Chapter I –

Variations in Psychological Attributes

Variability is a fact of nature and individuals are no exception hence within and across the species
also, there are individual variations.

This is termed as Individual differences.

Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variation amongst people’s characteristics and
behaviour patterns.

1. Many psychologists believe they are influenced by our Personal Traits.

2. Some believe that they are based on situational factors, known as Eg. People of different
personal traits behaving alike in front of aggressive boss.

Situationism states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s
behaviour.

Psychological Attributes:

These attributes are involved in simple phenomena like ‘time taken to react to a stimulus’ to ‘highly
global concept like Happiness’.  It is difficult to count and specify psychological attributes which can
be assessed.

Hence any attribute will be said to exist in a person if it can be measured/assessed in a scientific
may.

Assessment of Psychological Attributes:

Assessment is the first step of understanding the attributes. It is the measurement of psychological
attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods as standards of
comparison. The assessment may be Formal or Informal:

Informal- e.g. If we say Harish is dominant.

Based on our perception and assessment of Dominance, without applying any formal technique to

measure. Hence this type of assessment will vary the results from one assessor to another,
depending on their opinions and will be open to subjective interpretation and huge variation.

 Formal- This is when we use a defined technique or measuring standards to assess any

attribute without letting our own perception change  the assessment. Its objective, standardized and
organized.

The formal assessment also involves measurement of an attribute with respect to its application in a

situation.

e.g. If Harish is assessed as dominant , some interventions might be needed to effect a change in his
behaviour while dealing with his teams at work etc
 Informal Formal

varies from case to case Objective

Subjective Standardized

Based on observation/perception Organized

Main Domains of Psychological Attributes:

Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are complex and expressed in
dimensions.

If you want to have a complete assessment of a person, you will need to assess how s/he functions
in various domains or areas…such as Cognitive, Social, Emotional etc.

Some of the domains of these attributes are:

1. Intelligence- It is the global capacity to understand, think rationally and use available

resources effectively in a situation/challenge. It represents general Cognitive
competence/ability.

2. Aptitude- Individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills. Aptitude assessment helps

predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper environment and training. E.g.
training a person with good language aptitude can help him become a good writer.

3. Interest- It’s individual’s interest / preference to engage in a particular activity. Assessment

of interest may help in deciding that in which occupation/activity an individual would be
comfortable and happy/satisfied.

4. Personality- Relatively enduring characteristics that make a person distinct from others.

This test tells us how a person is likely to behave in future- Dominant, submissive, moody
withdrawn or emotional.

5. Values- Enduring Beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. A set of standard rules,

guidelines which a person follows to live his life. This would help assess what kind of
decisions a person would make in a specific situation. Example -political, religious, social &
economics.

Assessment methods-

Several methods are used for Psychological assessment.

1. Psychological Test- is an objective and standardized test to measure any of the individual’s
psychological attributes- mental, behavioural, aptitude etc as mentioned above. g. Clinical
diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement n training.
 2. Interview- involves seeking information on a ``one-on-one basis by a counsellor from the
client. E.g., Door to door salesmen surveying about a product, journalists interview
important political people, employer while selecting employees use this technique to assess
individuals.

3. Case Study- is a detailed study of a person in terms of his/her psychological attributes by

collecting history, wide amount of data using interview, observation, and questionnaire of
psychological tests methods. To assess any of the attributes to draw learnings. E.g. – case
study of an eminent leader to learn about his personality, aptitude and values etc.

4. Observation- employing systematic, organized and objective procedure to record

behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Observation methods are useful to
study real events, situations however their interpretation can be subjective and in little
control of the observer. g. studying Mother Child relationship by watching them objectively
for a certain duration.

5. Self-report– It s a method in which an individual provides factual information about himself

or opinions, beliefs etc.

Such information can be obtained by Interviews, questionnaires or tests.

Intelligence:

Intelligence is the key attribute employed to know how individuals are different from each other.

Psychological definition is very different from the common definition of intelligence.

Common Definition: Mental alertness, ready wit, quickness to learn and grasp and ability to
understand relationships.

Oxford Definition: Power of Perceiving, Learning, Understanding and Knowing

Psychology definitions:

Alfred Binet: Ability to Judge well, Reason well and understand well. One similar set of abilities used
for solving any or every problem. His theory is called Uni or One factor theory.

Wechsler: Ability to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with your environment.

Charles Spearman: 1927, proposed a Two Factor Theory. As per hm Intelligence consists of a

General factor (g- factor) are primary and common to all performances.

