CAUCHY’S CONSTANTS.

Aim: To determine Cauchy’s constants ‘a’ & ‘b’ using prism and spectrometer. A
Formula:
n C
1. Direct Calculation. B
𝑏 𝑛𝑏 − 𝑛𝑔
𝑎 = 𝑛𝑏 − 𝑏= 1 1
E
𝜆2𝑏 − 2
𝜆2
𝑏 𝜆𝑔 a
O
2. By Graph. 𝑎 = 𝑂𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝐴𝐵
𝑏= 𝐵𝐶
𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ.

nb is refractive index of blue light. λb is wave length of blue light.

ng is refractive index of green light. λg is wave length of green light

Principle: This experiment is based on the phenomenon of normal dispersion. i.e., when a ray of white light passes
through a prism it is separated into its constituent colors. According to Cauchy’s theory of normal dispersion,
𝑏
𝑛=𝑎+ where, n is refractive index of the prism, λ is wave length of light
𝜆2

and á’ & ‘b’ are Cauchy’s constants.

Procedure:
1. Least count of the spectrometer is determined.
2. The prism table is levelled using spirit level.
3. The Telescope is adjusted to see the clear image of the distant object.
4. Keeping the telescope in line with the collimator, the slit is made narrow.
5. The given prism is placed on the prism table such that the parallel beam of light from collimator is made
to fall on one of the reflecting surface at almost grazing angle of incidence.
6. The telescope is turned to get the spectrum in the field of view.
7. Now the spectrum is adjusted for minimum deviation position.
8. Reading R1 for yellow-1 is recorded.
9. Similarly reading R1 for green, green-blue-2, blue and violet-1 is recorded.
10. By removing the prism, the spectrometer reading R2 is recorded for direct ray.

𝐴+𝐷
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
11. Refractive index for a particular colour is calculated using 𝑛 = 𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
2
12. Cauchy’s constants (a, b) for any two colours can be calculated using formula 1.
13. The Cauchy’s constants (a, b) can also be calculated by plotting a graph of n Vs 1/λ2
Result: Cauchy’s constants are found to be
1. a = ____________________ b = ______________________ m2 from direct calculation.

2. a = ____________________ b = ______________________ m2 from graph.

 S – Mercury Source

C – Collimator

P – Prism

B – Base of Prism

T – Telescope

D- Angle of minimum Deviation.

OBSERVATIONS: -
Angle of Prism, A = 60°
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least Count of the Spectrometer = = ___________
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑆𝐷

Total reading = MSR + (CVD X LC)

To find ‘D’and ‘n’

Minimum Refractive Index

Direct ray Minimum 𝐴+𝐵 1
deviation 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ) Wavelength
Spectral line reading deviation
λ x 10-10 m 𝑋 1012
position 𝑛= 𝜆2
R2 D = R1 - R2 𝐴
reading R1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2

5798 2.9829
Yellow – 1
5461 3.3531
Green

4358 5.2653
Blue

4047 6.1056
Violet 1

Substitution & Calculations:

 IMPEDANCE OF A SERIES RC CIRCUIT

Aim: To determine impedance of a series RC circuit and hence to calculate frequency of AC.

Where
Formula: Vrms – Applied AC Voltage,
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Irms – RMS Value of Current
1. 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
= ________Ω Z – Impedance
m -Slope of straight lien of Z Vs 1/C
1 f – frequency of AC = 50 Hz
2. 𝑍 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝐶 2 𝜔2
C – Capacity of Capacitor.
1
3. 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
= ________ Hz

Principle:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
When an AC emf is applied to R-C circuit, the impedance is given by 𝑍= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
and also
1 1 1
𝑍2 = 𝑅2 + 𝐶 2 𝜔2
. When a graph of ‘Z2’ Vs 𝐶2
is drawn we get straight line having slope 𝑚 = 𝜔2
and
1 1
intercept R2. Instead of ‘Z2’ Vs a graph of ‘Z’ Vs is drawn a straight line is obtained having slope
𝐶2 𝐶
1 1 1
𝑚= 𝜔
. Hence 𝜔 = 𝑚
and 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
.

