka headquarters,
is one of the holiest Digambara (skyclad) Jain Art and architecture flourished in Sravanabelgola
pilgrimages of India. Approximately 3000 feet particularly under its founders the Gangas of Talakad
above sea level, this small town spread merely over (350-999 CE), besides the nurturers – the Rashtrakutas
an area of around, 2 sq kms is flanked by a large of Malkhed (757-973 CE), the Hoysalas of Halebid
hill on the south called Vindhyagiri or Indragiri, (1006-1345 CE), the Vijayanagara Empire (1336-
local Doddabetta or the larger hill. 3347 feet from 1565 CE) and the Wodeyars of Mysore (1399-1950
the sea level and 470 feet above the ground level, CE). The Ganga dynasty founded with the support
Vim translates as soul, Dhya signifies meditation and of Jain Acharya Simhanandi (Inscription No. 67)
Giri means –hill meaning ‘hill for the meditation of with Jainism as its ‘state religion’ is considered as
soul,’ denoting a place where Jain ascetics practiced the golden period of Jainism. “In fact the beginnings
penance on the supreme knowledge of the Universe. of Jain architecture, sculpture and literature in South
Opposite to this interspersed by a beautiful stepped India can be attributed to the Gangas.” (Rao 2020: 5).
and walled water tank Kalyani, stands the Chandragiri Inscriptions also indicate that the Hoysala dynasty
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 201

was founded with the support of Jain Acharya away is however the most spectacular. More than 500
Sudatta. Inscriptions from 4th -12th century indicate inscriptions or S̕ asanas marking rocks, pillars, walls,
how the patronage extended by the kings along slabs, pedestals, metal plates, images etc, in Prakrit,
with their able and dedicated generals and ministers Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil and Marathi languages, in
like Chamunda Raya, Ganga-Raja and Hulla–Raja, various scripts like 45 in Devnagari, 17 in Mahajani,
(inscription No. 345) sustained sacred constructions 11 in Grantha and Tamil,1 in Vatteluttu, and 426 in
(caves, tanks, groves, temples, images, memorial Kannada have been recovered. Precisely speaking
stones etc) and their adequate upkeep (repairs and the oldest ones 244 were found on Chandragiri, 161
ritual offerings for worship), the artistic skill of the on Vindhyagiri, 65 in the town, and 30 near the town.
craftsmen and the scholarship of monks and scholars They mainly belong to the Ganga, Rashtrakuta,
alike. Chalukya, Hoysala, Vijaynagara and Wodeyar rulers
of Mysore. A few of them also refer to the Kadambas,
It was through this tangible and intangible the Nolambas, the Cholas, the Changalvas, and the
heritage, that Sravanabelgola primarily chose chiefs of Nidugal and Nuggehalli. Dating back
to redefine the much maligned word ‘Power,’ between 7th-19th centuries CE, many of these belong
positively and spiritually, devoting itself to particularly to 7th – 12th centuries CE and out of these
popularising the life and teachings of not only the most belong specifically to 7th and 8th centuries CE.
reincarnated 24 Tirthankaras (ford- makers) or Jinas Together they bear testimony to the known history
(self- conquerors ) personifying the highest Jain and evolution of Sravanabelagola as the nucleus of
ideals viz. Ahimsa (non- violence), Satya (truth), Jain faith from 3rd century B.C. onwards.
Aparigraha (non-possession), Asteya(non-stealing)
and Brahmacharya (celibacy), but the achievement Two Directors of the Archaeological
of one outstanding mortal – the omniscient Kevali Researches in Mysore State, who did seminal
Bahubali. The former housed in innumerable sacred service in deciphering these inscriptions were B.
shrines and the latter standing in an open to the Lewis Rice, (144 inscriptions in the year 1889)
sky courtyard on a hill or Betta dominating the published as, ‘The Inscriptions of Sravanbelgola,
summit of the Vindhyagiri collectively constitute and R.Narasimhachar (500 inscriptions in the year
Sravanabelagola’s vast domain of faith. 1923) published as the voluminous ‘Epigraphia
Carnatica ,Vol.II.”Inscriptions at Sravanabelagola.”
One of the ways in which all Indian religions
Dr. Hiralal Jain the great Oriental and Jain scholar
project the sublime doctrines of their faith or Dharma
in 1928 translated these English publications into
is by manifesting them through art and architecture.
Hindi as, ‘Jain Silalekha Sangrah’ presenting the text
The myriad temple styles and varied form and
of the inscriptions in the Devnagari script’ (Sangave
attributes of the deities and divinities housed in
1981 : 26-28).
them, embody their universal humanitarian values
and morality inspiring men to create a righteous
Chikkabetta was the first to witness the
social order, which ensures the greater good of
renunciation of political power by none other than
greater numbers.
the first Emperor of India, Chandragupta Maurya,
Following this tradition the prominent art (322-298 BC) the founder of the mighty Mauryan
and architectural landmarks of Sravanabelagola dynasty, who arrived here after abdicating his
raised between 9th-12th centuries CE include kingdom to his successor. The 10th century Sanskrit
sacred Digambara Jain shrines and structures - 14 text Brihatkathakosha of Harisena, 15th century
temples or basadis atop the Chandragiri, 6 on the Bhadrabahucharitra of Ratnanandi, the 17th
Vindhyagiri, 6 in the town and 5 on its outskirts. The century Kannada work Munivamsabhyudaya by
free standing Bahubali monolith visible from miles Chidanandkavi, the 19th century Rajavalikathe by
202 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Devachandra, and the Sravanabelagola Inscriptions away here. A host of other inscriptions mention
no. 31 (650.C.E), 166 (1100 CE), 67 (1129 CE), the names of monk Akshaya Kirti (Inscription No.
64 (1163 CE), 258 (1432 CE) (Sangave 1981 : 32- 27/700 CE), Santisena (Inscription No. 31/650 CE),
36), besides eminent archaeologists like (Rice 1889 Chandradevacharya (Inscription No. 84/700 CE),
: 3-9; Narasimhachar 1923 : 42) and historians Meghachandra –traividyadeva (Inscription No. 127/
(Basham 1954: 52-53; Mookerji 1960 : 61), 1115 CE) etc. Some of the royal names include the
despite of inconclusive evidence concur with the last Rashtrakuta King Indra IV(Inscription No. 133)
Jain tradition of Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu’s defeated by the Chalukyas, Hoysala queen Santala
association, exodus, presence, worship by forest Devi’s mother Machikabbe (Inscription No. 143 )
deities, voluntary death, footprints and temples on etc. (Sangave 1981: 37-46).
Chandragiri etc, since there is no contrary proof to
disprove the same. Monk Bhadrabahu, migrated The Jain rite of Sallekhana enabled the victory
with his sangha of 12000 followers besides his of spirit over matter, of the metaphysical over the
royal monk disciple from Magadha threatened by a material, of the spiritual over the political. It meant
severe 12 year long famine. To preserve his faith and gaining spiritual power to overcome the fear and
religious order he came to the prosperous and happy pain of the most dreaded phenomenon - Death. The
countryside of Sravanabelagola (Inscription No. 1: practitioners neither shunned nor stopped death but
600 CE) found on Chikkabetta. chose and prepared for it voluntarily by taking the
Sallekhna vow. The Ratnakaranda Sravakachara by
A natural hill cave on Chikkabetta became Acharya Samantabhadra explains how Sallekhna or
Bhadrabhu’s meditative retreat, while the densely relinquishing the body for the sake of Dharma can be
forested hill provided refuge to the other monks and performed in extreme conditions of natural calamities
followers. The aged monk Bhadrabahu served by like famine, old age or critical illness, by controlling
his royal monk- disciple Chandragupta eventually the body through limited intake of solid foods replaced
passed into salvation by observing Sallekhana Vrata by liquid foods, warm water and finally complete
or voluntary death around 297 BC. For the remaining fasting to reach the penultimate moment with the mind
12 years of his life performing severe austerities, focussed on the panchnamaskaras or five salutations
worshipping the footprints of his preceptor and (Sangave 1981:123). Sallekhna alternately called
finally choosing an end like him, Chandragupta Nisidhi, Samadhi, Sanyasi or Aradhana, was not
transformed his political power into spiritual power. considered a suicide but in consonance with the Jina’s
The hill renamed Chandragiri after him became concept of death was considered to be the ultimate
the hallowed grounds for ‘Samadhimaran,’ or self- sacrifice (Rao 2020: 4). Bhadrabahu cave still
meditative death attracting ascetics, royals, and exists today fronted by later additions of a stone porch
commoners alike, giving Chandragiri its other and his stone footprints within a lotus motif marking
names ‘Katavapragiri’ or ‘Katavapra’ (Sanskrit) his salvation spot inside the cave. Chandragupta’s
and ‘Kalvappu’ or ‘Kalbappu’ in Kannada (Sangave footprints are visible near the Chandragupta
1981: 11) meaning the hill of the memorials. Around basadi within the main enclosure said to have
90 inscribed Nishadhis or memorial stones found been built by him. The 9th century twin Srirangapattan
here dating back between (600-1809 CE) bear inscriptions refer to the presence of the footprints
testimony to such deaths, out of which 64 belong of both sages Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta on the
to men mostly (monks) and 16 to women (nuns), top of Kalbappu or Chandragiri hill (Sangave 1981:
their fasts lasting from 3-21 days, to a month. 33).
Inscription No. 1 referring to the hill as ‘Katavapra’
mentions the name of Jain guru Prabhachandra, The Sallekhna tradition seems to have continued
besides 700 other ascetics also who also passed till 9th century CE as most of the memorial inscriptions
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 203

numbering 106, out of which 47 belonged to monks, topped by a Brahma idol facing east commemorating
9 to nuns and 5 to house-holders date back between the Sallekhna of Ganga King Marasimha II in 974
7-8th CE. (Rao 2020: 4). From the 9th CE the CE. The other is a Manastambha topped by an open
construction of the basadis took prominence in place pavilion bearing images of four or Chaumukh Jinas
of the memorials, whose numbers kept dwindling facing the four cardinal directions.
till Chandragiri was abandoned in the 10th CE ( Rao
2020: 4).
THE DISTINCTION OF SRAVANABELAGOLA
The royals and the generals sanctified
Chandragiri further by raising some fine specimens Only one solitary sky clad pensive human figure
of Dravidian temple architecture on it. Dating facing west stands out in the open buried in rock from
back between 8th- 12th centuries these include knee downwards on Chandragiri. This is the 9 feet tall
the Santinatha basadi (11ft standing Santinatha), unfinished stone monolith of Chakravartin (Supreme
Suparsvanatha basadi (3 ft seated Parsvanatha), Ruler) King Bharata of Ayodhya, symbolizing infinite
Parsvanatha basadi (the 15 ft standing Parsvanatha- political power. In sharp juxtaposition, Bahubali
the tallest image on the hill), Kattale basadi (the his younger brother symbolizing spiritual power
largest temple on the hill with a 6 ft. seated Adinath), dominates the higher hill Vindhyagiri across the town
Chandraprabha basadi (Chandraprabh), Sasana with his 58’.8” ft tall monolith.To gain these spiritual
basadi (Adinatha image and a doorway inscription heights, Bahubali once the King of Podanpura
or Sasana), Majjigana basadi (Anantanatha), in the north, despite of his grand military victory
Eradu-katte basadi (Adinath), Savatigandhavarana against his elder brother Bharata had renounced
basadi (Santinatha), Terina basadi (car like shrine all his political power. He came to be revered for
with Bahubali image), Santisvara basadi (5ft tall proving the futility of acquiring transient worldly
Santinatha), Chavundaraya basadi (the largest and power over spiritual power, which emanates from
the most decorative (with 5ft tall Neminatha on only the pursuit of non- violence, truth, detachment
the ground floor and Parsvanath image on the first and self- sacrifice capable of sustaining humanity.
floor Megala basadi, where Acharya Nemichandra Both statues are thus significant reminders of the
wrote the Gommatasara) and the Chandragupta mammoth power of renunciation over acquisition.
basadi (Parsvanatha, Kushmandini and Padmavati Two mortals, both princes and sons of the King of
images). This temple has a remarkable ornamental Ayodhya, through their own convictions and deeds
doorway flanked on either side by perforated stone thus proved the pre-eminence of the sublime over
screens combining open and carved squares bearing the mundane. Sravanabelagola takes the pioneering
exquisite miniature sculptures depicting scenes from credit of immortalizing this spirituality in stone
Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya’s life. in a mammoth way. Thus Bahubali lends prime
distinction to Sravanbelgola with his association.
The temples more or less following a similar plan
are enclosed by a compound wall called the Suttalaya. The Prakrit, Sanskrit and Kannada Jain texts
A flight of steps lead to a portico or mandapa, the that refer to the forced debacle for political power
front halls navaranga or mukhamandapa in some, the between Bharata and Bahubali, the latter’s penance,
main hall, a vestibule or antarala, which eventually renunciation of the world and attainment of Kevala
opens into the sanctum sanctorum or the garbhagriha Gyana or omniscience date back from the early
surmounted by a spire or sikhara. The open courtyard is 1-2nd centuries CE Paumachariyam (4.43-55), the
marked with many pillared halls like the Mahanavami 6th century Vasudevahindi and Avasyaka Niryukti,7th
mandapa housing inscribed pillars. The two lofty free century Padma Purana, 8th century Harivamsa
standing pillars include the Kuge Brahmadeva pillar Purana (11.98-102), 9th century Adipurana (36.106-
204 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

185), 1st part of 9th century Mahapurana, the refer to celestial nymphs or Vidyadharis, who kept a
Trishastisalakapurushacharitra (5.740-798) and the meditating Bahubali obstruction free by constantly
13th century Chaturvimsatika Jina Charitra of Amar removed the wild foliage from his motionless body
Chandra Suri (70.367-396) (Tiwari: 97). (Tiwari : 97) however the Svetambra text Kali-Kala
Sarvajna written by Hemchanadra (1088-1172)
The Adipurana narrates in detail the story of refers to them being Bahubali’s sisters Brahmi and
brothers Bahubali and Bharata sons of King Purudeva Sundari (Rao 2020: 10)
of the Ishvaku dynasty of Ayodhya, who after
distributing his kingdom among his hundred sons Yet Bahubali could not attain Kevala Jnana- or
renounced the world to become the first Tirthankar omniscience because of his regret of standing on
Rishabhanatha/Adinatha and the founding father of Bharata’s land even if it meant the bare minimum
Jainism. Bahubali was forced to clash with his elder space under his feet. Only when Bharata arrived to
brother Bharata who aspired to become a Supreme ask for forgiveness and offer him his homage did
Ruler or Chakravartin by defeating all the rival Bahubali attain enlightenment (Tiwari 2018: 97)
kingdoms ruled by his 99 brothers, a move thoroughly According to legends Bharata built a mammoth
opposed by Bahubali, the king of Podanpura in the golden image in Podanpura (525 bow lengths high) to
north. In order to avoid bloodshed three combat commemorate Bahubali’s achievement. Eventually
modes staring (drishtiyuddha), water (jalyuddha) Bharata also renounced the world to become an
and wrestling (mallayuddha) were decided and ascetic (Jain 1929: 139-146).
Bahubali outsmarted his brother in all of them. An
impatient Bharata then hurled his divine disc (Kala-
chakra) at Bahubali, which merely circled him and THE CULT OF BAHUBALI
disappeared. Distressed to see his elder brother
taking recourse to violence and selfishness, filled Bahubali the virtuous one, who became the first
Bahubali with such intense remorse, that instead of human role model for renouncing all worldly power
flinging him down after a crushing defeat he merely and attaining Moksha came to be venerated as a God
placed him gently on the ground and handing over and gaining a status parallel to the Tirthankaras was
his kingdom immediately renounced the world like placed in the pantheon of the Digambara Jain sect.
his father. Bahubali is celebrated for proving right the Jain
tenet that Godliness is not the prerogative of only
Bahubali went on to perform a yearlong rigorous the divinely reincarnated, but each and every mortal
penance (tapas) by assuming the Kayatosarga Mudra, who cares is also empowered to choose and achieve
or standing extremely erect and motionless (santa) it. Tiwari confirms this difference, “there was a
devoid of all possessions (parigraha –rahita), not even distance, since Tirthankaras were pre-destined.
clothes. So intense and prolonged was his penance Therefore the Jain Sastras provided a non- Jina role
that, flowering madhavi (Gaertnera Racemosa, model for the followers of Jainism, who was near to
Kannada Kadu gulagunji) creepers entwined his the common man as source of inspiration. He was
limbs, kukkuta sarpas (legendary serpent like creature Bahubali, the son of the first Jina Rishabhanatha.
with rooster’s heads also called cockatrice) infested In southern Indian tradition he was known as
the anthills surrounding him, deer and elephants Gommatesvara” (Tiwari 2018: 95-96).
roamed around and lizards and scorpions crawled
over his body. (Padma Purana 4.76, Harivamsa Bahubali’s religious elevation led to his cult
Purana 11.99-100, Adipurana Vol.2, 36.183, (Tiwari worship and his subsequent depiction in art and
2018: 97 ). The Digambara texts Paumacharyim, the architecture assumed many iconographic features
Harivamsa Purana 11.101 and the Adipurana ,14.141 of the Jinas as is evident in Ellora, Deogarh and
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 205

Khajuraho,“the variety in the iconographic details here on the Sravanabetta hill is however considered
revealing distinctly the process of his elevation to be older than the Sravanabelagola idol.
equalling the Jinas,” (Tiwari: 98). The eminence
accorded to Bahubali in the Jain iconographic Rao regards this phenomenon as a speculative,
evolution show, “Subsidiary figures : like mādhavī “conundrum,’ the probable answer to this bifurcation
creepers entwine around his legs and arms; and being that in the Jain tradition, Bahubali was only an
small subsidiary sculptures of ant hills and serpents omniscient, who had acquired the status of God (Deva)
(kukkuṭā-sarpas), women and devotees surround the and was not a spiritual master like the Tirthankaras,
figure, all of which were added between 12-17th who were regarded as God of Gods (Devadidevas) .
century CE.” (Rao 2020: 6). Apart from this the Hemachandra’s Abhidhamacintamani, refers to two
figures of subordinate deities of Parsvanatha, like categories of Jain divinities including Devadidevas
Yaksa Dharanenda and Yaksi Padmavati also came and Devas (Jawaharlal 2006: 11). So raising
to be depicted along with him. The earliest figure of Bahubali’s monolith was definitely a celebration of a
Yaksa in Karnataka appears in the Bhandara basadi lay person’s attainment of spiritual power advocated
of Sravana Belagola (Rao 2020: 10). by the Jain faith, but not being a divine incarnation,
he was not depicted in Sravanabelagola along with
Rao rightly opines, “That a change in the Tirthnakara images. Another reason for this
architecture is a change in ideas, norms or practices. bifurcation was the functionality of the images, as
(Rao 2020: 2). Yet unlike the independent Jinas the former was to be worshipped by the laity, while
images in stone which appeared in Mathura from the latter by the monks as symbols of morality and
the Kushana period onwards, Bahubali’s earliest wisdom. These monks must have played a significant
depictions in the Digambara Jain Caves were only role in deciding the iconographical features and
along with Tirthankara Parsvanatha in the Megudi architectural practices of their faith and hence they
Jinendrabhavana, Aihole (634 CE) and Cave no. did not deem fit for their preceptors’ statues to be
4, Badami ( 595 CE). Even Kankali Tila, Mathura carved in the open closer to Bahubali (Rao 2020: 12-
revealed images of Parsvanatha only. However 13).
Parsvanatha is not visible along with the Bahubali
monolith at Sravana Belagola (Furgusson and This distance is clearly visible in Aratipura
Burgess 1880; Nagarajaiah 1999: 51 – 52 in Rao : also, where so far the Archaeological Survey of
8). However independent sculptures at least from India has discovered the remains of around 5
two early Digambara Jain sites i.e 8-17th century Jain temple complexes, monasteries, sculptures,
Deogarh temples (6 images )and 8-10 century Ellora memorial stones and tanks etc. (Sivanandan 2018:
Caves (17 images) are definitely found (Tiwari 2018: 36-41) on the smaller Chikkabetta, or Kanakagiri
98). hill, while the 2.2m (Sivanandan : 36) or (Rao 2020:
13) Bahubali figure dominates the higher Sravana
But a free standing open to sky solitary Betta hill. According to Rao this clearly indicates
colossus appeared only in Karnataka in the 10th that here,”experimentation regarding the carving of
century CE. This stands completely apart from the a monolithic sculpture took place. This was within
more significant and smaller Jina images housed in the paradigm of separation of Bahubali and the
smaller temples or sculpted sometimes as miniature Tirthankaras, while the monks stayed in the smaller
bas reliefs in the open on rocks near tanks as in the hill, within monasteries with images of Tirthankaras
recently discovered Jain settlement of Aratipura – both in relief on rocks as well as in the precincts
(918 CE), 87 kms from Sravanabelagola (983 CE) in temples. This substantiates the separateness of the
(Rao 2020: 13). The 2.2 m (Sivanandan 2018: 36) function of images for monks and the power of the
or 13ft (Rao 2020: 13) monolith of Bahubali raised living monks during the contemporary period” (Rao
206 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

2020: 13). Yet they allowed the raising of his monolith from the 9th Century CE onwards. Thus Jinasena’s
because of, “the rise of the Sramana sect in 550 BCE, Purvapurana, translated into Kannada by the Jain
and the Jains’ secular and spiritual interactions with poet Pampa in the 10th century CE as Adipurana
the reigning Kshatriya royals as their advisors and gives an insight into how inspiring Bahubali’s
preceptors accounts for their affinity for Bahubali as rigourous penance in the Kayotsarga Mudra, is
the son of a king and a historical personality”( Rao where bereft of all possessions he appears to be
2020 : 9 ). totally at peace with himself, “Mahimnasaminaam
santa mityabhutascha kananam/dhatte hi mahatam
yogo samampyasammatmasu (Tiwari 2018: 96). It
A GREAT RELIGIOUS ICON also regards him as “the personification of austerity,
non- possession and renunciation which make any
The Padma Purana and Harivamsa Purana refer to person great and worthy of adoration – Sthaukam
Bahubali emergence as an icon of a Great man (Tiwari hi yaso loke gatvarya nanu sampadam (Tiwari
2018 : 97). The word Bahubali literally translates as 2018: 96). His most famous eulogy Gommatesa
a strong and powerful personality. His other names Stuti composed by Boppanna (Inscription No.
Manmatha in Sanskrit meant cupid or Kamadeva 234/1180 CE) describes Bahubali’s life and
and the Jain scriptures regard him as the first setting up of his image by Chamundaraya which
Kamadeva of his age. The Sanskrit word Manmatha “despite of being man’s creation, is equal to a
becomes as per rules of derivation given in the work divine creation.” He proceeds with the adoration
Prakrita-manjari, written by Katyayana, Gammaha, of his “Soundaryamounnathyamum’ astoundingly
in Prakrit language, and the latter’s derivative form beautiful and peaceful Lord, who as a mighty,
in Kannada language becomes ‘Gammata.’ The liberal, detached, pure and enlightened soul, situated
word ‘Gammata’ later on became Gommata in the on lofty heights, radiating an incomparable power
colloquial form of Kannada language” (Sangave of both form and spirit, in perfect harmony with the
1981: 77). It is possible that due to close interactions surrounding flora and fauna, remover of all evils,
between the Kannada, Konkani and Marathi speaking is comparable only to himself and hence worthy
people the word ‘Gommata’ could have been derived of being revered by animals, sages and Gods alike.
from Konkani or Marathi ‘Gomato’ or ‘Gommato’ In celebrating Bahubali’s “renunciation of pride,”
meaning beautiful (Sangave 1981 : 77). Gommata Boppanna is actually, “eulogising the Jain values of
was another name for the handsome Chamundaraya, self-restraint and nobility (Rao 2020: 12).
the builder of the Bahubali monolith who came to be
known as Gommatesvara or the Lord of Gommata. The Aihole and Badami images had already set
the iconographic standards depicting Bahubali in his
The challenge for the sculptors in characteristic nakedness, erect position, hair partly
Sravanabelagola was therefore immense as their curled up and two lateral stands hanging on either
work had to reflect Bahubali’s ephemeral physicality, shoulders which, “remind us of his association with
“The physical body, beauty, prosperity, youth, Rishabhanatha on the one hand and the long passage
wealth, good fortune and duration of life, etc., are of time of his tapas on the other. The depression on
like the flash of lightning, the shadow of a cloud, the his abdomen, half shut eyes and the erect posture also
rainbow, the distension of a bubble and the plenitude indicate deep meditation and spiritual beauty.” The
of worldly pleasure” (Taranath 1985: 25), and infuse Sravanabelagola independent Bahubali with curly
it sufficiently with his intrinsic spiritual power. hair only on the crown is a distinct departure from
his earlier depictions . Even in his earliest bronze
His sculptural form was also inspired by his icon (11.1cm) found in India (Rao 2020: 8) a bronze
prolific literary eulogies in both Sanskrit and Kannada image presently in Samuel Eilenberg Collection,
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 207

Metropolitan Museum, New York, a child Bahubali Ajitasena and ‘Siddhanta Chakravarti’, Acharya
standing on the lotus in a Kāyotsarga posture, has Nemichandra who wrote the Prakrit treatise on
his hair partly combed upwards and partly resting Jain philosophy Gommatasara specially for
on his shoulders. Only creepers entwining his limbs Chavundaraya affectionately called Gommata or
without any women or the hill are visible. In M. A. the ‘beautiful one’. In fact Chavundaraya listening
Dhaky’s opinion this image may date back to the to his discourse on Jainism appears in a painting of
late Kushana Period. It probably belongs to the post his illuminated manuscript, ‘Triloksara.’ (Sangave
Gupta (4- 6th CE) and therefore, “It may be surmised 1981: 57-58). With advancing age Chavundaraya
that the worship of Bahubali became popular only in dedicated himself to promoting his religion through
the post Gupta period and he became a hero during building religious edifices and offering his wealth
early Chalukyan times”(Rao 2020: 9). for their worship and upkeep.

Bahubali’s monolith besides other monuments The Jain legends however regard Chavundaraya
and sculptures of Sravanabelagola reveal the only to have discovered and consecrated the pre-
outstanding technical expertise of both the common exisitng image of Bahubali on the Vindhyagiri. The
artisans and the master sculptors. From the 10th various texts in which the story appears include – the
century CE as Sravanabelagola further evolved 16th century Sanskrit Bhujabali Sataka of Doddaiya,
as an important Jain pilgrimage centre, building besides Kannada texts like the 17th century Bhujabali-
activity began to gather greater momentum. Artisans Charite of Panchabana and Munivamsabhyudaya
available to execute the Bahubali sculpture may by Chidanand- Kavi, 18th century Gommatesvara
have migrated from Aihole the famous centre of –Charite of Ananta- Kavi and 19th century
Chalukyan art, due to instability there and found Sthala- Purana. Collectively they believe that
a great demand for their work in Sravanabelagola. Chavundraya’s mother Kallaladevi’s had a vision
Many inscriptions reveal how the Jain basadis of Bahubali after hearing his story from Acharya
through the sanghas employed and regulated the Jinasena, in the court of King Rachamalla IV. She
śreṇī or trade guilds of stone workers, probably wished to see this,“500 bows tall,” golden statue of
the Aiyyavole 500, who brought along the temple Podanpura ardently, without which she would not
design and style traditions from both Aihole and consume milk. Accompanied by Nemichandra, they
also Badami. The royal family and the rich traders embarked on a journey and stopped for rest near a
became the patrons and donors and along with the large boulder in the foot hill of the Chikkbetta. That
monks collectively strived to keep the Jain traditions night Kushumandini Yaksi of the 22nd Tirthankara
alive (Rao 2020: 16 ) Neminath appeared in Chamundaraya’s dream
urging him to stop his difficult journey and discover
The end product that put Bahubali on the the bahubali image on Vindhyagiri. As advised the
World Art Map was the creation of Chavundaraya following morning Chavundraya’s shot a golden
the Commander-in- Chief and Prime Minister arrow towards the Doddabetta hill, where it touched
of the Ganga King Rachmalla IV (974-984 CE). the ground amidst deafening thunder and lightning,
Chavundaraya who was in charge of ‘Madhura,’ both Chavundraya and his mother saw a huge rock
the southern region belonged to a devout Jain split apart and reveal the Bahubali statue.
family and was not only a great warrior, but an
equally accomplished scholar and author himself Historical evidences indicate otherwise.
and a great patron of the creative arts. Epigraphic Inscription No. 234 (1180 CE) Boppana’s Gommata
and literary sources like Gommatasara and his own Stuti clearly states how a determined Chavundaraya’s
Charitrasara and Chavundaraya Purana, his two erected the statue. Inscription No. 254 (1398 CE) of
most important spiritual preceptors were Acharya Siddhara basadi confirms this. Kannada Inscription
208 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

No 175 (983 CE) appearing near Bahubali’s of space and their location, particularly on the hills.
feet clearly mentions, “Sri Chamundarajam Architecture and sculpture therefore don’t clash on
Madisiddam,” meaning this image was built by Vindhyagiri,” because there is no centre of gravity at
Chamundaraja. Subsequent translations in Tamil, the site of Sravana Belagola. Architectural elements
“Sri Chamundarajan Seyuvvittaan”(Inscription were designed with the aid of ‘Gestalt Psychology’
No. 176/983 CE in Grantha and Vatteluttu scripts), that understands that the human mind is structured
and Marathi,” Sri Chamundaraje Karviale” to perceive the environment in a way that organizes
(Inscription No. 179/983 CE in Devnagari script) through visual field into distinct and related parts.
also confirm Chamundaraya building the monolith. They pursued simplified forms and spatial design.
Nemichandra’s Gommata-Sara Karma- Kanda There is no central axis except when going up the hill
(verses 968-969) also refers to this idol as the towards the colossal figure where you find a sequence
Dakshina Kukkuta Jina desiring Chamundaraya to of spaces and signs and symbols”(Rao 2020: 16-17).
be victorious, which seems distinct from Bharata’s
Heaved out from a single block of fine grained
north Indian Podanpura image called Kukkuteshvara.
light grey hard granite mass probably pre-existing on
The tale of Gullakayaajji’s crushing Chamundaraya’s
the summit, portions of the original rock is still visible
pride, before consecration of the image also confirms
at the base and the sides up to the knees as support
Chamundaraya’s contribution (Sangave 1981: 73-
from where on it is a free standing idol. Its nude form
77). The Mysore Gazetteer mentions Arishta - nemi
symbolizing absolute renunciation is in consonance
or Arrito- nemi, as the leading sculptor chosen from
with the tenets of the Digambara Jain sect, which
amongst the renowned contemporary South Indian
literally regards the expansive sky or Dik to be their
sculptors to give form to Chavundaraya’s concept
only clothing -Ambara. Placed on a fully bloomed
of Bahubali inspired by his glorious and vivid
lotus and facing the north towards Chandragiri, in
description in poet Pampa’s Adipurana.
the motionless posture of practising penance i.e the
erect Kayotsarga Mudra the proportionate image
displays the remarkable, “ emblems of a superhuman
THE EPITOME OF POWER
being (mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa), such as long arms
The vast sylvan surroundings of the Vindhyagiri (ājānubāhu), long lobed ears, broad (8m) shoulders
formed the perfect backdrop for this idol. It was and broad heaved -up chest (3m) and volute curls.”
indeed an, “Epitome of Power,” (Rao 2020 :6). To (Rao 2020: 7). An almost round head, a broad face,
create a sensory experience which was par excellence high cheeks, a dimpled protruding chin, crease lines
the architecture and sculpture on the hill were kept on the neck, palm lines, narrow hips, firmly planted
in perfect visual tandem of each other. Except for 5 feet, fingers, nails and toes all carved in hard rock
modest temples much smaller in size and scale and display the mastery of the sculptor. Its mirror polish
some simple open halls or mandapas, which could not only reveals its fine grains but also acts as a great
be used as natural shelters or for ritual and festive refractory for this hypaethral statue on a high hill top
celebrations, no solid structures were raised that facing the vagaries of weather. (Sangave 1981 : 128-
would overpower the environs or obstruct a clear 129). “The modelling of the figure is compact and
view and predominance of the Bahubali colossus. vigorous, and remarkable for its formality, elegance
“The temples are interwoven with their surroundings: and scale” (Rao 2020: 7).
the natural environment, and built ones. In addition, Its serene facial expression, a subdued smile
the ordering of structures followed a high degree with ‘nasikagra drishti,’ or half closed eyes focussed
of clarity and adjacency. There was no building continuously on the tip of the nose, engrossed in
program, but a proximity diagram of the groupings peaceful contemplation, surveying the struggling
can be found. This was achieved by the manipulation world below in a completely detached manner
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 209

(Vitaraga Bhav) is a perfect symbol of utmost self In November 1980, historian Dr. Ashok
– control and mental strength surpasses its physical Shettar from the Karnataka University’s Indian Art
beauty. Unfazed by all natural phenomena, for History Institute by using the ‘Theodolite’ apparatus
over a thousand years now, ” its commanding view calculated its dimensions in feet as follows:
overlooking the wide stretch of plain and size is a
Total height – 58’.8’’
unique example of harmonization of monumentality
and plasticity, renunciation with firmness and Foot (02.8), Foot to knee (15.2), Foot to waist
grace.” (Rao 2020: 7) According to historian James (31.4), Foot to naval (34.1), Foot to neckline (45.1),
Fergusson,” Except in Egypt, something so huge is Foot to neck (47.8), Neckline to neck (02.8), Length
found nowhere in the world. Nowhere else does a of arms (30), Length of ears (05.1), Length of nose
taller monolithic statue exist. As for all-round artistic (03.9), Length of hand (30), Middle finger (08),
merit, only Bahubali can match Bahubali”(Fergusson Index finger (07), Thumb width (05), Ear to ear
1910: 12). Quite unlike the Egyptian Colossi including (08.1),Waist (09.1), Shoulder (23.9), Chest (12.8),
Ramses and the Buddha reliefs of Bamiyan, carved Neck (06.4), Face (11) (Fergusson 1910: 12-13).
in comparatively softer sandstone or limestone, this
statue in the round for most of its height with the The Hindu in its special volume on the
front and the back perfectly modelled, is carved out Sravanabelagola Mahamastakabhisheka, 2018,
from the hardest granite rock and therefore unrivalled quoting a 1938 report gives the following
(Sangave 1981: 128). measurements:
Total height – 17.37 m.
Calculating the size of this colossus has proved
to be a formidable task always with each successive Height of head from bottom of ear to the crown
attempt including or excluding certain dimensions. (2.13 m), Length of Foot (2.74 m), Length of the
The Kannada work Bhujbali - Charite by poet great toe (0.83 m), Breadth at the waist (3.04m),
Panchabana refers to the height of the golden statue Breadth across the shoulders (7.92 m), Length of the
as 525 Marus ( A Maru or Vyara is the measure of middle finger (1.60 m). It also quotes its 1981 report
length equal to the space between the tips of the mentioning Karnataka historian Ashok Settar, saying
fingers of either hand when the arms are extended that the granite colossus actually soars to a height of
) and the Sthala-Purana regards it to be 500 Bilu 17.83 m instead of the previously maintained 17.37
high. (Sangave 1981: 69-71). Santaraja Pandita, a m.
Jain poet who himself measured the statue by the
The boundless form of the Bahubali colossus
permission of the Mysore Maharaja Krishnaraja
is a reiteration of the infinite human resolve
Wodeyar III calculated its height in hastas ( cubits)
of attaining everlasting spiritual power. Thus
and angulas (finger breadths) as 36.1 hastas and
visual communication an integral part of Indian
8.0 angulas or approximately 54’.3”. Buchanan’s
iconography was utilised to enable sculpture to
estimate was 70’.3”, Sir Arthur Wellesley’s 60’.3”,
surpass architecture, empowering it to become the
the Chief Commissioner Mysore, Bowing in his book
embodiment of the liberating Jain principles.
‘Eastern Experience’ after its actual measurement in
1865, pegged it at 57 feet, the Mysore Public works
department officer Scandon’s measurement in 1871, THE FIRST MAHAMASTAKABHISEKA
referred to by Capt J.S.F.Mackenzie of Mysore in his OR CONSECRATION CEREMONY OF THE
article on Sravana- Belgola in the Indian Antiquary MONOLITH
(Vol II. May 1873) consideres it at 57 ft,(Sangave
: 86-88), while the Mysore Archaeological Dept in The “Pratisthāpana–Mahotsava and Mastakābhiṣeka
1957 declared it to be 58 ft. of the image was performed by Chavundaraya
210 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

himself, but only after Sravanabelagola had once 1981: 8). Following Bahubali’s worship, the
again witnessed material power being vanquished place became Gommatapura or the ‘City of Lord
by spiritual power, of the ego of Chavundaraya Gommata.’ The universally accepted exact date and
revelling in his power of having achieved the time of the installation or ‘Prathisthapana Mahotsva’
impossible crushed and decimated. Legends and Mastakabhsiheka or head anointment is derived
narrate that all attempts of Chavundaraya’s grand from the Sanskrit poem Bahubali- Charitra Verse
Panchamritabhisheka or liquid anointments with no 64, Canto V. It confirms that on the auspicious
holy water, milk, curd, saffron and clarified butter Vibhava Samvatsara or the 5th day of the bright
poured over Bahubali’s head from an elevated half of the month of Chaitra ,13th March 981 CE,
platform would stop at his naval, frustrating his a Sunday, in the zodiacal sign of the ascendant
attempts to bathe the idol completely. The celestial Kumbha or Aquarius, in the Saubhagya Yoga and
nymph Kushmandini disguised as a poor old the lunar constellation of Mrigshira (Orion’s head),
woman, carrying some milk in a ‘gulla’ fruit (the Chavundaraya performed these ceremonies . The
egg plant : Solanum Ferox) or alternately Yaksi great research scholar Manjeshwara Govinda Pai
Padmavati carrying five kinds of liquids or ambrosia further confirms that the ceremony took place in the
in a silver pot (Beliya Gola) came forward to initiate early hours of the night.(Sangave 1981: 80-81).
the ritual only to be rebuked by an exasperated yet
arrogant Chavundaraya (Sangave 1981: 97). He The earliest record of Masatabhisheka or head
finally relented, and to his and other’s dismay the old anointing ceremony is from 1398 CE (Inscription
woman succeeded in anointing the idol completely. No. 254), which also mentions a certain Panditaraya
Her milk offering flowed down the Vindhyagiri performing seven such ceremonies before. Later
hill, collecting below forming a huge white pond. known as the Mahamastakabhisheka or the great
A humbled Chavundaraya seeking her forgiveness head anointing ceremony, it came to be performed
attempted a second time guided by Acharya every 12 to 15 years which include: 1612, 1659,
Nemichandra achieving succeess. Atoning for his 1677, 1800, 1825, 1827, 1871, 1887, 1900, 1910,
sins, he built her statue opposite Bahubali known 1925, 1940, 1953, 1967, 1981, (1000th anointment)
today as ‘Gullakayajji.’ (Sivanandan 2018:16; (Sangave 1981: 97-110), 1993,2006 and 2018
Sangave 1981: 9). CE. Unlike the regular ritual ablution of smaller
tirthankara images of Sravanabelagola, the Bahubali
Sravanabelagola literally meaning ‘white pond colossus receives his extremely expensive due only
of the ascetics,’ thus derived its Sanskrit name Svetha every 12 years, at the occurrence of the mandatory
Sarovara, Dhavala Saras, or Dhavala Sarovara auspicious planetary conjunction, when millions of
(Inscription No. 67 of 1129 CE and No. 258 of pilgrims, tourists and priests from across the globe
1432 CE) and Kannada name Velgola or Belgola flock to participate in this grand festival.
(Inscription No. 31 of 650 CE and No. 35 of 800
CE (Sangave 1981: 9) Sravana also derived from In the temporary township raised on the outskirts
the Sanskrit word ‘Sramana’ or ascetic, denoting of Sravanbelgola and the monasteries, the main
the Jain monk was prefixed to Belgola. Inscription spectacular ceremony is preceded by elaborate rituals
no. 352 of 1634 CE also refers to Sravanabelagola which commence fifteen days before and continue
as Devara Belgola i.e. the Belgola of the God Jina. fifteen days later after the main ceremony. On the
(Sangave 1981: 9) It is believed that Chandragupta appointed days the rituals begin from 7.00 am in the
Maurya’s grandson Asoka visiting Sravana Belagola morning, when all the 1008 pots (earlier earthenware
to pay homage to his deceased grandfather named now gold, silver, german silver, bronze etc.) filled
this place to signify the intimate relationship of the with sacred water topped with coconuts and festooned
Shramanas or Jain ascetics with Belgola (Sangave with mango leaves are placed before Bahubali in
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 211

the courtyard. The preliminary baths are performed Brahmadev Mandir (Parsvanath image), and the 18th
by the priests standing on high scaffoldings above century outer compound wall built by the Wodeyar
Bahubali’s head, however the great consecration rulers of Mysore enclosing religious structures built
bath Maha-Majjana begins around 1.00pm amidst mostly by Chavundaraya including the trikuta or three
chanting of hymns and prayers and devotional music. cell Odegal basadi (with Adinath, Santinatha, and
The first ritual offering was traditionally made by the Neminatha images), the elegantly carved Tyagada
Mysore kings. Then all the 1008 Kalasas or sacred Kambha pillar (gifting place of Chavundaraya),
water pots pre-auctioned and sold at phenomenal rates the Chennanna basadi (Chandraprabh image),The
the proceeds of which go towards the maintenance Chaturvimsati Tirthankara basadi (24 Jina images),
and ritual observances are poured on the idol. In the Siddhara Gundu or rock of the liberated souls
1981 the 1000th year of celebrations, the pots were bearing carved rows of Jain spiritual teachers, the
given interesting names like Satabdi or Centenary ornate Gajalaxmi entrance of the Akhanda Bagilu
(10 pots / Rs. 100,000 each), Divya or Divine (4 doorway, flanked by the Bahubali and Bharata
pots/Rs. 50,000 each), Ratna or Jewel (4 pots/ Rs shrines, the Siddhara basadi (with a 3ft seated
25,000 each),Suvarna or Gold (200 pots/ Rs.11,000 siddha idol) and the Odeyara mandapa bearing a
each), Rajat or Silver (200 pots/ Rs.5,000),Tamra or few inscriptions recording royal Wodeyar gifts.
copper (140 pots/ Rs.2,500 each), Kansya or bronze Numerous other inscriptions and literary works refer
(200 pots/ Rs.1,000 each) and Gullkayajji (250 pots/ to the keen interest and financial help extended by
Rs.500 each). Usually 900 pots are used in the first the Wodeyar Kings of Mysore in maintaining the
round, 103 in the second, and only 5 are used in Sravanabelagola shrines and holding grand head
the concluding round (Sangave 1981: 94-110). The anointing ceremonies, apart from their regular visits
sequence of the anointment is as follows : sacred to the town and resolution of the temples’ property
water, tender coconut, sugarcane juice, milk, flour disputes (Sangave 1981: 47). The Kalyani Tank
of rice, turmeric paste, herbal liquid, first, second, (Inscription 365) was built by Chikka Raja Wodeyar
third, fourth Kalash (pots), mysore sandal paste, (1673-1704 CE).
coloured sandal paste, 8 types of sandal paste, saffron
flowers, silver flowers, gold flowers, shower of The main entrance guarded by two imposing
flowers, central Kalash, Indra-eight kinds of precious door guardians or dwarpalakas, leads past the
items, followed by Arati with lamps. The Akasa Brahmadeva pillar housing a seated Brahma figure,
Pushpavrishti or showering of colourful flowers, on to the main courtyard enclosed by a high granite
saffron and vermilion powders in the 1000th year wall or Suttalaya in the centre of which facing
celebrations by helicopters was a spectacular event. the north stands the imposing Vairgya Murti or
From 1940 onwards the Government of Mysore (now reclusive image of Bahubali surrounded by cloisters
Karnataka) together with the Jain community and its on the east, west and south housing 40 images of
saints has been actively organising this event. It is Tirthankaras, 2 of Yaksi Kushmandini, and another
believed that this anointment serves as a protective 6 ft. high image of Bahubali himself. A 5ft tall
cover for the statue which always appears clean and richly ornamented idol of the legendary old woman
crisp (Sangave 1981: 103-106). Gullakayajji holding her fruit milk bowl or Gulla
Kayi, faces the Gommateshvara idol. A shrine on its
upper floor houses a Yaksa image.
APPROACHING BAHUBALI ON
The other important older Bahubali monoliths
VINDHYAGIRI
include the 18ft Hosakote image (1147CE), 42 feet
A steep flight of around 614 rock cut steps wind their Gommata Betta image of Karkala (1432 CE), the 35
way to the Bahubali monolith on the summit, past the feet Phalguni riverside hill image of Venur (1604
212 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

CE) raised by Timmaraja, possibly a Chavundraya and strives to achieve Godliness by walking the path
successor. The tradition continued as evidenced by of self-sacrifice and devotion can become an epitome
the 18 feet Sravangudda or Gommatagiri idol of of infinite spiritual power and be venerated like the
Mysuru district noticed from 1950 onwards, the 28 divinities from which they derive that sacred power.
feet Bahubali hill image of Kolhapur, Maharashtra, In his dignified presence, apart from everyone,
consecrated in 1963, the 39 ft Dharmasthala image Bahubali by his own solitary example constantly
built in 1975. These images receive frequent inspires mankind to renounce the path of acquisition
Mastakabhishekas much less in scale and grandeur and progress peacefully towards salvation.
than the Gommatesvara ceremony.