Specific factors (s- factors) which are responsible for specific abilities- Singing, architects, scientists

Louis Thurstone: Intelligence consists of 7 primary abilities, relatively independent. They are:

1. Verbal Comprehension (meaning, words, concepts, ideas)

2. Numerical Ability (speed & accuracy in numerical & computation skills)

3. Spatial Relations (Visualising patterns and forms)

4. Perceptual Speed (Speed in Perceiving details)

5. Word Fluency (Using words fluently n flexibly)

 6. Memory (accuracy in recalling information)

7. Inductive reasoning (Deriving rules from presented facts)

Arthur Jensen: Proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence, consisting 2 levels:

Level1- Associative learning where Output is more or less similar to Input. (e.g., Rote learning &
memory)

Level2- Cognitive competence. Higher order skills. It transforms the input to produce effective
output.

J.P. Guilford: 3 dimensions:

1. Operations- are the things that respondent does. Cognition, memory, recording, retention,
convergent.

2. Contents- Nature of material or information on which intellectual operations are performed.

Visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic (words), behavioural.

3. Products- Form in which information is processed by respondent.

His theory has 6X5X6 = 180 cells

Theory Multiple Intelligence:

Howard Gardner: Intelligence is not a single entity, rather distinct type of intelligences exist. They
are independent of each other but do work together at times to find solution to a problem. (MISLLB)
to remember

Gardner studied extremely talented people and arrived on eight types of intelligences:

Linguistic (production and use of language skills): Such people are word-smart, articulate, poets &
writers.

Logical-Mathematical (Scientific thinking & Problem solving): Think Logically, critically, abstract

reasoning, symbols & mathematical problem solving. Scientists, mathematicians who won nobel
prize.

Spatial (Visual images & Patterns): Forming, using, transforming mental images. Pilots, sailors,
sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, surgeons.

Musical (Sensitivity to rhythm & sound pattern): Produce, create and manipulate music patterns.

Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using body flexibly & creatively): Athletes, dancers, sportsmen, gymnasts,

surgeons etc.

Interpersonal (good at understanding and interacting with others): Skilled at verbal and non-verbal
communication, see situations from different perspective, create positive relationship with others,
resolve conflicts.

Intrapersonal (being aware of one’s own feelings, motives and emotional state): they enjoy self-
reflection, analysis of self, their own strengths and weakness, have excellent self-awareness.

Philosophers, spiritual leaders.

Naturalists: (sensitivity towards the natural world): Awareness of relationship with the natural
world. Beauty of flora, fauna, ecology.

Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, environmentalists, animal activists.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Robert Sternberg (1985): Intelligence is Ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to
accomplish one’s goals and those of society/culture.

3 basic types of intelligence:

1. Componential- Analysis of information to solve problems. Such people think analytically and

critically. This intelligence has 3 components, each serving different function:

2. Knowledge acquisition-Learn, encode, combine & compare information (Find stage)

3. Meta component: Control, evaluate, monitor, plan (cognitive processing- analyse & solve
stage)

4. Performance components: Action, actually executing the planned task (Operational skill-

transfer stage)

5. Experiential Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve new problems. Such
people make new discoveries and inventions. They have the ability to filter crucial
information for a given situation.

6. Contextual Intelligence: This intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental
demands. The manifestation needed to adjust to the situation. Street smart, Business sense.
Such people adapt to the environment or modify environment as per their needs and hence
are more successful.

PASS Model of intelligence: (Planning, Attention Arousal and Simultaneous- Successive model)- by
J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, Kirby

Arousal/Attention: Arousal helps in paying attention to the stimuli. Too much or too little arousal
with interfere with the attention. E.g Teacher informs you about the upcoming test, which stimulates
you to attend to the chapters. Arousal helps you in focusing your attention to reading, learning,
revising.

Simultaneous & successive processing: Simultaneous processing allows you to perceive the
relationship between various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns. Relationship
among abstract figures.eg. Solving Jigsaw puzzles.

Successive processing takes place when you remember things sequentially. Learning digits,
alphabets etc.

Planning: It is an essential part of the intelligence. After the information is attended to and
processed, planning is activated. It allows us to think of possible courses of action need to be
implemented to reach the target and evaluate their effectiveness.