Procedure:

1. Electrical connections are made as shown in figure.

2. Applied AC voltage (Vrms) is noted.
3. For capacitance 0.1µF, VR is noted. Irms is calculated by Irms = (VR/R) Impedance is calculated by
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍= This is experimental value of impedance.
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

4. Experiment is repeated for different values of capacitance.

5. The frequency of AC is calculated using formula 1.
1
6. A graph of ‘Z’ Vs 𝐶
is plotted. Slope of straight line ‘m’is found. Hence the frequency of AC is

calculated using the formula 2.

Result: Frequency of AC, f = ______________ Hz.

 Where, C-Capacitance

AC =Vrms input voltage

T – Transformer

R- Resistance

VR – Voltage across Resistance

Vrms = 12 Volts R = 2000Ω

𝑨𝑩 A
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = 𝒎 =
𝑩𝑪
C
B
Z
1
𝐶

𝑽𝑹 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟏
Trial C µF VR in Volts 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = Amps 𝒁= 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
Ω
𝑹 𝑪

1 0.1

2 0.2

3 0.3

4 0.4

5 0.5

6 0.6

7 0.7

Substitutions and Calculation:

Frequency of AC f = ____________ Hz
 LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS

Aim: To study the frequency response of RC low pass and high pass filters and hence to find the cut off
frequency.

𝟏
Formula: Cut off frequency, 𝒇𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪
= ________𝑯𝒛 Where R & C are Resistance and Capacitance
respectively.

Principle:
Filter: It is an electronic circuit which passes desired frequencies and rejects other frequencies.
1
Cut off Frequency: The frequency at which signal strength drops to times the maximum out put voltage.
√2

Low pass Filter: It is an electronic circuit which allows (passes) the signals below the cut off frequency.
High pass Filter: It is an electronic circuit which allows the signals above the cut off frequency.

Procedure:

1. The oscillator output Vi is set for convenient value (say 8 or 10v)

2. The connections are made as shown in circuit 1 (Low pass Filter)
3. By varying the frequency, the output voltage Vo is recorded.
𝑉𝑜
4. Gain 𝐺 = 𝑉𝑖
is calculated.

5. A graph of gain Vs frequency is plotted.

𝐺𝑜
6. A horizontal line corresponding to is drawn. From this the cut off frequency fc is found.
√2

7. The cut off frequency fc is verified by direct calculation.

8. The experiment is conducted for high pass filter as above (circuit II)

Result:
1. For low pass filter,
a. Cut off frequency, fc = ______________ Hz from graph
b. Cut off frequency, fc = ______________ Hz from direct calculation

2. For high pass filter,

a. Cut off frequency, fc = ______________ Hz from graph
b. Cut off frequency, fc = ______________ Hz from direct calculation
 R C

R
C Vo Vo

Observations:
Input voltage Vi = 10 or 6 Volt
Resistance R = 2200 Ω
Capacitance, C = 0.1 µf

Low pass filter: High Pass Filter

Output voltage
Output voltage 𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑮
𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑮 Frequency 𝑽𝒐
Frequency 𝑽𝒐 Vo Volt
Hz =
Hz Vo Volt = 𝑽𝒊
𝑽𝒊

Go Go

𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
G √2 G √2

fc fc f
f
 NETWORK THEOREMS

1. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

R
0-50
1 P
m
A
Ba
(0- R V
30V) RL
RL

Resistance
100Ω 200Ω 300Ω 400Ω 500Ω 600Ω 700Ω 800Ω 900Ω 1000Ω
RL Ω

Voltage
VL Volts

Current
I mA

Power
P = VL I Watt
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Aim: To verify maximum power transfer theorem.

𝑅1 𝑅2
Formula: Source Resistance 𝑅𝑠 = = ______________ Ω
𝑅1 +𝑅2

Power is maximum when source resistance Rs = Load resistance RL

Principle: In any linear network power delivered by a source to a load resistance is maximum

when the load resistance is equal to internal resistance of the source.