The notable 12th century Hoysala temples REFERENCES

in the town include the grand Bhandari basadi,
which displays a row of 24 beautifully carved 3 ft Basham, A.L.,1954, The Wonder That Was India, London:
high Jina images of black marble on its decorative Sidgwick & Jackson.
platform measuring 47’.24”x 70’.71.” The adjacent
Fergusson, James, 1910, History of Indian and Eastern
Matha the seat of Jain spirituality and scholarship Architecture, London: Vols. I & II, John Murray.
houses exquisite sculptures in metal, stone and
precious stones, and fine wall paintings of some Harsha, P.S., 2018, Ed. March of Karnataka:
Jain Tirthankaras and Kings. The Akkana basadi Mahamastakabhisheka, Bengaluru: Vol.55, Issue 1,
houses a 5ft standing Parsvanatha image besides Department of Information and Public Relations.
enclosing the Siddhanta basadi - once a storehouse Jain, Champat Rai,1929, Rishabha Deva the Founder of
of rare Jain philosophical treatises. In Jinanathapura Jainism, Allahabad: The Indian Press.
on the outskirts stands the remarkable Santinatha
basadi housing a 5-1/2 ft. Santinatha image - an Jawaharlal, G., 2006, Studies in Jainism as Gleaned from
architectural marvel depicting the evolution of Archaeological Sources, New Delhi: Harman Publishing
austere Jain structures into exquisitely styled and House.
carved Hoysala monuments. Mookarji, Radha Kumud,1966, Chandragupta Maurya
and his Times, Delhi: Motilal Banaridass.
Thus time and again, Sravanabelagola has
repeatedly changed the negative narrative of Narasimhachar, R., 1923, Epigraphia Carnatica,
power, by blending art, aesthetics and universal Bangalore: Vol.II, Inscriptions at Sravana-Belagola,
human values indiscriminately, clearly evident Mysore Govt. Press.
again in the case of the two disciples of Charukirti
Rao, Nalini, 2020, New Perspectives on Jain Architecture
Panditacharya, one a leading local royal dancing and Sculpture at Sravana Belagola, International Journal
girl Mangayi and the other Bhima Devi, Queen of of Indic Religions. Vol. 2.
Deva Raya Maharaya probably the Vijayanagara
King Deva Raya I (1406-1416 CE), who despite Rice, Lewis B.,1889, Inscriptions at Sravana-Belagola,
of their individual status, came forward to build a Mysore: Archaeological Department Mysore.
sacred shrine in which the former raised the structure Sangave, Adinath Vilas, 1981, The Sacred
(Inscription No. 339 and 341/1325 CE) of the still Shravanabelagola: A Socio-Religious Study, New Delhi:
active Tribhuvan Chudamani basadi (the crest jewel Bhartiya Janpath.
of the three worlds), while the latter (Inscription
No.337) contributed the image of Santinatha to it. Sivanandan, T.V., 2018, (ed.) Summit of Peace:
Sravanabelagola’s ultimate unforgettable lesson to Mahamastakabhisheka at Sravanabelagola, The Hindu: A
Special Volume, Chennai.
humanity therefore remains that anyone who chooses
Depiction of Power in the Jain Art and Architecture of Sravanbelgola 213

Taranath, N.S., 1985, Poet Pampa in: Avalokana: A Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, 2018,Gommatesvara
Compendium on Karnataka’s Heritage. Ed. Iyengar, H. Bahubali in Jaina Texts: A Study in Reference to Art and
S. Krishnaswamy Directorate of Kannada and Culture, Social Message Puranveshana, Vol.1, No.2, Delhi: B.R.
Bangalore. Publishing Corporation.
 SOME SCULPTURES OF YAKSHI AMBIKA FROM
GWALIOR REGION

SMRITI PATHAK* AND S.K. DWIVEDI**

G walior region is a great place in the central part

of India and in the northern part of Madhya
Pradesh due to the deviation in the northern part
Chambal River flows in north and north west
direction of Gwalior region. Sindh River to the east
and south east and the Parvati and kwari rivers in the
of Madhya Pradesh. Due to being irrigated by south west. These determine the natural boundary
Chambal river and its Tributary, it is also known of this area, so that the shape of this area is appears
as Gwalior - Chambal division. At present from the as a triangle. It is lies in the mountainous terrain of
point of view of administration, this region is more the Vindhyas. It is mentioned in the Ashtadhyayi of
popular than the other areas of M.P. Under this Panini (Agrawal 1953: 47) by the name of Charmvati.
division, presently Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Guna,
Shivpuri, Datia and Ashoknagar eight districts are India’s history is characterized by unity in
administered. diversity. There were different regions in India
which possessed separate races, religions, languages
It had been the former Scindia Gwalior princely customs and tradition. Each region possesses certain
state. Its total area is 89,49,834 square kilometers. characteristics and peculiarities which distinguished
Geographically Gwalior region 74”2 to 79”12 east it from the other. People of all these regions enriched
longitude or 22’5 to 26”52 is situated in the middle Indian culture by their contribution.
of northern latitude. It’s average normal altitude
above sea level is 800 feet. This region touches the The rudimentary evidence of human habitation
boundaries of Uttar Pradesh in the northeast and explicitly exists in this region. Some stone tools
Rajasthan in the north-west. and rock shelters are found at Gupteshwar, Sooron,

*
Research Scholar, Regional Study Centre for Culture and Heritage Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.; E-mail: [email protected]
**
Professor, Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.; E-mail: [email protected]
216 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Panihar, Tikla (Gwalior), Roor (Bhind), Kadwaya, Pratihara period in this region. This region has been
Chanderi (Guna), Gilouliikheda, Pahadgarh, explored district wise. Each and every District of this
Likhichhaj (Morena) (Wakankar1980). In third region has a very strong hold position of Jainism.
century B.C. Mauryan empire was extended upto There are so many temples, relief sculptures, siddha
every corner of India and Gwalior region was kshetra ruins, evidence of Jain temples showing
included into its vast empire. Even Ashok’s minor popularity of Jain religion in this region in all time
rock edict(Epigraphiaindica, Vol. XXXI) is found periods.
from Gujarra village near Datia. In Sunga period
Agnimitra was the ruler of Vidisha and Gwalior Two rock cut reliefs at Gwalior, one showing
was an integral part of Sunga dynasty. Padmavati Tirthankara standing in meditation (Kayotsarga
and Kantipuri were capital of the Naga kings who Mudra) and the other representing a Jina meditating
ruled in the third century A.D. Though, the antiquity in the Padmasna posture, also seem to be of the
of Padmavati is datable to 1st century A.D. Dr. Gupta period(Ghosh 1974: 129). Indore (district
H.N. Dwivedi fix its date around first century A.D. Guna) became great center of Jainism where
Bhavabuti gave a vivid description of this place installed Jain images are from the inscription
in his ‘Malti-Madhav’ play.Prayagprasshati(Fleet of 982 A.D. engraved in the Atha Khamba at
1888: 6-7) reveals that Samudra Gupta defeated Gyaraspur, it is known that some pilgrims visited
many Naga kings and expanded his kingdom. this place. Sonagiri, Aharji, Dronagiri and Nainagiri
A gold coin of Ghatotkacha and an inscription (Resandigiri) were Jain Pilgrim places as known from
of Kumargupta- I is also found from Tumain the Prakrit Nirvanakanda, and several Jain images of
(Ashokagar). In the Huna ruler Mihirkul’s fifteenth the Chandella period were also discovered at these
regnal year(Sarkar 1983: 400)Matrichata built a sun places. Jainism made striking progress during the
temple at Gopahill.Chinese pilgrim Chin-chi-to lay period under the Kachchhapaghatas, Pratiharas and
referred the city of Maheshvarapura(Gwalior) which the Yajavpalas. The rulers of these dynasties were
is identifiable with Gwalior. HuinTsang came to city followers of Brahmanical religion, but they took
of Ujjain via Maheshvarapura which has also been interest even in the progress of Jainism. The inscription
identified with Gwalior (Cunningham1871: 412.). of 1077 A.D. on the pedestal of Jain images records
Alberuni(Sachou 1888: 198) also mentions famous the installation of Jain images in the time of the
fortress of Gwalior (Gopagiri, Gwalior).In eighth Kachchhapaghata ruler MaharajadhirajaVajradaman
and ninth century, Gurjara Pratihara rulers made of Gwalior branch. Form Dubkund inscription, it is
Gwalior a part of their kingdom. After Mihirbhoj his known that encouraged by the teaching of the Jain
son Mahendrapal ruled upto 907 A.D. The epigraphic Monk Vijayakirti of the Latavagata Gana. Some
records revealed that Gwalior and nearby areas were Jain images inscription speak that Jainism has the
under the control of Mahipal. Gwalior region saw Kachchhapaghata ruler Maharajadhiraja of the
many different rulers ruling the suburbs around it. Dubkund branch made some donation of land and
Gwalior became a prominent place for religious others in favour of this temple in 1088 A.D. There is
practices, culture and other disciplines coming up a memorial of Jain pillar dated 1095 A.D. of the great
during the first century AD. Gwalior region has been teacher Devasena of the Kashtha Sangha at Dubkund.
rich in religious heritage and culture. Jainism is one The sites such as Sihonia, Manaharadeva and
of the popular religions in this region. Sonagiri, became centres of Jainism during the rule
of the Kachchhapaghatas because remains of several
Jain temples and images have been discovered. There
JAINISM IN GWALIOR REGION is mention of the name of a pilgrim in the inscription
of 1056 A.D. and the name of pilgrim Devachandra in
Jainism was established from Gupta period up to the the inscription dated 1077 A.D. of the Jain temple at
Some Sculptures of Yakshi Ambika from Gwalior Region 217

Badoh in Vidisha District. Chanderi, Budhichanderi, the time of Mahavir that it got wide acceptance. The
Thubon, Bhamon, Devagarh etc., developed as Niraganthas unlike Brahmanical religion stressed
great centres of Jainism under the Pratiharas of much on renunciation and non- violence. According
Chanderien and later on under the Yajvapalas of to Jain religion only those who by their extreme
Narwar. Some images installed by Antesaha in 1226 austerities and penance have achieved the state of
A.D.,have been found at Khandaragiri. The Narwar Omniscience (Kaivalya) is entitled to become a
inscription of 1262 A.D. (Jain1997, 563) records the Tirthankars.
construction of Jain temple by Jaitrasimha, officer of
the Yajvapala ruler Asaladeva. Nagadeva is known Buddhism died out in most of India because
to have installed the image in the Jain temple. Buddhist monks eventually changed certain rules
and practices that had previously maintained
Jainism is one of the oldest religious beliefs renouncers’ poverty and itinerancy, while Jainism
of India to have survived until the present time. It survived because Jains instead repeatedly reformed
is a fully developed and well established religious similar trends in their own tradition.
and cultural system, purely indigenous to India. Jain
religion is a composition of all obligatory elements, The contribution of north India in the
such as Philosophy, epistemology, ontology, development of Jain iconography is of much
Metaphysics, mythology, ethics, ritual and sects more significance than what has been brought out.
and sub-sects that indicate of a long process of According to the Jain tradition, all the twenty-four
development. Jainism has its own rich scriptures, Jinas of the present avasarpiṇī were born in this
temple and places of worship and pilgrimage. Jainism region and it was the reason that most of the Jina
holds a special place among the religious beliefs of deities gained sculptural representations first in the
India. Some scholars are of the opinion that Jain region.
religion had its roots in Indus valley civilization.
In Jainism the celebration of shruta puja (worship
The reference of the name Rishabh in Rigveda of the canon) is known as shrutapanchami. The
is understood to stand for Rishabhadev. This view shramanas observe this festival to attain knowledge
concurs with the description given in the Yajurveda. in general, from the hoary past and to visualize
In Atharveda and Gopath Brahman Rishi Kashyap is shrutadevi for the furtherance of knowledge. Mathura
alluded with Rishabhdev. However, Mahavir, the last was the centre of Saraswati movement from where
and twenty-fourth Tirthankara, was the systemizer two Jain Saraswati images were discovered.
and conspicuous propagator of Jainism. Between
In addition to these manifestations of Jain
the first and the last Tirthankara there were 22 other
architecture and iconography, representation
Tirthankaras, Namely – 2. Ajithnath 3. Sambhavnath
of the dharmachakra, ashtamahapratiharyas,
4. Abhinandannath 5. Sumatinath 6. Padamprabhu
Chaitya trees, samavasarana, manastambha and
7. Suparshva 8. Chandraprabhu 9. Suvidhinath
dhvajastambha, Nandishvaradvipa, Charana
(Pushpadanath) 10. Sheetalnath 11. Shreyamshnath
padukas, Panchparmeshthis, ashtamangalas
12. Vasupujya 13. Vimalnath 14. Anathanath 15.
Panchmerus, triratna, Nishidhis, ‘siddhachakra,
Dharmnath 16. Shantinath 17. Kunthunath 18.
mandalas and Yantras, sahasrakutas, swastika,
Arnath 19. Mallinath 20. Munisuvrata 21 Naminath
Navadevatas, shruta-skanda-phalakas, Dikpalas,
22. Aristhnemi (Neminath) 23. Parshvanath.
Naga-Naginis, Dreams of Jinas’s mother and the
Rapid propagation of the Jain religion took Kshetrapala sculptures and symbols are found
place in Northern India in 6th century BCE during the from centuries in Jinalayas as objects of worship.
time of the last Tirthankara, Mahavir,Although, Jain Jain temples are known with different terms like
Philosophy was very much in vogue.It is only during “Jinalaya, Jinasadma, Arhadayatana, Jinamandira,
218 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Jinendrabhavan, Vasati etc. These Jain temples are become sacred due to the activities of the Ascetics.
not only a replica of samavasarana, but also is a These are one of the sites of Pancha- Kalyanaka.
dwelling place of all tirthas and Kshetras.
Atishaya-Kshetra - Madhya Pradesh is very
rich regarding Atishaya- Kshetras in the state as the
JAIN TIRTH- KSHETRA number exceeds than that of any other state. These
places have interesting legends about them. Some of
“Sansarebdheshyasyatarbhe tirtha bhishyate, the them include, for example, solder alloy becomes
Cheshtitam jananathanatasyonktisatirthasankatha.” silver; upon throwing a slip containing the names of
vessels in a water tank, and it yields those vessels.
The above means the place which helps to Such folk tales are known from Maksi, Kundalpur
cross the worldly life to attain niravana is called and Banediya. The Atishaya- kshetra of Madhya
tirth. The character of the tirthankara is itself a tirth Pradesh include, Bajranggarh, Thubon, Chanderi,
and the expounding of the Jina character itself is a Bahuribandh, Sihonia, Panagar, Patmaganj, Bandha,
pilgrimage. The root of the word tirth is derived ‘tri’. Ahar, Golakot, Pacharai, Pappora, Kundalpur,
Tirth is combination of two words ‘tri and Dhak’ Manhardev, Koni, Talanpur, Maksi Parshvanath,
on the basis of which one can achieve redemption. Banediya, Bina Baraha, Gurilagiri, Budhi Chanderi,
According to Jain canons there are several meanings Lakhnadaun, Madia etc.
ascribed to the word tirth. The meaning of the word
‘tirth’ is popular understood as an area, auspicious Kala-Kshetra -The places associated with Jain
area from early times. Thus, merely calling a place religion and having temples and other Jain edifices
tirth instead of tirth-khsetra (pilgrimage area) or but are different from Panchakalyanka, Siddha-
tirthsthan (pilgrimage place) would also suffice. Kshetra or Atishaya-Kshetra are Known as Kala-
Right from the ancient time several nirgranths and Kshetra.
Jain ascetics have performed severe austerity &
The contribution of north India in the
meditation in Kayotsarga- mudra on the mountain,
development of Jain iconography is of much
in the deep forest, caves and on the bank of rivers
more significance than what has been brought out.
and attained enlightenment (Kevalaya).
According to the Jain tradition, all the twenty-four
Kalyanaka Khsetra -The places associated Jinas of the present avasarpiṇī were born in this
with Pancha- kalyan of Jain Tirthankara namely- to region and it was the reason that most of the Jina
conceive (chyavan), birth, initiation of knowledge deities gained sculptural representations first in the
(abhinishkramana), enlightenment and death region.
(Nirvana) become holy and visiting such places yields
The earliest known Jina images, preserved in the
spiritual grace. Such places are called as Kalyanaka-
Patna Museum, come from Lohanipur(Patna, Bihar)
kshettea or siddha kshetra. The kalyananaka –
and is datable to c. third century B.C.(Jayaswal
Khsetras are Ayodhya, Purimtal, Astpad, Sammed
1937, 130-132) The nudity and the Kayotsarga-
Sikhar, Sravasti, Kaushambi, Varanasi, Chandrapuri,
Mudra, suggesting rigorous austerity, of the image
Kakandi, Bhaddilpur, sanghpur, Champa, Kampilya,
were confined only to the Jinas. Another Jina image
Ratanpur, Hastinapur, Mithila, Rajgriha, Shauripur,
from Lohanipur is assignable to the Sunga period or
Udiyanya, Kshatriyakund, Rijuvalika, and Pavagiri.
slightly later. In Jain iconography, before the end of
These places become a pilgrim centre for Jain laity.
the fifth century A.D., we do not find any attendant
Siddha-Kshetra or Niravana-Kshetra- Yakṣha and Yakṣhi accompanying a Tirthankara nor
Nirvana or Siddha- Kshetras are those places in do we find separate sculptures of any Sasanadevta
which the Tirthankaras achieved niravana. Such sites which can with Confidence be assigned to a period
Some Sculptures of Yakshi Ambika from Gwalior Region 219

before C.500 A.D. concept of Sasanadevtas (Dutt 1897: 43-45). The

Harivamsapurana also speaks of the relevance of
The Gupta period was a milestone in the the veneration of the Sasanadevtas who are capable
development of Jain iconography, and some of of the pacifying the malefic powers of the grahas,
the most significant iconographic features, as for rogas, bhu-tas, pisacas and raksasas. According to
example, the distinguishing cognizances (Lanchana) the Jain belief, Indra appoints a Yakṣha and a Yakṣhi
and the Yakṣha - Yakṣhi figures, were introduced to serve as attendants upon every Jina.
during the period. A headless statue of Mahavira in
the State Museum, Lucknow inscribed and dated in The earlier scriptures like Sthananga-sutra,
the Gupta year 113, is perhaps the only Known Jain Uttharadhyana-sutra, Bhagawati-sutra, Tattvartha-
Sculpture of the Gupta period, discovered hitherto, sutra, Antagaḍadasao-sutra and Paumachariya
which bears a date. Figures on the Kahaon pillars have frequent references to Yakṣha and Yakṣhinis.
dated in the year equivalent to 461 A.D. A seated Yakṣha is usually found on the right side of the Jin
figure of Neminath on the Vaibhara hill, Rajgir, idol while Yakṣīni on the left side. In Jain temple,
bears a fragmentary inscription, in Gupta characters, they are never situated at higher locations in relation
referring to pedestal but the attendant Sasanadevtas to image of the Jinas. Thus, they also came to be
are absent. called sasana- devtas, attendants spirits or guardian
angels of Jinas. A Yaksha, according to Hemchandra,
The Jain agamas are full of references to the originates from the particular religiosity or spiritual
worship of Yakṣha and Yakṣhi. Yakṣa and Yakṣhi aura of a Jina. The facts that Yaksha statues are
constituting a class of divine beings of Jain pantheon always depicted as decorated with rich jewels
are technically known as Sasanadevtas, guardian and costume. Hemchandra provides the name,
deities of the order (JinaSasanarakṣa-karakaya; colour, vechile, number of arms and emblem for
Acaradinakara). They figure in Jain pantheon as each and every one of forty-eight guardian angels.
the subsidiary deities and were accorded the most The Rupamanadan provides us the list of twenty-
venerated position next to the Jinas.Their reference four Tirthankaras along with their emblems and
in the Harivamsapurana (783A.D.) as ‘Sasana attandantsYaksha and Yakshi.
and Upasaka’ devas marks the beginning of the

TABLE 1
S. no. Tirthankaras Congizance Yaksha Yakshini
1 Rishabha Vrsa Gomukha cakresvari
2 Ajithnath Gaja Mahayaksa Ajitabala
3 Sambhavnath Asva Trimukha Duritari
4 Abhinandannath Kapi Yakesavara Kalika
5 Sumatinath Kraunca Tumburu Mahakali
6 Padamprabhu Raktabija Kusuma Syama
7 Suparshva Svastika Matanga Santa/ santi
8 Chandraprabhu Sasi Vijaya Bhrkuti
9 Suvidhinath (Pushpadanath) Makara Jaya Sutrika
10 Sheetalnath Srivatsa Brahma Asoka
11 Shreyamshnath Gandaka Yakset Manavi
12 Vasupujya Mahisa Kumara Candi
13 Vimalnath Sukara Sanmukha Vidita
14 Anathanath Syena Patala Ankusi
15 Dharmnath Vajra Kinnara Kandarpi
220 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

16 Shantinath Mrga Garuda Nirvani

17 Kunthunath Chhaga Gandharva Bala
18 Arnath Nandyavarta Yakset Dharini
19 Mallinath Ghata Kubera Dharanpriya
20 Munisuvrata Kurma Varuna Nadarakta or
Naradatta
21 Suvratanatha Nilotpala Bhrkuti Gandharva
22 Aristhnemi (Neminath) Sankha Gomedha Ambika
23 Parshvanath Phani Parsva Padmavati
24 Mahavira Simha Matanga Siddhayika

The worship of goddess has been popular earliest reference to Ambika, as noted above is
from the distant past in India. A figure of mother obtained in the Vrtti of Jinbhadra- ganin- Ksama-
goddess made of bone was discovered from the Sramana on his Visesavasyaka – bhasya. The earliest
upper Paleolithic site in Belan valley (Pandey 2010: archaeological evidence (Shah 1959: 28-31) also
264). So, a large number of terracotta figures of show that Ambika does not appear in Jain worship
mother goddess are noticed from the different sites. prior to Jina (Risabhanatha) and as an independent
A bronze image of female dancer from harappan image also, early images of Ambika are datable
has also been inferred as Goddess by the scholars. to late six century A.D.These figures are procured
They are frequently used in the Vedas, epics, the from Akota near Baroda in Gujarat. One of her
Vajasaneyisamhita, the SatapataBrahamana, the early images(Shah 1972: 12) was obtained from the
Astadhyayi (of Panini) and several other Brahmanical Meguti temple at Aihole (now preserved in Aihole
and Jain texts.The words Amba, Ambika, Ambalika, site museum).
Ambali and Ambi are of the great antiquity. These
words have several applications such as the mother, The legends related with Digambara ideology
good woman (as term of respect) sister of Rudra, speaks about Ambika. According to this ideology,
name of Parvati or Durga (wife of shiva), the harvest In the city of Kodinar, situated in the province of
(as the most productive season), one of the mothers Saurastra, there once lived an orthodox learned
(Krittikas) in Skanda’s retinue and the yakshi of 22nd Brahmin Called Soma who had a very virtuous
Tirthankara Neminatha (Tiwari 1989: 16). wife her name was Agnila. The couple had two
sons Siddha and Budhha. Who used to offer food
The Yakshinis are female attendants of the to Jain ascetic to break his fast. This act of Agnila
Tirthankaras, being the leaders of the women enraged the orthodox Brahmanas who lodged a
converted in the deity. They are endowed with semi- complaint with her husband. The husband drove
divine attributes. Their names and symbols indicate her from his house at this and she went to the Jain
Brahmanical influence (Gupte 1972: 176). According ascetic for diksha (initiation). Being refused on her
to Neminatha Carita (Gunvijaya) the Yakshini request by ascetic. Consequently, Ambika had to
of Neminatha has the Svetambara description of leave the place in a helpless condition along with
a Goddess, who rides a lion and bears a bunch of her two children. She wandered about and finally
mangoes, noose, a child and goad. took refuge under a dried mango tree with her two
sons. Her sons, hungry and exhausted, cried out for
According to Pratishtha Sarasangraha - the food and water. She has nothing to give, strange
image of Digambara sect the Yakshini is described miracles occurred instantly, a dried mango- tree
as also riding upon the lion, but as a bearing two offered them fine ripe mangoes, and a dry lake
hands with a bunch of mangoes and a child. The nearby was filled with water. Exhausted, Agnila
Some Sculptures of Yakshi Ambika from Gwalior Region 221

rested for a while under the shade of the Mango tree. rÙkhFkZtUekdq"ekMhLo.kkZHkkflagokgukA
Her husband in the meantime experienced some vkezyqfEcik'k/kyokesrjHkqt};kA
miracles and he realised his mistake, and went to
iq=kadq'k/kjokedj;qXekeoRizHkks%A
take her back. Agnila not realizing that her husband
vafcdsR;fe/kkusuHkrqZ% 'kklunsorkAA
was remorseful, on seeing him, took her own life
and was re – born as the yakshi Ambika retaining,
however, her form Agnila out of love for her sons. JhusfeftuL; vEcknsohduddkfUr#fp% flagokgukprqHkZtk
The husband, on the other hand, that she was not vkezyqfEcik'k;qDrnf{k.kdj};kiq=kM~x+
original Agnila, his wife committed suicide and was dq'kklDrkoedj};ktA
re-born as a lion, to be her vahana, in fulfillment
of the remorse that he felt. this version of legend f}tqHkkflagek:<kvkezknsohgfjRHkzkA
is narrated by T.N. Ramachandran (1934: 157-59).
nsohdq"ekafMuh;L;flag;kukgfjRizHkkA
According to U.P. Shah (on basis of Ambika Devi
Kalpa) she was born in one of the heavens called by
prqgZLrkftusUnzL;egkHkfDrfoZjkftrkA
the Jains the Kohanda Vimana situated four yojanas
before the Suadharma Kalpa as a Yakshi devoted to We find innumerable images of Ambika, both
the Sasana of Neminatha. She is otherwise known as independent and Jina-Samyukta, from different
Kohando (Kusmandi or Kusmandini) on account her places in western India. Ambika along with her
residence in the Kohanda Vimana. male counterpart Sarvahna or Sarvanubhuti forms
the most popular Yaksha –Yakshi pair commonly
The above is Svetambara account of the represented with almost the Sinas. In Jina-Samyukta
Ambika. A Digambara version on the story of her images. Ambika invariable appears as two armed
origin is supplied by the “Yakshi Katha” found in and as holding Amra- Lumbi and child. However,
a work called Punyasrava- Katha, a palm leaf Ms. rendering of her elder son and also lion vahana is
Of which is in the possession of the temple-priest found rarely in Jina Samyukta images(Tiwari 1989:
at Jina Kanchi. According to this version, which is 44) .
slightly different from the Svetambara one, she was
the wife of Somsharman, a Brahmin of Girinagara. Ambika in Jain context is clear cut example of
Her name was Agnila and her sons were called the assimilation of popular belief of mother goddess
Shubhankaranad Prabhankara, aged seven and five in Jain worship to formulate the form of one of
years respectively. Here she leaves her husband in the most favored yakshis, who is shown with two
company of two sons and a faithful maid-servant sons. Her popularity doubtlessly was mainly due to
and repairs to the Urjjayant hill where Varadatta, the her symbols of fertility such as a pair of sons and
Muni whom she had given food for breaking his fast, the amralumbi (bunch of mango fruits) and Mango
was living (Ramchandran 1934: 157-60). tree. As a consequence, people propitiated her
for begetting children. In one of the JainTantrika
This story and the form of Agnila has gleanings passage (Ambika tadanka, C. 13th century A.D.),
on the Iconographic features of Jain Yakshi Ambika. it is clearly stated that, by the worship of Ambika,
It clearly indicates the close connections of Yakshi the devotees are blessed with children (putralabhate)
Ambika with her putra’s, vahana and AmraVriksha The Iconography of Ambika can be explained
etc. Apart from this story, Jain literatures clearly almost wholly with the help of the legends narrated
define Iconographic elements of Yakshi Ambika. above. When represented, Ambika is invariably
There are some references in Trisasti –Salaka- accompanied by two children, apparently Siddha
Purusha-Carita, 8.9, Pravacana- Saroddhara, and and Budhha, and she hold a bunch of mangoes which
Pratistha Sara Sangraha. meant for drawing water from an Indian well.
222 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Trishala Mata AtishayKhsetra’sUrwahi gate of tree overhead. Two armed Ambika holds fruits in
Gwalior fort at Gwalior (Fig. 1). Beautifully carved, her hands, while with left she support's her younger
relief show the yakshi Ambika along with her child Priyankara, seated in her lap. She wears kirita
counterpart, two armed, holding a child, the younger on head and the kundalas on her ears, hara at breast
son, Priyankara and an other child, the elder son, and Katibandha at waist. This sculpture made of
Shubhankara, standing at her right. She holds a bunch sand stone is datable to c. 5th- 6th century A.D. and
of mango fruit by her right hand, while her left hand is found from Tumain Ashoknagar. This beautiful
cares the child on the left lap. She wears a decorated image is now preserved in Gujari Mahal Museum,
head- gear and has patra- kundalas on her ears with Gwalior (Fig. 4).
bangles on the fore arms, hara at breast (stanasutra)
and anklets, while above her, there is shown the part Apart from that we also find an image yakshi
of a tree with leaves and mango fruits. She is seated Ambika is now preserved in Pt. Ramprasad
on her vahana, a lion turned towards her right and Bismil Museum Morena. Standing figure of the
faced at the viewer. The sculpture in red sandstone is JainYakshini Ambika carved in a coarse sand stone.
datable to 7th century A.D. The goddess, originally four armed, is carved in high
relief against the plain ground of the slab. She stands
An image of Jain yakshi Ambika is preserved in in Sambhanga mudra. The deity a tired crown of the
Gujari Mahal museum, Gwalior, M.P. (Fig. 2). This beehive (karanda) type. lower right hand of goddess
four-armed image holds trident (Trishula) in upper has been broken away; in remaining arms, she holds
hand and the lower right hand is broken. In left upper a goad(ankusha) and another one is not clear. With
hand she holds a bunch of Mango tree (Amra lumbi) lower left hand she supports her child Priyankar
and with lower left hand she supports a child seated seated in her waist (Fig. 5).
in her lap. Seatd on her Vahana, lion. She wears
kundalas in her ears and bangles in her four arms. One more image is found from Pachrai,
She wears kantha hara and another hara at breast Khaniyadhana at Shivpuri and shows Ambika
and armlets on hands and anklets on the ankles. She standing in Tribhanga, with a bunch of mango fruits
seated in utkutikasana/ardhaparyakasana. She has in her right hand and a child on her waist helped
beautiful headgear and katibandha. by the left hand. The other son is standing on her
left side. Deity is noticed from the left pillar of the
A stone image of Ambika is also noticed from sanctum sanctorum of the temple (Fig. 6).
Thubon in Chanderi, Ashoknagar district. The image
situated at Shantinatha temple’s garbhagriha. The An image of Ambika is also noticed from Badoh,
goddess here stands under a mango tree the foliage Dist. Vidisha Here, yakshi Ambika is associated with
of which is seen on eitherside. There is a small figure Neminatha, the twenty- second Tirthankara. She is
of Neminatha seated over its head. The goddess shown here standing with a child on her waist. She
holds an amralumbi and holds her child with the stands in Tribhanga mudra. Her left hand is damaged
hand. Elder son Shubhankar and vehicle lion is from elbow and both the legs are broken from knee.
also present. This Deity wears beautiful ornaments This Diety wears different ornaments like: torque,
like: Kirit, Kundal, torque, necklace sthanahara, necklaces and katimekhala or urubandha (Fig. 7).
bhujbandha, bangles, pajeb and nupur, katimekhala
An image of Jainyakshi Ambika carved on the
or urubandha and yakshi also wears Adho-vastra and
left extremity of the pedestal of a Jina, rides a lion and
kati – vastra Dhoti (Fig. 3)
holds the amra lumbi and a child with the branches
An other image of Ambika is seated in lalitasana of mango tree is spread over her head. The image is
on a pedestal. There appears a rampant lion under the now preserved at the HH Maharaja sir Jiwaji Rao
feet of the goddess and beautifully delineated mango Scindia Jai Vilas Palace Museum, Gwalior. Some
Some Sculptures of Yakshi Ambika from Gwalior Region 223

sculptures of Yakshi Ambika also noticed from So far, the statue with more than four arms has not
Narwar, Barai, Chanderi, etc (Fig. 8). been reported from here.

