CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

By looking at previous studies, reliable measurements, and contextual

considerations, this literature review seeks to assess how eco-geogrid is presented in

street planning. It makes an effort to evaluate the advantages, drawbacks, and

challenges associated with using eco-geogrid on roadway application particularly,

unpaved roads. The review seeks to offer insightful observations and suggestions that

will help transportation authorities, engineers, and researchers make well-informed

judgments and explore the potential of eco-geogrid in the development of robust and

sustainable road infrastructure. The results of this review will be useful for eco-

geogrid research and its practical applications in road construction.

Roadway

Since producers must distribute their products, transportation is important in

the context of economic development. Additionally, Aschauer (et al., 1989) noted that

decent roads enhance market access and transit. In order to endure traffic loads and

loads carried by moving vehicles, roads are built.

Unpaved Roadway

Unpaved roads used for low-volume traffic play a significant role in the

resource development and economy of developing countries all over the world. Large

deformation and subsequent failure can occur when such flexible pavements are

constructed over a soft subgrade. It may not always be possible to obtain good-quality

aggregate material that meets design specifications, either because such material is not
available locally, or if it is available at all—as a result of long haulage distances with

consequent increase in cost. Hence there is a need for a method that either eliminates

the need for good-quality aggregate, or which requires the use of only a minimum

amount of such material and yet will result in satisfactory performance of the road.

Geosynthetics have been used successfully to strengthen unpaved roads on soft

subgrades, and to extend the service life of roads ( Noorzad and Mirmoradi ,2010). By

providing reinforcement, the required thickness of the aggregate layer can be reduced

for a given traffic volume or, alternatively, for a given thickness of aggregate layer,

the traffic can be increased. Geosynthetic-reinforced unpaved roads on soft subgrade

have been shown to reduce the necessary fill thickness by about 30% (Miura et al.

1990; Cancelli et al. 1996).

Unpaved Roadway Components

Base Course - According to (Lay, 2009), in pavement construction, the base

course, also known as base course, is a critical layer of material situated beneath the

surface layer in asphalt roadways, race tracks, riding arenas, or sporting fields. It is

placed either directly above the subgrade or above a sub-base course, if present. The

thickness of the base course, typically ranging from 100 to 150 millimeters (4 to 6

inches), is determined by the properties of the underlying layers. Composed primarily

of a specific type of construction aggregate, the base course is meticulously spread

and compacted to achieve a minimum of 95% relative compaction. This diligent

process ensures the establishment of a stable foundation capable of supporting

additional layers of aggregates or the application of an asphalt concrete wearing

course directly on top of the base course. Aggregate base (AB), commonly utilized in

roadways, is formulated by combining different sizes of crushed rock to create an

2
aggregate with desired properties. For instance, 20 mm or 3/4 inch Aggregate Base,

Class 2, is a specific type of AB that comprises a carefully proportioned mixture of

rock sizes, including 20 mm (3/4 inch) down to fine dust particles. Aggregates are

typically sourced from newly quarried rock, but in some cases, they may be produced

from recycled asphalt concrete and/or Portland cement concrete.

Subbase - Lowden (2023), stated that, in pavement construction, the subbase

refers to the layer of aggregate material positioned directly above the subgrade,

providing support for the subsequent base course layer. While the subbase may be

omitted in cases where the pavement is exclusively intended for foot traffic, it is

essential for surfaces accommodating vehicular loads. The subbase plays a critical

role as the primary load-bearing layer of the pavement structure. Its primary function

is to distribute the applied loads evenly across the subgrade. The materials employed

for subbase construction can either be unbound granular materials or cement-bound

materials. The selection of appropriate subbase materials significantly influences the

durability and lifespan of the road, often surpassing the life expectancy of the surface

layer. When necessary, the surface layer can be scraped off, and upon confirming the

subbase's good condition, a new layer can be applied, effectively renewing the

pavement. Unbound granular materials commonly used for subbase construction

include crushed stone, crushed slag or concrete, and slate. These materials provide the

required load-bearing capacity and stability to support the overlying layers and

distribute loads evenly throughout the pavement structure.

Subgrade - The term "subgrade" refers to the existing material on which the

pavement structure is constructed. While there is a common inclination to focus on

pavement structure and mix design when considering pavement performance, it is

crucial to recognize that the subgrade frequently plays a dominant role in determining

3
pavement performance. The quality and properties of the subgrade can exert a

significant influence on the overall performance of the pavement. Factors such as

subgrade strength, stiffness, and composition can have a substantial impact on the

pavement's ability to withstand traffic loads, resist deformation, and maintain long-

term durability. Therefore, when evaluating pavement performance, it is imperative to

consider the influence of the subgrade as a critical factor that may override other

aspects of pavement structure and mix design. Adequate attention and assessment of

the subgrade conditions are vital for understanding and predicting pavement behavior

and implementing appropriate measures to ensure satisfactory performance and

longevity of the pavement structure.