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in figure.

2. The source voltage is fixed to 15 V.

3. The resistances R1 & R2 are in the ratio 1:2

4. The load resistance is varied in steps of 100Ω to 1000Ω and corresponding current in

millimeter and voltage in voltmeter are recorded.

5. Power is calculated for each load resistance.

6. A graph of power against the load resistance is drawn and RL is noted.

Result: It is verified that power is maximum when RL = ______ Ω = Rs = _________Ω

 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

R1
0-25 mA
mA

Ba
(0-30V) R2 RL

Circuit ! Circuit 2
R1 = 300Ω Vth = 10 V
VE = 15 V Rth
R2 = 600Ω Rth = 200 V
Load
Resistance Current I mA Current I` mA RL
RLΩ
Ba
(Vth)
0-25 mA
mA
I`
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Principle: Any linear network containing linear impedances can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit, Consisting of an impedance with an equivalent voltage source in series.

𝐸𝑅2
Formula; The venin’s voltage 𝑉𝑡ℎ = = _______𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑅2
The venin’s Resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ = = ____Ω
𝑅1 +𝑅2

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in circuit 1

2. Resistances R1 and R2 are taken in the ratio 1:2

3. The source voltage E is adjusted to 15 V

4. The load resistance is varied in steps of 100Ω and corresponding currents I are

recorded.

5. For the given circuit The venin’s voltage and The venin’s resistance is calculated using

above mentioned formula.

6. Connectors are made as shown in circuit 2. Source voltage is adjusted to Vth keeping

the value of Rth the currents I ‘for different load resistances are noted.

Result: It is observed that I = I`

 FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF THE CIRCULAR COIL

Compas Circular Coil

s tan
Scale θ

+ A

B R O 𝑋
K 𝑟
a h =

Observations:
Current through the coil I = _____________ amp
No. of turns in the coil used, N = __________
Radius of the coil, r = circumference of the coil/ 2π = ____________ m
From the graph, the value of tanθ at x = r/2 = ______
Permeability of free space µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m

Dist in Right side Deflections Left side Deflections

Cm
θ1 θ2 Mean θ Tan θ θ1 θ2 Mean θ Tan θ

4µ𝑜 𝑁𝐼 1
Calculations: The Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field 𝐵𝐻 = Tesla
√125 𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

Result: The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field at the given place is
BH = _____________ Tesla
 FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF THE CIRCULAR COIL

Aim: To determine the Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field BH by studying the
variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.

Apparatus: Circular coil with arms, magnetic compass, ammeter, rheostat, battery etc.

4µ𝑜 𝑁𝐼 1
Formula: The Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field 𝐵𝐻 = Tesla
√125 𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Where r is the radius of the coil, N is number of turns used, I is current through the
circuit, θ is mean deflection, µo is the permeability of free space.

µ𝒐 𝑵𝑰𝒓𝟐
The Field along the axis of the coil at a distance x from the center of the coil is 𝑩 = 𝟐
𝟐(𝒓𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 )𝟑

Procedure: Coil is connected to an ammeter, battery, key and rheostat in series as shown in the
circuit diagram. The compass box is placed at the center of the coil and the coil with the
perpendicular arms is rotated so that the magnetic needle at the center of the coil is parallel to
the plane of the coil. The compass box is now rotated until the aluminum pointer reads 0° - 0°.
With the compass box at the center of the coil (x=0), the current is adjusted to give a
deflection of about 60°. The readings of the ends of the pointer are noted as θ1 and θ2. The mean
deflection θ is found.
Next the compass box is moved towards right along the axis of the coil in steps of 2cm
at a time. In each position deflections are noted and mean deflection is calculated. Readings are
taken at different positions until θ is reduced to about 30°.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the compass box towards left from the center of
the coil. Readings are recorded as shown in the tabular column.
µ𝒐 𝑵𝑰𝒓𝟐
If the coil is having N turns, the field along the axis of the coil is given by 𝑩 = 𝟐
𝟐(𝒓𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 )𝟑
4µ𝑜 𝑁𝐼 1
Put x = r/2 in the relation B = BH tan θ, we get 𝐵𝐻 =
√125 𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

A graph of tan θ verses distance x is plotted. From the graph the value of tan θ
at x=r/2 is found out. The value of BH is calculated in the above relation.