An interesting image of Ambika is Preserved

at Archeological museum, Shivpuri. The headless REFERENCES
goddess is standing over a pedestal in dwibhanga,
holding an ambralumbi in her right-hand child with Agrawal, V.S., 1953, India as known to Panini, Lucknow:
the left. Besides her foot on the right is the second University of Lucknow.
child while the lion vehicle is on the left. Goddess Cunningham, A.,1871., Ancient Geography of India.
is fully ornamented and Vidhyadhar and chowery London: Trubner and Company.
bearer also noticed. This sculpture found from
Sarkar, D.C., 1955-56, Epigraphiaindica, V. XXXI,
Bairad village from Shivpuri district. Its time period part-V, Delhi: Manager of Publication.
is circa 12th – 13th century CE.
Fleet, J.F.,1888, Corpus InscriptionumIndicarum, V.III,
The images of Yakshi Ambika preserved in Calcutta: The Superintendent of Government Printing.
Gwalior are made of sandstone, which are found as Ghosh, Amalananda, 1974, Jain Art and Architecture,
independent and as joint images. These images are New Delhi: Bhartiya Gyananpith.
in Sthanaka, Lalitasana postures and two armed and
four armed. Noose, goad, bunch of mangoes, fruits, Gupte, R.S., 1972, Iconography of the Hindus Buddhist
and Jains, Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala sons & Co. Pvt.
trishuls(Trident)and some other ornaments have been
Ltd.
known but apart from such statues of JainYakshi
Ambika, a huge statue is preserved in the Gujari Jain, K.C., 1997, Madhya Pradesh Through the ages, V.
Mahal museum, Gwalior, which holds the trident II., Delhi: BR Publishing Corporation.
(Trishula) and Amralumbi in her hands and is located Jayaswal, K.P.,1937, Jain images of Mourya period,
in the utkutikasana/ardhaparyankasana, which is IBORS, V. XXIII.
unique. The sculpture in red sand stone is datable to
Pandey, Jai Narain, 2010, Puratattava Vimarsh,
7th -8th century A.D. which is obtained from Vidhisha.
Allahabad: Prachya Vidya Sansthan.
According to Jain literary sources Yakshi Ambika Ramachandran, T.N., 1934. Tiruparuttikunram and its
is the Sasandevta of 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha. temples, Bulletin of Madras Government Museum, Vol 3.
She is also found with Parswanatha. In early phases
Sachou, Edward C, 1910, Alberuni’s India, London: V.I.,
Ambika is shown with Tirthankara but in later phases
Kegan Paul, Trench & Co. Ltd.
her independent sculptures came into existence.
Her complexions are golden and green. Images of Sarkar, D.C. 1983, Selected Inscriptions, Varanasi: V. II,
Ambika can broadly be divided into three groups Motilal Banarsidas.
according the numbers of arms they bear, namely, (A) Shah, U.P.,1959, Akota Bronze Age, Bombay: Department
two armed, (B) four armed, and (C) having more than of Archaeology, Government of Bombay.
four arms. The earlier form of two armed Ambika
Shah, U.P., 1972, Beginning of Jain Iconography,
was retained along with the four armed and multiple Lucknow: Bulletin of Museum and Archaeology, IX.
armed forms. Brown sandstone has been mainly used
for the construction of the statues of Yakshi Ambika Tiwari, M.N.P. ,1989, Ambika in Jain Art and literature,
New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith.
obtained from Gwalior region because it is easily
available in this area. Out of the received idols, only Vakankar, V.S., 1980, Gwalior Kehstra ke Shelashryin
two-armed and four-armed idols have been received. Chitra, Gwalior Darshan, I.A.R. 1958-59.
 EVOLUTION OF GURDWARA AND SOCIO-RELIGIOUS
CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS THE SIKH COMMUNITY

AMIR ALI*, MUHAMMAD HAMEED** AND MAHBOOB HUSSAIN***

F or the vast majority of the 20th century, the

investigation of religion has been triggered
on institutionally and denominationally based
in the world. Iconic examples are like Abolitionist
Movement, the American Protective Association
(an anti-immigrant organization), and the Women’s
gatherings, practices, and convictions, and strict Christian Temperance Union in Europe and America
foundations. By keeping institutional religion Michele (Dillon 2003: 331) and in sub-continent,
at the focal point of our research, the studies of Gurdawara Reform Movement which aimed at
history have a base comprehension of the different controlling gurdawaras from the Mahants back in
implications that people may credit to their strict the hands of the Khalsa Sikhs (Singh 1993: 120).
practices. An institutional center underestimates the Therefore, Gurdwaras (and synagogues, mosques,
assorted and syncretic nature of individual conduct. sanghas, etc.) retain accessible convention spaces,
For instance, direct consideration away from known management, fundraising dimensions, and
institutional religion to the investigation of “lived” influences to many parts of the public in which they
religion, and religion outside of foundations, that is, exist. In particular, congregations are gatherings
the different and complex ways that individuals act of individuals previously associated by informal
to make meaning and new practices inside the texture communities and used to helpful action. Commonly
of their regular day to day existences lives (Dillon individuals don’t join social developments as
2003: 277). The religious institutions’ played key secluded people; all the more frequently, they get
role in the various political and resistant movements drafted into taking part in exercises that others they

*
Visiting Faculty member at University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
**
Chairman, Department of Archeology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan; E-mail: [email protected]
***
Department of History and Pakistan Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
226 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

know are partaking in-informal organizations, not (McLeod 2009: 12). Moreover, to support the
detaches, make up developments. Local groups are “Sikhi”, heads of these Manjis were allowed to
actually that associations of informal organizations. collect funds. Later on, Guru Ram Das established
Besides, strict assemblages are for the most part “Masands” (McLeod 2009: 12) to get support for the
genuinely homogeneous gatherings of individuals wellbeing of the community as well as furnishing
(Williams 2003: 318). Amritsar.At every “Baisakh day”, the heads of these
Manjis and Masands used to visit Amritsar for the
purpose of submitting the funds collected by them.
EVOLUTION OF THE GURDWARA Guru Arjan Dev further modernized the “Masands”.
He pursued his followers that-
The Sikh religious sanctuaries, generally called as
Gurdwara or Dharamsals (Singh: 92) had a powerful In future every Sikh had to submit tenth (dasvan)
part in making the occasions of the 5 centuries in (1/10) of his income for the Guru’s trust and to
length standing Sikh relic and in the development of refer it through a certified masand who, along with
Sikh practices and customs. A focal point of the Sikh the sangat of his area, had to visit and submit the
three some, the Guru, the Granth and the Gurdwara, collections to the guru in person on the Baisakhi day
and the “Gurdwaras” were the financial political (Singh 1997: 236).
focuses of Sikhs. Nanak first time set up this very
foundation. Nanak’s fundamental lessons depended The system was diminished during the times of
on the unity of “God” and the association of the Guru Har Ray because of succession constraints and
mankind, additional consideration was given to the away from center. During the initial times of Guru
development of indistinguishable, establishment of Harkishan, the “Masands” completely encouraged
Sangats and pangat (Singh: 93). These establishments Ram Ray and additional contenders of the “gaddi”.
served as the places for the preaching of Nanank’s Sikh customs vowed not to use these funds and
message. The followers gather here twice and offer belongings for the personal usage of the heads these
their religious rituals (McLeod 2009: 10). Therefore institutions and even in the later times, this traditions
Dharamsals served as the centers of meetings for the was followed (Singh 1997: 236).
Sikhs. Gradually, these establishments were meant
for the educating people, helping the needy, serving
GURDWARAS IN THE HANDS OF MAHANT’S
food to the poor as well the resting place for the
travelers.
During 18th century, the murder of Banda Singh
According to McLeod who quoted that: Beragi led towards the escape of the Sikhs to the hills,
following the harsh policies of the administrators
Mohsen Fani, the author of the Dabistan-i-Mazahab against the anti-state elements (Singh: 92). Due to
had witnessed the Sikh religion in practice at these steps, a large number of the Sikhs went to exile
Kartarpur under the direct guidance of 6th and 7th
or escaped from the center which led towards the
gurus, Har Gobind and Har Ray, in the forties of
change of management and by now the Udasis held
the 17th century. According to him, the Sikhs ignored
the domination of the Brahman’s in social and
the management of these sanctuaries (Sandhu, 1849
religious matters and men from all the four Varna’s -1947). The Udasis laid great services by the time
freely joined the Sikh Dharamsals and partook of the and kept the gurduwaras open. The administrators
sacred Prasad and free meals served in the guru ka were learned and great administrators (Campbell
langer. (McLeod 2009: 10). 1969:190-91). But a few of them raised their
personal groups, developed their supporters as
Every Sangat head is chosen among the well- “chelas” and were recognized as Mahants (Singh:
furnished and learned believer at various areas 6-9). During early phase, these Mahants got support
Evolution of Gurdwara and Socio-Religions Contributors towards the Sikh Community 227

from the local Sangats of their region and followed to the management these religious sanctuaries.
instruction but later on they deviated from the Initially, the Sikhs sought to get help from the courts
orders to follow (Singh: 5). This happened due to but in vain. Being persuaded of the insufficiency
increasing wealth coming to the gurdwaras by the and uselessness of the legal preparations, activists
Sikhi. With the rise of Sikh Raj, the wealth of the prepared indigenous Akali Jatha (Bakshi 1994: 93).
gurdwaras grew more and more. With the power of The two bodies Sharomani Gurdwara Parbandhak
Ranjit Singh, gurdwaras were declared as tax free Committee along with Sharomani Akali Dal started
entities and they were endowed with tax free jagirs. campaign with under mentioned objectives:
The growing wealth developed the life style of these
Mahants. The trust entities were turned as personal 1. To bring the Sikh religious shrines under
belongings of the Mahants which was considered the panth control and administration
as disgrace to the Sikh teachings and preaching
2. To away with the perpetual position of the
(Singh:23-24). Now the “Mahants”started to enjoy mahants” thus ending their carelessness
the life of ecstasy. The first traces of reform of the
Sikh faith were observed through the period of Ranjit 3. To use the belongings and revenue of the
Singh. Dayal Singh (Singh 2002: 54–56) was first gurdwaras for the purposes of the public
who raised voice against the misdeeds and vices. He welfare
propagated against adulation, tombs worshipping and 4. To practice the Sikh faith as according to the
other vices entered into the Sikhism. The Namdhari lessons of the Sikh gurus especially of Guru
Movement (Mcleod 2010:132) generally famous as Nanak as preserved in the Adi Granth. (Singh:
“Kukas Movement” made its appearance and it was 36)
launched by Baba Balak Singh and Bhagat Jawahar
The control of the sancturies went into hands
Mal. This was a powerful religious-political move.
of Akalis, kicking Mahants out of the administration
The killing of kukas and destruction of movement
and this wave also towards the feelings of Sikh
caused the Singh Sabha Movement. Singh Sabha
nationalism so far. The “Gurdwaras Reform
Movement and its working had broader attraction
Movement” started from gurdwara Babe de Bir
for the community. The organizers of Singh Sabha
Sialkot and ended with the sad and painful happening
Movement were commonly of the learned people. In
at Nankana Sahib Massacre in 1921. With the
early 1905, some newspaper The Khalsa, Samachar,
occupation of important gurdwaras by the Akalis,
Khalsa Sewak, “Khalsa Advocate” as well as The
other gurdwars submitted themselves to Akalis the
Punjab started criticizing the administration of
administrators of smaller gurdwaras surrendered
Golden Temple Amritsar and other sanctuaries
and land endowments too by the requirements of
(Singh: 92).
Gurdwaras and Shrines Bill which was passed by the
The Sikh notables sought help from the Raj Punjab Legislative Council in July 1925 (Ahluwalia
authorities in regard to gurdwaras management. Singh 1985: 492).
Sabha asked the Mahants to leave the management
of the religious sanctuaries. In the Sikh Educational
Conference at Jalandhar on 10-12th April 1914, Sardar THE PURPOSE OF A GURDWARA
Harchand Singh, asked for strict action against the
• It’s a place to learn spiritual wisdom
demolishers of the wall of Gurdwara Rakabgunj
Delhi (Singh: 198-219) but his move was rejected and • It’s a place for religious ceremonies
even was expelled from the press conference (Singh:
31-34). In the Charitable and Religious Endowment • It’s a place where children learn the Sikh faith,
Act (Act XIV of 1920) a few incentive were given ethics, customs, traditions and texts
228 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

A Gurdwara is also a community center, and food is served to anybody without charge. The term
offers food, shelter, and companionship to those who Langar is additionally utilized for the common
need it (Maryada1971: 69). supper served at the Gurdwaras. The food served in
the Langar should be straight forward, to forestall
rich assemblages transforming it into a dining
INSIDE THE GURDWARA experience that shows off their prevalence. Despite
the fact that Sikhs are not needed to be vegan, just
There are no symbols, sculptures, or strict pictures veggie lover food is served in the Gurdwaras. This
in a Gurdwara, in light of the fact that Sikhs love guarantees that any guest to the Gurdwara, whatever
just God, and they view God as having no actual the dietary limitations of their confidence, can eat
structure. Nor are the candles, incense, or ringers, in the Langar. The dinner may incorporate chapati,
or some other ceremonial gadgets. The focus of dal (beats), vegetables and rice pudding. Fish and
attention is the book of Sikh scripture (Mann 2021: eggs are considered meat and avoided. Gurdwaras
23), the Guru Granth Sahib. The Guru Granth Sahib fly the Sikh banner outside. The banner is orange/
is kept in its very own room during the evening and yellow and has the Sikh image in the center. In
conveyed in parade to the fundamental lobby toward India numerous Sikhs visit a Gurdwara before work.
the beginning of the day’s love. The book is set on In Britain 39% of Sikhs go once per week, and
a raised stage (Takht or Manji Sahib, signifying keeping in mind that Sikhs don’t respect a specific
seat) under a shelter (Chanani or Palki), and covered day of the week as a heavenly day, they generally
with a costly fabric when not being perused. During go to a Gurdwara on Sundays as that fits the UK
service, an individual with a whisk or fan called example of work. Most Sikhs go to the Gurdwara on
a Chaur waves it over the Guru Granth Sahib. Gurpurbs, the celebrations regarding the Gurus. All
Despite the fact that Sikhs show veneration to the are welcome to the langar (Maryada: 75).
Guru Granth Sahib, their respect is to its profound
substance (shabad) not simply the book (Macleod
2010: 231). BEFORE GOING INTO A GURDWARA

All guests to the Gurdwara should take off their shoes

THE FOUR DOORS and cover their heads prior to entering the primary
corridor. It is illegal to smoke or take tobacco on to
There are four doors into a Gurdwara, known as the the premises and guests can’t enter the Gurdwara
Door of Peace, the Door of Livelihood, the Door of while affected by liquor or drugs (Kohli 2006: 196).
Learning and the Door of Grace.1 These entryways
are an image that individuals from every one of the
four places of the compass are gladly received, and ON ENTERING A GURDWARA
that individuals from each of the four standings
are similarly welcome. There’s consistently a light Sikhs will bow to the Guru Granth Sahib as the
on in a Gurdwara, to show that the Guru’s Light is primary thing they do, contacting the floor with
consistently noticeable and is open to everybody their temple. This shows their regard as well as
whenever. demonstrates that they submit themselves to the
realities contained in the book. Offerings in front
of Granth Sahib are used for the purpose of langar.
THE FREE FOOD KITCHEN OR LANGAR After bowing to the Guru Granth Sahib a Sikh will
greet the congregation in a low, quiet voice with the
Each Gurdwara has a Langar connected to it where words: Waheguru ka Khalsa, Waheguru ji ki fateh
Evolution of Gurdwara and Socio-Religions Contributors towards the Sikh Community 229

(Mansukhani1999: 121) this means The Khalsa tussle in between of Mughal authorities and Khalsa
owes allegiance to God, sovereignty belongs to God panthic forces which resulted into the capture of
alone. Gurdwara administration by the Udasis. The udasis
were declared Non Sikhs by the Khalsa Panth and
the Akali and the finally, again the management
SEATING IN A GURDWARA of the Gurdwaras went into the hands of Akalis
after the Nankana massacre of 1921. The religious
Everybody sits on the floor in a Gurdwara. This is activities performed at the Gurdwara made the
to be modest before the Guru Granth Sahib and in whole community emotionally attached with all
light of the fact that it gives everybody a position of their customs and traditions and also the made
of equivalent status to sit. The vast majority sit leg viability of helping the community without any lust.
over leg. Pads and seats are not permitted. Nobody The Sikhs had much closer association with their
ought to sit with their feet pointing at the Guru religious centers and they made heavy endowment
Granth Sahib. Any individual who strolls round the their sanctuaries. It was the issue of Gurdwara
Guru Granth Sahib or the Gurdwara should do as management which took them to violent struggle to
such a clockwise way. Men and women usually sit capture the sanctuaries.
on detached sides of the hall (Kohli 2006: 196).

REFERENCES
SIKH MEN SEATED INSIDE A GURDWARA
Ahluwalia, M.L., 1985, Select document Gurdwara
Each Gurdwara has a Granthi who puts together the reform movement, 1919-25: An era of Congress-
day by day administrations and peruses from the Akali collaboration, New Delhi: Ashoka International
Guru Granth Sahib. A Granthi isn’t a cleric however Publishers.
is the peruser/caretaker of the Adi Granth. A Granthi
Bakshi, S.R., 1994, Akali movements, Vol. 6 of the
should be conversant in perusing Gurmukhi and Encyclopedia of Punjab, New Delhi: Rima Publishing
should be appropriately prepared in all parts of House.
caring for the Guru Granth Sahib. They are required
to be a started individual from the Sikh Khalsa who Campbell, John Oman, 1969, The Order of the Udasis in
carries on with a daily existence that represents the Panjab Past and Present.
the standards of the Khalsa. Sikhs don’t have an Dillon, Michele, 2003, Handbook of the Sociology of the
overall authority ceremony that should be utilized in Religion, New York: Cambridge University Press.
a Gurdwara, although there are rules for particular
ceremonies (Mansukhani 1999: 121). Kohli, Surindar Singh, 2006, Sikh Ethics, New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.

MacLeod, W. H., 2009, The A to Z of Sikhism, Maryland

CONCLUSION : The Scarecrow Press.

The institution of gurdwara remained nucleus of Macleod, W. H., 2010, A to Z of Sikhism, Vancouver :
all the Sikh ethnic activities and it had long lasting UBC Press.
impacts on the lives of the community. It rose to
Mann, Gurinder Singh,2001, The Making of Sikh
the status of center of all the ethnic power from
Scripture, London : Oxford University Press.
merely a sitting room which was later on developed
as center of social welfare. The involvement of Maryada, Rehat, 1971, A Guide to the Sikh Way of Life,
the Khalsa panth into political affairs led to the Sikh Cultural Society.
230 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Mansukhani, Gobind Singh, 1999, Sikh Ethics, Ontario: Sandhu, Kiranjit, The Udasis in the Colonial Punjab 1849
Sikh Books. A.D -1947 A.D, an unpublished Ph.D., Guru Nanak
University, Amritsar.
Singh, Mohinder, 1993, Akali Movement, New Delhi:
Manohar Publications. Singh, Puran, 2002, Sikh sects in the eyes of late Prof.
Puran Singh. Sikh Review, 50(12).
Singh, Teja, Gurdwara Reform Movement and the Sikh
Awakening. Singh, Sangat, Freedom Movement in Delhi.

Singh, Raghbir, 1997, Akali movement, 1926–1942, New Williams, Rhys H., 2003 Religious Social Movements in
Delhi: Omsons Publications. the Public Sphere: Organization, Ideology, and Activism,
New York: Cambridge University Press.
 IDEOLOGY, POWER AND CONQUESTS: REPRESENTATION OF
SOUTH ASIA IN EUROPEAN CARTOGRAPHY

RAVINDRA KUMAR*, DEEPAK KUMAR** AND NEELKAMAL SINGHA***

INTRODUCTION
Ideas and cultural practices of renaissance period time have been subjected to rigorous readings
influenced mapmaking and its functions in an by historians of cartography as well as that of the
unprecedented manner. Although the earlier functions post-colonial studies for embedded expressions of
of maps continued albeit with less emphasis. imperialism (Edney 1997; Barrow 2003).On the
However, new functions of maps emerged that made power of map-making Benjamin Schmidt (1997)
them an instrument for territorial expansions and concludes that maps along with globes and atlases
Trade control. In the beginning, European nations offer a medium of power and possession. Beyond
viewed India as a commercial region to make the image of empire, maps equipped the powerful
profits from, which later became a cause of struggle with the very resources utilization of which distant
between them that finally resulted into the complete territories could be shaped. This is very clearly
conquering of India, in which maps played an evident during the early colonial period of India.
important role. Trautmann (2009: 155) also observes
that “the beginning of Britain’s empire in India The arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut in
coincided with a new knowledge formation directed 1499 AD was a historic event whose ramifications
toward the purposes and intellectual consequences were far reaching, shifting subsequent trajectory
of rulership”. The maps constructed during this of the world history, altogether. In the next century

*
Professor, School of Heritage Research and Management, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, New Delhi.
**
Guest Faculty, T.C.I.T.I., I.G.N.U., New Delhi; E-mail: [email protected]
***
Department of History, Bodoland University, Kokrajhar, Assam.
232 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

after the discovery of India by Portuguese, India multiple points of view. A substantial amount of
became a locus for convergence, where Europeans, research over the last few decades has provided a
with their notions of enlightenment encountered detailed account of the progress of cartography in
Indians, with their tradition and culture. This period India from prehistoric times to the present. Although
of discoveries of new lands, territorial expansions, most of these studies are carto-bibliographic in nature
and rising trading activities also witnessed the however, the focus of the work that has emerged
simultaneously development of sciences which in the last decade has shifted towards the critical
transformed geography and cartography completely. perspective on the axis of structure and agency. We
The development of Modern cartography was in will discuss briefly some of the important studies
conjunction with European colonization of the Asia, here.
Americas, and Africa. The religiosity or the erroneous
nature of the medieval cartography now paved way Leo Bagrow’s History of Cartography,written in
for the new cartography that was strengthened by the 1939, while focusing only on early modern European
development of new knowledge. maps has literally nothing for India (Bagrow 1964),
which he believes had no cartography of its own. In
There are several references in ancient literature the multi-volume History of Cartography series by
of India that indicate towards the existence of J. B. Harley and David Woodward (1987), India is
indigenous maps in India. However, there is not covered in the first book of the 2nd Volume from
even a single indigenous map to corroborate this. late prehistory onward, mostly by Catherine Delano
Whatever the Indian cartographic material exist Smith (1994: 1-22) and Joseph E Schwartzberg
today does maintain a traditional Indian character (1992: 466). Smith has shown that India is rich in
and provides the idea of the maps produced in the representations of space, objects and events, as
past (Gole 1989; Schwartzberg 1992). Some maps rock art, pottery and other artefacts from prehistoric
drawn by Indians were even employed by James sites and Indus Valley Civilization demonstrate.
Rennell in 1782, for his map of Hindoostan. The The work of Schwartzberg focuses largely on the
Europeans considered the indigenous maps of India cosmographical maps from India. On similar lines
as unworldly and of religious nature, therefore out of Susan Gole’s work on indigenous maps of India in
the ambit of the definitions of maps. While looking her Indian Maps and Plans covers comprehensively
deep into this attitude of Europeans on indigenous around 200 indigenous maps but excluding those
maps of India one finds that the European and Indian which are cosmographical and astronomical in
concept of Time was at clash. The Indigenous maps of character. Another significant work is Gole’s India
India were based on the Kairos time (Dickason 2011: within the Ganges (1983), a corpus of European
14-26) which is usually unchanging and spiritual in cartography of India with an interesting narrative.
nature, in contrast to the European cartography based
on the Chronos time, which is dynamic and secular In the late 90’s, beginning with Matthew
in nature. Another dimension of conflict between Edney’s,Mapping an Empire: The Geographic
them was of chronologies (Trautmann 2009: 25-52). Construction of British India 1765–1843, and
Europeans, having shorter chronology opposed to P.L. Madan’s, Indian Cartography: A Historical
Indians with long chronology spanning over million Perspective (1997), we see a development in the
years, failed to interpret and translate indigenous writing history of Cartography of India focusing
maps in conjunction with Indian concepts and on the colonial regime to demonstrate how map
perception of time and space. production is socially and politically Constituted.
In the current century, the work of Kapil Raj
The mapping of India, indigenous as well as (2001: 119–134 and 2007) is significant who
foreign has been studied by various scholars from has given more importance to the role of native
Ideology, Power and Conquests: Representation of South Asia in European Cartography 233

workers for the cartographic construction of India. also enables us to see how West defined ‘self’ by
Ian Barrow in his work Making History, Drawing creating the Orient, ‘other’.
Territory: British Mapping in India, c. 1756–1905
has shown how British mapping of India is linked Thomas Trautmann makes distinction in
with history writing. Other noteworthy work in Orientalism, while the old Orientalism acquired
this track is by Kalpagam (1995: 87-98), linking knowledge of Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Arabic,
the cartographic representation of India with the Persian and Turkish, the New Orientalism explored
colonial projects. Michael Mann (2003: 25-46) in India to reveal its buried past. The old Orientalism
Mapping the Country: European Geography and the paved way for the new Orientalism as it was through
Cartographical Construction of India, 1760-90 has Persian that Europeans attempted to know India and
demonstrated how cartographical construction of its culture. For Trautmann “every intellectual project
India paved way for the British expansion into India. derives its meaning in relation to larger, collective
projects that long preceded and will long outlive the
In the present research on European cartography individual and that the text written by an individual
of India we will try to use Edward Said’s study of contains within it many voices of a continuing
orientalism as a framework to focus on the orientalist conversation” (2006: 3). In his work (2009: 155) of
discourse inherent in cartography of India in order constructing an intellectual history in the Longue
to analyze the way in which these maps echoed Durѐe, looking for patterns of change over a long
imperialist projects and imagined India. Although period, he identifies Ptolemaic space for mapping
there are number of maps that have embedded of the earth’s surface as one of the locational
imperialist connotations, however because of limited projects that was generated by Claudius Ptolemy in
space and time we have chosen only few of them in 1st Century Roman Egypt. He argues that modern
the present study. We will examine cartographs of mapping of India was not framed in Colonialism on
India constructed by Europeans, to understand how the contrary it was an extension of the Ptolemaic
these acted as an instrument to meet the imperial space project of the deep past. Map-making in India
projects’ requirement in India for economic and included European soldiers, merchants, and travelers
political advantages. We will also discern these who viewed India as a region for needs to be traveled,
cartographs and marginalia as a representation of the theatre of war, a space that required administration,
other to identify the imperial attitudes towards India. and a huge market (Chester 2000).

It is in this background that we have examined

ORIENTALISM AND CARTOGRAPHY the European maps to reveal how ideas about India
that were seeded during the time of the Greeks and
In the study of representation of India, orientalism Roman continued, reinforced and transformed in
as a framework makes the relationship between the colonial times concurring with new information.
political hegemony and knowledge conceivable. It These maps embedded with orientalist biases
makes us review the Western discourse about India prove that by ‘othering’ Indians as a historical,
on a power/knowledge axis. Edward Said, in his incompetent and uncivilized, European endeavors of
magnum opus, Orientalism (1978) elaborated the cartography in India specifically that of the Britain
concept of orientalism as a discourse through which were maintained and defended.
Orient (culture, literature, people, languages, history
of the East), was methodically discovered, created,
and represented. It is ‘a kind of Western projection INDIA IN EUROPEAN CARTOGRAPHY
onto and will to govern over the Orient’. The Western
biases and misrepresentation of East as inferior and India as a mysterious land of unusual customs and
primitive are at the core of orientalism. Orientalism enormous wealth has always been a subject of
234 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

imagination for Europeans. Since earliest times there atlas of 1375 illustrated Indian cities and is one of
were many India as the term was applied to various the earliest map showing the peninsula of India
known and unknown places by the Europeans, ‘India albeit inaccurate. Later the proper shape was given
within Ganges’ meant India proper and ‘India beyond by Ruysch in 1508.
the Ganges’ denotes the regions beyond. There were
other terms like ‘India orientalis’ representing Japan The discovery of America and the parallel
and beyond and ‘India superior’ or ‘Upper India’ exploration of Africa and Asia and along with the
covering up to Northern China. Marco Polo in his progress in measuring techniques, invention of the
The Travels has described other terms, ‘Grater India’ printing press and new explorations, fundamentally
and ‘Lesser India’ as well (Yule 2013: 269). transformed cartography. As the new information
started pouring in, the cartographers began redrawing
Before Europe’s colonial encounter with India, Ptolemy’s maps or adding entirely new outlines to
westerners knew India only through the Greeks the maps of Asia and newly discovered Americas.
writers e.g., Herodotus, Skylax, Magesharthenes, The discovery of India by Portuguese reproduced in
Strabo and Eudoxos. Some of them actually visited manuscript maps containing necessary information
India and have provided vital information about were treated as top secret as it offered access to the
India. After the Alexander’s expedition to India overseas trade in the Indian Ocean. The top secret
there was an increase in the Greeks knowledge however soon disclosed and cartographers came
about India. These writers remained primary source forward with new maps that depicted peninsula of
information on India for the subsequent generation India and newly added information sought from the
of writers to come. travelers. The maps from this period were mostly
based on the cartographic assumptions of the
The early Greek writing about India had taken Ptolemy, Marco polo and other travelers.
the literal form on maps. The earliest representation
of India can be seen in maps of Claudius Ptolemy During seventeenth Century South Asia became
(150 AD) from his book Geographia which survived accessible to European travelers, whose accounts
through centuries, translated into Arabic, Greek became important source for the cartographers
and then Latin was first published in 1475 AD. On and with this we see the beginning of imperial
the Tenth table there is a list of places with their cartography linked to colonial project of expansion
coordinates of longitude and latitude accompanied although in nascent form. The travel literature such
by a map of unbounded India. The shape of India as that of Jan van Linschoten’sitenarario, voyage
given in this map is hard to identify as the peninsula ofteschipvaert and Theodor De Bry’sLes Petit
of India is flattened due to the inaccuracy in the Voyages or India Orientalis series provided textual
measurements by Ptolemy still this shape of India and visual records of India. Georg Braun in his
was carried by European cartographers until the 16th Civitates orbisterrarum has provided bird’s eye view
Century. of the world cities including Indian Cities of Diu,
Cananor, Goa and Calicut. Other traveler’s work also
The quality declined dramatically in medieval flooded the markets, portraying geography & the
cartography represented by Mappa Mundi of the social and cultural aspects (Gole1983). The attention
Middle Ages which was mostly church-sponsored. of map-making soon started shifting from the coastal
The woodcut map made by Heinrich Bunting areas to the interior of India. These books through
representing the world in the form of a Pegasus maps and images contained in them offered readers
shows the area of ‘India within the Ganges’ and visual information of ‘distant’, ‘unknown’, ‘strange’
‘India beyond the Ganges’ on the thigh portion of the territories. Maps during this century took a powerful
Pegasus. The oriental portion of the Catalan world position this is observable in the maps of India, where
Ideology, Power and Conquests: Representation of South Asia in European Cartography 235

cartographers of Europe illustrated the ‘discoveries’

and ‘victories’ of their rulers (Schmidt 1997).

A significant change that is seen in the traditions

of cartography of the eighteenth century was use of
blank spaces in maps of Jean Baptiste Bourguignon
d’Anville (1697-1782), the eminent French
geographer. The purpose behind these blank spaces
was to indicate unknown terrains. This change
deviated from the earlier tradition of decorating
unexplored areas with drawings of evil creatures and
other imaginary representations of what that land
might contained (Chester 2000).

In the eighteenth-century India, developments

in cartography and surveying coincided with the
conflict of French and British in Asia and Europe in
which British eventually overpowered French.

The East India Company under the governorship

of Robert Clive (1758-62), gave great importance to
the cartographical recording of India. The scientific
mapping started after Clive’s acquisition of Bengal.
The first task that was required by British to further
their expansion into India was to collect information
about India and its people and the first step towards
this began with the Select Committee at Calcutta in Fig. 1 : Frontispiece of Abraham Ortelius’s Theatrum Orbis
August 1769 and Joint Commission from Bengal and Terrarum (1570 AD), with allegories of the four continents
Bombay in 1792(Mann 2003: 28 – 29). The British (Courtesy: Sandra Sáenz-López Pérez Marginalia in Cartography,
initiated three surveys in India- topographical, the Marginalia in Cartography: Exhibition at the Chazen Museum of
Art, Madison, Madison, February 28-May 18, 2014)
trigonometrical and the revenue survey, resulting
into the complete and detailed mapping of India.
The Great Trigonometrical Survey, a mammoth REPRESENTATION, MILIEU, AND
project to measure the subcontinent with great FUNCTION
accuracy, initiated by William Lambton in 1802 and
completed in 1802 (Markham 1878). Noting on the The corpus of cartography of India from the earliest
importance of map making in India for Britishers times to the recent independence of India is a graphic
as well as the Indians Tarun Kumar Mondal (2019) history that needs to be studied cautiously. The study
observes that: “However, maps produced by the of these cartographs and the elements it is composed
survey of India not only assisted the colonial rulers of will lead to a better understanding of the mapping
to portray their dominance over Indian territory of India (the process), cartographers and their artistic
in a consolidated manner, but also led the native sense and the political and cultural environment in
Indians to imagine their mother land. The maps which these were made.
were instrumental in creating a sense of national
identity and conceive the idea of Indian nation state The presence of artistic motifs in cartography
among people of India” has been there since very early times to represent
236 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

geographical space, towns, people and their culture, images often relegated to the margins. In his (Fig.
etc. The marginalia refer to the images at the margins 2) Typus Cosmographicus Universalis included in
of maps and one such image from the frontispiece Johann Huttich and Simon Grynaeus’s Novus Orbis
of Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Fig. 1) by Abraham Regionum ac Insularumveteribusincognitarum, first
Ortelius, first published in Antwerp in 1570, shows an printed in Basel in 1532 there is a representation of
architectural structure that houses female allegories the four continents in each corner. India on the upper
of the four continents. Europe is shown on top head right corner is represented by the Indian spice plants
covered with the imperial crown and seated under a clove, musk, pepper and bow and arrow carrying
palisade of vine leaves and clusters of grapes, seems natives dressed with feathers. The misrepresentation
to be dominating the world. Asia is shown on left of the feathers and bow & arrow which is American
side of the title elaborately adorned with jewels Indian stereotype with the natives of India resulted
while Africa on the right side and America on the from the mistake that there are two Indies. Another
bottom are shown stereotypically. What is striking marginalia (Fig. 3) in map of Asia from his edition of
in this image is the superior position of Europe in Ptolemy’s Geography, first published by Henricum
relation to other continents. Petrum in Basel in 1540, depicts monsters from
India, a man using his big feet as an umbrella, dwarfs
Another example comes from Sebastian
fighting with the cranes, two men with face on the
Munster, whose maps are enriched with artistic

Fig. 2: Sebastian Münster’s Typus Cosmographicus Universalis showing Asia in the upper right corner represented by plants
and natives from India (Courtesy: Sandra Sáenz-López Pérez Marginalia in Cartography:
Exhibition at the Chazen Museum of Art, Madison, Madison, February 28-May 18, 2014)
Ideology, Power and Conquests: Representation of South Asia in European Cartography 237

Fig. 3: The eighth map of Asia in Sebastian Münster’s edition of Ptolemy’s Geography 1542, shows monstrous
races in India (Courtesy: Sandra Sáenz-López Pérez, Marginalia in Cartography:Exhibition at the
Chazen Museum of Art, Madison, Madison, February 28-May 18, 2014)

chest, and a dog-headed man. These monster races control, as well as of information and accurate
from India also reappear in his Cosmographia first (often inaccurate) knowledge about the continent”,
published in Basel in 1544. therefore they have to be understood in the manner
they represent spatial and cultural information.
These images were produced at the time when
new territories were being explored, new discoveries One of the significant endeavors in reading maps
were in the making and new knowledge was forming. as text is of J.B. Harley who pursued deconstruction
This was the first time when west encountered India of maps in his 1989 work and suggests that maps as
in a never before seen scale and intensity. The past socially constructed texts and can be interpreted in
images from the accounts of Magesthenes, Marco several ways. He also suggested investigating maps as
polo and other travelers reappeared and reverberated practices and relations of power-knowledge. For this,
in the maps and marginalia of this period. These following the works of Michael Foucault he considered
marginalia according to G.N.G Clarke (1988: two areas of power. First that is exercised by the patrons
455–475) are a representation of “ownership and which he terms as ‘external’ power; and the power
238 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

exercised by map makers themselves as‘internal’ and the Sepoy is pointing the recent military gains
power’ (1989: 13). While reviewing Harley’s work of Sholingur and Porto Novo to his Comrade (Edney
on deconstructing maps Jeremy W. Crampton (2001: 1997, 13). In the distant background there are
235–252) has observed following: “Thus, for Harley plowman and loading gang serving the European
the deconstruction of mapping was a heterogeneous ships behind them.In this depiction, Trautmann
amalgam of approaches. One aim was to reinterpret observes “Rennell makes the connection of the new
mapping as a non-positivist endeavor. orientalism with empire completely transparent;
indeed, he draws attention to it and celebrates it”
Criticism of Harvey’s work comes from many
(Trautmann 2009: 168).
scholars one of them is Barbara Belyea(1992: 1-9)
who criticizes his work on the basis of his lack of Arundhati Virmani (2012) observes that maps
understanding the works of Derrida and Foucault: were essential to administrative goals and key
“A glance at the notes to his articles shows that instruments of colonial control and domination,
Harley’s knowledge of Derrida and Foucault was symbols of power and propaganda, manipulation
gained largely from commentaries on their work and subjection. In British maps color played a crucial
rather than from their own writing”. role conveying different meanings.For example
However, the study of maps as text cannot be in the figure (5), a nineteenth Century map, shows
overthrown and his work is definitely significant British territories in three shades of pink to indicate
in that aspect.The demand for the military maps
increased with the expansion of British in India
support for military use of maps was seen in Robert
Orme and also in James Rennell words and it was
not a coincidence that Surveyor General and his staff
were later assimilated into the Military Department
(Mann 2003: 31 & 38 – 39). Maps were now being
made from military point of view.
The Bengal Atlas and Map of Hindoostan by
James Rennell (1742-1830), the first Surveyor-
General of India and founder of the British Survey
of India, were efforts that provided the foundations
for the imminent control of India. His Bengal Atlas
subtitled maps of the theatre of war & commerce
carried inscriptions and notes of thanks to Robert
Clive, Warren Hastings, Hector Munro, and
Verelst(Kalpagam 1995: 87).This an example that
shows shared visualization of colonized space as
revenue generating one and which can be achieved
only if they work together(Virmani 2012: 107-
122). Rennell’s Map of Hindoostan (Fig. 4) has an
allegorical cartouche that shows Brahmins delivering
the shaster (Sanskrit Literature) into the shelter of
Fig. 4: Title Cartouche from James Rennell’s Map of
Britannia, which is supported by a pedestal on which
Hindoostan (Courtesy:Trautmann, Thomas R, The Clash of
military victories are engraved. The place names Chronologies: Ancient India in the Modern World. Yoda Press:
visible are- Trichinopoly, Plassey and Wandiwash New Delhi, 2009.
Ideology, Power and Conquests: Representation of South Asia in European Cartography 239

of India but also the mindset of ‘othering’ India as

inferior, uncivilized and need to be ruled. The above
discussion shows that the very idea of Empire is
visible in the orientalist writings and in the maps and
marginalia. There are numerous evidences only few
of which have been examined here. Thus, what is
required is to reread the history of cartography of
India, particularly of the colonial period to surface
the hidden meanings and messages.

REFERENCES

Bagrow, Leo, 1964, History of Cartography. Translated

by D. L. Paisley, Rev. and enl. R. A. Skelton. London: C.
A. Watts.

Belyea Barbara, 1992, Images of Power: Derrida/Foucault/

Harley, Cartographica: The International Journal for
Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 29(2).

Barrow, Ian J., 2003, Making History, Drawing Territory:

British Mapping in India, 1756–1905, New Delhi: Oxford
Fig. 5: Historical Map of India in the 19th Century: British University Press:.
Expansion 1805-1910, From the Cambridge
Modern History Atlas, 1912 Chester, Lucy P, 2000, The Mapping of Empire: French
and British Cartographies of India in the LateEighteenth
Century, Portuguese Studies, 16.
territories acquired in three phases. The native
territories are shown in yellow while the French, Clarke, G.N.G., 1988, Taking Possession: The Cartouche
Portuguese and Danish territories are shown in Blue, as Cultural Text in Eighteenth Century American Maps,
Green and Yellow respectively. Word and Image. 4(2).