In case the plan doesn’t work this part of intelligence also help review the gaps and device alternate
plan.
Intelligence theory Psychologist Concept
Uni Factor or One Factor Alfred Binet Intelligence consists of one
Theory similar set of abilities
Two Factor Theory Charles Spearman G Factor – General Factor
S Factor – Specific Factor
Used Factor Analysis for this
theory
Louis Thurstone Seven primary abilities
Theory of Primary Mental 1. Verbal comprehension
Abilities 2. Numerical Abilities
3. Spatial Relations
4. Perceptual
5. Word Fluency
6. Memory
7. Inductive Reasoning
Hierarchical model of Arthur Jensen Level 1 – Associative learning
Intelligence (eg rote learning)
Level 2 – Cognitive competence
(higher order skills)
Structure of Intellect Theory J.P. Guilford 3 Dimensions:
Operations
Content
Product
Theory of Multiple Howard Gardener 1. Visual-spatial
Intelligence 2. Linguistic-verbal
3. Logical – mathematical
4. Bodily kinaesthetic
5. Musical Intelligence
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
Triarchic theory of Robert Sternberg 1. Practical/Contextual
Intelligence intelligence
2. Experiential/creative
 intelligence
3. Componential/analytical
intelligence
PASS model of intelligence J.P. Das 1. Arousal/attention
Jack Naglieri 2. Simultaneous and
Kirby successive
processing
3. Planning

Individual Differences in Intelligence:

The study conducted on Identical/fraternal twins, siblings, brought up together or in different

environment helps us establish the fact that the factors that influence intelligence are:

Nature- Heredity, genes

Nurture- Environment, nutrition

Research showed: Correlation of Intelligence of diff samples as follows:

 Identical Twins reared together correlate almost 0.9

 Identical twins , separated in childhood correlate 0.72

 Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.6

 Siblings reared together correlate 0.5

 Siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25

 Adopted children display intelligence more similar to biological parents than adoptive ones.
However studies also report that as adopted children grow their intelligence moves closer to
adoptive parents.

Hence, there is a general consensus amongst psychologists that Intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).

Assessment of Intelligence:

1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon – made the first successful attempt to measure intelligence.

MA- Mental Age- It’s a measure of intellectual development relative to people of same age.

CA- Chronological Age- It’s the biological age from birth.

If MA is higher than CA, the person is considered bright and more intelligent.

If MA=CA , then it is considered average intelligence.

If MA<CA, The person is called retarded as per Binet and Simon.

Intelligence Quotient: 1912, William Stern, German Psychologist: IQ

IQ= Mental Age divided by Chronological age and Multiplied by 100.

IQ= MA/CA X100

100 is the multiplier to avoid value in decimals.

So, if MA=CA, IQ is 100

For value >100, it means the child’s mental age is higher by those points than chronological age. And
for values <100, considered low IQ.

Usually, distribution over the population follows a bell curve:

 
   
IQ range description Percentage
population  
Above 130- Very superior 2.2
120-130- Superior 6.7
110-119- High Average 16.1
90-109- Average 50
80-89- Low average 16.1
70-79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2
 

Variations of Intelligence:

Intellectual Deficiency

Is defined as significantly sub average general intellectual functioning with deficit in adaptive
behaviour and manifested during the development period.

This impacts 3 features as captured in the definition:

1. Sub- average intellectual functionality. - Slower in grasp than children of same age.

2. Adaptability of adapt and deal with environment effectively. (Independently holding job and
family)

3. Manifestation- during developmental period.

Severity of above is dependent on the different levels of IQ deficiency.

Mild- IQ 55-70,
Moderate- IQ 35-55,
Severe IQ- 20-35 &
Profound IQ < 20

Depending on the range, some people can be trained and educated with special care and those on
the other extreme may live a dependent s life throughout.

Intellectual Giftedness

High performance due to outstanding potential with IQ >130.

Can be assessed from Talent and Giftedness.

Usually these terms are used interchangeably, however there is a difference:

Giftedness- Exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas.

Talent- is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field ( e.g. spiritual, social,
aesthetic, etc..). Highly talented people are also called Prodigies.

It is- combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment.

Important characteristics of gifted children:

 Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving.

 High speed in processing information.

 Superior generalization and discrimination ability

 Advance original and creative thinking

 High level intrinsic motivation, self-esteem.

 Independent and non-conformist thinking

 Preference for solitary academic activities.

Type of Intelligence tests:

Individual or Group tests:

  Individual Tests Group Tests

1 Administered to one person at a time Administered to several persons

simultaneously

2 Administrator to establish rapport with the No opportunity to be familiar with the

subject & be sensitive to his/her feelings, subject
moods, expressions.

3 In this, tests subjects are allowed to In this they seek written answers usually

answer orally/written form/manipulate in a multiple choice.
objects as per tester’s instructions

Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests:

An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully written or fully performance based, or it may consist a
mixture of each category.

Verbal- requires verbal responses either orally or in written form. Can be administered only to
literate people.