Result: It is found that the value of BH is _____________

 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR.

Aim: To determine the capacity of a capacitor by studying variation of voltage during charging and discharging.
Apparatus: DC Power Supply, Capacitor, Resistor, Voltmeter, plug Keys, stop watch, Connecting wires, etc.
𝑇1
2 𝑡
Formula: 𝐶 = 0.693 𝑅
𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 Or 𝐶 = 𝑅
= _________ Farad
1
By graph, 𝐶 = − 𝑅 𝑋 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = ___________ Farad Where slope = -a/b

Where,
+ -
Ba - Battery
K2
R K1 & K2 – Plug Keys

C R – Resistance

K1 C – Capacitor (electrolytic)

V - Voltmeter

Ba

Observation: Resistance R = ___________Ω

Charging. (K1 Closed & K2 Open) Discharging (K1 Open & K2 Closed)

Time in t Voltmeter Time in t Voltmeter

Second (V) reading Second (V) reading
in volt in volt
0 0

5 5

10 10

15 15

20 20

25 25

30 30
35 35
40 40
45 45
50 50
55 55
60 60
 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR.
Aim: To study the voltage variation on capacitor during charging and discharging and hence to find the time
constant.
Apparatus: Capacitor (2200µF, 4700µF), resistor (10kΩ), Battery (12V), Plug keys, stop clock.

Procedure: 1. Charging of a capacitor:

Circuit connections are made as shown in figure. To study the voltage across the capacitor during
charging, the key k1 is closed and simultaneously and simultaneously a stop clock is started. The voltmeter
readings are noted at intervals of 5 seconds till the capacitor attains maximum voltage (equal to applied voltage)
readings are tabulated.

A graph of voltage across the capacitor against time t is plotted. From the graph, the time T 1/2
required to attain Vmax/2 is noted.

𝑇1
2
The time constant T of the RC circuit can be calculated using the formula 𝑇 = 0.673
Or T = 0.632 Vmax

Which is also equal to the theoretical value of T = RC or C = T/R

1. During Charging

The time constant T of the RC circuit can be calculated

using the formula
𝑇1
2
𝑇= 0.673
or T = 0.632 Vmax
Vmax
Which is also equal to the theoretical value of T = RC
Vmax/2 or C = T/R

O 𝑇1 t in sec
2

2. During Discharging

Vmax
The time constant T of the RC
Circuit can be calculated using the formula

𝑇1
2
𝑇= 0.693
or T = 0.368 Vmax
Vmax/2
Which is also equal to the theoretical
value of T = RC or C = T/R.
O 𝑇1 t in sec
2
 AIR WEDGE

Observation:

Microscop Least count of travelling microscope =

e
𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝟏 𝑴𝑺𝑫
𝑵𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
= ________ cm
Reflector
45°
T R = MSR + (CVD X LC)

Plane Glass
Plates
wire
L

1. To find fringe width β

Fringe width
Fringe Traveling microscope Fringe Travelling microscope 𝑹𝟏 ~𝑹𝟐
No. reading R1 No. Reading R2 𝜷=
𝟐𝟎
0 20

5 25

10 30

15 35

Mean β = ____________ cm = ______________m

II to find length of air wedge (L)

Reading corresponding to line of contact L1 = ____________ cm,

Reading corresponding to wire L2 = ____________ cm,

Length of air wedge, L1 ~ L2 = _________ cm = __________ m

Calculation:
𝝀𝑳
𝒕=
𝟐𝜷
 Air Wedge

Aim: Determination of thickness of thin wire using interference at a wedge shaped air
Film.
𝝀𝑳
Formula: 𝒕= Where λ is wavelength of sodium light = 5893 x 10-10 m
𝟐𝜷
β is fringe width & L is length of air wedge.
Principle:
When a monochromatic beam of light incident normally on the air wedge of
thickness ‘t’, it suffers reflection at the top and bottom surfaces of the air film. The
reflected light rays are coherent and undergo interference producing equidistant
alternative bright and dark fringes parallel to the object in an air wedge. The thickness of
the object is directly proportional to wavelength, the length of air wedge and inversely
proportional to bandwidth. Hence by measuring the bandwidth and length of air wedge
the thickness of an object can be determined.