Crampton, Jeremy W., 2001, Maps as Social Constructions:

Power, Communication and Visualization.” Progress in
CONCLUSION Human Geography, 25(2)

The entire colonial discourse of mapping India can Dickason, David G., 2011, The Future of Historical
be seen as continuation of the project that began Cartography, The Indian Cartographer, 31.
with the Ptolemy’s Geography, in Alexandria.
The colonial method of ordering of space saw Edney, Matthew H., 1997, Mapping an Empire: The
emergence of science and technology that helped in Geographic Construction of British India, 1765–1843,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
maneuvering and achieving European objectives in
India effectively. It is in this scientific representation Gole, Susan, 1983, India within the Ganges, New Delhi:
that the imperial biases were for long time went Jayaprints.
unnoticed, revealing the true power of maps. The
cartographic representation of India reveals not Gole, Susan, 1989, Indian Maps and Plans, Delhi:
only the Imperial agendas of Conquest and control Manohar Publishers
240 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Harley, J. B., and David Woodward (eds.), 1987 -2021, Schmidt, Benjamin, 1997, Mapping an Empire:
The History of Cartography, (in six vols.) Chicago: Cartographic and Colonial Rivalry in
University of Chicago Press.
Seventeenth-Century Dutch and English North America,
Kalpagam, U., 1995, Cartography in Colonial India, The William and Mary Quarterly, 54(3).
Economic and Political Weekly, 30(30).
Schwartzberg, Joseph E., 1992, Introduction to South
Mann, Michael, 2003, Mapping the Country: European Asian Cartography, History of
Geography and the Cartographical
Cartography, Book 1, vol. 2, J. B. Harley and David
Construction of India, 1760-90, Science Technology & Woodward (eds.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Society, 8(1).
Smith, Catherine Delano,1995, Prehistoric Cartography
Madan, P.L., 1997, Indian Cartography: A Historical in Asia, History of Cartography Vol. 2, Book 1, J. B.
Perspective, New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. Harley and David Woodward (eds.), Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Markham, C.R., 1878, A Memoir on the Indian surveys,
Allen & Co., London. Trautmann, Thomas R., 2006, Languages and Nations:
the Dravidian proof in Colonial Madras, London:
Mondal, T.K., Mapping India since 1767: transformation University of California Press.
from colonial to postcolonial Image, Miscellanea
Geographica. 23(4). Trautmann, Thomas R., 2009, The Clash of Chronologies:
Ancient India in the Modern World, New Delhi: Yoda
Raj, Kapil, 2001, Colonial Encounters and the Forging Press.
of New Knowledge and National Identities: Great Britain
and India, 1760–1850, Osiris, 2.15. Virmani, Arundhati, 2012, Mapping Indian History: A
New Historical Challenge, India International Center
Raj, Kapil, 2007, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation Quarterly New Delhi, 40(1)
and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and
Europe, 1650 – 1900. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan Yule, Henry and A. C. Burnell, 2013, Hobson-Jobson:
The Definitive Glossary of British India, edited by Kate
Said, E., 1978, Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books. Teltscher, Oxford:Oxford University press.
 BATTLES AND SIEGES IN HISTORICAL
CARTOGRAPHY OF INDIA

DEVENDRA GUPTA* AND DEEPAK KUMAR**

INTRODUCTION
The present uniform style of modern cartography has labeled them as failing to fulfill the parameters
its origin in the methods used by the Europeans, first essential for the recognition of indigenous diagrams/
based on the locations described in the travelogues engravings/paintings, etc., under the preview of
and then fitting them into the coordinates of latitude maps. The representations of buildings, settlements
and longitudes and then by measured survey. Susan and pilgrimage directions in indigenous maps differ
Gole (1989) acknowledges that the reason behind from Western cartographic representations (Howes
the lacunae of pre-modern cartographic evidence in 2003) largely because of multiple viewpoints in
India pertains to the unconformity to the European the former. While looking deep into this attitude of
standards of map-making. The cartographic Europeans on indigenous maps of India one finds
evidences of India that are pre-modern in date are that the European and Indian concept of Time was
meager and the reason behind this meagerness is that at clash. The Indigenous maps of India were based
any styles of map-making that did not confirm to the on the Kairos time which is usually unchanging
recognized patterns of the Europeans were usually and spiritual in nature, in contrast to the European
rejected as of no value (Gole 1983). Another reason cartography based on the Chronos time, which is
that contributed to the non-recognition of indigenous dynamic and secular in nature (Dickason 2011).
cartography was often the extremely narrow view Another dimension of conflict between them
the West (Schwartzberg 1992, 504) which always was of chronologies - Europeans, having shorter

*
Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History Culture and Archaeology, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand.
**
Guest Faculty, T.C.I.T.L., I.G.N.U., New Delhi; E-mail: [email protected]
242 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

chronology opposed to Indians with long chronology from the Mesolithic paintings in a Bhimbetka rock
spanning over million years, failed to interpret shelter where the painting is representing a child
and translate indigenous maps in conjunction with burial and mourning family within an enclosed
Indian concepts and perception of time and space. space. In one of the paintings from the shelters of
Although there are indirect references in ancient Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh (Manoranjan 1982), there
literature and archaeological materials suggesting is a representation of four persons drawn in a light
Indians also produced maps for various purposes red color, dancing within an enclosure. Another
since very early times, however, we do not have example (Neumayer1983: 89) is of the rock painting
enough evidence (Schwartzberg 1992: 295-296). from Satkunda in M.P showing figures in a hut with
Scholars with the help of written records have drawn a tiger-skin rug on the floor. Stone slab engraving of
inferences about the Indian cartography thereby, the Neolithic times from Burzhom with the depiction
reinterpreting the history of Indian cartography. of stage hunting and representation of two suns
Whatever the Indian cartographic material exist perhaps represented the concept of time in relation
today does maintain a traditional Indian character to space. The representation of events and landscape
and provides the idea of the maps produced in the on a plan makes these paintings and engravings as
past. When Europeans came to India the knowledge cartographic in nature. A few potsherds from the
of western cartography already became widespread. Salihundam excavations (Subrahmanyam 1964: 49)
During the British expansion in India cartography provides rough plan of a monastery and a Swastika
became an instrument for the military control of mark inscribed on them in the date bracket of
Indian territories and its population. The production second-first century BCE to CE first century. Similar
of these indigenous maps has been affected by the kind of evidences have also been encountered from
political, economic and military conditions therefore Nagarjunakonda where the plans of monastery are
it is possible that some of the indigenous maps and inscribed on sherds and a seal. Another significant
plans of forts may reflect direct or indirect influence evidence (Hardy 2015) comes from the Temple
of ideas and maps from Europe. There are references plan drawings engraved in the rocks surrounding
to use of maps by Mughals and Marathas for defense the unfinished, royal temple at Bhojpur constructed
and military strategies. However, only maps are during the first half of the eleventh century. D.C
accessible as most of them have been lost (Gole Sircar (1990) discusses many works that somehow
1989). are related to early map making in India. He refers
to an entry in Encyclopedia Britannica (14th Ed
Vol XIV: P-840-41) on map making knowledge of
CARTOGRAPHY IN INDIA Indian People. It says that the charts used by Indian
navigators were equally valuable if not superior. The
The beginning of the idea of cartography in India data from Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Ben Hosein’s
can be traced back to the prehistoric times when 1554  Mohit (Encyclopedia of the Sea) which was
cave art appeared for the first time with the arrival compiled from the ancient sources is testimony to the
of the anatomically modern humans. The prehistoric local knowledge. FrancescoPulle’sLa Cartografia
art of India has abundantly displayed array of antica dell’Indiaalso provides an interesting
representations of space, objects and events recorded information although it uses mostly old European
on rock, bone, pottery, and wooden artifacts. A number and Islamic maps however, this work also provides
of rock paintings and engravings discovered in the some secondary reconstructions from ancient texts
rock shelters of central India and other places have such as Kshemendra’s Lokaprakasa and a manuscript
shown manifestation of the plan and distributions, of  Laghu-Ksetrasamasa in which the illustrations
very vital elements of a map (Delano 1995; 1-6). use the uniform visual vocabularies related with Jain
One interesting example (Wakankar 1975) comes cosmology. Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari translated by
Battles and Sieges in Historical Cartography of India 243

Francis Gladwin also used ancient manuscripts for soared as the British expanded their rule in India. This
reconstruction of some maps (Sircar 1990: 246-50). can be seen in assimilation of Surveyor General and
his staff into the Military Department. Cartography
By the time British arrived in India the finally received a professional framework with the
knowledge of western cartography was already introduction of a Military Institution in Madras in
common. During the Colonial expansion in India 1804. Maps were now being made from military
western cartographers carried out several surveys point of view (Gole 1989: 38-39). The Indigenous
to make accurate maps of India. cartography now maps and plans of India we are discussing here date
aligned itself with colonial agendas and became back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
an instrument for the military control of Indian The objectives of these maps and plans were military
territories and its population. The production of intelligence, planning, administration, exhibiting
these indigenous maps was affected by the political, battles and sieges, strategic settlements, etc. All
economic, and military conditions (Gole 1989: 39) of these maps do show the western cartographic
therefore it is possible that some of the indigenous influence on them albeit differently. Depiction of
maps and plans of forts may reflect direct or battles and sieges weather real or mythical has
indirect influence of ideas and maps from Europe. been prevalent Indian art since very early times in
There are numerous references how Mughals and paintings, drawings, and sculptural art. Many of
Marathas used maps for their defense and military these arts were more imagined than grounded in
strategies. However, most of these maps are lost due reality however we do have evidence of such works
to negligence. that are closer to displaying the actual character of
In their venture to colonize India Europeans saw the military along with the space where these battles
maps as a vital tool for administrative and militaristic were fought. Two such examples are shown in the
control. During the initial phase of colonial rule battles of Samugarh (1658) and Panipat (1739) by
like every other knowledge cartography too had
This paper deals with the study of maps and
military implications (Peers 2005). In the eighteenth
plans made by Indian that recorded battles and sieges
century, developments in cartography and surveying
including defense architecture such as fortifications.
coincided with the conflict of French and British
It also evaluates the political and social context in
in Asia and Europe in which British eventually
which they were made in order to understand their
overpowered French. These conflicts accelerated
significance and function with respect to defense
their interest in geography of the interior of India
system and military strategies. The following
which ultimately resulted in specific map-making
indigenous maps provide us sufficient records of
that illustrated the routes, rivers, forts, etc. After
important forts, battles and sieges in India.
Robert Clive emerged victorious at Plessey in 1757,
British established their control over India. Michael
Mann (2003: 25-46) has shrewdly observed, It had
been the cartographical construction of Bengal, 1. Western India
and later on India by British geographers and
This late Maratha map (fig. 1) in Marathi language
cartographers in the second half of the eighteenth
and Devanagari script depicts two battlefields
century that made Britain’s economic, political and
against the British under Sir Arthur Wellesley during
eventually military expansion into India possible.
the second Anglo-Maratha war, in the first five
He further observes that “Maps were needed to years of the 19th century. It seems that the map was
fight wars, but wars also provided new geodetic and constructed to illustrate account of the war. At the
geographic material, which made it possible to wage top Tapi river has been shown while at the centre is
further wars (35). The demand for the military maps River Godavari and other rivers such as Pravara and
244 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Neema are also shown. The map shows directions Dara Shikoh during their struggle for the succession
written on all four sides and it is north oriented. for the throne of Mughal Empire. It is credited to
In several places the Marathi word for battle ladai Payag,brother of Balchand a hindu artist active at
appears signifying the places where the battles might the Mughal courts somewhere around the middle of
have taken place. the 17th century. The painting is in gray-black ink,
opaque watercolor, gold and metallic silver paint
over white wash on off-white paper.
2. Siege of Bhiwai

This undated map (fig. 2) from Jaipur is in Dhundari 4. Battle of Panipat

language and Devanagari script. It depicts the forces
arranged during the siege of fort of Bhiwai in the The painting shown in Fig. 5 drawn on paper and
Shekavati district of Jaipur State. In the map itself backed with cloth, is from Faizabad, ca. 1770.
all the troops along with their commanders have Although it is not strictly a cartograph however, the
been named. Ahmad Husain’s army is shown at the display of the battlefield plan and array of armies
bottom right corner and next to it round the corner shown in this painting makes it nice example where
is Kawasji’s camp. Between the guns and the walls painting does contain cartographical elements
there is a line of troops who have been shown in a sometimes. It includes the names of the principal
tunnel. Close to them are Naga platoon almost naked. soldiers inscribed in Persian characters. This
In the fort itself the main gate is shown through the dramatic example of the 1739 battle where Afghan
outer wall on the left and the inner gate is round the Ahmad Shah Durrani conclusively defeated the
square towards the upper side, protected by the long Marathas. A portion of a town, apparently Panipat, is
walls on the right. also shown in the lower left corner.

3. Multan MAPS OF FORTS AND FORTIFICATIONS

The fig. 3 shows the map of Multan in Hindi The Indian maps of forts and fortifications we are
language and Devanagari script. It depicts the scene dealing with are generally made for the purpose
when British captured the Multan during the second of military intelligence, planning, administration,
Sikh war.The siege of Multan ended on 22 January exhibiting battles and sieges, strategic settlements
1849 and it proved to be a turning point in the war. etc., but there are also maps that were made only
The fort is marked and within the town are shown for decorative purpose. Most of these map date
the major roads to the gates. The right side depicts from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The
the garden of Dewan. On the left side the quarters of study of these maps and map like paintings of forts
Lane Sahib are shown and the vertical zig-zag line and fortifications is significant as it helps to situate
on the left depicts the English front line. The Sepoy them in the political and social context these were
platoons are shown arranged in semi-circle before made in. These Indian maps and plans are related
the walls. in various ways to forts and fortifications. The
purposes of these maps and plans vary significantly.
While a number of planimetric perspective maps
BATTLES OF SAMUGARH were made for military intelligence and planning.
Others were meant to record battles and sieges. The
The fig. 4 shows the battle of Samugarh was the major features portrayed are residential structures,
battle fought near Agra where Aurangzeb defeated temples and mosques, etc. The indigenous maps of
Battles and Sieges in Historical Cartography of India 245

forts slightly differ from the other maps which are Dharwad Fort: The fig. 10 shows four gates,
crowded with unnecessary decorative detail to fill the outermost facing north, and the three inner ones
map space. However coastal forts may be depicted east. Parts of the town outside the fort were attached
with ships in full sail, and rivers may display fish, to the plan on separate paper. On the back of the
turtles, and crocodiles. We will now discuss only five map the name of the artist is given: Visaji Narayana
maps of forts that we have selected for our analysis. Vadadekar, who was the agent for the patwardhan in
the Peshwa’s court at Poona.
Gagraun Fort: This map (fig. 6) of Gagraun fort
dates back to 1735. It is painted on paper and the text
is written in Rajasthani. It shows blend of various SUMMARY
views- for example, the façade is shown in oblique
perspective while the inside walls are shown in plan In this paper we have included some of the selected
metric view. The figure shows a detailed part of a indigenous maps of India that relate in various ways
larger painting. There are details of fortification and to military strategies, sieges, defense architecture &
within the fort we can see the depiction of maharaja planning and territorial expansions. The purposes
of Kota and his officers. of these maps and plans vary significantly. Most
of these maps were made for military intelligence
Vijaydurg: The fort (fig. 7) is known as one and planning. However, some were surely meant to
of the best natural harbors on the western Indian record battles and sieges. Some cartographs of battle
coast. This map dates back to the 18th century. It plans suggest that they were drawn for pre-emptive
depicts various bastions of the fort and the main lessons and to prepare for specific activities.
gate along with the gun turrets, water tanks, and
residential structures. The compass rose at the center The type of Battle maps that we see in Western
is typically a European influence. At the western end military cartography are absent in Indigenous maps
of the fort is the water tank. On the western side the of India. With the arrival of the European to India,
sea is shown with depiction of fish and ships. we observe that the number of notices of indigenous
mapping increased considerably. With this scenario
Janjira:This map (fig. 8) of Janjira, a small we also see a beginning of an association of military
rocky island south of Bombay map is in very poor with cartography which endured very well. Quite
condition. It illustrates naval engagement between an appreciable lot of surviving corpuses of Indian
Marathas and the Sidis in perhaps one of the battles maps belongs to Maratha maps, many of which
of 1758-61.We can see detail of Janjira fort and other were drawn mainly with militaristic intentions.
nearby forts with the text written in Modi script. It Apart from the above discussed maps there were
is oriented towards east, a characteristic of Maratha other general maps that were part of the textbooks
maps. The bastions around the walls are named with of the military strategy showing planning and
their guns depicted. At the lower left another island arrangement of guns, cannons and soldiers. We also
fort has been shown. have Paintings of battle scenes, representing actual
as well as imaginary one. In some of the paintings
Baghor Fort: This map (fig. 9) shows two we observe sincere concern in displaying the actual
fortifications, the Baghor, the square fort on the right nature of the battlefield and fighting armies. A large
and Bhiwai, on the left. It provides information about lot of surviving corpuses of Indian maps belongs to
bastions and places within the fort. The map was Maratha maps and that many of which were drawn
apparently drawn from the military viewpoint. The mainly with militaristic intentions. Except for the
style of the houses and the use of colour is European Gagraun fort we see a striking European influence in
influence. other four maps which owes to the fact that European
246 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

influences have shaped both the style, content and Neumayer, Erwin, 1983, Prehistoric Indian Rock
the purposes of many of them. In all of the maps Paintings, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
that we have selected in our re-search we conclude
Peers, Douglas M., Colonial knowledge and the military
that apart from providing data relevant to political in India 1780–1860, The Journal of Imperial and
control and to the collection of land revenue, these Commonwealth History, vol. 33(2).
maps especially the map of Janjira and Vijaydurg had
consider-able utility for military planning. In most of Subrahmanyam, R., 1964, Salihundam: A Buddhist site in
the indigenous maps of forts we see a planimetric Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad: the Government of Andhra
perspective however in Gagraun fort figure some of Pradesh.
the parts of fort are depicted as if viewed from an Schwartzberg, Joseph E., 1992, Conclusion, In History of
oblique perspective. Cartography Vol 2, Book 1,

J. B. Harley and David Woodward, (eds.),, Chicago:

REFERENCES University of Chicago Press.

Schwartzberg, Joseph E., 1992, Introduction to South

Dickason, David G., 2011, The Future of Historical
Asian Cartography, History of Cartography Vol 2, Book
Cartography, The Indian Cartographer, vol. 31.
1, J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds.), Chicago:
Ghosh, Rai Sahib Manoranjan,1982, Rock-Paintings and University of Chicago Press.
Other Antiquities of Prehistoric.
Schwartzberg, Joseph E., 1992, Geographical Mapping,
Later Times, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of History of Cartography Vol 2, Book 1, J. B. Harley and
India, 24:18. David Woodward (eds.), Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Gole, S., 1989, Indian maps and plans: From earliest
times to the advent of European surveys, South Asia Book Sircar, D.C., 1990, Studies in the Geography of Ancient
and Medieval India, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Hardy Adam, 2015, Theory and Practice of Temple
Publishers.
Architecture in Medieval India: Bhoja`s.

Samaranganasutradhara and The Bhojpur Line Smith, Catherine Delano,1995, Prehistoric Cartography
Drawings, New Delhi: Dev Publishers. in Asia, History of Cartography Vol 2, Book 1, J. B.
Harley and David Woodward (eds), Chicago: University
Howes, Jennifer, 2003, The Courts of Pre-colonial of Chicago Press.
South India: Material Culture and Kingship, London:
Psychology Press. Trautmann, Thomas R., 2009. The Clash of Chronologies:
Ancient India in the Modern World, New Delhi: Yoda
Mann, Michael, 2003, Mapping the Country: European Press.
Geography and the Cartographical.
Wakankar, Vishnu S., 1975, Bhimbetka-The Prehistoric
Construction of India, 1760-90, Science, Technology and
Paradise, Prachya Pratibha 3, (2).
Society 8(1).
 INTERPRETING PICHHVAI TRADITION OF MINIATURE
PAINTINGS AND ITS ARTISTS

PARUL SHARMA* AND S.K. DWIVEDI**

T his paper shall discuss about the tradition of

Pichhvai art in Rajasthan, India and also about
the present artists working in Nathdwara to preserve
ji, a 7-8 year old child incarnation of Lord Krishna.
The shrine of Shrinath ji is a sanctum for all the
Vaishnavas who came here from around the world.
this art form. In fact they are practicing this art form Unlike other shrines where the Darshan is open for
in this town of Rajasthan from generations to till date. long hours a day but here according to Pushtimarg
The purpose of this study is to know about the origin the Darshan took place with intervals and total of 8
of the tradition of Pichhvai Paintings influenced by Darshanas for the devotees to have a divine glimpse
Pushtimarg (Vaishnavism) and about the artists in of their deity.
Nathdwara their material, methods and style.
Geographically, the town Nathdwara is located
on the flat surface in between the Aravali hills on the
NATHDWARA bank of river Banas, Rajsamand District. The high
and wavy hills are a kind of wrap around the town,
Literally means The Doorway to Lord 45kms away though the new extension of town is even spreading
from the historic city of lakes, Udaipur, a passage upon the low wavy hills which are much close to
passing through hills is connecting the way to the the flat surface. The beauty of this Rajasthani town
holy town of Nathdwara where a 351 ft tall statue is the adjoining white washed houses looking bright
of Lord Shiva is a sight to admire and stands tall. under the sun and surrounded by sharp hills which
The Vaishnavas of Vallabh Community visit there are shining like copper under the scorching sun. As
to have the Darshan of their deity Lord Shri Nath local people says, the beauty of this town is defined

*
Research Scholar; Fine Arts, Jiwaji University, Gwalior; E-mail: [email protected]
**
Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior; E-mail: skdwivedi.26@
yahoo.in
248 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

by the shades of brown under the cerulean blue sky, deity’s idol from the destructive rage of Aurangzeb
the brown hills, the brown old ruins and age old against ‘But Parasti’ i.e. worshiping idol, the head
heritage with local brown stone. The Shrinath ji priest decided to migrate from Vraj along with
temple in Nathdwara is the prime example of white Shrinath ji and eventually they settled down in Mewar.
wash and brown heritage of Rajasthani architecture Interestingly Nathdwara was founded by them only
which includes all the Haveli (big mansion) features because during the time when they were travelling
like Chowk, Jharokha, Gali, kothra and more. After from Vraj, Mewar’s King Maharana Raj Singh offers
Nandlal ki Haveli (Shrinath ji temple) another high them a village near Udaipur because his mother and
light of Nathdwara is the “Gaushala” (Cowshed). the whole family was devotee of Lord Krishna so
Basically this Gaushala is for the temple purpose he wants to have a privilege of having Lord’s town
only. The milk obtained twice a day from the cows near to his. It was a small village ‘Sinhad’ but the
of this Gaushala is the only milk preferable to offer Vraj people named it Nathdwara means the door
Lord Shrinath ji and also to prepare milk delicacies way to Lord. Vikram Samvat 1726-28 i.e. 1669-71
for offerings. The milk is transported to Temple AD was the time period between travelling to Mewar
from Gaushala in a blue van by temple authority and from Vraj with stoppages like Agra - Dandoti Ghat
interestingly the van is hand painted with Nathdwara – Krishnapur - Kota Bundi – Pushkar – Kishangarh -
School’s cow motifs all around and the work was Jodhpur and then reached Mewar which overall took
done under the supervision of Mr. Paramanand approximately two years with seven stoppages.
Sharma (Chief Artist). The Gaushala is located in
Nathuwas area almost 2km from Temple.
ABOUT SHRINATH JI TEMPLE
The doorway to Gaushala is an arched shape
huge gate with painted walls on both sides depicting The Shrinath ji temple also known as Nandalaya
the Gwale (cowboys) with cow and inside is an which means Nand Ki Haveli ‘Nand Mansion’ and
immensely big courtyard with organic raw clay Shri Nandrai ji was the foster father of Lord Krishna.
surface and by the left side some cages for bulls The concept of the architecture of this temple is to
and on the right side sectioned shelters for cows, create a Haveli just like the one in Vraj of Krishna’s
also there is a special cow Chandravali and she is foster father where Lord Krishna grew up playing in
the descendent of the cow from Nand Maharaj’s the courtyards of the Haveli. The Nandrai Ki Haveli in
cowshed (Nand the foster father of Krishna), a Nathdwara is home to the deity of Pushtimarg which
round stage with roofed shelter at the centre of the is built in typical Rajasthani style Haveli or palace
courtyard for the Tilkayat Maharaj (high priest) to keeping in mind about all details which consists the
sit there on the occasion of Gopashthami, a festival feel of Nandalaya in Rajasthani manner, the lime
to commemorate cows and cowherds, and another white painted walls of the Haveli are adorned with
sumptuous gate way in the front which looks like a murals of Nathdwara School, 5 courtyards, 4 Poles
Haveli and makes us to imagine that Krishna’s haveli (gates), 4 kotha, gateways, Nijmandir (sanctum
must look like this back as where Krishna used to sanctorum), terraces, staircases, kitchen, chambers,
play in the muddy courtyard of his mansion as a kid alleys and much more. The temple was built in the
and also play with his cows and calves, enjoys utterly mid 17th century which took 9months to complete
sweet milk and butter and also share with friends. and the Moti Mahal was built later.
Before the arrival of Shrinath ji, the today’s town
Nathdwara used to be a small village ‘Sinhad’ with ABOUT PICHHVAI
a very less population almost 15 to 20 houses, they
were based on farming to earn a living. The village The term ‘Pichhvai’ means ‘At the Back’. The large
Sinhad comes under the region of Mewar. To protect Pichhvai painting on cotton cloth often several
Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings & its Artists 249

meters or feet in height and length which is often himself manifested his hand. On Vikram Samvat
made in the traditional techniques and methods of 1535 (1478AD), ‘Vaishakh’ (mid April to mid May)
Indian miniature art is the ritual hangings used in was the day of ‘Mukharvind Prakatya’ because that
Pushtimarg (Vaishnav) temples. These textiles, also was the day when Shrinath ji manifested his face
maybe embellished with gold, silver, precious jewels, from the hills. The term Mukharvind means face and
appliqué work, brocade, embroidery, paintings are Prakatya means to be manifest. And the ‘Mukharvind
hanging behind the idol of Shrinath ji (Lord Krishna) Prakatya’ was the day when founder of Pushtimarg
at Nathdwara (Rajasthan). The origin of Pichhvai Shri Vallabhacharya was born to South Indian
tradition lies in the vaishnavism. The episodes Brahmin parents Laxman Bhatt and Illamagaru
from the life of Lord Krishna are the basis of this in the forest of Champaranya near today’s Raipur,
tradition. In fact a cult of vaishnavism propounded Chhattisgarh. Grew up as an extraordinary child, he
by Vallabhacharya was named as the Pushtimarg spread the devotional knowledge and with the time
in which the episodes from the childhood of Lord he developed a very strong devotional movement.
Krishna are the main subject. These episodes are He introduced Pushtimarg – The Path of Grace.
narratives of Krishna’s life are transformed into art Also known as Vallabh Sampradaya means the
through paintings and these paintings are executed ‘sect by Vallabh’ for the devotees of Lord Krishna
to adorn in the sanctum of vaishnav temple behind and Vaishnav community/sect comes under the
the main deity i.e. lord Krishna. This is the reason same. On Vikram Samvat 1549 (1492 AD) Falgun
these paintings are called Pichhvais. The Hindi term (mid February to mid March), Shrinath ji gave a
Pichhvai means the object adorn or installed at the dream to Shri Vallabhacharya ji who was then in
back of deity and that is the front wall of the temple’s Jharkhand. The motive behind this calling was that
sanctum. Shri Acharya ji’s union time with Lord had come. He
headed towards Mount Goverdhan and as soon as he
reached Mount Goverdhan that was the time when
THE ORIGIN Shrinath ji manifested his own self completely and
they both embraced each other with utmost joy. Shri
The Pichhvai tradition came in existence because Acharya ji build a temple there at Goverdhan for
of the Tilkayats love and admiration towards art. In Shrinath ji and installed him at the temple there and
Pushtimarg sect art is a way to venerate lord; it is a from there the systematic veneration of Shrinath ji
pure expression of love for the lord. The tradition had started by Shri Vallabhacharya ji. Shri Acharya
and antiquity of Pichhvai goes back to the 15th ji himself prepared ‘Bhog’ to feed Shrinath ji and
century at Mount Goverdhan, Vraj near Mathura, planned the daily Seva and Shringar of Shrinath
UP, from where the whole scenario started. It is ji. The initial Shringar (adornment) of Shrinath ji
believed by the Vallabh Sampradaya that Shrinath included a peacock feather for the crown known as
ji is Krishna and has manifested himself from the ‘MOR Chandrika’ and beaded necklace of Gunja
mount Goverdhan in the form of an idol known as known as ‘Gunja Mala’.
Svarup. It was Shri Vallabhacharya who installed the
idol of Shrinath ji in a temple at Goverdhan hills. ‘Tilkayat’ this title is for the head priest from the
It was Vikram Samvat 1466 i.e. 1409 AD, Hindu Goswami ‘Vallabh Kul’. The direct descendent of
month of ‘Shraavn’ i.e. somewhere between mid Shri Vallabhacharya. The Tilkayat is the in charge of
July to mid August on the day of ‘Nag Punchmi’ the temple who takes the responsibility of each and
at the mount Goverdhan in Vraj for the very first every development for the temple and community.
time the raised hand of Shrinath ji came into vision Tilkayats have always been patrons for the artist’s
and that day in Pushtimarg sect is popularly known community as art has always been a crucial part in
as ‘Bhuja Prakatya’, for the very first time Lord the Pushtimarg temples. The artists who adorn the
250 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

walls of the Pushtimarg sanctums and the Pichhvai tradition in Pushtimarg is popularly known as Chitra
for the backdrops are all done under the patronage Seva. The very first composition of ‘Chitram ki
of Tilkayat; the instructions for the compositions of Pichhvai’ was Krishna and his elder brother Balram
paintings are decided by Tilkayat himself. Artists who as cowboys taking their cows for grazing. And from
prepare Pichhvai paintings for the festivals create then it became very famous among the Vaishnavas
the art work when Tilkayat narrates them the Bhaav and not only limits up to the temple but also the art
(feeling) for the composition. Throughout the year, reaches at the walls and home temples of wealthy
the Pushtimarg temples have a lot of art work to be Vaishnavas.
done on a regular basis and to maintain the art legacy
the Tilkayat appoints artists for commissioning the Painted Pichhvai tradition became a culture in
work and also when the Vaishnavas want an art work the Pushtimarg temples for depicting the chapters
depicting a particular Shringar of Shrinath ji as it is from the childhood of Lord Krishna popularly known
like inside the shrine, that too also cannot be done as Leela and the Vraj Bhoomi the land of Vraj is the
without the Agya (permission) of Tilkayat Maharaj. only place of these Leela. There are 365 Pichhvai
for 365 days of a year as each day comes up with a
new Pichhvai as a backdrop. Other Pichhvais except
THE FOUNDER OF PICHHVAI TRADITION the painted ones are the heavily embroidered ones
AND ITS BEGINNING with gold and silver thread Zari, Zardosi, Salma
Sitara and Kasida embroidery on Satin or Velvet
After the demise of Shri Vallabhacharya in Vikram cloth for winters. Also there is plain white cotton
Samvat 1587 (1530 CE) his elder son Shri Gopinath ji cloth Pichhvai hung behind the idol during the
{Vik Sam 1567-99 (1510-42 CE)} became successor season of spring for celebrating Holi and the white
and due to his untimely demise his younger brother Pichhvai is stained with Gulal, Abeer, Chandan and
Shri Vallabhacharya’s second son Shri Vitthalnath ji Chua. Painted Pichhvai depicts Krishna Leela and
{Vik Sam 1572-1642 (1515-85) } famously known those Pichhvai hung behind according to festivals.
as Shri Gosai ji became Tilkayat. Shri Gosai ji was Best examples like Daan Leela, Nand Mahotsav,
the first one in Vallabh Kul to patronize art related Raas Leela, Cheer Leela, Goverdhan Dhari,
to Vaishnavism. He was the one who started the Sharad Poornima, Gau Charan, Dooj ka Chanda,
tradition of Pichhvai. His hand drawn image of the Thakurani Teej and many more. The growth of
Baal Krishna is still preserved and is a proof of his Pichhvai tradition can be defined by saying that
interest towards art. Initially the Pichhvai tradition during the old gone era the artists from Jaipur,
started by him was only about a plain colour Pichhvai Udaipur, Malwa, etc migrated to Nathdwara along
as a back drop behind the idol of Shrinath ji and with family by looking at the growth possibilities
those were not the Painted ones. But being a part of art in Nathdwara and these artists with their own
of Seva the Pichhvai appeared according to season skills from their respected schools of art had also
as lighter ones for summers for the cooling effect contributed in the establishment of the School of art
and heavy fabrics for winters to hold on the warmth. of Nathdwara by leaving their influence too. Besides
The first Painted Pichhvai mentioned in the history the style of Nathdwara School of art the style of
was in the time of Tilkayat Shri Govardhanesh ji Pichhvai Painting includes art styles from various
{Vikram Samvat 1763-1819 (1706-62CE)}, after schools which includes Kishangarh, Kota Bundi,
he became Tilkayat his birthday was celebrated Udaipur because these are the places where Shrinath
as Handi Utsav and that was the day when for the ji stayed during the journey from Vraj to Mewar
very first time ‘Chitram ki Pichhvai’ i.e. painted and also the Vraj style of art influences the Pichhvai
Pichhvai was hung behind the idol of Shrinath ji. He because Vraj was the only place from where it all
started the tradition of ‘Chitram ki Pichhvai’ and this started. Shrinath ji’s paintings were started from
Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings & its Artists 251

Vraj known as Vraj School of art but flourished in jewels gracing their experience and also it is a point to
Nathdwara. Although the Shringar of Shrinath ji in be noticed that jewellery drawn on female figures in
the Pichhvai is influenced by the Mughal School of Pichhvai is typically the Rajasthan School jewellery
art because the 16th, 17th and early 18th century in like, bor (on forehead), nath (nose ring), laung (nose
India was ruled by Mughals and so the trend of their pin), karanphool (flower shape earrings), kundal
fashion, food, art and architecture fusion up with the (big ear rings), bhujbandh(armlet), hamel (necklace
Indian style. with hangings), todar (necklace), hathphool (hand
flower with rings), hathpaan (single hand flower),
Nathdwara School of art is very unique in style paizeb (anklet), kamar bandh (waist belt) etc in
and having its own identification. The way to draw gold and silver. Mentioning about the male figure
and paint objects and motifs in Pichhvai is very in Pichhvai, there are two similar factors i.e. not
remarkable and can be recognized as the Pichhvai so tall in height and women men both are shown
Style, let’s take some examples; cow drawn in in good health and a sun kissed face and body tone
Nathdwara style is different from the others a little which is yellowish fair and caramel-ish shading
bit shorter in height, an absolute adorable face and for showing depth, Machhakrat Nayan elongated
orange painted palm prints over her body to show beautiful eyes like a fish and the common attire of
the effect of Henna stained palm print in real on cow, men in Pichhvai also drawn by inspiring from the
lotus being favorite to Shrinath ji is painted with local tradition of men’s dressing i.e. regional Paag
utmost feel of love by shading the pointed curved (turban), Angrakha (a kurta but knotted from the
top of lotus bud with very little amount of crimson side), Dhoti (a cotton, muslin or silk fabric for the
shade on top of white coating given to the lotus bud bottoms tied around the waist and extended to cover
at first because here the concept of more white and almost full legs and draped in a manner), Khadau
less crimson-ish pink gives it a very cooler tone (wooden slippers), Uparna ( a scarf with pleats worn
like freshly bloomed in the Yamuna river, Yamuna by men round neck goes up to stomach). Grooms
river is believed to be as Goddess Yamuna in Hindu are shown with more ornamentation like- red Paag
culture and also situated in Vraj, the land of Krishna with gold border and adorned with a Sarpech and
where he used to have bath in Yamuna and also in Kalangi an Indian turban jewel while the side of
Bhagwat Geeta it is mentioned that Shri Yamuna ji Sarpech is complimented with a Lumbh (tassel),
is the fourth Patarani of Lord Krishna so it is painted rings, bhujh band (armlet), Hasli (necklace), Gujri
very realistically with dramatic strokes, a grayish (thick masculine anklets), whereas in figure of bride
water painted with the pigment Kathir ki hal with some additional ornaments like Matha Patti with
force of brush strokes to make waves by using bore on forehead, Hasli, different type of bangles
black pigment on a fine brush. Mango tree is the like chudha-pochi are noteworthy.
most beautiful among the trees in the landscape of
Pichhvai and drawn with a specific brush handling
technique achieved after a lot of practice. Similarly PATRONIZATION BY TILKAYATS
human figures also have their own distinctive and
individual style in Nathdwara School of art. The Tilkayats have always been a great support in the
women painted in Pichhvai are usually not so tall, establishment of Pichhvai art. It was initiated by
indicates good health, almond shape elongated Shri Gosai ji and since then the legacy has been
eyes, long hair locks tied as a bun or beautiful long carried forwarded by every Tilkayat in Vallabh
braid whereas somewhere naturally wavy long open Kul. Besides Pichhvai tradition the patronization
hair enhancing the beauty of the female character. to art by them included mural work on the walls at
Commonly the female figures are shown wearing a the residence of Tilkayat as well as on the walls of
Ghagra, Saree or Kachhni with some extraordinary temple. It came out as a ritual to decorate the walls
252 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

with murals every year by first washing off the old tasks and forming groups with allotted work. The
one and painted new on them. And this proved as next process is to white wash upon the old murals
an encouragement for the local artist and a way to which takes a day to dry. From the next day the day
preserve the art form which is in practice till today. starts at work by preparing pigments and out lining
This yearly renovation of murals proved helpful to the composition where rest of the days are followed
gather all artists together and make them create art by colour shading and final touches. Both the side
work together and this team work turned out to be walls of Suraj Pole inside temple are decorated by
productive as the artists together share ideas and two over sized fine paintings of royal elephants with
common view for compositions and much space wrestlers of bronzed tone body sitting upon them.
for innovation. The compositions for these murals This mural is painted every year at Suraj Pole from
are including the Baal Leela childhood chapters of so many years. It’s a tradition and always been the
Lord Krishna’s life and religious themes of common attention catcher and the grandest of all thus painted
believes. Tilkayats have always been very conscious by the exceptionally skilled and experienced artists.
for the growth of artists in Nathdwara and with their Similarly all the Poles i.e. Gates in the haveli is
time to time instruction and guidance and by the painted with some unique compositions.
competitive feel amongst the artist to create better
than other has been proved helpful in leveling up the
skills of artists and quality of mural work year by PROFESSION IN NATHDWARA
year, also it encourages the new generation of artists
to join and perform with experienced artists to work The kind of work availability in a town defines the
in the workshop for the emerging talents. The mural depending of people on a work to earn a living.
art work in ‘Nandrai ki Haveli’ is completed every Type of work availability is also a way to know
year before Diwali since the beginning till today. about the history of a particular place, and also it
Then the next major decision by Tilkayat to organize helps to get know about the major source of job.
this yearly work program is to award a designation Similarly in the town Nathdwara the Shrinath ji
of Kalakaro ka Mukhiya i.e. Chief Artist to look for Temple is the main source of living for the people
arrangements regarding this work. There, the job of Nathdwara by providing several kinds of work in
of Chief Artist is to supervise the whole process the society which are related to temple Seva. Since
of mural art work at temple and instruct the artists the establishment of town Nathdwara various types
about themes and compositions. Basically a Chief of art started developing and have been a crucial part
Artist is the team leader who encourages the team of the popularity of Nathdwara. Art styles proved
to push their limits and give their best and allot the helpful to distinguish Nathdwara as an independent
work amongst the team members. A Chief Artist is town which owns variety of art and also earn a
selected by the majority decision of the artists in living through it. Most importantly, every art here
Nathdwara and certified by the Tilkayat Maharaj is directly or indirectly related to Shrinath ji or has
inside the Moti Mahal with all grace and respect. The been established due to Shrinath ji.
art material is provided by the temple management
and also a room is allotted inside the Haveli for Among the popular ones Painting is a medium
keeping the art stuff safely, the Chief Artist is the for the artist community in Nathdwara to learn a
in charge of this. Every year on the very next day of living. Traditionally the profession of art was done
festival Dussehra the mural work starts and has to by the local artists in Nathdwara who came and
be done within 15 days prior to Diwali. There are 20 settled here from Vraj. But then due to the growing
days between Dussehra to Diwali. The works starts popularity of artist of Nathdwara many artists from
with the meeting of all artists on the day one where Udaipur, Jaipur, Kishangarh, Kota, etc, migrated to
groups are divided by Mukhiya ji to perform certain Nathdwara and present day even people from other
Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings & its Artists 253

background and families became artist to settle a the artists a post of The Chief Artist (Kalakaro Ka
livelihood in Nathdwara. Temple commissions artists Mukhiya) is given to the most dignified and skilled
for various art work required at temple time to time artist by the majority decision of the artists society.
during the year, which include Pichhvai for Shrinath Paramanand Sharma is holding the post since 9
ji’s backdrop, restoration of old art works, murals years. From last 40 years the post of ‘chief artist’ is
in temple’s walls-doors etc. And the art shops in the allotted into his family only. At first from his family
market of Nathdwara fulfill the demand of devotees his father Shyam lal ji Sharma was appointed as
and tourists who too wants the Nathdwara School the Chief Artist, after him it was his cousin brother
of art works. With the current trend in jewellery Jamanadas Sharma, after Jamanadas ji it was his son
industry of having hand painted Rajasthani miniature Tulsidas Sharma. Then after Tulsidas ji, Paramanand
images on jewellery pieces the artists in Nathdwara Sharma has been appointed as the ‘Mukhiya’ of the
have also being commissioned for the work. artist’s society.