Non- Verbal- Tests use pictures or illustrations. In these subjects examine an incomplete pattern and
choose from figures to complete the pattern.

Can be administered to any culture group or illiterate people.

E.g Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM).

Performance Tests: Require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a task.
Written language is not necessary. So can be administered to persons with low literacy and any
culture.

e.g. Koh’s block design containing wooden blocks.

Intelligence in Indian Tradition:

Unlike the western view, which particularly focuses on cognitive parameters, following
competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition:

 Cognitive capacity: (Sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem solving,

effective communication)

 Social competence: (respect of social order, commitment to elders, the young and the
needy, concern about others perspectives)

 Emotional competence: (Self-regulation, self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness,

good conduct and self-evaluation)

 Entrepreneurial competence: (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance,

goal-directed)

Emotional Intelligence: The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence as

it considers that Intelligence includes emotions.

This encompasses- Appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions.

It is the Feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ/Scholastic record is not enough to be successful in
life. Even the people who are most successful in academics face problems in managing their personal
life. Psychologists refer to this as a lack of emotional intelligence.

It is represented as EQ.

Salovey & Mayer first defined EQ as- The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions and
discriminate them to use them to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Characteristics of the people with high EQ:

 Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.

 Sensitive to observing others’ emotions by noting their body language, voice, tone & facial
expressions.

 Use emotions and thoughts while solving problems and taking decisions.

 Understand the nature and intensity of emotions and their powerful influence.

 Control on emotions/feelings while dealing with others to achieve peace and harmony.

Aptitude:

Mental ability in a special/particular field is referred as Aptitude.

Aptitude is also- Ability to acquire some specific knowledge and skill after training.
 

People with similar intelligence- IQ differ widely in acquiring certain type of skills.

They can be good in different areas/subjects.

This means people can have aptitude of different fields with similar measure of intelligence.

Difference between Aptitude & Interest:

Aptitude is the potential to perform any activity/task

Interest is the preference for performing certain activity.

To excel in any field a person needs to have both Aptitude and Interest.

Measuring Aptitude:

There are several types of Aptitude tests largely available in two forms:

1. Independent (specialised) aptitude tests. – Mechanical, clerical, numerical, tests for

specialized fields.

2. Multiple (generalized) aptitude tests. - Exist in the form of test batteries. Differential
Aptitude test (DAT), General aptitude test battery (GATB), Armed services vocational
aptitude battery (ASVAB) are well known.

DAT is commonly used in educational settings, consisting eight specialized subtests- Verbal,

Numerical, Abstract, Clerical speed and accuracy, Mechanical, Space, Spellings and Language tests.
(Common test)

Creativity and Intelligence:

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed. The created

item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition or a joke) or a
physical object (such as an invention, a literary work or a painting).

There are differences in the potential for creativity across individuals and the manner in which
Creativity is expressed.

Creativity can be expressed in writing, dance, poetry, science and so on.

Manifestation of creativity can be seen in a poem, painting, new chemical process, an innovation of
law, a breakthrough in science in preventing a disease.

Names of some highly creative persons in the history: Tagore, Einstein, C.V.Raman, Ramanujan

etc. for their outstanding contribution.

The definition of creativity has broadened and it includes ordinary people in creative
occupations like Pottery, carpentry, cooking etc.

Variation in potential for creativity:

Creativity is determined both by Heredity and Environment.

Limit of the creative potential are set by heredity and Environmental factors help stimulate the
development of creativity. Environmental factors such as motivation, commitment, family support,
peer influence, training n opportunities to polish skills really help enhance the realisation of true
creative potential.

Creativity and Intelligence:

Intelligence is the overall ability to understand, analyse and adapt in different situations. It is a brain

function which helps individuals to perform and excel in multiple domains. Creativity is the ability to
use intelligence in order to churn out something unique and novel  in a specific field.

Thus, a person who has the ability to learn faster, reproduce accurately is considered intelligent
more than creative until he /she devices new ways of learning and doing.

Terman in 1920 found that Person with high IQ were not necessarily creative. (He’s just a faster
computer/processor).

And creative ideas can come from persons who did not have very high IQ. Ability to think differently.

The relationship between Intelligence and creativity is positive. All creative abilities require a
minimum level of intelligence to acquire knowledge, capacity to comprehend, retain and retrieve.

e.g. to express creativity in writing, one must possess adequate language skills and to express
creativity in creating new laws of science, one must have to intelligence to acquire basic knowledge
of the subject.

Creativity test are open ended and involve making a person think of different answers to the
questions and problems. They give freedom to individuals to go in different direction and freedom to
use their imagination and express in original ways.