Procedure:
1. Air wedge is formed between two optically flat glass plates due to the wire whose
thickness is to be determined.
2. The reflector is adjusted for the proper incidence of light on the air wedge. The
eyepiece of traveling microscope is adjusted to see the clear view of interference
fringes.
3. Least count of traveling microscope is determined.
4. The vertical cross wire of the traveling microscope is made to coincide with one of
the dark fringes at the left side and is considered as zero fringe, the reading
corresponding to it is noted.
5. By moving the cross wire, the readings corresponding to every five fringes upto 35
fringes are noted & fringe width β is calculated.
6. The microscope readings corresponding to line of contact between two glass plates
L1 and to the wire L2 are noted. The length of air wedge is given by L = L1~L2.
7. The thickness of wire ‘t’ is determined using the above mentioned formula.

Result:The thickness of given wire ‘t’ = _____m.

 Biprism

D M S – Monochromatic Source

A b A, B – Virtual Sources

Abc – Biprism
d S a
E – Eye piece
B c
MN- Screen
Fig-1 N

Observations:
Least count of micrometer=
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑃𝑆𝐷
= _______ cm
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑆

TR = PSR +( HSR x LC)

d1 d2
Fig-2 A Fig-2 B

I To find the band width

Width of
Distance of Micrometer Micrometer Band
Fringe Fringe ‘10’fringes Mean
Eyepiece reading reading width β
No. No. x = (a~b) ‘x’cm
form slit ‘m’ á’cm ‘b’cm =(x/10)cm
cm

0 10

2 12

4 14

6 16

8 18

I;mages of two virtual Micrometer reading Distance between two sources

sources Image I1 R1 cm Image I2 R2 cm d = (R1~R2) cm

Maginified image
Diminished image

𝑑 = √𝑑1 𝑑2 = ______ cm
 Biprism

Aim: Determination of the wave length ‘λ’ of a monochromatic light using biprism.

𝛽
Formula: 𝝀 = √𝑑1 𝑑2 mm
𝐷

Where β is the band width measured at a distances D meter. d1 & d2 are the distance

between two coherent sources in magnified and diminished forms.

Principle: When a monochromatic light falls on refracting edge of a biprism, two virtual images of the

line sources are formed by division of wave front. These two forms the coherent sources and interfere

forming interference fringes.

Procedure: I To find Fringe width: Fig 1

1. Least count of micrometer fixed to eyepiece is found.

2. The slit, biprism & eyepiece are made collinear. This gives interference fringes.

3. The eyepiece stand is fixed at a distance of about 40cm (D) from slit.

4. The cross wire of eye piece is coincided to one of the fringes on the left side of the fringe

system and it is considered as zero fringe. The reading corresponding to it is noted.

5. By moving the micrometer drum the reading corresponding to every five fringes up to 18

fringes is noted and band width β is calculated as explained in the tabular column

II To find the distance between two virtual coherent sources: Fig 2

1. The lens upright is introduced between eyepiece and Biprism.

2. The lens and eyepiece are adjusted for clear view of interference fringes.

3. By moving the lens upright towards the biprism, the readings corresponding to magnified

images are noted (R1 & R2) and d1 = (R1~R2) is calculated.

4. By moving the lens upright towards the eyepiece, the readings corresponding to diminished

images are noted (R1 & R2) and d2 = (R1~R2) is calculated.

5. Wavelength of monochromatic light is calculated using the above formula.