The current Chief artist’s most treasured

PRESENT CHIEF ARTIST OF NATHDWARA possession is the 90 years old sketch book of his
grandfather Mr. Champalal Sharma, a renowned
Mr. Paramanand S Sharma is the present Chief of artist of his time who learnt the master techniques
the artists in Nathdwara. Mr. Sharma along with of Pichhvai from his grandfather Mr. Vitthaldas ji.
two elder brothers is carry forwarding the age old Champalal ji spent much of his life span in Mumbai
authentic techniques of Pichhvai painting and as an artist at Mota Mandir and there he produced
maintaining the seven generation old legacy of many art works which are preserved even today at
their family. Mr. Paramanand Sharma’s ancestors the collection of Mota Mandir. Also few eminent art
came to Nathdwara along with the procession which collectors have his work in their private collection.
came with Shrinath ji from Vraj to Mewar and since The Shrinath ji temple have Champalal ji’s master
than his family is producing Pichhvai art work for Pichhvai paintings preserved carefully and is used
the temple and commercial art work also for the on special occasions as a backdrop.
Vaishnavas. They have records of six generations
and since then, they have been working in Pichhvai Artists can be found in maximum houses of
and miniature paintings. Nathdwara. In fact it should be said like ‘The every
next house in Nathdwara is producing artists’.
His 300 years old roof-top has seen the time Throughout the time in every generation the younger
changing from then to now but one thing that has generation got inspirations to pursue art is from the
not changed is his family’s devotion towards the elders of the family who already are fine artists and
lord by keeping the tradition of Pichhvai alive and this unstoppable cycle of producing artists in almost
spreading it all. At his studio on the third floor of his families of Nathdwara is the prominent factor to carry
ancestral ‘Haveli’ Mr. Sharma works passionately forward this art by passing the age old techniques
on his Pichhvai paintings which are being made to generation by generation.
a customer’s order or on the temple’s order. It is
said by Mr. Sharma that making a Pichhvai is not The revolution in the art techniques had a huge
an easy task; it is a very precise work. A single impact on the Nathdwara art as well. Where the
Pichhvai takes 3 to 6 months to prepare and even a traditional artists in Nathdwara are practicing the
year some times. Preparing a Pichhvai requires a ton age old techniques, there are the young generation
of patience and in other words it is a meditation. For of artists who are practicing a new age art with a
mastering the miniature art techniques in Pichhvai, twist of craft in it which is Shrinath ji’s image
years of practice is required. At Nathdwara, amongst carved out on an inch or more thick sandal wood
254 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

and flat from back side then being fixed properly Pichhvai the application of pure gold and silver in
on box board. Afterwards it is painted with bright the art work is still being practicing in Nathdwara by
colours mostly acrylic and fluorescent colours and every artist, either the Gold foil is applied directly on
then to adorn the whole thing fancy little crystals to the art work on the required area or the gold and
are studded on required areas like jewellery, border silver is being applied after liquidizing process with
of dress, turban and where ever required. It also a brush just like any liquid colour. Also the White and
embellished with gold leaves to make it look more the Black is the most prominent shades in the colour
close to the sumptuous effect of Pichhvais. These palate of the Pichhvai artist because of the respected
new age handmade art pieces are being made in natures of both pigments, White neutralizes any
some popular Shringar themes of Shrinath ji and sharp colour and black can define well any figure
those are the Rajbhog Shringar, Mangla Shringar and keep intact the motive of a particular figure.
and Sehera Shringar are among the demanding ones The Nathdwara artists often keep coconut shells as
amongst the visitors and followers of Shrinath ji and pigment holder each shell for each colour, the inner
now also being famed among the vaishnav NRIs body of a coconut shell is a kind of scrubber surface
(Non Residential Indians). to let the artist burnish the pigment well by using the
index figure inside the shell and this process have to
be done every time before using a pigment as it keep
TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS FOR intact the smoothness and fineness of a pigment and
PICHHVAI prevent any lumps. The brushes for Pichhvai are very
precise and are also handmade with great precaution
Commonly the Pichhvai Painting is painted on a and perfection to suit the requirement of a fine tip for
cotton cloth and some time on silk. The colours used every artist, the variety and variation of brush tip is
for painting are the natural mineral pigments prepared different from artist to artist, some requires thin but
by the artists themselves. The natural pigments small where as some need thin tip but long strands in
which are obtained from mineral stones are used order to move the tip of brush in the certain ways and
for paintings like these because of the long-lasting rest colour filling brushes are like most in common
and cool tone properties of the pigments, even 100 choices. Polished round and pointed stones are being
years old Pichhvai reflects the rich property of the used for the burnishing of the Pichhvai from the back
pigments as the colour shades still hold the warmth side, this process of burnishing binds the coatings of
and vibrancy in them. According to artists it takes pigments even firmly and avoid any cracks which
almost 10 days to even a month time to process and can happen by the application of colours in layers.
prepare a single pigment but it worth the patience and Indeed it also polishes the pigments and brings out
hard work. The tool for preparing the mineral stones the vibrancy of the mineral pigments. This process
into pigment is Mortar and Pestle made of stone. It of burnishing contributes to the efforts of making a
helps to grind the mineral stones well to extract the Pichhvai more long lasting. Amongst the techniques
pigment out of it and there is no other way to grind to make the Pichhvai long lasting gracefully and
the stones. No synthetic colour is being used in the firmly adding natural glue as a binder in the pigment
making of a pure traditional Pichhvai art except the is also an important element, as organic and pure the
commercial ones which are now very popular in glue is as long the pigment will last. To avoid any
the market and also takes less time to be made. Still breakage or crack in the pigment adding adequate
the traditional, pure and pious work of preparing a amount of natural glue is what to keep in mind
Pichhvai for the temple is done all naturally in the because excessive amount of glue can also cause
most authentic way. Also, there are few artists in crack in the layer of pigment applied on the surface
the town who are maintaining the authentic process. of a painting.
Among the steps of authentic process of making a
Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings & its Artists 255

First of all there is never a single Pichhvai for of borders are still in practice by the artists and can
Shrinath ji Ki Haveli but two Pichhvais are required also be seen as a proof in very old Pichhvais. And as
for a day because there is one temple sanctuary for mentioned earlier also that the process of burnishing
Shrinath ji and another one for Shri Navneetpriya ji the Pichhvai from backside popularly known as
also known as Laalan. The idol of Shri Navneetpriya Ghutai is very essential to secure the colours from
ji is the infant version of Shrinath ji or Lord Krishna cracking. According to artists the Pichhvais are
and the mini idol of Laalan actually belong to the not just paintings but is a feeling of showcasing
founder Shri Vallabhacharya ji, he used to venerate larger than life picture maintaining the traditional
Laalan at his home temple. Pichhvai is hung behind values also. Every figure in Pichhvai is traditionally
both the idols of Lord of same composition and dressed and jeweled, and this shows the reflection of
concept. cultures and civilizations of Rajasthan and Vraj. For
portraying the authenticity of rich fabrics 24 carat
The process of creating a Pichhvai Painting for gold is used very evenly to draw the detailing. For
temple starts by selecting a fine white cotton cloth jewellery also pure gold is applied on the required
and then measuring and cutting it in the required size area and afterwards outlined with ‘Shyahi’ to define
which is 7 feet 6 inches x 11 feet 6 inches size for the the design. We have seen in Pichhvais, 6 chariots
Pichhvai at Shri Navneetpriya ji and for Shrinath ji it of God and the Gods Goddesses showering flowers
is 8 x 11 feet. The size of Pichhvai with 32 x 56 inches from the above on the Leela played by Lord Krishna
of room left at the centre for Shrinath ji. Moving or Lord Shrinath ji are Brahma, Lord Vishnu with
further after measuring, artists draw margin in the Goddess Lakshmi, Lord Shiva with Goddess
painting for a border. The traditional way to draw Parvati, Lord Indra with Shachi, Lord Vayu with his
an accurate margin by the artists is very important consort and Shri Narad Muni. Popular compositions
they dip a very thin yarn rope or jute rope in a brown like, Raas leela, Gopashtami, Sharad Poornima,
colour and both of the ends is hold by each person Annakoot, Daan Leela, Nand Mahotsav, Thakurani
onto the cloth at the margin area and this creates Teej, Dooj Ka Chanda, etc. The original Pichhvai of
an impression of straight line in lesser time. After Annakoot at temple is very old and Sumptuous of all.
margining, the artist draws the composition and set Jeweled trees are there on both sides of Shrinath ji in
every figure required in the composition. The very the Pichhvai. Tree is embellished with all jewels and
first layer of colouring is applying the flat base colours gems. Interestingly all those precious jewels were the
all over in every figure followed by wash techniques offerings to Shrinath ji by the females of Shri Gosai
for shading. They do precise shading with a fine ji’s family back in the 16th century 1566 CE (Vikram
tip brush and finally the figures are defined by very Samvat 1623, Fagun) at ‘Satgrah’, Mathura.
accurate outlining with jet black pigment popularly
known as ‘Shyahi’ made by collecting carbon from
earthen lamp and processed till smooth and clear. TYPES OF PICHHVAI
The border of Pichhvai is designed in some specific
Nathdwara School of art style border patterns with Basically Pichhvai are of four types according to
popular motifs like rose sequence or lotus sequence seasons, the plain white cotton Pichhvai with stains
upon the base colours like Singhraf (a red stones of Gulal for 40 days during the season of ‘Falgun’
gives a very earthy red tone), Pevdi or Gugoli (Indian (Spring) till the festival of Holi. Plain Pichhvai of
Yellow), Cellu (an earthy cool tone green can be cool tone shades during the regular days of ‘Ushna
seen in old paintings only because of unavailability Kaal’ i.e. summers, ‘Chitram ki Pichhvai’, water
in the current date) and Sindoor (orange pigment colour base Painted Pichhvai throughout the year
with heavy mercury and processed after removing any day except winters because in winters there are
the mercury). The same old school tradition designs embroidered Pichhvais on Satin or velvet. These
256 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

figures are embroidered with pure Gold & Silver 4. Sharad Ritu- The autumn falls in mild
thread Zari Zardosi embroidery and etc. winters near about the Hindu festival of
Diwali. It occurs in ‘Bhadrapad’ (mid
There are 12 months in an English calendar and August to mid September) and ‘Ashwin’
there are 6 Ritus (seasons) in the Hindu calendar (mid September to mid October).
consisting two or sometimes three months each. (Pichhvai- All ‘Chitram ki Pichhvai’ and
Pichhvai are interconnected with several moods followed up by the ‘Daan Leela’ Pichhvais.)
of several Ritus. The composition of Pichhvai and
theme of Shringar goes accordingly. The detail in 5. Hemant Ritu- It falls in the sunny winters
the Pichhvai has to be so correct according to the near about the festival of Diwali in the
Ritu. The Ritus can be identified in Pichhvai painting Hindu months of ‘Kartik’ {the month of
clearly when on the occasions. The old Pichhvais Diwali (mid October to mid November)}
were so up to the mark in perfection that it clearly and Maksar/Margshersh (mid November to
shows the Bhaava of a particular Ritu. Details which mid December).
make it identifiable are the types of Dress which (Pichhvai- From here the Pichhvais of
Shrinath ji wear. There are mainly eight styles of this embroidery on satin and velvet starts.)
dressing throughout the year according to season.
Type of jewellery worn by the figure and objects 6. Shishir Ritu- It falls in extreme Cold period
around also plays a big role in identification. of winters i.e. ‘Pausha’ (mid December to
mid January) and ‘Magh’ (mid January to
1. Vasant Ritu- The spring season falls in the mid February).
Vedic calendar in the months of ‘Falgun’ Pichhvai- Embroidered ones.
(mid February to mid March) and ‘Chaitra’
(mid March to mid April). Through the year Pushtimarg temples celebrate
(Pichhvai- This is the season for plain white many festivals but there are main 24 Utsavas
Pichhvai with Gulal art on it.) (festival). 24 Pichhvais of 24 Utsavs has been created
by the artists at Nathdwara since the beginning.
2. Grishma Ritu- The summer season falls in
Interestingly many compositions are bordered with
‘Vaishakh’ (mid April to mid May), and
the Shringar of Shrinath ji depicting 24 Utsavs. They
‘Jyeshtha’ (mid May to mid June) and half
are following:
‘Aashadh’. Months of Vedic calendar.
(Pichhvai- The cool tone summer hues 1. Pato Utsav- Falgun {Ritu- Vasant}
and also the water colour base painted
Pichhvais known as Chitram ki Pichhvai 2. Kunj Ekadashi- Falgun {Ritu- Vasant}
of several compositions with a Bhaava to
3. Holi- Falgun {Ritu- Vasant}
beat the heat. Such Pichhvai show the mild
water of river Yamuna and blooming lotus 4. Ram Navami- Falgun {Ritu- Vasant}
in it.)
5. Maha Prabhu ji ka Utsav- Vaishakh {Ritu-
3. Varsha Ritu- The monsoon falls in ‘Aashadh’ Grishma}
(mid June to mid July), ‘Shraavn’ (mid July
6. Akshay Tritiya- Vaishakh {Ritu- Grishma}
to mid August) and half of ‘Bhadrapad’
also falls in the same season. 7. Narsingh Chaturdashi- Vaishakh {Ritu-
(Pichhvai- All such ‘Chitram ki Pichhvais’ Grishma}
are composed of the theme of raining and
thunder lighting.) 8. Snan Yatra- Jyeshtha {Ritu- Grishma}
Interpreting Pichhvai Tradition of Miniature Paintings & its Artists 257

9. Rath Yatra- Aashadh {Varsha Ritu} represent the face of artist in Nathdwara the paper
has discussed about the Chief Artist of Nathdwara
10. Kasumbha Chhat- Aashadh {Varsha Ritu}
who is the representative of the artist community. It
11. Pavitra Ekadashi- Shraavn {Varsha Ritu} is the duty of Chief Artist to conduct the painting
tradition at Shrinath ji’s temple.
12. Rakshabandhan- Shraavn {Varsha Ritu}
13. Panchamrit Snan- Bhadrapad {Varsha Ritu} Secondly it is the buyer who is responsible in
supporting this tradition of paintings and it is the
14. Janmashtami- Bhadrapad {Varsha Ritu} buyers from the Vaishnava community who are the
15. Radha Ashtami- Bhadrapad {Varsha Ritu} potential buyers. The Vaishnavas (believers of this
sect) are called the potential buyers because Pichhvai
16. Daan Ekadashi- Aasoch {Sharad Ritu} is not merely a painting for them but a handmade
17. Baavan Dwadashi- Aasoch {Sharad Ritu} pure medium to venerate their deity. Belonging to
‘Vallabh Sampradaya’ a sect where Lord Shrinath
18. Dussehra- Aasoch {Sharad Ritu} ji is their deity a Pichhvai is very pious to them
because it narrates Krishna Leela. Whether it is the
19. Sharad Poornima- Aasoch {Sharad Ritu}
potential buyer or just a tourist buyer together they
20. Diwali- Kartik {Hemant Ritu} all are generating a business flow of paintings in
the market. This market flow proves helpful for the
21. Gopashtami- Kartik {Hemant Ritu}
artists to sustain in the market and inspires them to
22. Prabodhini Ekadashi- Kartik {Hemant Ritu} produce more art work.

23. Vitthalnath ji/ Gosai ji ka Utsav- Maksar

The third and foremost is the ‘Tilkayat Maharaj’
{Hemant Ritu}
who has always been the main supporting pillar by
24. Vasant Punchami- Magh {Shishir Ritu} patronizing this art form so that this tradition can
sustain. The Pichhvai tradition has been an important
part of Shrinath ji’s veneration by ‘Tilkayat Maharaj’
CONCLUSION because it displays “Krishna Leela” (chapters from
Krishna’s life). ‘Tilkayat’ has always shown their
This research study is highlighting about the system keen interest in promoting art and artists to preserve
of maintaining the age old legacy of Pichhvai the antiquity of Pichhvai art.
paintings of Nathdwara, Rajasthan, India. We also
came to know about how this small village ‘Sinhad’
of Rajasthan became Nathdwara in the seventeenth
BIBLIOGRAPHY
century with the arrival of Shrinath ji from Vraj
to Mewar. Since then to till date the tradition of Ambalal Amit (1987); Krishna As Shrinath ji, Mapin
Pichhvai painting is carry forwarding mainly by International Inc., New York.
three forces-
B. Sharma (1981); Shrinath Seva Rasodadhi.
The artist community of this holy town
Ghose Madhuvanti (2015); Gates of the Lord- The
Nathdwara is working on this art form. Most of
Tradition of Krishna Paintings, Mapin Publication in
them are having this art form in legacy through Association with ‘The Art Institute of Chicago’.
generations. Till date they are preserving and
nurturing this art while maintaining the antiquity of Harirai (2008); Shrinath ji Ki Prakatya Varta, Vidya
this art form in terms of techniques and materials. To Vibhag, Mandir Mandal, Nathdwara.
258 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Krishna Kalyan and Talwar Kay (2007); In Adoration Ahmadabad.

of Krishna, Tapi Collection, Garden Silk Mills Limited,
Surat. Shree Ji Darshan, Nathdwara Mandal, Nathdwara

Lazaro Desmond (2005); Materials Methods & Symbolism Subhash Meheta (1997); Vallabh Sampradaya Chitra kala
In The Pichhvai Painting Tradition of Rajasthan, Mapin ke Vikas me Tilkayat wa Acharyaon ki Bhomika, Heerak
Publication Pvt. Ltd. , Ahmadabad. Jayanti Grantha, Sahitya Mandal, Nathdwara.

Lyons Tryna (2004); The Artists of Nathdwara, Indiana Vairagi Prabhudas (2006); Shri Nathdwara Ka Sanskritik
University Press in association with Mapin Publication, Itihas, Mandir Mandal Nathdwara.
 fefFkykapy esa lkaLd`frd vfjiu dk egRo

vejthr dqekj ,oa eukst dqekj Vsyj

izk phu yksd dykvksa dh Hkh vius fo'o txr esa ,d

le`) ijaijk jgh gSA fdlh Hkh lekt o mlds
fodkl dk vxj irk yxkuk gks rks ogka dh laLd`fr
vkus ij nsorkRed ;a= Lo#i ;g vfjiu fdlh u fdlh
:i ls Hkkjr ds izk;% lHkh izns'kksa esa fy[kus dh ifjikVh
gS] ijarq nfjnzk dqedqe dslj vkfn ds lkFk flanwj fcUnqvksa
vkSj yksd dyk ds ckjs esa tkuuk t:jh gksrk gSA le`) vkSj 'osr fcUnqvksa ds lkFk fcgkj] mlesa Hkh] fefFkyk esa gh
yksd dykvksa esa yksd nsork] vkfne dyk] y?kq fp=ksa vkSj izpfyr gSA fefFkyk ds iq#"kksa dks bl vfjiu dyk dk og
ikaMqfyfi fp+=ksa] ftlesa T;ksfr"k rFkk ra= lacaèkh ikaMqfyfi;ka vuqHko ugha gS] fdUrq fL=;ksa dks tUe ls ;g dyk Bksl
'kkfey gSaA blds vykok Hkkjrh; yksd dykvksa esa fcgkj dh :i ls vkoky o`) vHk;Lr gSA ;gka dksbZ Hkh R;kSgkj ;k
eèkqcuh yksd fp= dyk] egkjk"Vª dh ojyh fp=] gSnjkckn ioZ vkus ij ] ml mRlo ;k R;kSgkj ds vuq#i vfjiu
dh dyedkjh] jkTkLFkku dh fiNokbZ] QM vkSj ekaMuk] fy[kus esa Hkh fefFkyk dh lHkh fL=;ka lnSo RkRij jgrh gSaA
if’pe caxky dh dkaFkk dk’khnkdkjh] vle ds lksyk fefFkyk esa vfjiu ys[k dk izpyu dc ls gS] ;g dguk ;k
fiFk ls fufeZr fp=] if'pe caxky ds fo".kqiqj] fenukiqj vuqeku yxk ikuk dfBu gSA rks Hkh jktk tud us viuh
,oa dkyh?kkV ds iV fp=] fcgkj] >kj[k.M] mRrj izns’k] iq=h lhrk ds 'kqHk fookg ds volj ij bl vfjiu vkSj
jkTkLFkku] iatkc] gfj;k.kk ds xzkeh.k bykdksa esa feV`Vh dh orZeku ifjikVh dks pyk;k] ,slh fdonUrh gSA
nhokjksa ij fpf=r fo'ks"k izdkj ds yksd fp=ksa ls lqlfTtr
fd;k tkrk gSA bruk rks eSa dg ldrk gwa fd LokfLrd] vkys[ku]
loZrksHknz] eaMy vkfn 'kCnksa ls dgs tkus okys bl vfjiu
oSfnd ;qx esa dsoy loZrksHknz vkfn eaMyksa ij gh dh ifjikVh ds izlkj dk ewy vkèkkj fefFkyk gh gSA og
x`gLFky ekaxfyd dk;Z fd, tkrs Fks] rRi'pkr rkaf=d ;qx fdlh jktk vFkok vU; fo++)ku dh izsj.kk ls gqvk gSA
*
'kksèkkFkhZ] n`'; dyk foHkkx] ouLFkyh fo|kihB] fuokbZ Vksad] jktLFkku( E-mail: [email protected]
**
,lksfl,V izksQslj] n`'; dyk foHkkx] ouLFkyh fo|kihB] fuokbZ Vksd] jktLFkku
260 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

vuqHko dgrk gS] fd dksbZ le; ,slk jgk gksxk tc dkfrZd ekg dh rqylh iwtk ds volj ij vFkok 'kjn ekl
fefFkyk dh laLd`fr vkSj lH;rk o osnfofgr ;K izfØ;k dh nqxkZiwtk ds volj ij rqylh ds ikSèks ds ikl vFkok
ds vkèkkj ij voyfEcr FkhA ml le; ;kfKd loZrksHknz nqxkZ ds eafnj esa egk f'ko jkf= :ih egk"Veh ds fnu ;gka
ds izlkj ls RkUewyd bl vfjiu ys[k izFkk dh Nki dh fL=;ksa ds }kjk yksdfp= dyk ds :i fiBkj( ¼pkoy
c<+rs&c<+rs Hkkjr ds dksus&dksus esa QSy xbZ ;k ml le; dk ihlk gqvk ?kksy½ ls fy[kk tkrk gSA gekjh Hkkjrh;
ds fdlh jktk us vFkok egf"kZ us bl ijEijk dks QSykus laLd`fr esa rqylh dk cgqr egRo gS D;ksafd èkkfeZd Hkkouk
dh iw.kZ ps"Vk dhA ds lkFk blesa vk;qosZn ds er ls vusdksa jklk;fud xq.k Hkh
gSaA blfy, vusd jksxksa esa blds vkS"kfèk ds #i esa mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA blds ikSèkksa o iRrksa ds eè; ls fudyus
LokfLrd vfjiu okyh ok;q cgqr gh LokLF;oèkZd ekuh tkrh gSA blfy,
fefFkykoklh ds izR;sd vkaxu eas ;g rqylh dk ikSèkk x#M
fefFkyk esa LokfLrd vfjiu ds uke ls izpfyr gSaA ;g
iqjk.k ds fuEufyf[kr 'yksd ds vkèkkj ij yxkus dh izFkk
41 LokfLrdksa dks vkil esa tksMdj cuk;k tkrk gSA bles
pyh vk jgh gSA
LokfLrd ftl 'kCn dk vFkZ gh vk'kh"k ekuk tkrk gS]
ds vuqlkj gh bl fp= dk uke LokfLrd vfjiu vFkkZr Rkqylh jksfirk flDrk n`"Vk p iko;sr vkjkfèkrk izR;usu
vk’khokZn cksèkd fp= j[kk x;k gSA blds 'kqHkizn gksus dh loZ dke Qy iznk AA ¼x#M iqjk.k½
[;kfr leLr HkweaMy esa O;kIr gSA bl LokfLrd dh pkj
rFkk bldh iwtk tks dk'kh [kaM ds bl 'yksd ij
Hkqtkvksa dk fp= vHk; nsrs gq, fo".kq dh pkj Hkqtkvksa dk
vkèkkfjr gS djus dh izFkk pyh vk jgh gSA
izrhd ekuk tkrk gS vkSj bl vfjiu esa mUgh pkj gkFkksa dks
js[kkafdr dj bl HkweaMy :ih vfjiu esa pkjksa vksj f=dky rqylh ;= Hkous izR;ag ifjiwT;rsA
:ih rhu js[kkvksa ds lax l`f"V #ih fcUnqvksa ls O;kIr cuk;k rn x`ga uksiliZfUr dnkfp?kefdMqjkAA
x;k gSA vFkkZr~ LokfLrd dks fo'oO;kih ekuk x;k gSA
bldk vFkZ ;g gS fd l`f"V ds ikyudrkZ fo".kq dh Hkqtkvksa bl iwtk ds volj ij ;g vfjiu blfy, Hkh izfl)
dh j{kk esa HkweaMy dks tSlk fd iqjk.kksa esa Kkr gS] fn[kk;k gS D;ksafd ;g fo".kq dk izrhd ekuk tkrk gS] ftUgsa rqylh
x;k gSA ;g vfjiu ;gka fd dkfrZd egkRe; esa of.kZr cgqr fiz; FkhA rqylh dks fo".kq us ojnku fn;k Fkk fd]
^^rqEgs eSa ges'kk vius ekFks ij p<k ds j[kwaxk rFkk tks Hkh
rqEgkjs fcuk esjh iwtk djsxk og iw.kZ ugha gksxhA** blfy,
fefFkyk esa 'kkyhxzke dh iwtk ds le; rqylhny dks
p<kuk vfrvko';d gksrk gS rFkk foJke ds le; vFkkZr
iwtk ds ckn Hkh 'kkyhxzke ds ekFks ij rqylhny p<k;k
tkrk gSA bl vfjiu ds eè; okyk LokfLrd fo".kq dk
izrhd ekuk x;k gS rFkk mlds pkjksa rjQ okys igys pkj
LokfLrd fo".kq dh izFke pkj dykvksa ds cksèkd gSa rFkk
blds mij okys rhljs pkjksa rjQ ckjg LokfLrd fo".kq
dh r`rh; ckjg dykvksa ds :i ekus x, gSaA vkSj] lcls
vUr okys pkjksa rjQ ds LokfLrd fo".kq dh "kksM’k vFkkZr
iw.kZ dykvksa ds |ksrd cuk, x, gSaA bl vfjiu esa fn;s
x, pkjksa rjQ 'osr fcUnq l`f"V ds cksèkd Hkxoku dh jf'e
vFkkZr~ fdj.kksa ds :i esa cuk;s x, gSa rFkk pkjksa vksj 'ka[k
fp= 1% LokfLrd vfjiu vkfn vkB vL=ksa ds fp= l`f"V dk ikyu djus ds fy,
fefFkykapy esa lkaLÑfrd vfjiu dk egRo 261

v"V 'kfDr;ksa ds :i esa fn;s x, gSaA bl vfjiu ds uhps vfjiu ds bDrkyhl LokfLrd ds eè; 41 yky flanwj
fn;s x, rqylh ds ikSèks ds pkjksa rjQ fy[ks tkus okys iap ds fcUnw fn, x, gSaA bu fcanqvks dks rjg rjg dh js[kkvksa
’ka[kksa ls ;qDr fp= iaptU; 'ka[k dk cksèkd cuk;k x;k gSA }kjk :i esa ekudj ifj.kr djus ls ra= 'kkL= esa of.kZr
bl izdkj ;g vfjiu "kksM’k dykvksa ls ;qDr gS] tks fo".kq izk; % lHkh ;a=ksa dk fuekZ.k gks ldrk gSA tSls&eè; fcUnq
dk izrhd cu x;k gSA ;qDr vèkkseq[k vkSj mèoZeq[k f=dks.k] "kVdks.k v"Vdks.k
Jh;a= vkfn ftlesa dqN lkadsfrd fp= Hkh bl vfji.k ds
bl fp= dks oSfnd dky vFkok oSfnd ;K esa loZrksHknz pkjksa rjQ fn;k x;k gSA ¼>k 1999% 80&82½
ekuk tkrk gS vkSj bls ;K osnh ds chp esa cus LFkf.My
:ih pcwrjs ij fy[kus dh izFkk oSfnd ;qx ls gh pyh vk vfjiu ds ekè; Hkkx esa fn;s x, ,d lkeus okys yky
jgh gSA oSfnd ;Kksa ds le; bl fp= ds eè; pkoy dk fcUnq dks ftudh la[;k vkB gS] ,d lhèkh js[kk ds :i esa
pw.kZ] foYoi= dk pw.kZ] gYnh dk pw.kZ] dqlqe ds Qwy dk eku ysus ls vkSj mls js[kk ds mij rFkk uhps Hkkx ds pkjksa
pw.kZ vkfn vusd ifo= jaxpw.kZ dks Hkjdj bls fpf=r fd;k rjQ ds lcls vfUre LokfLrdksa ds chp okys jDr fcanv q ksa
tkrk gS rFkk blh ds le; ;K dks iw.kZ fd;k tkrk gS dks ekuh gqbZ eè; okys jDr fcanq ds lkFk feykus ls mij vkSj
vFkkZr bl fp= dks ;K dk lk{kh cuk;k tkrk gSA blls uhps mèoZ eq[k rFkk vèkkse[q k nks f=dks.k cu tkrs gSAa ftudk
;g Kkr gksrk gS fd ;g izFkk oSfnd dky ls gh pyh vk ladrs bl vfjiu ds lehi okys mijh Hkkx ds nk;ha vksj ds
jgh gS rFkk ;s yksd fp=dyk ds #i esa fefFkyk esa gS vkSj lkadfs rd fp= esa fn;k x;k gSA budks ra= ’kkL= ds vuqlkj
vkt Hkh budks vf'kf{kr o ?kjsyw efgykvksa }kjk fpf=r f'ko o 'kfDr dk izrhd ekuk x;k gS rFkk bl vfjiu dks
fd;k tkrk gSA i`Foh dk :i eku ysus ls lEiw.kZ HkweM a y bu nks f=dks.k ;a=ksa
ls O;kIr gks tkrk gSA blfy, ;g fp= f'ko&'kfDr ls O;kIr
nwljs n`f"Vdks.k ds vuqlkj bl vfjiu dks izd`fr] ekuk tkrk gS] tks bl l`f"V ds l`"Vk gSAa
iq#"k rFkk mudh l`f"V ls ;qDr i`Foh ij f'ko&'kfDr ls
;qDr #nz egkdky ds #i dk |ksrd cuk;k gSA vFkkZr~ #nz
dk loZ O;kid :i fn;k x;k gSA "k"Bh iwtk dk vfjiu

fefFkyk esa "k"Bh nsoh dh iwtk dks ogka dh fL=;ksa ds }kjk iwjs
jhfr&fjokt ds lkFk euk;k tkus okyk mRlo gS tks fdlh
dU;k ds izFke _rqe;h gksus ij mlds pkSFks fnu lfofèk
Luku djkus ds ckn ls pkj fnuksa rd ml dU;k dks ukx
dqynsork ds ?kj ds iwoZ dh vksj okyh izèkku nsgyh ds mRrjh
nhokj ds utnhd pkjksa rjQ pkjksa dksus ij pkj dsys ds
isM vkSj ckal dh djfp;ksa dks fofèkiwodZ Hkwfe esa xkM+dj vkSj
pkjksa rjQ ,d ihys jax ds diMs+ ls inkZ ds fufeRr ?ksjdj
jgus ds fy, lqjf{kr cuk, x, ?ksjs ds Hkhrj j[kk tkrk gSA
bl ukx ds vanj igys fnu vkx ls fonXèk Hkwfe ij nwljs
fnu cSx a u ds iRrs ij rhljs fnu ckal ds iRrs ij vkSj pkSFks
fnu dsys ds iRrs ij mls Hkkstu djk;k tkrk gSA blesa pkSFks
fnu dk Luku ckal ds chV ds uhps lw;ksnZ ; ls iwoZ djok;k
tkrk gSA ckn esa flj ij flanjw ls ckal ds ,d chV ds fp=
fy[k dj rFkk flanjw ds }kjk gh lw;Z pUnz xkSj lkfB uoxzg
vkSj ckal iqjuS dks ,d ihys jaxh dh lkM+h ij fpf=r dj
fp= 2% "k"Bh iwtk vfjiu mls iguk;k tkrk gS rFkk mldks HksVa Lo#i fn;s x, migkj
262 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

tSls èkku] pkoy] gYnh] lqikjh] iku dh <ksyh] dsys dk gRFkk dh ykS ls ;qDr tUe vkSj lagkj dk izrhd cuk;k x;k
vkSj ukfj;y vkfn caèkk jgrk gS vkSj tks fefFkyk esa [kksbp gSA ftlesa fnu ,oa fn'kkvksa dk cksèkd ;k iq#"k o izd`fr
dgykrk gS] Mky dj ckaèk fn;k tkrk gSA ;g [kksbp nsuk dh |ksrd ;k nhinku dh mij okyh fdukjs ds lax uhps
fefFkyk ds vU; 'kqHk voljksa ij Hkh vR;ko’;d ekuk tkrk dh xgjkbZ ds :i pkjksa vksj nks js[kk,a nh xbZ gSA ftuds
gS] tks dqynsork ds utnhd j[kk tkrk gSA ¼lk{kkRdkj nÙk }kjk ;s vkdkj fuekZ.k gksrk gSA ¼>k 1997% 19½ bu js[kkvksa
in~eJh xksnkojh½ blesa fn;s x, Qy vkfn phtsas ifr iRuh ds Åij rhu fnu jkf= ds cksèkd xHkkZ'k; ds dey dh
ds mi;ksx ds fy, mi;ksxh le>h tkrh gSAa ifRr;ksa ds :i nhinku dh lqanjrk ds fufer rhl [kkf<;k
pkjksa rjQ cukbZ tkrh gSA bu ifRr;ksa :ih nhinku dh
blds i'pkr~ ;g vfjiu fy[k vius cPps lfgr xk;
lkSUn;Zrk ds fufer rhl [kkfM;ka pkjksa rjQ ijkx:ih jt
dh ewfrZ cukdj] feV~Vh ds ,d l[ks esa j[k bl vfjiu ij
ds d.kksa ds |ksrd ds :i esa cukbZ xbZ gSA mlds ckn
j[k fn;k tkrk gS ftldk vFkZ ml yMdh esa ekr` 'kfDr
nhinku dh nksuksa js[kkvksa ds Hkhrj nhif'k[kk ds izdk'k :ih
dk izknqHkkZo gksus ls gSA
vfXu esa tyus okys Qfr;ksa ds :i vFkok l`f"V ds thoksa
dPph feVVh ls loRlk cukus ls dk vFkZ ml yM+dh ds :i ;k "k"Vh nsoh ds ;a= ds izrhd lkB dey ds Qwy
ds xHkZ esa euksfHkykf{kr larku iSnk gks] D;ksafd dPPkh feVVh cuk, x, gSaA ftlds mij pkjksa rjQ ds lkB 'kwU;dkj
ls gh vius vuqdwy ewfrZ;ksa dk fuekZ.k gks ldrk gSA fcUnq izdk'k ds d.kksa ds :i vFkok iy ds lkB foiy ds
rRi'pkr~ bl ewfrZ ij gh "k"Vh nsoh dh iwtk lEiUu gksrh cksèkd ;k l`f"V ds cht ds |ksrd ds :i esa fpf=r fd;k
gSA bl iwtk ds Hkksx esa 60 dPps l[kksa esa [khj rFkk vfgod tkrk gSA bl vfjiu ds lcls uhps okys Hkkx esa dke :ih
iqj tks ogka ds idokuksa ds :i esa pkoyksa esa xqM feykdj ok;q ls izsj.kk o L=h :ih nhi dh okluk :ih f'k[kk ds
lkaLd`frd voljksa esa cuk;k tkrk gS] fQj mls izlkn ds cksèkd vfXu ds izdk'k dh rjg vkxs dh rjQ mRrsftr
:i esa vU; fL=;ksa dks ckaV fn;k tkrk gSA bl iwtk ds |ksrd l`f"V ;k lagkj dk cksèkd ,d ekg dk izrhd nhi
volj ij lkeus okyh nhokj ij gYnh ds }kjk lw;Z pUnz dk ,d ykS dey dh MaBy ds :i esa cuk;k tkrk gSA
vkfn fp= vafdr fd;k tkrk gSA iwtk ds le; igukbZ xbZ
iwtk esa j[ks x, bl vfjiu ls vk'k; izd`fr :ik L=h
lkM+h ds :i esa j[kh tkrh gSA
dh l`f"V dks èkkj.k djus okyh] xHkkZ'k; rFkk nhi okluk
mijksDr dh xbZ tkudkjh ls vk'k; ;g gS fd iwtk dh ykS ls ;qDr tU; vkSj lagkj dk izrhd cuk;k x;k gSA
yM+fd;ksa ds _rqe;h gksus ds ckn gh iw.kZ:i ls L+=hRo dks ftlesa fnu o fn'kkvksa dk cksèkd ;k iq#"k o izd`fr dh
izkIr djrh gSA blfy, ml dU;k dks ukx ds Hkhrj ogha |ksrd ;k nhinku dh Åij okyh dksj ds lax uhps dh
j[k dj ckal vkSj dsys ds isM ls gh cuk jgrk gS rFkk xgjkbZ ds :i pkjksa vksj nks js[kk,a nh xbZ gSa] ftuds }kjk ;s
bls oa'k o`f) dk |ksrd ekuk tkrk gS ftldh f'k{kk nh vkdkj fuekZ.k gksrk gSA bu js[kkvksa ds Åij rhu fnu jkf=
tkrh gS fd vius xzgLFk vkJe vFkkZr~ fookg ds ckn dh ds cksèkd xHkkZ'k; ds dey dh ifRRk;ksa ds :i nhinku dh
ifjfLFkfr esa lhfer lalkèkuksa esa Hkh thou fuokZg vkSj ;fn lqanjrk ds fufer rhu [kkf<;k pkjksa rjQ cukbZ tkrh gSA
tud ru;k Jh tkudh th dh rjg ?kj ds ckgj taxyksa esa
bu ifRr;ksa :ih nhinku dh lkSUn;Zrk ds fufer rhl
Hkh isM ds uhps jgus dk volj izkIr gks rks èkS;ZiwoZd jguk
[kkfM;k pkjksa rjQ ijkx:ih jkt ds d.kksa ds |ksrd ds
Hkkstu ds fy, ;fn ik= uk feys rks iRrksa ij gh Qy&Qwy
:i esa cukbZ xbZ gSaA mlds ckn nhinku dh nksuksa js[kkvksa
j[kuk rFkk vius eu dh bPNkvksa dks R;kx dj vius ifr
ds Hkhrj nhif'k[kk ds izdk'k :ih vfXu esa tyus okys
ds lax mlds lq[k&nq[k dk lkFkh cudj gj ifjfLFkfr dk
Qfr;ksa ds #i vFkok l`f"V ds thoksa ds :i ;k "k"Vh nsoh
lkeuk djus dk ikB fn;k tkrk gSA ukfj;y rFkk dsys ds
ds ;a= ds izrhd lkB dey ds Qwy cuk, x, gSa ftlds
:i lqLokn Qy#ih xq.koku larku izkIr gksxh] oa'k c<s+xk
pkjks rjQ ds lkB 'kwU;dj fcanq izdk'k ds d.kksa ds :i
rFkk lq[k lEiUu gksxhA
vFkok iy ds lkB foiy ds cksèkd ;k l`f"V ds cht ds
iwtk esa j[ks x;s bl vfjiu ls vk'k; izd`fr :ik L=h |ksrd ds :i esa fpf=r fd;k tkrk gSA bl vfjiu ds
dh l`f"V dks èkkj.k djus okyh xHkkZ'k; rFkk nhi okluk lcls uhps okys Hkkx esa dke :ih ok;q ls izsj.kk L=h :ih
fefFkykapy esa lkaLÑfrd vfjiu dk egRo 263

nhi dh okluk :ih f'k[kk ds cksèkd vfXu ds izdk’k dh gSA bu fnuksa ds chp oèkw dks fuR; vfjiu ij fHkUu&fHkUu
rjg vkxs dh rjQ mRrsftr |ksrd l`f"V ;k lagkj dk iwtk djuh iM+rh gSA izR;sd fnu iwtk ds le; oèkq dks
cksèkd ,d ekg dk izrhd nhi dk ,d ykS dey dh MaMh vusd dgkfu;ka lqukbZ tkrh gS] ftldk rkRi;Z lrhèkeZ
ds #i esa cuk;k tkrk gSA ikyu ls jgrk gSA bu dgkfu;ksa dk vkèkkj Hkh ikSjkf.kd gSA
buesa eulk nsoh rFkk dbZ ,d ukxksa dh dgkfu;ka vktdy
mijksDr lHkh o.kZu ls ;g irk pyrk gS fd ;g vfjiu
ls rkRi;Z le; dh x.kuk djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA pyfp= ds ijns ij Hkh ns[kus dks feyrh gSA bl iwtk ds
vFkkZr~ 60 foiy dk iy iyksa dk 60 oka Hkkx 60 iy dk vafre fnu oj&oèkq dks fofèkor lkFk cSBk dj dbZ rjg
1 n.M] 60 n.M dk ,d fnu vkSj jkr rFkk 30 fnu&jkr dh ykSfdd fofèk;ksa ds i’pkr~ iwtk lekIr dh tkrh gSA
dk ,d eghuk cuk;k x;k gSA ¼>k 1999 % 31½ ftlds chp bl le; fy[kk tkus okyk ;g vfjiu eSuk ds nks iRrksa
fdlh dU;k ds _rqe[q kh ds i'pkr~ mlds okluk :ih vfXu ij iwtk djus okyh ds nksuksa rjQ Hkwfe ij fy[ks tkrs gSaS
dks dke :ih ok;q ds }kjk fudky dj mls izTtofyr gks rFkk nksuksa rjQ Hkwfe ij fy[ks x, vkysiu ij gh ;g iRrk
rsy ls ;qDr f'k[kk dh ykS dh rjg ty c<rk gqvk mlds fy[kk tkrk gS] ftlesa ck;as rjQ okys iRrs ij ds fp=
lEiw.kZ ’kjhj esa O;kIr dj fn;k tkrk gS vkSj dke:ih iq#"k ds chp ,d&lh&,d lfiZ.kh ds fp= flanwj rFkk dkty
ls laHkksx dj thokRek dks vius xHkkZ'k; esa èkkj.k dj ,d ls ,d vaxqyh ds lgkjs fy[ks tkrs gSa tks lkS ,dUr cfgu
u;s va'k dks tUe nsdj u;s :i esa lkdkj fd;k tkrk gSA dgykrh gSA ml ij dqlqekorh uke dh ukfxu dh izèkku
L=h dks l`f"V dk vkSj ikyu dh ’kfDr :i ekuk tkrk gS iwtk dh tkrh gSA fefFkyk esa lqgkfxukas ds fy, flanwj vkSj
vkSj iq#"kksa ds okluk :ih lagkj ;k nhif'k[kk ij irax dh dkty èkkj.k djuk vko’;d gksrk gSA bl iwtk esa eSuk
rjg viuh okluk ij eaMjkus okys dkeqd iq#"kksa ds fouk’k ds iRrs dk O;ogkj blfy, fd;k tkrk gS fd ikSjkf.kd
djus okyh L=h 'kfDr ds dkj.k ;k okluk ls m}hIr gksus ij dFkk esa eSuk ds iRrs ds chp gh bu liksZa dk ikyuk gksuk
Lo;a dks Hkh feVk nsus dh lkeF;Z j[kus okyh L=h dks lagkj fy[kk x;k gSA
'kfDr Hkh ekuh tkrh gSA
bu lHkh tkudkfj;ksa ls ;qDr ;g vfjiu fL=;ksa
dh nsoh; 'kfDr;ksa dk Kku djkus okyk gS tks fL=Ro ds
lEiw.kZ ukfjRo dk |ksrd gS rFkk buds _rqe;h ds pkj
fnu i'pkr~ gksus okyh iwtk dk o.kZu gS ftlesa muds
Luku ds ckn "k"Vh nsoh dh iwtk ds ckjs esa crk;k x;k
gS rkfd vcksèk ckfydk;sa budk nq#i;ksx uk dj ldsaA
tSls&tkudh lqrk lhrk ds vius ifr jkepUnz ds j{kk gsrq
dkfydk dk :i èkj jko.k dk lagkj ’kfDr #ik cudj
fd;k Fkk] ftldk o.kZu fefFkyk ds ?kj&?kj esa O;kIr gSA

eèkqJko.kh iwtk dk vfjiu

vfjiu eèkqJko.kh iwtk] tks fefFkyk esa uo fookfgr

oj&oèkqvksa ds fy, ,d izfl) R;ksgkj ekuk tkrk gSA ml fp= 3% eèkqJko.kh vfjiu
le; fL=;ksa ds }kjk fy[kus dh ifjikVh pyh vk jgh gSA
bl volj ij iqjk.kksa esa of.kZr ikrky yksd ds ukxksa dh bl fp= 3 ds ckabZ rjQ vkil eas fyiVs ukx ds tksMs
iwtk gksrh gSA ;g Jko.k d`".k iapeh tks ukx iapeh ds uke dk fp= fy[kk tkrk gS tks ukxHkkx dgykrk gSA eSuk iRrs
ls izfl) gS] ls izkjaHk gksdj Jko.k 'kqDy r`rh;k rd pyrh okys nksuksa izèkku fp=ksa ds chp iwtk djus okyh ds lkeus
264 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

lw;Z] pUnz] xkSj] lkfB rFkk uoxzg dk fp= Hkh fy[kk tkrk bl #i esa bl isM+ ds X;kjg iRrs ,dkn'k #nzksa
gSA ftuds fp= ds LFkku ij bl txg dsoy fcanq fn, x, ds izrhd f'kofyaxksa ds :i ekus x, gSa vkSj liZ muds
gSa ¼>k 1997% 35½A vyadkjksa ds :i rFkk liksZa ds v.Ms mudh #nzk{k dh ekyk
ds izrhd cuk, x, gSaA blds ckn izèkku iRrs ds pkjksa rjQ
bu eSuk iRrs okys izèkku vfjiuksa esa lcls uhps ds Hkkx dh rhu js[kk,a buds rhu xq.kksa ds :i rFkk nwljs iRrksa ds
esa ukx dh Q.kk ds :i esa o`{k dh tM+ cukbZ xbZ gS rFkk Åij dh pkjksa rjQ nks&nks js[kk,a buds fLFkr f'ko 'kfDr
chp okys iRrs dh nksuksa rjQ ikap&ikap dj nl iRrksa ds ds cksèkd fn, x, gSaA bl isM ds mij ds fcUnq buds mij
fp= cuk, x, gSa vkSj ml izèkku iRrs ds Åij Hkkx esa nks p<k, x, v{kr rFkk 'kwU;kdkj iq"iksa ds :i esa cus gSaA
NksVs&NksVs o`Rrksa ds vkdkj ds liksZa ds v.Ms dh rjg iq"i
cuk, x, gSa] ftlls ;g vfjiu eSuk ds isM+ dk :i iw.kZ nwljs dks bl vfjiu ij vPNh rjg è;ku nsus ls ;g
:i ls èkkj.k dj ysrk gSA eSuk ds isM+ ij gh egknso ds js[kk rFkk fcUnqvksa ls ;qDr fp= ;kSfxd fØ;kvksa ls ;qDr
}kjk liZ ds v.Mksa dks Qsads tkus dh dFkk iqjk.kksa esa of.kZr ekuo dk |ksrd cuk;k x;k gS ftlesa bl vfjiu ds chp
dh xbZ gSA blfy, bl isM ds izèkku iRrs dh cxy okys okyk izèkku] liZ ds fp=ksa ls ;qDr iRrk dk fp= ekuo 'kjhj
n’k iRrksa ds chp xksykdkj liZ ds v.Mksa ds :i iq"Ikksa ds dk izrhd gSA bldh nksuksa rjQ okys nl iRrs 'kjhj dh nl
fp= fn, x, gSa vkSj izèkku iRrs ds nksuksa rjQ mijh Hkkx bfUnz;ksa ds |ksrd cuk,a x, RkFkk bu iRrksa ds chp fn, x,
esa ikap&ikap dj nl xksykdkj iq"iksa ds :i cuk, x, gSaA iq"ikdkj lkaiksa ds vaMs tks fxurh esa uhps ls Øec) izèkku
iRrs ds nkfgus vFkok ck;sa ,d lkeus ds nks iRrksa ds chp dh
bl vfjiu ds cxy okyk ukxHkkx dk fp= ukx la[;k esa fn, x, gSAa izèkku iRrs ds Åij okys nks xksykdkj
ukfxu ds la;ksx ds :i vkil esa fyiVk fn[kk;k x;k gS liZ ds v.Ms dk fp= tks dh la[;k esa vkrs gS]a ;ksx esa of.kZr
ftlls eSuk ds isM ds iRrksa okys v.Ms RkFkk liksZa dh l`f"V fl}klu ds "kV pØksa ds izrhd cuk, x, gSAa
gqbZ gSA ;s liZ 'kwU; pØ ds lgL= ny i| ds cksèkd gSaA tgka
dq.Mfyuh 'kfDr ewykèkkj ds prqnZy i| ds izk.kk;ke ds
bl eèkqJko.kh iwtk ds volj ij lw;]Z pUnz] xkSj lkfB
}kjk Åij fy[ks x, "kV pØksa dk Hksnu dj bMk fiaxyk ds
rFkk uoxzg dk fp= l`f"V ds izHkko’kkyh u{k=ksa dks lar"q V
chp lq"kqEuk ukMh ds eè; ukMh ds }kjk 'kjhj ds es#naM ds
dj iwtk ds le; vkus okyh ukuk rjg dh fo?u ckèkkvksa dks
Åij fLFkr lgL= ny okyk lgL=kj pØ esa tgka ijekRek
gVkus dh n`f"V ls gh fy[kk tkrk gSA ;s lqUnj vkSj vkd"kZd :ih ije f'ko dk fuokl ekuk tkrk gSA ;g ije f'ko
vfjiu fp= iwtk ds le; fy[kus dh ifjikVh blhfy, pyh ls dq.Mfyuh 'kfDr dk la;ksx gh yo ;ksx dk è;s; ekuk
vk jgh gS] ftlls ;gka dh papy fpRRk ckfydk,a buds lqUnj tkrk gSA
lkdkj :i ij eqXèk gks viuk fpRRk fLFkj dj mu fujkdkj
nsorkvksa dh vkjkèkuk è;kuiwod
Z dj ldsAa bl vfjiu ds chp okys iRrs ds pkjksa rjQ nh xbZ
rhu js[kk,a bUgha Åij dgs 'kjhj ds izèkku ukfM;ksa ds cksèkd
cjlkr ds ekSle esa eèkqJko.kh iwtk ds volj ij gSa rFkk bl iRrs ds Bhd Åij fn;k x;k ,d NksVk&lk
ukxksa dh iwtk dk ;FkkFkZ rkRi;Z ;g gS fd liksZa dh f=dks.k czge jUèkz dk |ksrd gS ftlds Bhd Åij dk ,d
vkjkèkuk dj rFkk ykok] nwèk vkfn Hkksx ds :i esa ns Hkkstu 'kwU; ,d NksVk&lk #i ije f'ko dk cksèkd fn;k x;k gSA
djk mUgsa larq"V dj fn;k tk;] rkfd os vkuUn ls vius bl fp= ds cxy okyk ukxHkkx dk la;ksXkkRed fp=
fcyksa esa tkdj vkjke djsa vkSj euq";ksa dks liZna’k dk Hk; u dq.Mfyuh rFkk ijekRek ds la;ksx ds :i dk cuk;k tkrk
jgsA bl rjg tudY;k.k dh Hkkouk bl iwtk esa fNih gSA gSA lw;Z] pUnz] xkSj] lkfB vkSj uoxzg ds fp= ds LFkku
fn, x, ikap fcanq iaprRoksa ds #i cuk, x, gSa ftuls fd
nwljs n`f"Vdks.k ls ;g eèkqJko.kh iwtk dk vfjiu :ih
ekuo 'kjhj dk fuekZ.k gksrk gSA bu lc ckrksa ls ;g Li"V
js[kk fp= ,dkn'k #nz dk izrhd cu;k x;k gSA ftudh
gksrk gS fd bu vfjiuksa ds Hkhrj 'kkL=h; jgL; fNis gksrs
lRrk fo'oO;kih gSA
gSa] tks fefFkyk dh izkphu laLd`fr ds lax pyh vk jgh gSA
fefFkykapy esa lkaLÑfrd vfjiu dk egRo 265

milagkj lanHkZ

mijksDr vkys[k ds ekè;e ls Hkkjr ds lcls iqjkus ,oa 1- >k] deydkar] 2018] fefFkyk xkSjo'kkfyuh] gfj;k.kk%
oSHko'kkyh jkT; fcgkj dh dyk vkSj laLd`fr dk o.kZu fd;k ve`r cqd fMiks dSFkyA
x;k gSA iqjkru dky ls pyh vk jgh ijaijkvksa dks vkt Hkh
2- >k] deydkar] 2019] dkfeuh fefFkyk n'kZuh; Hkkjr]
fefFkykapy esa latks; j[kk tk jgk gSA jktk tud o lhrk
iVuk% uovkjaHk izdk'kuA
ds dky ls pyh vk jgh ijaijkvksa dk vkt Hkh bDdhloh
lnh esa fuoZgu fd;k tk jgk gSA blh Øe esa eèkqcuh ftys 3- >k] eksfguh] 1997] fefFkykd laLdkj] eèkqcuh% iVuk%
dh fefFkyk isfa Vax esa cuk, tkus okys vfjiu o "k"Vh iwtu uovkjaHk izdk'kuA
rFkk oSokfgd thou esa vfr egRoiw.kZ eèkqJko.kh ikou ds ckjs 4- >k] y{ehdkar] 1999] fefFkyk dh lkaLd`frd yksd
esa crk;k x;k gSA bl vkys[k ls vkt dh ih<h dks ;g Kkr fp=dyk] njHkaxk% fcgkj f}rh; laLdj.kA
gksxk dh Hkkjr ds fcgkj jkT; esa laLd`fr dk fdruk egRo 5- nÙk] lk{kkRdkj in~e Jh xksnkojh] uoEcj 20] 2020] jk¡Bh]
gS vkSj fdruh l`e) ` Hkkjrh; laLd`fr gSA eèkqcuh] fcgkjA
 CONSERVATION CHALLENGES OF MONUMENTS IN
THE HILLS OF UTTARAKHAND

SYED JAMAL HASAN*

U ttarakhand, popularly known as Dev Bhumi,

lies (29° 51’, 31° 25’ N; 77° 45’; 81° 11’ E) on
the southern slope of the central section of the Great
northern zone, popularly known as the Himadri,
contains segments of the Zanskar and the Great
Himalaya ranges, with elevations ranging roughly
Himalayas, Hemwant, and is bounded by Tibet on from 3,048m to 7,620m.To the south of the Great
the north, Uttar Pradesh on the south, Nepal on the Himalaya and adjacent to it is the zone comprising
east and Himachal Pradesh and Haryana on the of the Lesser Himalayas, with elevation between
north-west. The state as it stands today comprises of about 1,981m to 3,048m; to the south of the Lesser
thirteen districts with two administrative divisions, Himalayas is a stretch of the Siwalik Range. The
Garhwal and Kumaon, covering an area of 53483 sq. southern edge of the Siwalik Range merges with
km. It is a newly - created hill State in the Indian a narrow bed of gravel and alluvium known as the
Union by bifurcating the State of Uttar Pradesh on Bhabar, which interfaces to the south-east with the
9th November 2000. marshy terrain known as the Tarai. The combined
Siwalik-Bhabar-Tarai area ranges in elevation from
As per the geographical set-up about 92.5% 305m to 3,048m. South of the Siwaliks are found
land of the State is covered by mountains while flat-floored depressions, known locally as the duns.
63% land is occupied by forests and flatlands or
plains spread over 7.43%. Both the Nanda Devi The mighty Ganga and the Yamuna river systems
and the Kamet mountains fall in Uttarakhand. and their tributaries had played a major role in the
Geographically, Uttarakhand can be divided into cultural history of India as these originate from the
several physiographic zones, all running parallel glaciers of Uttarakhand and are fed by myriad lakes,
to each other from north-west to south-east. The which emerged after the melting of glaciers and

*
Director (Archaeology), Archaeological Survey of India, Janpath, New Delhi-110011.
268 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

streams in the region. The westernmost watershed is In historical times the predominant inhabitants
formed by the river Yamuna and its major tributary, were Khashas, Dards, Tangna, Par-Tangana Abisharai
the Tons, while the east of this basin is drained by and Kirata tribes of the Himalaya as referred to
the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which join to in the Puranas. A large number of early historical
form the Ganga at Deo-prayag, and the Mandakini, sites are reported from Central Himalaya Region of
Pindar and Dhauliganga, all principal tributaries Uttarakhand at Ranihat, Supana, Bnarkhet, Ratura,
of the Alaknanda. Further, to the east again are Mordhwaj and Virbhadra.
the southward-flowing Ramganga and Kosi which
draining to the south-east in the same region are the A few Kuninda coins of silver and copper
Sarayu and Gauriganga, both of which join the Kali (second century BCE–third century CE) were also
at Uttarakhand’s eastern border with Nepal. issued locally while a large number of copper coins
of theYaudheas, a few copper and gold coins of
The region is covered with dense forest within the Kushanas and Indo-Sassanian silver coins were
the three major physical divisions as it has various also noticed in the region.A hoard of fifteen Indo-
types of soils. In the north, the soil ranges from Sassasian silver coins was found in the premises of
gravel (debris from glaciers) to stiff clay and brown the Siva temple at Lakhamandal in District Dehradun.
forest soil, often shallow, gravelly and rich in organic The coins are of the single type and extremely worn.
content. The Bhabar area is characterized by soils Circular in shape, most of the coins are of equal
that are coarse-texture, sandy to gravelly, highly thickness while some are uneven and thin at the
porous and largely infertile. In the extreme south- periphery. The depiction over the obverse side of the
eastern part of the State, the Tarai soils are mostly coin appears in quixotic beast facing right. Some of
rich, clay loans, wined to varying degree with fine the coins have main motif depicted at the centre but
sand and humus generally suited to rice cultivation few has on the sides.
and sugarcane.
The discovery of Indo-Sassasian coins at
Uttarakhand has its own identity in terms of Lakhamandal is a landmark since there was no
mythology, spiritualism and its geographical set earlier evidence of Indo-Sassasnian influence in
up beside the magnificent shrines of Badarinath, Uttarakhand.
Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri. The
archaeological remains of Uttarakhand go back to Several copper-plate inscriptions of Pamvara-
Prehistoric times in the form of stone tools and rock Varmanrulers of Central Himalaya reported from
shelters with paintings followed by Protohistoric Pandukeswar, Kandara and Baleswar mention
sites at Thapli in the Alaknanda Valley and Purola in various land grants made by the kings of the Katyuri
the Yamuna Valley which have given clear evidence dynasty. Besides several votive inscriptions issued
of human settlements of Painted Grey Ware culture by individual chiefs, nobles, householders and
in this part of the Himalaya besides few cairn burials mendicants issued between eleventh and nineteenth
reported from Devidhura in District Pithoragarh, century were found in different parts of Central
cist burials in Ramganga Valley (Kumaon) and Himalaya and record the accounts of pilgrimage
remains of a human skeleton alongwith the pots about reservoirs, construction of temples and
at Malari on Indo-China border.Other burials sites installation of images, etc.
are also reported from Malari (Chamoli), Sanada
Baseri, Ganai, Naula, Jaina, Dwarahat, Someshwar The Central Himalayan region was actually ruled
and Takula (Almora), Devidhura (Champawat), by kingdom of Bhillang, followed by Chandpurgarh,
Bechander (Bageshwar) and site near Lakhamandal Katyuris and the Chand dynasty. Thereafter, the
(Dehradun). region was ruled by about sixty-four petty chieftains.
Conservation Challenges of Monuments in the Hills of Uttarakhand 269

The political and dynastic history of Uttarakhand region also experiences heavy rainfall in summer
actually starts from seventh century CE onwards and snowfall in winter. The variations in temperature
since various types of monuments and archaeological as well as relative humidity cause expansion and
remains of diverse nature in the form of temples, contraction leading to bulging and cracking.The
archaeological sites, rock inscriptions, caves, graves area being in the seismic zone, earthquakes are also
in the British cemeteries and memorials, fort and playing an important role in damaging the structures
naulas (covered spring), etc., are found in the region. and other objects.

The monumental heritage of Uttarakhand The most predominant factor that affects the
actually goes back to the Mauryan times. The XIVth archaeological sites and remains in Uttarakhand is
Rock-Edict of king Asoka at Kalsi was brought to heavy rainfall that occurs in this zone which causes
light by John Forest in 1860. It was followed by frequent floods, changes in the course of rivers and
an exposed brick altar, identified as Syenachiti at silt deposition over the remains. As a result the
Purola; remains of Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) site archaeological remains have either been washed
of third century CE; Jagatram Kalsi, Rehadur rock away or buried under the pile of debris and also
inscription of Mamal Barahat Trident, datable to some time found at different locations with earth and
fifth-sixth century and another Trident at Gopeswar, gravels downwards in slope of the hills.
sixth-seventh century. There are inscriptions of
Ishwara at Lakhamandal, fifth-sixth century; Palethi Floods are particularly severe in the region
stone inscription, seventh century; Sirohi stone because of the mighty Ganga and Yamuna and their
inscription, seventh century; and Bageshwar stone- major and minor tributaries which frequently breach
slab inscription, ninth-tenth century besides number their banks leading to extensive erosion of banks.
of stone inscriptions and copper plate grants issued
In snow-bound areas of Pandukeswar, Jageswar,
by various independent chiefs that ruled different
Baleswar, Badarinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and
parts of central Himalaya from the eleventh to
Yamunotri, the monuments/sites suffer a lot from
nineteenth century C.E.
November to April every year. The different
geological setting and formation when exposed
to varying climate in Himalayan region, the
CONSERVATION PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES hydrological condition, heavy rainfall, flash floods,
etc. generate different kind of landslides which are a
Conservation of built heritage of the region has
major factor causing much damage to the historical
become more challenging today with the growth of
monuments and sites. Landslides are very much
population, rise in tourist traffic, availability and use
common in Uttarakhand.
of modern construction materials, changes in climate
pattern and unplanned development. Like other It has also been observed that due to ecological
historic structures in the Himalayas, conservation imbalance, unplanned development activities,
of these structures owing to the recent change in widening of roads, movement of vehicles,
the climate has become challenging. This changed construction of dams and urbanization in the upper
climate pattern has prompted locals to change their regions of Uttarakhand, the cases of landslides have
traditional roofs to sloping CGI roofs and make increased in the region; the upper part of Pithoragarh,
extensive use of RCC thereby compromising with Uttarkashi and Joshimath are reported to be highly
the traditional aesthetics and values. The impact of prone to landslide.
global warming and climate change is a major threat
of the recent century in the region coupled with The direct impact of rain water or flowing water
heavy rains in the summer months.The Himalayan causes large-scale erosion of soil from the foundation
270 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

of the temples and also the stone surface in course of realizing the direct impact on the authenticity and
time, as a result temples are generally tilted towards integrity of the monument.
the slope of the site.
The stone temples in the hilly areas of Uttrakhand
Due to change in temperature, particularly were built by using locally available stone while the
expansion and contraction of the constituent- sculptures were brought from neighbouring states
minerals the architectural members of the temple which were famous for carving of stones and for
normally get cracks and result in the peeling of stone iconographic and aesthetic merit. However, the
surface. stone required for repairing of the temples of the
Uttarakhand is totally banned by an order pronounced
Burning of firewood by priests inside the by the Hon’ble High Court of Nainital with the result
temples was noticed in the upper part of Uttarakhand the contractors of the region are unable to supply
during the winter which generates a lot of heat inside the materials which are straightway required for the
the temples; this difference in internal and external centrally protected monuments underASI.
environment creates a severe problem resulting in
chipping and cracking of stone surface. Burning Besides these causes, the human agencies which
of oil lamps in the living temples during worship damage the authenticity of the monuments by way of
produces heavy amount of smoke and oily soot un-authorized occupation, in some part of the complex,
which deposits over the stone surface and turning it grabbing of land inside protected area, construction
into dark black. of shops close to the entrance, unauthorised high rise
buildings around the temple complex, removing of
The rain forest of Uttarakhand has covered about stone members for construction of new buildings and
65% area having diverse flora and fauna and several even engraving their names and designs, etc., on the
crop species. As a result of the growth of plants on wall of the temples.
temples and ingress of roots, generally penetrating
deep into the joints of stone masonry cause damage Notwithstanding these problems, the ASI
to the monuments. Growth of moss and lichen is took up the work of conservation and preservation
also common in the monuments of the region which of monuments under their control.In 2003, an
affects the stone surface. independent Circle was set up at Dehradun to look
after the heritage in the form of monuments and sites
It was challenging and exciting task for us in the state of Uttarakhand. The ASI team headed by
to take the responsibility for the conservation the author conducted thorough explorations of the
and maintenance of living temples of National area and identified various conservation problems
importance in Uttarakhand. Those who are associated responsible for deterioration of monuments in the
with the project know how difficult it is to conserve region. Detailed initiatives and conservation measures
and preserve them particularly when the property is were taken by our own team, consisting of the Foreman,
recorded either in the name of the trust or individual Conservation Assistant and Assistant Superintending
person. The trustees and the priest normally want the Archaeological Engineer of ASI, without involving
repair work of the temples to be done as per their either the State Government or private Contractor.
terms and conditions which is generally against the Besides several minor monuments, the following
norms of conservation policy of the Archaeological important protected monuments were attended to by
Survey of India (ASI). way of comprehensive conservation work:

It was also observed that the private donors 1. Sun Temple and subsidiary shrines at
are changing the floors pathways and providing Katarmal: Dedicated to Surya and located on a lofty
other electronic devices as per their choice without hill on the right bank of the river Kosi, about 18-km
Conservation Challenges of Monuments in the Hills of Uttarakhand 271

from Almora,it is locally known as Bara Aditya. The roots of the tree were also dismantled in a phased
main shrine, facing east, consists of a garbhagriha manner and reset with the help of new as well as old
and a mandapa. The sanctum has a curvilinear members in combination mortar after strengthening
sikhara while the mandapa is covered with a gabled the foundation as per the original. (Fig. 1)
roof and is apparently a later addition. The sanctum
is tri-ratha on plan though the projections are not 2. Group of temples, known as Adibadridham:
pronounced. There are 44 subsidiary shrines around In all, there were sixteen temples originally but only
the main temple. The beautiful carved wooden door- fourteen temples exist at present. On the basis of
leaves of the entrance of the sanctum and a wooden architectural features these can be dated between
pillar surmounted with an ornamented bracket have eighth and twelfth centuries CE. The main temple
been shifted to the National Museum, New Delhi. of the group is dedicated to Vishnu while the other
Stylistically, the temple can be dated to circa twelfth- subsidiary shrines are Shri Lakshminarayana,
thirteenth century CE. Gauri-Shankara, Annapurna, Surya, Satyanarayana,
Ganesha, Parabrahma, Siva, Garuda, Durga,Janaki,
The main shrine was badly affected by deep roots etc.In this group, the Gauri-Shankara and the
of Pipal tree which had penetrated into the joints of Chakrabhau temples were found tilted towards front
foundation. As a result a long crack had developed side due to erosion of earth near the foundation.
and the top of the sikhara had also collapsed. In Both the temples, after giving proper strength to the
due course some of the subsidiary shrines were also foundation,were systematically dismantled upto the
badly displaced and damaged by the roots of the floor level and re-set as per the original. Works like
same Pipal tree. The local people of the surrounding under-pinning, re-setting of bulged portion of the
villagers as well as the ASI officials posted at the site temples and water tightening was also undertaken
did not agree to uproot the tree during conservation wherever necessary in the complex besides providing
of the temple. After obtaining NOC from the Forest dwarf wall with M.S. railing along with new entrance
Department of Uttarakhand,the tree was removed to the compound in place of old one (Fig. 2).
from the temple-complex. For this task, labourers
had to be brought in from Agra. After completion 3. Group of Temples at Dwarahat: The
of photo documentation and detailed drawings of Katyuris of Dwarahat were not only politically
each and every architectural member of the affected powerful but were also patrons of art and architecture.
portion, the temples were dismantled carefully and There are number of temples in Dwarahat and
the original members were stacked in a systematic in its vicinity. The main temples erected by the
manner near the shrine,duly marking and numbering Katyuris are Gujar Dev, Bandev, Maniyan, Kacheri,
the courses and direction, etc. While executing Ratandev, Badrinath and Mrityunjaya temples.
the conservation work, the fallen architectural Among them Mrityunjaya and Badrinath Temples
members from the surrounding area of the hills were are still under worship, but the most notable of them,
collected. More than one meter accumulated debris is Gujar Dev Temple. Gujar Dev Temple appears to
was systematically removed from the surroundings be having better lay out and is profusely carved and
of the main shrine in order to expose the original ornamented. Mrityunjaya Temple is panchayatana
surface of the complex and also bring to light the type with square garbhagriha and enclosed mandapa
beautiful carved designs of the original plinth. along with a fronting mukha-mandapa. Ratandev is
After proper strengthening of the foundation, the a complex of seven temples and the Kacheri group
superstructure of the temple was reset with the consists of twelve temples.Another temple dedicated
available stone members and new stones matching to Badrinath, built by the earliest ruler of Dwarahat
the original. The badly damaged subsidiary shrines in the year 1084 CE is also unique in terms of its
due to the weathering effect of the stones as well as composition.
272 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

The miniature shrines of Badrinath group and monuments at this place are being attributed to the
the Bhairava temple of Mrityunjaya temple complex rulers of Chand dynasty and are stylistically datable
were found damaged and bulged out. Repairs to these to sixteenth century CE.
shrines were taken up after complete documentation
in all respects and then dismantled upto ground level Kotwali Chabutra is a fairly large, stone built
and reset with the help of old as well as new stone pavilion which stood on a square platform 2.74 m
members. The foundations were also strengthened along each side and 0.83 m in height. In design,
and the area within the complex was also developed it closely resembles the existing mandapa of the
by providing pathways, repairing the metal canopies Balesvara temple and was crowned with a circular
besides providing dwarf wall with M.S. railing dome with a triangular projection at each corner
around the protected area. (Fig. 3) which collapsed entirely except the terrace. The
terrace is adorned with mouldings on all sides.
4. Group of Temples, Baijnath: A cluster The Naula or covered spring outside the temple
of stone temples at Baijnath, identified as ancient enclosure on the south is a perennial spring protected
Karttikayapura is situated on the left bank of the river by a stone-built reservoir, with a rectangular domed
Gomati. The main temple is dedicated to Siva. It is a chamber over it.
simple pancharatha temple with a projected portico.
The plinth has five base mouldings and the roof is Most of the temples in the group were badly
supported on wooden frame-work. It appears that destroyed by invasions in the late medieval period
the original spire of the temple collapsed in the past. with the result a large number of broken members
There are other structures and subsidiary shrines, were lying here and there in the surrounding area.
built in rekha-sikhara (curvilinear spire style). Most During the course of our conservation work a few
of these miniature shrines known as Kedaresvara, buried sculptures along with architectural members
Lakshminarayan and Brahmani Devi. The main were kept in the surrounding area for safety.
attraction of this temple is a life size standing image However, in the first phase, addition of verandah
of the goddess Parvati of grey chlorite schistwith constructed by the priest was dismantled and the
twenty-six miniature images around it. architectural members were placedin these original
position as much as possible especially the plinth
In this group,the out of plumb, damaged and and the adhisthnana portion and thus restoring its
weathered veneering stones of the three shrines near original look (Fig. 5).
the main temple complex were restored as per the
original after dismantling the affected portions and 6. Jageshwar Group of Temples: In this group,
resetting the same and strengthening the foundation there are around 125 temples of different periods and
besides exposing the ancient staircases and ghats on sizes with styles. These temples are dedicated to Siva
the river side. (Fig. 4) and goddesses. The main temples are viz. Jageshwar,
Mrityunjaya, Dandeshwar, Kedareshwar, Baleshwar,
5. Group of Temples at Baleswara:The group Pushti Devi, Chandika, Kalika, Lakshmi, etc. These
of temple popularly known as Balesvara stands in temples can be divided into various groups on the
a spacious enclosure in the Champawat town. The basis of their style and architecture and can be
Ratnesvara and Champawati temples, which stand placed between 700 and1400 CE.A large number
about 33 feet (10-metres) apart, face each other of shrines have been built in rekhadeul or Nagara
and in all probability formed a pair. In general, Style. The Jageshwar and Mrityunjaya temples at
style and technique these temples closely resemble Jageshwar are the best specimen of this style. The
the Balesvara temple and as suggested above, may second category of temples was built in pyramidal
have been executed simultaneously with it. The style or pidha deul. The examples are Lakulisa and
Conservation Challenges of Monuments in the Hills of Uttarakhand 273

Baleshwar temple at Jageshwar. The third style square garbhagriha having nagara style sikhara,
is the vaulted roof known as khakhra style. These antarala and mandapa. The other structures within
shrines are rectangular in plan and have vaulted roof. the compound are Parvati, Hanuman, Ansuya,
Navadurga, Pushti Devi, and Kalika Temples are the Ganesa, Navadurga and the famous inscribed
best examples at this place. Trident.The wide cracks developed on the sikhara
of the Rudranath temple were repaired by stitching
A large number of miniature shrines in the the cracks and filling the joints and water tightening
compound along with Bhairava temple were badly the top. The flooring of the compound including
weathered and dislodged from its position with the the drains and store was also repaired. The loose
result a few of them had almost lost their existence. architectural members were also displayed on
The site was thoroughly examined by us in all angles masonry platforms. The platform over which the
and decided to call a small team of highly skilled inscribed Trident has been fixed was found in a
stone cutters and masons who are having enough dilapidated conditions and the same was dismantled
experience to deal such type of conservation work and restored as per the original.
in cold climate condition. All these shrines were
completely restored as per the original and matched Future Initiatives: In order to preserve and
them with the help of combination materials after protect the built heritage, it is high time that all the
strengthening the foundation. The canopies of stake-holders got together to formulate long and
the shrines were repaired and the compound was short term conservation and protection strategies by
developed by providing pathways and the modern organizing workshops, photo-exhibitions and public
structure of Dharamshala was removed and dwarf awareness programmes involving local populace,
wall over with ornamental cast iron grills provided. school and college students of the area about the
A cast iron gate of double leaf in ornamental design challenges.
with ramp having comfortable height staircases were
also provided for convenience of devotees after ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
removing the old gate of the complex. Kubera and
Dandeswar group along with two isolated temples It is my pleasure to acknowledge the hard work of team
across the Jata Ganga (towards residential area) members S/Shri R.K. Gupta, ASAE, Taher Malik and
were also conserved with the help of combination A.K. Gupta, Conservation Assistant to make it possible to
materials and matched them as per the original. take up the task of conservation and development works
(Fig. 6) of temples located on the southern slope of the Central
Section of the Great Himalayas.
7. Siva Temple, known as Gopinath or
I also appreciate the excellent computers work consisting
Rudranath: This temple is one of the biggest and of text and photography for the presentation of this
largest temples in the Garhwal region. Located on article done by Shri H.K. Syal, Personal Assistant and
the ancient trade route, the temple stands in the Shri Vikram Chauhan, Photographer of Director General
centre of the compound. On plan, it consists of Office of Archaeological Survey of India.
 EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS OF SCULPTURES AND
OTHER ARTIFACTS OF THE GUPTA PERIOD EXHIBITED IN
THE PĀÑCHAL MUSEUM

SAROJ KUMARI*, SURABHI SRIVASTAVA** AND ARCHIT SRIVASTAVA***

T he antiquity of the Pāñchal region can be traced

back to the Rgvedic times though indirectly,
where one of the janas (group of people) named
Later it passed under the rules of the Mauryas,
Kushanas and the Guptas with intermittent
independence under the  local rulers. During the
Kṛivi is mentioned which in the later period played a reign of the Gupta dynasty, Ahichchhatra, the
significant role in the development of Pāñchal region capital of the former Panchal Kingdom enjoyed the
(Ṛgveda: 8/20/24). The region known as Panchal status of a provincial capital – Matsya Purana also
was bound by the river Gomati in the east, Yamuna gives credit to the five sons (paṅch) sons of a king
in the west, Chambal in the south and on the north named Bhrimyashva who collectively ruled over
it approached Himalayan foothills. Besides Krivi,
this region thus it come to be known as Panchala.
there were four other janas who inclusively played
A Jaina scripture Vividhatīrthakalpa, though of
an important part in its history, viz. Turvasu, Keshin,
early medieval period tries to portray the antiquity
Sṛnjaya and Somak (Ṛgveda: 8/20/24; 8/22/12). The
region was quite a renowned one during the Later of Panchala through a story associated with twenty
Vedic age as we all know through Mahabharata third thīrthankara Parshvanath who is said to
and during sixth century B.C., (the dawn of the have penanced here (Vividha tirthakalpa: 13-14),
historical period) we find the region of Panchal Tracing the archaeological antiquity of the ruins at
(Anguttarnikaya: 213) as a reckoning political unit Ahichchhatra it was in 1861 when Sir Alexander
amongst the sixteen mahajanapadas.  Cunningham   noticed it but still earlier a surveyor

*
Research Scholar, History, Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow; E-mail: [email protected]
**
Assistant Professor, Ancient Indian History, Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow; E-mail:
[email protected]
***
Student, Master of Computer Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
276 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

named captain Hodgson described the place as have been studied to a certain extent (Ancient India
“the ruins of an ancient fortress several miles 1952: 33-63). The next excavation of at this site
in circumfereṅce, which appears to have had 34 was Carried out by N.R. Banerjee between 1963 -
bastions, and is known in the neighbourhood by 65 and he concluded that - “perhaps no other site
the name of the Pandus’ fort” (Cunningham I: 257). in India offers such scope for work as Ahichchhatra
However it was Cunningham who excavated the does” (Banerjee 1970: 14). All these works elucidate
site for the first time. He discovered the ruins of no the profound historical significance of Pāñchal of
less than twenty temples of various sizes. He also particularly in ancient Indian historical traditions.
claimed the excavation of a Buddhist stupa supposed Currently modern Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad,
to have been built by Emperor Ashoka. A nearby Bijnaur, Rampur, Muradabad (Taluk-Chandausi),
mound known as Katari Khera also drew attention Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Part of Etah, Mainpuri,
of Cunningham  where existed an inscription Etawah and Kanpur districts formed ancient Pāñchal
which refers to the creation of a temple of 4th century region.
A.D dedicated to Jaina Tīrthankar Parshvanath. Later
in 1878 - Cunningham visited the site of Kampilya, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University,
described in Buddhist Scriptures as the capital of Bareilly was founded on 15 February 1975 and
Southern Pāñchala and noted the traces of religious keeping in view the rich historical tradition of the
structure locally known as the site of king Drupada’s region and need to explore further a Department
palace where Draupadī’s svayaṁvara is said to of Ancient History and Culture was established in
have taken place. The eminent archaeologist further 1983, while a stone was laid for the Panchal museum
referred to several Jain Images and inscriptions of within the premises of the university on 20 August
rather later period (Shrimali 1983: 1-12). A decade 2001 and it was finally completed and dedicated to
later in 1888 Sadr-ad-din-Khan of Rampur, Zamindar public on 14 February 2004. The museum treasures
of Ramnagar (Ahichchhatra) excavated that mound a good number of antiquities unearthed from
at Ahichchhatra, which was believed by Cunningham various sites of ancient Pāñchal region. There are
to be a Buddhist monastery. Khan found several eight galleries in the museum.viz. 1- Ramashankar
large wrought slabs of red Sandstones, Buddhist Rawat gallery 2- Terracotta gallery 3- Ahichchhatra
railings, an elaborately carved ceiling Stone with a gallery 4- Exhibition hall 5- Pandit Surendra Mohan
dedicatory Inscription of the Indo-Scythian period Mishra gallery 6- Attires and modern Art gallery 7-
and large quantities of moulded bricks. In 1891- Abhayapur gallery 8- Numismatics lab established
92 Führer excavated a few remains of temples on currently. A good number of sculptures have been
the site. For about next five decades no excavation donated to the museum by the private collectors as
was undertaken at the site until K.N. Dikshit, then well.
Director General of  Archaeology in India decided The origin of sculptures is a matter of controversy
to carry out systematic work on the site in 1940. amongst the scholars as a very rudimentary form of
A large team of archaeologists consisting of A. mother goddess built of bone has been unearthed from
Ghosh, K.N. Puri, K.C. Panigrahi, Krishna Deva Belan Valley belonging to Upper paleolithic period
C.C. Das Gupta  and S.S. Mukherjee carried out a yet a definite specimen comes from Mehargadh.
large excavation work on this site between  1940-
1944 (Shrimali 1983: 1-12), over 40 seals and one Thus art of sculpture making has been present
thousand terracottas were found. The full reports of since the dawn of proto historical period in Indian
these excavations have not been published yet the Subcontinent and by the advent of the Gupta age i.e
unbroken sequence of cultures, ceramic traditions in fourth century A.D. it had come a long way but
(Ancient India 1946: 37), terracotta human figurines a noticeable feature was that no Shilpa text on the
(Ancient India 1947-48: 104-179), pottery and beads iconography  of sculptures was written till then in
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 277

other words we do not come across the iconography are also recommended a material for carving out a
conventions and rules laid down for artisans while sculpture by the same text. Another scripture though
making different types of  sculptures upto Gupta of much a later age known as Shiplaratnaṁ (16th
age. It is Only Buddhacharita by Ashwaghosh (78- century A.D) refers to seven types of sculptures
105 A.D) which speaks of rules for Sculptures categorised under two heads, the first group consists
of Buddha. Similarly Varahmihir in his work of –
Brihatsaṁhita (written in Gupta age) speaks of
some rules related with iconography of certain gods 1. Chitrajā - made on walls & cloth
viz Ganapati. The first Shilpashastra (scripture on 2. lepyajā - made of teracotta
iconography) i.e. Vishnudharmottara purāna was 3. Pākjā - made of metals
written in Gupta age which clearly laid down rules
4. Shastrotkeerṇā - made of metal and carved
related with Iconography of the Brahmanic gods and
with weapons.
goddesses. The plethora of gods and goddesses and
numerous minor deities which were revered by the The Second group refers to –
followers of the Brahmanical sects with their varied 5. Mṛṇamayī - made of terracotta
names and  special attributes had great significance 6. Dāruja - made of wood
in iconography. Each god has his or her cognizance 7. Lauhjā - made of iron or other metals
symbols which help to distinguish him or her from
8. Ratnajā - made of precious stones
other gods and goddesses of the pantheon. Similarly
to a superficial observer, the image of a Jina and 9. Shailja - made of stone
of a Buddha look alike. But there are important It is interesting to note that some of the
differences (Gupte 1972: 175). construction materials mentioned above were used
by Indian artisans since the dawn of art.
Thus most of the injunctions of iconography
were formally laid in the Gupta age when the The Pāñchal museum houses total 144 sculptures
Shilpashastras started coming into existence but the of Gupta period. Most of the statues are religious in
Indians were engaged in making sculptures much nature and a good number of Brahmanical deities
before this period, various schools like Gandhara are represented in iconic form. The Barhmanical
and Mathura had already produced some significant sculptures have been categorised under three main
sculptures by this time, besides various local schools categories :-1-Vaishnaivite Statues 2. Shaivite Statue
were also producing various types of sculptures and lastly the statues related with the Worship of
using local materials, techniques and ideas. During Shakti i.e. goddess. The Brahmanical Triad consists
Gupta age under the Mathura school two distinct of Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva. Unfortunately we do
styles were evolved – 1- Ahichhatra style and not find a single sculpture of Brahma preserved in the
2- Kaushambi style. Besides Gandhara, Sarnath, Pāñchal museum though formally Brahma is revered
Pataliputra were too equally important centres, all as the equal of Vishnu and Shiva. He is taken as the
these pre existed long traditions must have made god of wisdom and the four Vedas are said to have
a definite influence on ths shilpa texts. Folk art sprung  from his heads. In the trinity of gods he is
forms also developed under these schools which taken as the creator and rulers regarding his depiction
throw a welcome light on the contemporary socio- are also laid in the Shilpashastras but no such image is
cultural traditions. Vishnudharmottara Purāna (.... found from Ahichchhatra region during excavation. 
shilādāruṣu loheṣu pratimā Karaṁ bhavet) (43/32)
speaks of Shila (Stone), dāru (Cedar Wood) and Vishnu is the second deity of the Trinity but is
lauh (iron) as a material used for making sculptures worshipped by his followers as the Supreme God.
besides gold, copper, silver along with other metals Vishnu existed in vedic times also for Ṛgveda Says,
278 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

‘Vishnu is the representation of the sun, who Strides holds an arrow and the left a bow. If he is portrayed
thorough the seven regions of the earth, his hole as as a prince he wears a Kiriṭa-crown but if he is
preserver in Triad is essentially a late development. represented in exile the Kiriṭa is omitted. His wife
Vishnu in sculptures is often represented reclining on Sita Stands erect on his right side. She should reach
the coils of Sheshnaga (serpent) sometimes Lakshmī the Shoulder of Ram in height. Normally a blue lotus
seated at his feet. A large but broken statue of Vishnu is displayed in her left hand while the right hand
in the above position has come to light from the hangs loosely on the light. She wears a Karaṇḍa-
excavations of Pāñchal and is stored in the museum. Crown. Lakshman is always placed to the left of his
The conjunctions laid down to the represent Vishnu elder brother Ram. He reaches the ears of his brother
in the Standing position are-he be  shown as a in height. He is richely ornamented and holds the
handsome young man with  blue skin, dressed in bow and the arrow in his two hands (Gupte 1972:
royal robes, should have four hands, one holding 33) but as the sculptures of these three preserved in
a conch shell or Shankh called pāñchajanya; the Pāñchal Museum are associated with the period of
second hand should hold a discus called Sudarshan their exile and it was during this period the incident
Chakra or Vajranābha; a mace called Kaunodaki be of Ahilya’s salvation took place, the ornamentation
shown in the third hand and a lotus or padma in the of all of them is not done besides the icons found are
fourth hand. He also has a bow Called Saraṅga and also broken. 
a sword known as Nandaka, his vehicle is Garuda.
Several sculptures of Vishnu  in standing position Shiva is one of the oldest and most popular
are displayed in the museum but are fragmentary gods of India. The Amarkosha written during the
and none is complete. Total ten sculptures of Gupta period renders forty eight synonyms of Shiva.
Vishnu are stored here. Another important element Shiva is identified with Vedic God Rudra who is also
of Vaishnaivism is the concept of incarnation identified with Agni (Gupte 1972: 36-37). According
or  avatārvād. According to this concept whenever to Vājasaneyī Samhitā Agni, Asani, Pashupati,
the evil starts dominating  this world, Vishnu as a Bhava Sarva, Ishana, Mahadeva, Ugradeva all are the
preserver takes human form and descends to this different forms of Shiva. The Shiva Purāna regards
earth to save human race. During every avatār Shiva as the master of triple functions of Creation,
Vishnu has a specific task to perform. Though some protection and destruction. With the development
later texts talk about some twenty-two incarnation of devotional worship i.e. bhakti, Shiva came
or even innumerable but there are ten avatāras which to be regarded as Auspicious and in the Purānic
are widely recognised and most popular they are period  that is the Gupta age Rudra becomes  Shiva
: Matsya (Fish) Kurma (tortoise), Varāha (Boar) and, Supreme Deity. He was taken as the soul of the
Narsimha (man); Vāman (dwarf) Parashuram, Ram, universe. He is supposed to carry a discus, a trident,
Krishna, Buddha and Kalki (yet to take place). The a club, an axe, and wears a girdle and a yajñopavīta
Gupta age saw prolific growth in the number of made of serpents. He is shown as master of singing
divinities due to popularity of Purānas hence stories and dancing and  turns into Nataraj form to his
related with the incarnations were quite popular and devotees. But the most popular and ancient form in
the artisans, often engraved them either on stone which Shiva is worshipped is the phallic form, its
or carved out sculptures depicting it. one of the origin is of much controversy amongst the scholars.
most popular incarnation was that of Ram, Pāñchal R.G. Bhandarkar while expressing his opinion said
museum has three combined sculptures of Ram that the Aryans must likely had borrowed it from
along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshaman and aboriginal tribes which represents the symbol of
the story of emancipation of Ahilya is portrayed in creative  power  Dr. Aiyyar does not take ling as a
all three. In general sculptural representation of Ram phallus. It was to represent the idea of ‘formless’ and
is shown standing in tribhanga pose, his right hand the ‘all formed’ that the Shiva linga, which looks
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 279

like a phallus, was chosen. The Shiva linga is thus by the king in front of Sati, when Shiva learnt about
the closest possible approximation to the Cosmic the whole incident and death of Sati, his  gaṇas
Purusha. The phallus, symbolic of generative power destroyed the whole yajña site. The incident in the
was considered the cause of creation, animate and plaque (terracotta) is depicted here.
inanimate. The dormant powers of nature have to be
aroused by fertility rites so when Shiva came to be Even before the commencement of Vedic
regarded as the cause of causes, the Linga became religion man has recognised the vital role of
his mark. Thus unbroken chain of worshipping Shiva woman in the perpetuation of the life, thus we come
in Linga form has existed from the Indus valley across numerous terracotta  female figurines from
period till date and Gupta period was no exception various sites of Indus valley called mother goddess
to it. Though in Shilpa texts  we find description which symbolise the celebration of female fertility,
of various kinds of sculptural representations of birth, power of creation and growth. The Vedic seers
Shiva, viz. Anugraha murtis, Lingodbhava murti, called her Aditi - Boundlessness personified. Later
Saṁhara murti, Chandrashekhar murtis, Shiva the Purānas developed the concept of devī (goddess)
as Mahāyogi, Ardhanarīshvara, Kalyana  Sunder on the same principle. In the development of Shakti
murti, nritta-murtis, Dakshiṇa mūrti, etc. but she is taken as mother throughout which led to
the most popular form is Shiva linga in which her inevitable characterisation as wife (Gupte 1972:
deity is still worshipped. Some twelve Sculptural 54-55). Shakti is the female counterpart of Shiva;
representations of Shiva produced during the Gupta Prakriti is the female energy of Puruṣa (male),
period are preserved in the Panchal museum which without her Shiva (male) is inactive, this notion not
are not only various types  of lingas, (often plain, only generated the concept of ardhnariśvara form
but sometimes having one face of Shiva engraved of Shiva but also the gave rise to the perception that
on it while a peculiar Shiva linga is worshipped in a she is nowhere under subordination to her husband.
temple of Bareilly, (Aonla Pāñchal) having the face The wifely aspect of the Original Mother has been
of a female i.e Parvati carved onto it. This is known accounted for in the Purānas by the story of the
as Gaurimukh Shivalinga and said to be quite old, its birth of the Triad, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva from
antiquity is traced back to the Gupta period . Besides the Devi who ultimately took Shiva as her Consort
sculptural representation of three eyed Shiva’s head (Gupte 1972: 54). Devi is also called Jaganmātā,
in terracotta, another one having a peculiar set of the mother of the world. She is worshipped in
hair, also in terracotta are displayed in Museum. various forms by her devotees hence we have some
Sculptural representation of Ardhnarishvara form of ten statues of different Goddesses of Gupta period
Shiva’s head (having features of male in half and that procured through excavations or donations are
of a female in the other part) is also preserved here. displayed in the Museum. There are two Stone
Terracotta being the favourite construction material sculptures of Saraswati in the museum. In the Vedas
of the artisons of Pāñchal we find the sculptures of Saraswati was a water deity, goddess of a river of the
almost all the deities made out of it. Shiva was no same name which flowed west from the Himalayas
exception. He is represented in his destroyer form (Aa yatsākṁ yashaso Vāvshanaḥ Saraswatī Saptathī
(Raudra roop i.e Rudra) as well. His gaṇas are also Sindhumātā| Yāḥ Susvayanta Sudughāḥ sudhārā
represented in yet another plaque having a fight with abhi svena payasā pīpyānaḥ)  (Ṛgveda: 7/36/6). In
the soldiers of King Daksha. This  Struggle took early times the river and its goddess were celebrated
place after Shiva’s wife Sati (Parvati in her earlier for  purifying, fertilizing and enriching powers
birth) jumped into the sacred fire of yajña held by (Panda 2011: 121). By the Gupta age she became
her father king Daksha and burnt herself to defend the goddess of all the creative art in particular of
the honour of her husband Shiva as Shiva was not poetry and music, learning and science.  We find
invited on the occasion and was further humiliated other nomenclatures also for this goddess, viz. Vāk,
280 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Vāgdevī, Vagīśvarī, Bhāratī, Vānī, etc. This goddess eight handed, ten handed or  twenty handed. Three
is popular with the Hindus, the Buddhists and the damaged sculptures of Mahishasurmardini preserved
Jainas. The Buddhists have made her the consort of in the museum have four hands and as the injunctions
Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of wisdom. To Jainas lay two hands carry a wheel and a conch, while the
she is Shruta devi. In Brahmanic religion she is remaining two are in the protection and boon giving
sometimes consorted with Brahmā and sometimes attitude. Out of the three sculptures one conforms to
with Vishnu or Ganesha. However she is often the rules but another one having just four arms holds
shown as an independent goddess. According to a noose and a sword in both the upper hands while
Vishnudharmottara purāṇa the goddess be presented the lower two are damaged hence the mudrā cannot
well ornamented. If the has four hands She holds be determined. The texts refer that  such weapons
: book, rosary, lute (viṇā) and lotus- or book, be displayed only when the goddess has more than
akṣasūtra (Rudraksha mālā), lotus ,with one hand four hands. This shows that the artisans of the age
in teaching  attitude  (vyākhyāna mudra); or book, were not bound by any text rules and they were
rosary, lute and vase; or Sudaṇda (sacred staff), free to express their feelings.  Two very significant
rosary, book, with one hand in the Kaṭaka mudra - Sculptures of Gupta period retreived from Pāñchal
(fingers forming  a ring); or one hand in the boon region during  excavations are the sculptures of
giving altitude with rosary, lotus and book in the River goddess Ganga and Yamuna now showcased
other hands; or rosary, noose, goad and hand in the in National Museum New Delhi and only the
protection attitude (Vishnudharmottar Mahapurana: photographs of these magnificent idols are displayed
64/1-2/3/4/6-7). The text goes on to mention what at Pāñchal museum. These statues were retreived
she should hold if she is eight handed or ten handed from a dilapidated temple of Gupta age where
but the Pāñchal sculptures of this goddess have two these two were constructed at the gate of Sanctum
hands only and thus lute (vinā) is necessarily present. Sanctorum. Ṛgveda also speaks about the holiest
Ganga river (Ṛgveda: 10/75/5). In the Ādikhaṇḍa
There is a Pārvati head displayed  in the of Padma purāṇa she is said to be very efficacious
museum. In the texts we come  across twenty four in removing the sin (yojanānāṁ Sahasreṣugaṅgā
names of Parvati, The names Haimavati, Pārvatī, smaratı yo naraḥ| api duṣkṛ takarmās au labhlate
Āryā Dākśāyanī, Satī are the names related with paramgatim) (Padma purāṇa: 1/41/14). The river
her birth while Shivā, Bhavānī, Rudraṇī, Maidāṇī Yamuna is known for her devotion. These rivers have
are associated with her consort aspect of Shiva. She been worshipped for a long time during the reign of
has several names which describe her aggressive the Imperial Guptas (4th-6th Century A.D.) architects
forms where she destroys evils, like Katyāyanī, began to carve anthropomorphic figurs of  Ganga
Durgā, Chandika, Ambikā while in the lexicon of and Yamuna on two sides of the shrine door. It was
the age Amarkosha we find Mahishāsurmardini as a very symbolic The devotee who entered the sanctum
synonym of Pārvatī. The texts like Mahābhārata and Sanctorum entered the divine presence, But only the
Mārkaṇdeya Purāṇa tell us that she is very fond of pure and the devoted have entrance here. This is the
wine flesh and of muṇḍamālā (garland Of heads), significance of their presence. The Gupta sculptor
vyāghra Charm a (tiger skin) and khaṭ vaṇga (mace). who thought of this idea must have been very
Obviously she  was orginally a non-Aryan deity, imaginative. At a later period it became a common
when she was assimilated in Aryan Pantheon she practice to represent the two river goddesses on the
was assigned the task of destroying the demons like two sides of the Shrine door both in the north and
Mahisha, Chaṇḍa, muṇda, Shumbha, Nishumbha, the South (Gupte 1972: 57). Crocodile is the Vehicle
etc. Mahishasurmardiní occupies an important place of Ganga while turtle is of Yamuna through their
in Brahmanic religion and several rules are laid vehicles they can be differentiated and recognised.
while making her sculptures if she is four handed, Some seven sculprures of Ganesha are displayed in
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 281

the museums which were carved during the Gupta gardhamaṅganā | ācāryatvaṁ Shrotriya -Śraca
period.  The Jainas also acknowledge  Ganesha i.e na Śiṣyoadhyayanaṁ tathā |vaṇiga -  lābhaṁ na
Ganadhar as the compiler of twelve Aṅgas and Cāproti Kṛṣim cāpi Kṛṣīivalaḥ) (Yajñavalkya Smriti:
fourteen Puvvos. At the time of Jaina marriage, 274/276). Certain magic formulations are prescribed
the Vināyaka yantra is still worshipped. Ganapati to drive away the evil Vināyakas (Yajñavalkya
Hridaya is an importan Scripture of Nepalese Smriti: 277/278). In the course of his assimilation
Buddhist Literature.  The followers of Vajrayān into Āryan worship, the character of Ganesha went
Buddhism consider as Shri Ganesha the only through  transformation. From being an evil and
one who helps them achieve Siddhi. Tracing the inauspicious deity he gradually became an auspicious
antiquity of the word Ganapati which later became one so much so that every ceremony has to begin with
Ganesha’s synonym we come across Ṛgveda where his invocation. His images started getting carved out
it is mentioned twice but it does not refer to Shiva’s on and above the doors of houses, temples, etc. The
son but to Bṛhaspati (gaṇā nām tva gaņapatiṁ education of a Hindu child started taking place with
havāmahe kaviṁ kavīnāmupamśravastamaṁ | the utterance of Shri Ganeshāya Namaḥ.
Jyeṣṭ tharajaṁ brahmaṇaṁ brahmaṇ as pata ā
naḥ Śṛṇvannūtibhiḥ sced sādnam) (Ṛgveda: 2/4/1) Sun is another deity associated with
While in tenth maṇḍala the term Ganapati is used Brahmanical religion and four sculptures of him
with reference to Indra (Ṛgveda: 10/113/9) In are preserved in the Pāñchal museum. Sun (Sūrya)
the Baudhayan-Dharma Sūtra, (Gupte 1972: 48) is glorified in the Vedas of ancient India as an all-
Ganpati is referred to as Vighna, Vināyaka, Sthūla, seeing god (Bhuvan-Chakṣu) who observes both
Hastimukha, Vakratuṇḍa, Ekdanta and Lambodara. good and evil actions. He expels not only darkness
His elephant head i.e. hasta mukha is described as but also evil dreams and diseases. The Vedas refer
Vakratuṇḍa i.e crooked, he is described as having to him frequently as Savitri, Pūṣan, Bhaga,Vivasvat,
one tooth (ekdanta) and lambodara i.e with a Mitra, Āryaman and Vishnu. The Rigvedic Sūrya is
protruding belly. Further more in the achārādhyāya described as a beautiful winged bird and moving in a
Ganpatikalp prakaraṁ of Yajñavalkya Smriti, chariot drawn by one, Seven or innumerable sturdy
Vinayaka is the appointed chief of Shiva’s gaṇas horses. Sometimes the horses are said to be seven
(pushpadanta, etc.) by Rudra and the Brāhmana or one with seven heads. The Pāñchal  museum
(Vinayakaḥ karmavighna Siddhiyasethe viniyojitaht has a torso of Sun deity while the rest three are the
| Gaṇānāmdhipatye ca Rudreṇa Brabmaṇā tathā) parts of damaged sculptures with the remnants  of
(Yajñavalkya Smriti; 271/126). His job is to create horses only. In the Purānic literature his wives are
obstacles in the performance of sacrifices. His listed as  Samjña, Rājñi, Prabhā, Dyau, Nikshubha,
mother is Ambikā Parvati. He has to be placated to Chhaya, etc. His children too are mentioned : Yama:
keep him out of mischief. Yamuna, Ashvinav, Prabhat, Pinglapati, Tapati,
Manu, etc (Gupte 1972: 52). Such references have
The scripture goes on to say when a person a direct bearing on the prominent position of Sūrya
is possessed by (vignakārak) Vināyaka, he starts (sun) enjoyed during the Purāṇic period. 
behaving like a mad man, dreams bad dreams i.e
nightmares, feels that he is being followed. Prince do Jainism is a non Vedic school of philosophy
not inherit; married women do not get children; the whose origin still shrouds in mystery. It has the legacy
preceptor and the teaches forget all they know; twenty four ascetics known as Tīrthaṅkaras. The first
the merchant does not get profit and the farmer one was Rishabhdeva or Rishabhnath. Several Vedas
does not get good crops (Vimnā Vifalārambhaḥ also refer to early Tīrthaṅkaras. The Jainas claim
Sarisīdatganimittaḥ | tenopśreṣtho labhate na that the twenty second Tirthankar Nemi-nath was
rājyaṁ rājnandanaḥ | kumārī ca nā bhartārapatyam contemporary and cousin to Krishna .However during
282 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

the times of twenty third Tīrthankar Parshvanāth who council at Kuṇdalvana, Kashmir for specifications in
is believed to have existed in 8th cen. B.C. the Jainas carving out Buddha’s image. Thus the Gāndhar and
became powerful. The twenty fourth Tīrthankar Mathura Schools of arts came into existence and not
Mahaveer Swamī was the contemporary of Buddha. only Buddha’s but the images of Brāhmaṇa deities
These  Tīrthankar represent the higher ideal of and the Jaina Tīrthankara were also conceptulised
self-denial and extreme ascetism. In sculptural and came into existence.
representations they are shown like ascetics, draped or
Buddhism conceives various types of Buddha,
naked, in the two Yogic postures þaryankāsana and
viz. Dhyanī Buddha (Buddhas in meditation),
kāyotsarga (standing upright in a pose of meditation
Manūshi Buddhas (mortal Buddhas) and then
with feet on ground and arms helds downward without
Bodhisattras. Gautam Buddha is the most popular
touching the body). Generally the Tīrthankaras
Mortal Buddha who is represented in Indian Buddhist
have the Symbol of Shrivatsa (a triangular mole)
art. In shrines he is seen either in the meditation or
on their chest, a triple umbrella above their heads
teaching or touching earth. All these hand postures of
and a lāñchchhana or symbol on the parasol (Gupte
Buddha have a deeper meaning-
1972: 175). In the Kushana period these identifying
symbols are not used: Neither were their attendants 1. Dhyāna: the two hands are placed on the lap,
Yakshas and Yakshiṇīs carved, the only exception one above theother, palms facing upwards, This is
being Yakṣiṇi Ambika (Gupte 1972: 175). It is the attitude of meditation.
from the Gupta period that the individual symbols of
2. Bhūsparsha or Bhumisparsha: Buddha’s
the Tīrthankaras were determined and the attendant
right hand touches the earth, calling it to witness the
Yakshas and Yakshiṇīs were started to be carved
victory over demon Māra. 
with the Jain idols.but it was not a practice to be
followed necessarily.  3. Dharmachakra: represents Buddha’s  first
sermon after attaining the ultimate knowledge (bodhi).
The Jainas artisans also carved out religious
tablets with jaina symbols engraved on them. These This the Turning of wheel of Righteouness
āyāgpaṭtas were meant to be worshipped by the (Dhammachakra- pravartan). In such an image both
Jaina devotees besides terracotta seals bearing these the hands are held near the breast. The tips of the
symbols were also produced. There are total seven index finger and thumb are joined and they touch one
Jaina sculptures and seals preserved in the museum.  of the fingers of the left hand, the palm being turned
inward. Besides Boddhisattvas who onginated from
A good number of sculptures associated with the Dhyānī Buddhas were the ones who has become
Buddhism are stored in the museum. Most of them are enlightened, acquired the Bodhi knowledge but refuse
damaged or broken but 31 Sculptural heads, torsos of to enter Nirvana since they desire to guide all mankind
Buddha and Bodhisattavas are displayed here.  to the true path of Buddha (Gupte 1972: 108-110).
The antiquity of the Buddhist Sculptures Some well known Bodhisattvas are - Samantbhadra,
can be traced back to the times of Ashoka when Vajrapāṇī, Ratnapāṇī, Padmapaṇī (Avalokiteshvara),
stupas were built, the Jataka stories related with etc. While Maitreya is the future Buddha. 
the previous birth of Buddha Yakshas & Yakshinis Besides the above sculptures of religious nature
were engraved but Buddha in anthropomorphic some  fifty eight statues and other artifacts made of
form was absent. He was represented through both stone  and terracotta which are either associated
symbols like. Dharmachakra (wheel), etc. It was with folk art or small animal figurines in the form
only in first cen A.D. after Kanishka. ordered for toys, and even Storage jar, Water- pot, bricks are also
sculptures of Buddha and directed Ashvaghosh to displayed which present a very vivid picture of the
consult  Buddhist scholars during fourth Buddhist socio cultural life of the Gupta period before us.
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 283

TABLE 1: ARTIFACTS AT A GLANCE

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject
No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Brown Gupta
1 Vishnu Bust RU 269 7 x 13 cm Chandausi Vishnu
Stone period
Shesh naga with Brown Gupta
2 RU 405 16 x 13 cm Chandausi Vishnu
Vishnu Stone period
Black Gupta Ahichhatra
3 Four armed Vishnu RU 3 12 x 11 cm Vishnu
Stone period Kshetra(region)
Gupta
4 Vishnu Bust RU 1234 Stone 18 x 11 cm Chandausi Vishnu
period
Gupta Ahichhatra
5 Vishnu RU 67 Terracotta 8 x 17.5 cm Vishnu
period Kshetra(region)
Shesh naga with Gupta
6 RU 429 Red Stone 5 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Vishnu
Vishnu head period
Gupta
7 Vishnu's Torso RU 1257 Stone 6 x 2.5 cm Chandausi Vishnu
period
Lower part of Vishnu Red Gupta
8 RU 316 36 x 23 cm Chandausi Vishnu
resting on Shesh naga Terracotta period
Lower part of Vishnu Red Gupta
9 RU 397 11 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Vishnu
on a panel Terracotta period
Vishnu with broken
Gupta
10 legs holding mace and RU 787 Terracotta 16 x 13 cm Chandausi Vishnu
period
wheel
Sita Ram
Brown Gupta Sita
11 emancipating Ahilya RU 402 16 x 04 cm Chandausi
Stone period Ram
(Panel)
Ahilya's emancipation
Gupta Sita
12 by Ram's feet with RU 1103 Terracotta 38 x 25 cm Chandausi
period Ram
Sita and Lakshman
Ram's feet with Gupta Sita
13 RU 1249 Stone 10 x 7.5 cm Chandausi
Ahilya's head period Ram
Brown Gupta
14 One faced Shiv ling RU 430 6 x 08 cm Chandausi Shiva
Stone period
Currently this Ht. 140cm x
sculpture is Chocolate- 130cm Gauri
Gupta Ahichhatra
15 Gauri faced Shiv ling worshipped in Brown face : Shiva
period Kshetra(region)
Gaurishankar Stone wdth : 31 x 89
Aonla temple cm. (face)
Gupta Ahichhatra
16 Shiva's head U.P. 62.243 Terracotta 23 x 08 cm Shiva
period Kshetra(region)
Black Gupta Ahichhatra
17 Three eyed Shiva RU 58 8.5 x 7.7 cm Shiva
Terracotta period Kshetra(region)
Shiva with peculiar Gupta Ahichhatra
18 RU 51 Terracotta 7 x 06 cm Shiva
hair bun period Kshetra(region)
Ardhnareeshwar(half Brown Gupta
19 RU 293 11 x 9.5 cm Chandausi Shiva
male, half female) Stone period
284 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Unidentified statue
with Ganpati and Gupta
20 RU 1032 Grey Stone 13 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Shiva
goddess earth beneath period
it
PM/COE/2014- Gupta Ahichhatra
21 Shiva as a destroyer Terracotta 85 x 79 cm Shiva
15/TL-2 period Kshetra(region)
Benevolent form of PM/COE- Gupta Ahichhatra
22 Terracotta 77 x 75 cm Shiva
Shiva 2014-15/TL-3 period Kshetra(region)
Shiv's ganas at war PM/COE- Gupta Ahichhatra
23 Terracotta 80 x 78 cm Shiva
with King Daksha 2014-15/TL-1 period Kshetra(region)
Gupta Ahichhatra
24 Parvati head U.P., 62.244 Terracotta 13 x 5.5 cm Devi
period Kshetra(region)
Red Gupta
25 Mahishasur mardinee RU 315 11 x 11.5 cm Chandausi Devi
Terracotta period
Four armed Gupta
26 RU 494 Terracotta 12 x 10.5 cm Chandausi Devi
Mahishasur mardinee period
Bust of goddess Gupta
27 RU 602 Terracotta 8.5 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Devi
Mahishasur mardinee period
Brown Gupta Ahichhatra
28 Mother goddess RU 127 5 x 09 cm Devi
Stone period Kshetra(region)
Goddess carrying a Brown Gupta Ahichhatra
29 RU 33 21 x 16 cm Devi
pitcher Stone period Kshetra(region)
Goddess Saraswati Gupta Ahichhatra
30 RU 129 Stone 9 x 10 cm Devi
with female attendant period Kshetra(region)
Saraswati playing Gupta
31 RU 1236 Stone 13.5 x 11 cm Chandausi Devi
lute(Veena) period
Ht. 171.0 cm
Gupta Ahichhatra
32 Ganga(River goddess) L 1 Terracotta Wdth 74.0 cm Devi
period Kshetra(region)
Depth. 40.0 cm
Ht. 178.0 cm
Yamuna(River Gupta Ahichhatra
33 L2 Terracotta Wdth 69.0 cm Devi
goddess) period Kshetra(region)
Depth. 42.0 cm
Gupta
34 Couple making love RU 365 Terracotta 18 x 18.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Ganpati head wearing Gupta
35 RU 982 Terracotta 7 x 9.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
garland period
Gupta
36 Elephant head Ganpati RU 1009 Terracotta 11.5 x 11.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Gupta
37 Three eyed Ganpati RU 686 Terracotta 7 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Broken head of Gupta
38 RU 817 Stone 6 x 10 cm Chandausi Ganpati
Ganpati period
Red Gupta Ahichhatra
39 Ganesh RU 12 8.5 x 8 cm Ganpati
Terracotta period Kshetra(region)
Gupta
40 Joyous Ganesh RU 1067 Terracotta 9 x 05 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 285

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Gupta
41 Seated Ganpati RU 1239 Terracotta 10.5 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Gupta
42 Seated Ganpati RU 345 Red Stone 15 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Gupta
43 Standing Ganpati RU 481 Terracotta 10 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Ganpati
period
Gupta
44 Sun bust on a panel RU 1265 Terracotta 25 x 12 cm Chandausi Surya
period
Sun with three Red Gupta Ahichhatra
45 RU 112 5 x 11 cm Surya
horses(Broken) Terracotta period Kshetra(region)
Two horses of Sun Gupta
46 RU 777 Terracotta 9 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Surya
chariot period
Gupta
47 Frontal of Sun's horse RU 1074 Terracotta 7 x 3.5 cm Chandausi Surya
period
The Celestial singer Gupta
48 RU 130 Stone 5 x 10 cm Chandausi Others
(Gandharva ) period
PM/COE- Gupta Ahichhatra
49 The warrior(Yodhaa) Terracotta 79 x 73 cm Others
2014-15/TL-4 period Kshetra(region)
Kinnar couple Gupta
50 RU 1237 Stone 11 x 09 cm Chandausi Others
wandering in sky period
Brown Gupta
51 Buddha's head RU 418 3 x 04 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Red Sand Gupta
52 Buddha's head RU 336 4 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Buddha's head with Brown Gupta
53 RU 408 6.5 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
elephant Stone period
Brown Gupta
54 Bodhisatva's head RU 289 11 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Buddha's head with Gupta
55 RU 403 Grey Stone 10 x 06 cm Chandausi Buddha
Halo period
Gupta
56 Buddha's Head RU 1255 Red Stone 10 x 06 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Brown Gupta
57 Buddha's Head RU 1254 10 x 05 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Gupta
58 Buddha's Head RU 1233 Stone 7 x 07 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Bodhisatva's head Gupta
59 RU 446 Terracotta 9.5 x 6 cm Chandausi Buddha
with a crown period
Bodhisatva's head Gupta
60 RU 296 Red Stone 8 x 05 cm Chandausi Buddha
with a crown period
Corroded head of Gupta
61 RU 591 Terracotta 7 x 05 cm Chandausi Buddha
Buddha period
Gupta
62 Buddha's Head RU 467 Terracotta 7 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
286 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Gupta
63 Buddha's Head RU 455 Terracotta 7.5 x 8 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Gupta
64 Buddha's Head RU 424 Red Stone 7 x 05 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Brown Gupta
65 Buddha's Head RU 428 4 x 2.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Buddha's Head with Gupta
66 RU 437 Terracotta 5 x 3.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
elongated ears period
Gupta
67 Bodhisatva's head RU 471 Terracotta 6.5 x 7cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Bauddha's head Gupta
68 RU 1183 Terracotta 6 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
(shaven) period
Buddhist monk with Brown Gupta
69 RU 988 4 x 2.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
elongated ears Stone period
Bhodisatva's head Red Gupta
70 RU 334 4 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
(Broken) Terracotta period
Gupta
71 Buddha's head RU 989 Stone 10 x 05 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Red Gupta
72 Bodhisatva's bust RU 304 7 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
Terracotta period
Bodhisatva's bust with Gupta
73 RU 400 Red Stone 7.5 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
Halo behind head period
Gupta
74 Bodhisatva's bust RU 1002 Terracotta 10.5 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Gupta
75 Bodhisatva's bust RU 1206 Terracotta 9.5 x 9.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Brown Gupta
76 Bodhisatva's bust RU 431 6 x 06 cm Chandausi Buddha
Stone period
Middle part of Gupta
77 RU 297 Grey Stone 9 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
contemplative Buddha period
Gupta
78 Bodhisatva's Torso RU 261 Terracotta 30 x 18 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Gupta
79 Bodhisatva's bust RU1003 Terracotta 14 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Late
80 Bodhisatva's bust RU1125 Grey Stone Gupta 5.5 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
period
Late
Digambar jain
81 RU943 Stone Gupta 10 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Jain
Statue(broken)
period
Late
Kushan
82 Naigmeshi Statue RU125 Terracotta or early 22 x 13 cm Chandausi Jain
Gupta
period
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 287

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Late
Kushan
83 Naigmeshi Statue RU123 Terracotta or early 15 x 09 cm Chandausi Jain
Gupta
period
Gupta
84 Seal with Jain symbol RU1119 Terracotta 5 x 03 cm Chandausi Jain
period
Seal with Shreevatsa Gupta
85 RU1120 Terracotta 2.5 x 2.5 cm Chandausi Jain
Shrivatsa symbol period
Seal with Shreevatsa Gupta
86 RU487 Terracotta 2.5 x 3.5 cm Chandausi Jain
Shrivatsa symbol period
Seal with Shreevatsa Gupta
87 RU1018 Terracotta 4 x 03 cm Chandausi Jain
Shrivatsa symbol period
Brown Gupta
88 Female head RU 288 12.5 x 7 cm Chandausi Others
Stone period
Female head with Brown Gupta
89 RU 283 11 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Others
plaited hair Stone period
Female head with a Brown Gupta
90 RU 270 11 x 10 cm Chandausi Others
bun Stone period
Female head with a Gupta
91 RU 586 Grey Stone 6.5 x 5 cm Chandausi Others
bun period
Female in yogic Gupta
92 RU 376 Grey Stone 10 x 14 cm Chandausi Others
posture period
Brown Gupta
93 Crowned Head RU 588 8 x 09 cm Chandausi Others
Stone period
Female carrying Gupta
94 RU 366 Grey Stone 10.5 x 18 cm Chandausi Others
flywhisk(Chamar) period
Delightful Female Brown Gupta
95 RU 415 11 x 14 cm Chandausi Others
bust Stone period
Brown Gupta
96 Smiling female head RU 421 8 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Others
Stone period
Brown Gupta
97 Female head with hair RU 747 7 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Others
Stone period
Gupta
98 Crowned female head RU 1027 Grey Stone 20.5 x 9.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta
99 Crowned female head RU 1232 Stone 18 x 08 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta
100 Admiring female head RU 489 Terracotta 7 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Female head with well Gupta
101 RU 1250 Sand Stone 9.5 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Others
groomed hair period
Gupta
102 Female archer bust RU 1251 Stone 8.5 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Male punishing a Gupta
103 RU 1241 Stone 9.5 x 8.5 cm Chandausi Others
female period
288 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Gupta
104 Female bust RU 1252 Stone 10 x 8 cm Chandausi Others
period
Female engraved on a Gupta
105 RU 587 Stone 10.5 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Others
broken pillar period
Gupta
106 Female torso RU 1270 Stone 13 x 5.2 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta
107 Female torso RU 1276 Terracotta 12 x 5.2 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta
108 Female torso RU 1277 Terracotta 6.4 x 2.8 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta
109 Female RU 1282 Stone 4 x 2.9.cm Chandausi Others
period
Female holding a Gupta Ahichhatra
110 RU 11 Stone 9 x 7 cm Others
string of prayer beads period Kshetra(region)
Gupta
111 Female RU 16 Stone 7 x 4.4 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta Ahichhatra
112 Female (broken) RU 52 Stone 7.5 x 7 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Female with a fan Gupta Ahichhatra
113 RU 185 Stone 10 x 10.5 cm Others
shaped head ornament period Kshetra(region)
Brown Gupta Ahichhatra
114 Mother and baby RU 41 5 x 4 cm Others
Stone period Kshetra(region)
Gupta Ahichhatra
115 Deity/Royal male RU 122 Stone 14.5 x 13 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Gupta Ahichhatra
116 Male head RU 5 Terracotta 11 x 14 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Gupta Ahichhatra
117 Male bust RU 68 Terracotta 9 x 10 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Minor playing a
Gupta Ahichhatra
118 percussion instrument RU 1025 Stone 10 x 13 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
(mrdang)
Male standing on a Gupta Ahichhatra
119 RU 1026 Grey Stone 18.5 x 10.5 cm Others
balcony(Broken) period Kshetra(region)
Two men torso Brown Gupta
120 RU 416 8.5 x 6.5 cm Chandausi Others
(Broken) Stone period
Male torso wearing Gupta
121 RU 691 Terracotta 10.5 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Others
dhoti period
Jester head making Gupta
122 RU 436 Terracotta 5 x 3.5 cm Chandausi Others
crying face period
Male wearing a coat, Gupta
123 RU 664 Terracotta 11 x 18 cm Chandausi Others
carrying a weapon period
Gupta Ahichhatra
124 Male head RU 1284 Terracotta 5 x 3.8 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Male head under a Brown Gupta Ahichhatra
125 RU 1285 7 x 5.2 cm Others
balcony Stone period Kshetra(region)
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 289

S. Name Annexure No. Material Period Dimensions Location Subject

No. (height x breadth
of the base)
Red Gupta
126 Fish RU 341 9 x 3.5 cm Chandausi Others
Terracotta period
Gupta
127 A Serpent on a panel RU 1217 Terracotta 14 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Serpant hood with a Gupta
128 RU 508 Terracotta 7 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Others
jewel period
Gupta
129 Snake hood RU 392 Terracotta 6 x 5 cm Chandausi Others
period
A calf feeding on a Gupta
130 RU 407 Grey Stone 6.5 x 5.5 cm Chandausi Others
cow period
Gupta
131 Seated bull(Nandi) RU 443 Terracotta 4.5 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Pair of three eyed Red Gupta
132 RU 373 25 x 20.5 cm Chandausi Shiva
bull(Nandi) Terracotta period
Gupta
133 Bull head (Nandi) RU 274 Stone 13 x 9.6 cm Chandausi Shiva
period
A boar sitting on Gupta
134 RU 926 Terracotta 6.5 x 4.5 cm Chandausi Others
hindlegs period
Gupta
135 Frontal of a crocodile RU 930 Terracotta 7 x 3 cm Chandausi Others
period
Crocodile with open Red Gupta
136 RU 396 17 x 7 cm Chandausi Others
mouth Terracotta period
Gupta Ahichhatra
137 Elephant RU 1267 Terracotta 11 x 6 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Red Gupta
138 Frontal of a Lion RU 389 6 x 5 cm Chandausi Others
Terracotta period
Gupta
139 Tree on a panel RU 769 Terracotta 14 x 9.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
55.2 inch x 36.3
Gupta inch
140 Large grain storage jar RU 257 Terracotta Badaun Others
period diameter - 66.5
inch
Gupta
141 Water pot RU 1102 Terracotta 7 x 7.5 cm Chandausi Others
period
Gupta Ahichhatra
142 Bricks RU 1269 Terracotta 33 x 20 cm Others
period Kshetra(region)
Undeter- Gupta Ahichhatra
143 Ornaments (Beads)     Others
mined period Kshetra(region)
Buddhist alms pot- a Gupta
144 RU 795 Conch shell 22 x 11.5 cm Chandausi Buddha
conch shell period

State of art computational methods for data visualization uncover an additional perspective associated
with these artifacts.
290 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

1. Defining some terms 2.2 Late Gupta period

The data is in tabular form. Each row represents 2.3 Late Kushan or early Gupta period
an artifact along with all of its characteristics
3. Location- Where they were discovered
or features. The columns of the table will be
referred to as characteristics of features. These 3.1 Chandausi
two terms are used interchangeably by the data 3.2 Ahichhatra Kshetra(region)
science community.
3.3 Badaun
2. Exploratory data analysis
4. Subject- What they depict
Using data visualization techniques we
explore the relationships between different 4.1 Vishnu
characteristics of data. Each of these techniques 4.2 Sita Ram
is well known within the data science community
4.3 Shiva
however a brief exposition might be required
for their application to historical data. 4.4 Devi
3. Description of dataset 4.5 Others
We focus on four characteristics of the dataset. 4.6 Ganpati
These shall be referred to as characteristics of 4.7 Surya
interest or features of interest. The categorical
values for each feature are as follows :- 4.8 Buddha

1. Material- Construction material of the 4.9 Jain

artifacts 4. Tools
1.1 Brown Stone a) Google sheets is a free online spreadsheet
1.2 Black Stone software with various built-in reporting features
that facilitates graphical representation of data.
1.3 Stone The pie charts for the dataset were created using
1.4 Terracotta google sheets.
1.5 Red Stone b) Python is a general-purpose interpreted
programming language. That supports a large
1.6 Red Terracotta
array of external libraries (tools).
1.7 Chocolate-Brown Stone
Pandas is a library that enables working with
1.8 Black Terracotta data using python. Plotly is a data analysis
1.9 Grey Stone and visualization library that can be used with
python.
1.10 Red Sand Stone
5. Setup
1.11 Sand Stone
The data is stored in a format called comma-
1.12 Undetermined separated variables or CSV for short. CSV is a
1.12 Conch shell very versatile format as it works well with not
only spreadsheet software like Google Sheets
2. Period- Period they belong to
and Microsoft excel but also programming
2.1 Gupta period languages like R and python.
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 291

Pie chart 9. Around 2.1% of all the discovered artifacts

are statues of Sita Ram.
The artifacts found were made up of different
Each category except “others” represents a
materials. A total of 13 different materials have
divine entity. We see that there are more than twice
been cataloged, out of which composition of 12 of
as many statues of Buddha as compared to Shiva.
the materials have been identified only 1 remains
This ratio increases to more than thrice when the
undermined.
number of Buddha statues is compared separately
The data suggest that Terracotta seemed to with the number of Vishnu statues, the number of
be the preferred choice of construction material as Devi, and the number of Ganpati statues respectively.
around 42.4% of the artifacts were constructed out Meanwhile, there is not much difference in the
of Terracotta. It also raises questions regarding why number of statues of Vishnu, Devi, and Ganpati.
that might be the case. Perhaps it was easily available
The number of statues of Vishnu and Devi is
or maybe easy to work with.
exactly the same. It is well known that Vishnu is wed
Another interesting thing to notice is how close to many prominent goddesses in Hinduism, therefore,
the number of statues constructed out of Brown it is not unlikely that the statues of goddesses were
Stone and Stone is. Similarly, the number of statues discovered in some relation with Vishnu.
constructed out of Red Terracotta and Grey Stone is
One way to interpret these numbers is that the
also very close. It might be a coincidence, however,
proportion of the statues of a particular entity is
it is not unreasonable to speculate that these
representative of the prevalence of that entity at the
proportions might be representative of the choice of
time.
the construction material of the time (Fig. 1).
That would suggest that Buddha was hugely
The artifacts discovered could be categorized
popular at the time as compared to other divine
into 9 categories. The above pie chart shows the
entities.
following :-
Moreover, the data also shows that male deities
1. Around 40.3% of all the discovered artifacts
were a lot more popular than female deities (Fig. 2).
are miscellaneous in nature and are thus
categorized as others. There are three key locations from where the
2. Around 21.5% of all the discovered artifacts artifacts exhibited by the Panchal Museum were
are statues of Buddha. discovered through excavation. These are as follows
3. Around 8.3% of all the discovered artifacts 1. Chandausi
are statues of Shiva
2. Ahichhatra Kshetra (Region) and
4. Around 6.9% of all the discovered artifacts
are statues of Devi 3. Badaun
5. Around 6.9% of all the discovered artifacts From the figure above it is clear that a majority
are statues of Vishnu of these artifacts were uncovered from Chandausi,
6. Around 6.3% of all the discovered artifacts around 77.1%.
are statues of Ganpati
It is represented as the indigo region in the pie
7. Around 4.9% of all the discovered artifacts chart.
are statues of Jain
8. Around 2.8% of all the discovered artifacts After Chandausi is the Ahichhatra region with
are statues of Surya 22.2 % of all the artifacts.
292 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Lastly, we have Badaun, which contributes a the last column in the Alluvial chart. In this work,
total of 0.7% of artifacts of the Gupta period to the all reference columns are the first columns of the
Panchal museum (Fig. 3). Alluvial chart.

In figure 4 the materials column is the reference

ALLUVIAL CHART column where each fragment corresponds to material
in the dataset and each fragment is represented by a
Alluvial charts are a type of parallel set diagram. They different colour.
are a common way of visualizing high-dimensional
categorical data that can be summarized using cross-
tabulation. A way of thinking about Alluvial charts is CONSEQUENCE OF COLOURATION
that each column of an Alluvial chart is an unrolled
and flattened pie chart. Pie charts are isolated and are Coloring the entire Alluvial chart with respect to
only able to give information about one feature of the reference column leads to visual stratification of
interest at a time. Alluvial charts on the other hand can fragments making up other columns in the Alluvial
represent all features of interest of the entire dataset. chart with respect to the categories in the reference
column. It can be loosely thought of as taking the
image or projection of the reference column in each
STRUCTURE OF ALLUVIAL CHART FOR fragment of other columns.
THE DATASET (FIG. 5. APPENDIX)
In fig. 4 the fragment corresponding to
Since we have four features of interest in the dataset, the Gupta period in the second column can be
the alluvial chart also has four columns, one column interpreted to visually represent the distribution
for each feature of interest. The columns are made of the materials of all the artifacts that belong to
up of space-separated fragments. Each fragment the Gupta period. Similarly in the third column,
represents a category within the feature. The size the fragments corresponding to Chandausi and
of the corresponding fragment correlates with the Ahichhatara Kshetra(region) can be interpreted to
proportion of the category in the dataset. visually represent the distribution of materials of
all the artifacts found in Chandausi and Ahichhatara
For example- The second column in figure 4 Kshetra(region) respectively. The same is true for
represents the Period and has three fragments, each the fourth column in fig. 4. Fragments corresponding
corresponding to the period the artifacts in the dataset to each Subject depicted by the artifact in the
belong to. Moreover, the fragment corresponding to fourth column visually represent the distribution of
the Gupta period is by far the largest as compared to materials.
the Late Gupta period and Late Kushan and Early
Gupta period.
RIBBONS

REFERENCE COLUMN AND COLOURING Each artifact in the dataset is represented as a

OF THE ALLUVIAL CHART horizontal, color-coded ribbon connecting two
adjacent columns in the Alluvial chart. The colour
The entire Alluvial chart is coloured by one column. and width of the ribbon are the same as the colour
In this work, this column shall be referred to as the and size of the fragment in the reference column it
reference column. Each category is represented is originating from. For example- all artifacts made
with a different colour and for the sake of clarity, up of Brown stone are represented as a black ribbon
the reference column is either the first column or in fig. 4.
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 293

“FLOW” OR DYNAMICS OF THE ALLUVIAL column, of the preceding column is the source of the
CHART ribbon and each fragment in the subsequent column
is the target of the ribbon. Depending on the dataset
We define flow as the connection of the ribbon ribbons may furcate while they flow.
from fragments one column to the fragment of the
subsequent column. For example- the connections Fig. 5 is a variation of the Alluvial chart
between the Material column (reference column) presented in fig. 4. Here the Subject is the reference
and Period column in fig. 4. column. The positions of the columns have been
changed as well such that the Subject and Material
columns are next to each other. Fig. 5 uses a different
SOURCE AND TARGET colour scheme.
Between any two columns with the flow, the Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 illustrate the freedom in
fragment on the left-hand column (or the preceding presentation granted by the Alluvial chart.
column) is said to be the source, and the fragment of
the right-hand column (or the subsequent column) is Since the entire alluvial chart can be a bit
called the target. overwhelming at times, especially in the case
of much larger datasets, in order to study the
relationships between a selected subset of features
FROM THE REFERENCE COLUMN TO THE we can drop columns to remove excess information
SUBSEQUENT COLUMN from the chart, keeping just that is relevant. In fig.
6 we only have 2 columns, Subject and Material.
The fragments of the reference column act as sources Subject is the reference column and thus decides the
for corresponding ribbons and fragments of the colour scheme. We can see the stratification of the
subsequent column act as targets for the ribbons. The reference column in the fragments of target column.
ribbons “flow” from source to target. As mentioned
earlier each fragment in the target column can be
thought of as a projection or image of the reference Scatter plots
column.
Alluvial charts are best used for a bird’s eye view of
If there are more than two columns in the the dataset as they can be overwhelming.
Alluvial chart each fragment in the target column
Thus we look into another visualization
now becomes a source for the ribbon and each
technique called scatter plots, which presents the data
fragment in the subsequent column becomes the
in a more simplified manner. A scatter plot uses two
target.
conventional perpendicular axes. The horizontal axis
and the vertical axis display values for typically two
BETWEEN ANY TWO COLUMNS SUCH features of the dataset. The points could be colour-
THAT NEITHER ONE OF THEM IS THE coded according to a third feature of the dataset.
REFERENCE COLUMN The data are displayed as a collection of points,
each having the value of one variable determining
In order to define “flow” between any two columns
the position on the horizontal axis and the value of
such that the first column is not the reference column,
the other variable determining the position on the
we must remember that the fragment of each column
vertical axis.
contains the image of the reference column. Thus,
each fragment, containing the image of the reference 1. Are completely qualitative.
294 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

2. Scatterplots include two conventional One demerit of Scatter plots are that they are
perpendicular axes. The horizontal axis strictly qualitative. There is no information regarding
and the vertical axis. The horizontal axis in how many artifacts are made of a certain material or
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 represent Subjects and the how many artifacts depict a certain entity.
vertical axis represents the Material.
The subsequent data visualization techniques
Fig. 7 qualitatively represents the following addresses start addressing the above-mentioned
features of the artifacts. limitation.

1. Subject depicted by the artifact

2. Material of the artifact Stacked Bar chart

3. The period the artifact belonged to. Our dataset is entirely categorical. There’s not much
scope for doing quantitative work. However, we can
The Scatter plot does a good job of highlighting look into the distribution of frequency of artifacts
outliers. For example, Conch shell artifacts depict over one or more features.
Buddha. Similarly, artifacts made up of Sand Stone
and Undetermined material depict others, and A stacked bar chart uses the conventional
artifacts made up of Black Terracotta and Chocolate mathematical Cartesian coordinates with 2
Brown Stone depict Shiva. perpendicular axes. The vertical axis is labeled with
numbers that represent frequency and the horizontal
The only artifacts found in the late Kushan or
axis is labeled with the feature of interest. The bars
early Gupta period are made up of Terracota and
are stratified according to another feature.
depict Jain. Similarly, the only artifacts found in the
Late Gupta period are made up of Grey Stone and In fig. 9, the horizontal label represents the
Stone and depict Buddha and Jain respectively. Subject depicted by the artifact. The total height of
Fig. 8 qualitatively represents the following the bar represents the number of artifacts depicting
features of the artifacts. the corresponding subject. Each bar is stratified or
subdivided into layers. This stratification is dictated
1. Subject depicted by the artifact by the Material of the artifact.
2. Material of the artifact A stacked bar chart is similar to a bar chart but it
3. Location they were found in. stacks bars on top of each other so that the height of
the resulting stack shows the combined result.
We see a somewhat even distribution of artifacts
over Chandausi and Ahichhatra Kshetra(region). The The height of the colored bar is proportional to
only outlier here is Badaun. The artifacts found from the number of statues of that material. The legend on
Badaun are made up of Terracotta and depict Others. the top right helps to describe how each material is
We do see that there are certain materials like Black color-coded. The number within each bar represents
Stone, Chocolate Brown Stone, Black Terracotta, the number of artifacts of that material. We read each
and the Undetermined material that were found only bar and the legend from bottom to top. For example,
in Ahichhatra Kshetra (region). there are two artifacts depicting Vishnu and are made
of Brown Stone, one artifact is made up of Stone,
We also see that there were no artifacts found two artifacts are made up of Terracotta, one artifact
in Ahichhatra Kshetra(region) depicting Sita Ram, is made up of Red Stone and two artifacts are made
Buddha and Jain. up of Red Terracotta.
Exploratory Data Analysis of Sculptures and other Artifacts of the Gupta Period Exhibited... 295

The next data visualization technique is the The top-left cell, characterized by Brown stone,
natural progression of scatter plots and stacked Chandausi has green color. It tells that the number
bar charts as it combines the expressive power of of Brown stone artifacts found in Chandausi is
both these charts in the sense that it can display close to the number of Stone artifacts found in
information about two features simultaneously and Chandausi but less than the number of Terracotta
can tell about the frequency of artifacts that satisfy artifacts found in Chandausi, and greater than any
both the properties. other artifact.

Similarly, the cell characterized by Terracotta

Heatmaps and Chandausi is almost maroon in colour from the
spectrum on the right tells us that the number of
Heatmap is a color-coded contingency table. It is a Terracotta artifacts is in the range of 40 to 45, which
rectangular table made up of color-coded cells. is the highest in the dataset (Fig. 11).
Each cell can be characterized by three pieces We see that the artifacts made up of Chocolate
of information- its horizontal label, its vertical label, Brown Stone, Black Terracotta, and the Undetermined
and its color. material were found in Ahichhatra Kshetra(region)
The horizontal label tells the material of the instead of Chandausi.
artifact, the vertical label tells the subject depicted
Similarly, the only artifacts found in Badaun
by the artifact and the color tells the frequency of the
were made up of Terracotta (Fig. 12).
artifacts that have both the properties.

The spectrum at the right side of the heatmap We see that some materials are definitely
describes the mapping between the range of numbers significantly higher. There could be a lot of theories
and colours. that might explain this, perhaps the longevity of the
material, the cost of the material, the ease of use
Heat maps are not supposed to report exact and so on and so forth. We see that the number of
figures but depict variation in frequency in such a Stone and Grey Stone artifacts found in the Late
way that it is easier to process it visually (Fig. 10). Gupta period are not very significant, same with the
Terracotta artifacts found in the Late Kushan or early
The Conch shell, Vishnu cell at the bottom Gupta period.
leftmost part of the heatmap is the darkest shade of
blue in color. From the spectrum on the right-hand The cell characterized by Others, Chandausi is
side of the table, we can see that the darkest shade the darkest shade of red, almost maroon in colour.
of blue is at the very bottom and represents value From the spectrum on the right, we can see that it is
zero. Thus, no statute is made up of a Conch shell the largest number present in the dataset.
that depicts Vishnu, the same stands true for all the
similarly coloured cells. Similarly, the Other, Ahichhatra Kshetra(region)
cell is green in colour. From the spectrum on the
Moreover, the number of artifacts made up right we can see that it makes up a significant portion
of Terracotta and depicting others is the highest. of the dataset.
Followed by artifacts made up of Stone and
depicting others. The number of artifacts made up The Buddha, Gupta period cell that is second
of Terracotta and depicting others is close to the from the bottom in the leftmost part of the heatmap is
number of artifacts made up of Terracotta depicting green in color. From the spectrum on the right-hand
Buddha. side of the table, we can see that the green colour is
296 ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

somewhere in the middle and represents the range REFERENCES

between 20 to 30.
Ancient India1, 1946, 4, 1947-48.
Moreover, we see that Ganpati, Vishnu, and
Devi all have the same colors thus, there is not much Archaelogical Survey of India Reports prepared by A.
difference in the number of artifacts depicting each Cunningham, I.
of these subjects (Fig. 13, 14).
Banerjee, N. R., 1970, Ahichchhatra - An Account  of
Recent Exploration Indian Museum Bulletin, V, no. 2. 
FUTURE SCOPE
Gupte, R.S, 1972, Iconography of the Hindus
Data visualization could be used to showcase insights Buddhists  and Jains, Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala sons
& Co. Private Ltd.
about collections exhibited by the Museums.
They can be incorporated in dashboards and Panda, N.C., 2011, Gods and Goddesses in Indian Art
integrated with the museum website or they could be and Literature, Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashen.
physically installed in the museum’s near exhibits.
Shrimali, K.M, 1983, History of Pañcāla to C. AD 550,
They would offer more information about the vol. I- A Study, Delhi: Munshilal Manoharlal Publishers.
exhibits (Fig. 15).
Plates I

PUSHPENDRA KUMAR NANDAN,

PRAVEEN KUMAR AND YOGITA BAVISKAR

Fig. 1: Aster DEM Map of Satna district with painted rock

shelters (including Usrar) and open air microlithic sites
(Map made by Praveen Kumar in ArcGIS. Aster DEM base
map from NASA earth data, https://search.earthdata.nasa.
gov/search).

Fig. 3:. General view of rock shelter 3. Geography and

Environment settings of Satna District

Fig. 2: A) General view of dense forest area of Usrar; B)

View of shelter number 4.C) Rock paintings (Group of
deer) from shelter number 4.
II ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

VIJAY SARDE

Fig. 4: Siddha Nāgārjuna, Khaḍakeśvara temple, Jamkhed,

District Jalna

Fig. 2: Siddha Nāgārjuna, Bhuleśvara temple, Pune District

Fig. 3: Kāniphanātha and Yoginī Bahuḍī, Malegaon Budruk Fig. 5: Yogī in Squatting posture, Siddheśvara temple at
Pandare
Plates III

Fig. 6: Squatted Yogī on Ambaranātha temple

Fig. 7: Kāniphanātha and Yoginī Bahuḍī, Bhakeshvar

temple, Navgan-Rajuri, Dist. Beed

Fig. 8: Symbolic reprentation of Kuṇḍalinī Yoga, Phaltan

IV ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SITA RAM DUBEY AND SANTOSH KUMAR SINGH

Fig. 5: Warf of Pakkākot and other associated antiquity

Fig. 8: Kaveripattinam, platform

Fig. 6: Kaveripattinam, wharf

Fig. 9: Kaveripattinam, platform

Fig. 7: Kaveripattinam, wharf Fig. 10: Warf of Pattanam

Plates V

Fig. 12: Nagarjunakonda, wharf

Fig. 11: Canoe made of single log of Anjili wood

VINEET GODHAL

Fig. 6: Handaxe and scraper tools, Dhigariya Fig. 8: Handaxe and Clever tools, Kala Pahar

Fig. 7: Palaeolithic tools, Harsora Fig. 9: Palaeolithic Tools, Jhirna

VI ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 10: Middle Palaeolithic tools, Khola

Fig. 14: Prehistoric Tools, Dadikar, Hajipur

Fig. 11: Middle Palaeolithic tools, Khola

Fig. 15: Upper Palaeolithic Chert tools, Dadikar, Hajipur

Fig. 12: Middle Palaeolithic Tools, Chatuala

Fig. 16: Rectangular shape designs from Dadikar, Hajipur

Fig. 13: Middle Palaeolithic Tools, Chula

Plates VII

Fig. 21: Depiction of Ladder like Structure

Fig. 17: Depiction of Mother Goddess

Fig. 18: Execution of Swastika

Fig. 22: Hunting Scene

Fig. 19: Depiction of Swastika

Fig. 23: Figure depiction

Fig. 20: Depiction of Ladder like Structure

VIII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SHAMBHOO NATH YADAV AND

MD. ZAKIR KHAN

Fig. 2: Group dancing scene

Fig. 1: Hump and hump less bulla

Fig. 4: Circle With cross

Fig. 5: Goat-like animal overlapping of Early figure

Fig. 3: Dancer lady

Plates IX

Fig. 6: Reptiles animals and others

Fig. 8: The leaves of the plants overlapping of Early figure

Fig. 7: Animals group

Fig. 9: Hand impressions, blowing or pressure technique

X ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

RAJMAL JAIN

Fig. 7: The cemetery areas called the rock cut shaft tombs of Da’ero Mikael and the rock cut tombs of Abiy Addi dating to
the early and middle of the first millennium BC. The tomb found at the foot hill of Abiy Addi, across the valley of Shillanat
to the Southwest of the Grand Moon Temple. Nine such rock-cut tombs were partly observed located next to each other in
various orientations in an area of 500m².

Fig. 8: The long view of the Almaqah temple during the process of excavation. The temple was built as per Jain culture
architecture in few steps viz. Garbh grah, mandap grah, Pooja grah etc., which may be evidenced from
the artifacts of ruins of stone structure.
Plates XI

Fig. 9: The small size idols of female and male protection gods. Considering the Almaqah temple of Shri Rishabhdev
tirthankar, these two idols appear to be of Chakreshwari and Gomukh.

Fig. 10: Left: The pedestal for the anointment and ablution of the idol. The location to mount the statue/ idol at the center of
the pedestal is shown as well as the bull shaped outlet behind the idol mount is shown by white arrow. Right: The second bull
shaped outlet projecting on outside of the pedestal is marked by the red arrow. The excavated material mat be noted as well as
the remnants of the compound wall may also be noted.
XII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 11: Left panel: The artifacts and pieces of the statue as well as the remnants of temple pillars and mounting base etc.
may be noted. Right panel: The inscription on the white sandstones blocks made mounting one above other. Also note the
fractured/ broken statue of the idol, shown by red arrow, in standing/ kayotsarg or khadgasan posture above the inscription
block of the stone.

Fig. 12: Left panel - The rectangular pedestal stone engraved with the sign of the Moon along with a large dot at the center
and 9 incense burners like sharp spiked arrows represents evidence of Siddh Sila and a unique symbol of Jain cosmology. For
comparison the Siddh Sila in Jainism is also shown in the right panel. The red arrow represents the Siddhas corresponding to
the incense burner.
Plates XIII

Fig. 13: Top panel are remnants of the temple complex showing structure resembling with the rolled elephant trunk in
pilasters of wooden frame of the entrance gate. These are basically features of Indian architecture and represent the six
symbols of Jain Cosmic universe, particularly inscribed on the item just below the Moon arch, and visible as an Indus Text
(cf. see text). The inscription found on the pedestal of the cult image in Almaqah Temple is visible on the bottom slab and has
two numerical words of Western Aramaic which are not in use any more.

Fig. 14: A bronze metal caldron with a message inscribed in the script of ancient times. The mirror image of the inscription
on it reads: “The Sun God appeared 100 years after in the summer seasons to revive the
Dharma or Religion”.
XIV ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Knocking and Rolling over door

Underground Rooms (Jain Monks

Residency/ Monastery) Entrance to Residency

Dhyan Kash (Meditation

Room)

Acharya's Aasaan
(Principal Monk's Berth)

Fig. 15: Most significant evidences of Śramaṇa culture were found in Aksum. The top and bottom panel iconography images
reveal presence of Śramaṇa Saints/ Monks residency, which is also known as Monastery. This residency of several rooms
exists underground. The entrance gate is of very high technology of that era (top panel right). Seat (Aasan) of Acharya of the
saint group is visible in the left of bottom panel. The meditation hall is shown in the right of the bottom panel.
Plates XV

Fig. 16: Remnants of the open air large and small class rooms (Swadhyai bhavan) for teaching religion and philosophy of
Śramaṇa culture by Acharya and Upadhyai to all nude Digamber saints of the group. Discussions, debates and practicing
related to religion were also being conducted here in the open air halls.

Fig. 17: Left panel - Acharyashree Kanaknandi (center) along with his two fellow sadhus – munishree Suvigyasagar and
adhyatmanandi gurudev. The feather whisk in their hands and the water gourd (shown by red arrow) nearby to them may also
be noted. Right panel – The water gourd of ancient time, perhaps 100-1000 years BCE, well preserved in the Museum of
Addis Ababa University.
XVI ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 18: The Obelisks (Manak Stambh) near Sant Bhavan (Monastery), a tradition in Jainism to build such four-sided tower
(prq"kdks.k LrEHk) facing to north-east, a symbolic representation of Śramaṇa culture.

Fig. 19: Left panel – The entrance gate of the “Church of Our Lady of Zion” in Aksum. The Orthodox Christians regularly
visit the church and prray to God by kneeling at the gate before entering into the church from backside gate. Right panel –
Orthodox Christians worshiping the God with lyrical prayer that matching with lyrics of puja conducted by Jains in temples
(cf. text for more details).
Plates XVII

Lady Priest

Father of Church

Fig. 20: The Lady priest of the Church, shown by arrow in the left panel, briefed about the philosophy, ethics and practices of
the Orthodox Christians. Unfortunately Father of the Church, right panel, did not know English and thus it was not possible
to communicate directly but the translator helped to tell the history of the Queen of Sheba, her visit to Solomon and the son
etc., and about the “Ark of the Covenant” and Ten commandements etc. (cf. text).

Fig. 21: The Ezana Stone written in Sabaean, Geʽez and Ancient Greek in 4th century AD when King Ezama was forcefully
converted to Christianity.
XVIII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 22: The inscribed document displayed in the Archaeological and Ethinographic Museum of Aksum. The script on the
left panel may be noted which is a strong evidence about human evolution era and later at about 1 milleneum BCE human
settlements in the Tigray region when perhaps the philosophy started. The inscription on the right panel is an evidence of how
the Aksumite empire expanded and became welathy through the buisnessmen. The trade was in the Nile valley as well as
through the Adulis port – up and down the Red Sea. They traded as far as to India and Sri Lanka where the Śramaṇa Culture
was existing.

Fig. 23: Late Shri Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, former president of Shri Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha, New Delhi,
visiting the stele in the Ethnological and Archaeological museum of Addis Ababa University. The inscription on the stele/
flagstone is in Sabaean Geʽez, language, which is an ancient South Semitic language of the East African branch and came
from the present Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The open book kept on the wooden head may be noted, which is perhaps written in
the Sabaean script.
Plates XIX

PRANAB K. CHATTOPADHYAY

Fig. 1: Earliest bronze mirror Armenia Fig. 2: Mirror from Tilla Bulak, Fig. 3: Aȉ-Khanoum (after Claude Rapin
(Photograph Courtesy: MeliksetianKh). SapalliCulture German-Uzbek 1992).
joint excavation.

Fig. 4: Cross section Mirror from Aȉ-Khanoum (after Claude Rapin 1992)

Fig. 5: Mirror from Gandi Umar Khan Directorate of Arch Fig. 6: Mirror from Harappa National Museum of Pakistan,
& Museums, Govt. of KhyberPakhtunkhwa (Photograph Karachi (Courtesy: Dr. A.G. Lone).
Courtesy: Prof. Zakirulla Jan)
XX ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 7: Mirror from Harappa Fig. 8: Two faces of mirror from (Acc. No. 2602) National
Museum, New Delhi Harappa cemetry R 37 (After
Wheeler1946).

Fig. 9: In-situ mirror from Harappa Fig. 10: Circular mirrors from burials. (Photograph courtesy:
J. M. Kenoyer)
Plates XXI

Fig. 11: Mirror from Harappa Fig. 12: Mirror from Harappa.
(Photograph courtesy: Harappa Archaeological Research Project).

Fig. 13 Fig. 14
XXII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 15: Mirror from Mehergarh, Balochistan

Fig. 16: Mohenjo-Daro (Pl. CXIV, 1, after Mackay) Fig. 17: Mohenjo-Daro (Pl. CXVIII, 10, after Mackay)
Plates XXIII

Fig. 18: Mohenjo-Daro (Acc.No.13303 A2601) Fig. 19

Photograph Courtesy: National Museum New Delhi

Fig. 20 Fig. 21
XXIV ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 23: Dholavira mirror (Accession No DHR 22132) (Photograph courtesy:

Fig. 22: Fragments of mirror at National Museum, New Delhi)
(Photograph Courtesy: Mohammad
Zahir Qomi)

Fig. 24: Two sides of Conserved Mirror from Harinagar Photograph Courtesy DrArakhitaPradhan. ASI Agra Circle.
Plates XXV

Fig. 25 Fig. 26

Fig. 27: Fragmentary mirrors of

Kuntasi (after Dhavalikar et al 1996).

Figs. 28 and 29: Bronze Mirror from Lothal, (LHS)- initial

photograph at the time of excavation. That mirror now
preserved in Lothal Museum(RHS).
XXVI ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 30: The recent display of two mirrors in Figs. 31 and 32: Mirrors from Rakhigarhi (Photograph Courtesy:
Lothal Museum, (photo courtesy: Sandipan LHS, VasantShinde, RHS after Red. India, ASI 2015).
Chatterjee).

Fig. 34: Sanauli mirror after cleaning

Fig. 33: The in-situ mirror with comb from Sanauli

Photograph courtesy: Dr. Sanjoy K. Manjul.
Plates XXVII

Pl. 2: Stone sculptures , Kolhua (district Muzaffarpur)

Fig. 35: Back side casting impression

JALAJ KUMAR TIWARI*

Pl. 3: Jasper weights, Kolhua (district Muzaffarpur)

Pl. 1: Buddha, black basalt, 11th - 12th cen. AD, Kolhua

(district Muzaffarpur) Pl. 4: Miscellaneous stone objects, Kolhua (district
Muzaffarpur)
XXVIII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Pl. 6: Stone pestles and quern, Kolhua (district

Pl. 5: Beads cum pendants, Kolhua (district Muzaffarpur) Muzaffarpur)

ARDHENDU RAY*

Fig. 1: Wine production and consumption on a tray from Fig. 3: Inscription on a bowl with lotus leaf decoration,
Taxila (After Marshall 1928–1929: pl. XIX, 1). probably from Charsadda
(Courtesy: Harry Falk, 2009: 71
Plates XXIX

Fig. 4: Lady with Flute and Flask Fig. 5: Madhu-Pana

XXX ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 6: Sura Sundari, Sanghol Museum Fig. 7: Couple, Sanghol Museum

Plates XXXI

Fig. 8: Grape seeds recovered from Sanghol Excavation (Photo Courtesy: C. Margabandhu & Pradeep Kumar Pandey,
Excavations At Sanghol (1985-86 To 1989-90), Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, 2014. P. 212.)

Fig. 9: Soma plant/Ephedra (Photo source: Internet)

XXXII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SMRITI PATHAK AND S.K. DWIVEDI

Fig. 1 : Ambika, Trishala Mata Atishaykshetra, Gwalior Fort

Fig. 2: Ambika, Gyaraspur, Vidisha Fig. 3 : Ambika, Thubon, Chanderi

Plates XXXIII

Fig. 6: Ambika, Pachrao, Shivpuri

Fig. 4: Ambika, Tumain, Ashok Nagar

Fig. 7: Ambika, Badoh, Vidisha

Fig. 5: Ambika, Morena Area
XXXIV ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 8: Ambika, Gwalior Area

DEVENDRA GUPTA AND DEEPAK KUMAR

Fig. 1: Western India, Susan Gole, 1989

Plates XXXV

Fig. 2: Siege of Bhiwai, Susan Gole, 1989

Fig. 3: Multan Susan Gole, 1989

XXXVI ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 4: Battle of Samugarh (sourced

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Samugarh.jpg

Fig. 5: The Battle of Panipat (Schwartzberg Joseph E, 1992)

Plates XXXVII

Fig. 6: Gagraun Fort, Harley and Woodward, 1989

Fig. 7: Vijaydurg, Susan Gole, 1989

XXXVIII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 8: Janjira, Susan Gole, 1989

Fig. 9: Baghor Fort, Susan Gole, 1989

Plates XXXIX

Fig 10: Dharwad Fort, (Susan Gole, 1989

PARUL SHARMA AND S.K. DWIVEDI

Fig. 1: “Wall of the Lord” at ‘Parikrama Marg’ is the outer wall of the temple premises painted
with pictures of Krishna Leela
XL ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

SYED JAMAL HASAN

Fig.Before conservation
1: Before (2003)
conservation (2003) After
Afterconservation
conservation(2008)
(2003)

Subsidiary Shrines, Katarmal

Fig.Before conservation
2: Before (2003)
conservation (2003) After
Afterconservation
conservation(2007)
(2007)

Fig.Before conservation
3: Before (2003)
conservation (2003) After
Afterconservation
conservation(2007)
(2007)
Plates XLI

Group of Temples, Adibadri, Chamoli

Fig. Before conservation

4: Before (2003)
conservation (2003) Before conservation
After (2008)
conservation (2008)

Fig. Before conservation

5: Before conservation After
Afterconservation
conservation
XLII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Maritunjaya Group of Temples, Dwarahat, Almora

Before conservation (2003) After conservation (2008)

Fig. 6: Before conservation (2003) After conservation (2008)

Before
Fig.conservation (2004)
7: Before conservation (2004) After conservation
After conservation (2007)
(2007)

Before
Fig.conservation (2005)
8: Before conservation (2005) After conservation
After conservation (2008)
(2008)
Plates XLIII

Baijnath, Group of Temples, Bageshwar

BeforeFig.
conservation (2003)
9: Before conservation (2003) After
Afterconservation (2008)
conservation (2008)

During conservation
Fig. 10: Before (2008)
conservation (2008) After
Afterconservation (2008)
conservation (2008)

During conservation
Fig. 11: During (2007)
conservation (2007) After
Afterconservation (2008)
conservation (2008)
XLIV ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Baleshwar Group of Temples, Champawat

Fig. conservation
Before 12: Before conservation
(2007) (2007) After conservation
After conservation (2008)
(2008)

Before
Fig. conservation (2007)
13: Before conservation (2007) After conservation
After conservation (2008)
(2008)

Kotwali Chabutara, Champawat

Before
Fig. conservation (2003)
14: Before conservation (2003) After conservation
After conservation (2007)
(2007)
Plates XLV

SAROJ KUMARI, SURABHI SRIVASTAVA AND ARCHIT SRIVASTAVA

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
XLVI ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 3

Fig. 4
Plates XLVII

Fig. 5

Fig. 6
XLVIII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 7

Fig. 8
Plates XLIX

Fig. 9

Fig. 10
L ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 11

Fig. 12
Plates LI

Fig. 13
LII ICON-Journal of Archaeology and Culture

Fig. 14

Fig. 15: Appendix