DPWH Standard on Base Course and Subbase

In adherence to the Item 200 and 201 of the Blue Book, maximum compacted

layer should be 200 mm or 7.90 inches for both layers.

Problems on Unpaved Roadway

Unpaved roads tend to deteriorate quickly, experiencing problems like

potholes, rutting, and depressions. The main cause of this early deterioration is often

the weak individual layers of the road. However, by incorporating geosynthetic layers

between the subgrade soil and granular sub-base, these issues can be mitigated.

Geosynthetics help minimize surface heave, improve stress distribution, and reduce

the amount of stress transferred to the subgrade soil. Studies by Koerner (2005) and

Shukla (2012) have shown the effectiveness of including geosynthetics in achieving

these benefits.

4
Advancements on Unpaved Roadway

Geotextiles used as reinforcement in paved roads, and unpaved roads, to

improve construction and long-term performance are reviewed and discussed. These

improvements are accomplished through structural interaction with granular layers in

the roadway or railway section, enhancing the integrity and structural capacity of

these support layers over the life of the system. The reinforcement function of

geotextiles requires synergistic consideration with respect to other functions such as

separation of the aggregate from the subgrade soil and filtration to allow water to pass

freely from weak, wet subgrade soil into the aggregate layer owing to excess pore

water pressure during loading (ie, as covered in chapters Geotextiles used in

separation, Geotextiles used in filtration, and Geotextiles used in drainage), for

optimal improvement in roadway performance. Geotextiles can also be incorporated

into granular base support layers to improve the long-term structural performance of

these layers. The reinforcement mechanisms that potentially provide these

improvements are as originally described by Bender and Barenberg (1978) and later

by Kinney and Barenberg (1982) for geotextile-reinforced unpaved roads

Unpaved Roadway Performance

The performance of unpaved roads is influenced by several factors, including

material properties, road geometry, drainage, and the quality of construction and

maintenance. Among these factors, the choice of appropriate materials plays a critical

role in determining dust levels, slipperiness, and the rate of road deterioration caused

by washboarding, raveling, and erosion. It is essential to recognize that the quality of

the riding surface materials significantly impacts the overall condition of the road

(Jones and Paige-Green, 2015). Unpaved roads encompass various types such as haul

5
roads, forest roads, access roads, and aggregate surfaced roads, which accommodate

lower vehicle volumes and slower speeds compared to paved roads. The design of an

unpaved road typically aims to support a maximum of 100,000 equivalent single axle

loads, as specified by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH, 1993).

Rutting is the primary deformation that significantly affects the performance

of unpaved roads. It is crucial to prevent excessive rutting due to its adverse effects,

including driver discomfort, vehicle instability, and vehicle damage. Geosynthetics

have emerged as a viable solution for reinforcing the base course and stabilizing the

subgrade during the construction of unpaved roads. They can be incorporated either at

the interface between the base and subgrade or within the granular layer to enhance

road performance. The inclusion of geosynthetics offers multiple advantages, such as

increasing the traffic capacity supported by a given base course thickness, reducing

the thickness of the granular layer, or a combination of both, resulting in increased

traffic volume and decreased layer thickness. Furthermore, geosynthetics enable the

utilization of locally available granular materials, which enhances their cost-

effectiveness and feasibility (Giroud and Han, 2004). Geosynthetics have gained wide

acceptance in geotechnical engineering and highway applications. However, their

utilization on rural and low-volume roads is still limited despite the proven benefits

they offer (Keller, 2016).

Depth of Rut and Criteria for Serviceability

Traffic activity results in the formation of ruts, which are visible on the surface

of the base course. In cases where traffic follows a defined path, the rut depth is

measured as the vertical distance between the lowest point within the rut and a line

connecting the highest points of the base course surfaces on either side of the rut.

6
However, in areas where traffic movement is not confined, an irregular pattern of ruts

emerges. In such cases, the rut depth is defined as the maximum vertical distance

between adjacent high and low spots on the base course surface. The US Army Corps

of Engineers has established a "failure" criterion with an allowable rut depth of 75

mm, which is commonly utilized for unpaved roads. For the design of low-volume

roads, the AASHTO design guidelines recommend allowable rut depths ranging from

13 to 75 mm. In certain scenarios, such as unpaved access roads, allowable rut depths

exceeding 75 mm, such as 100 mm, may be used.

Soil

In short, soil is a mixture of minerals, dead and living organisms (organic

materials), air, and water. These four ingredients react with one another in amazing

ways, making soil one of our planet’s most dynamic and important natural resources.

Soil is used by people in numerous ways. Because of this, it has many definitions. An

engineer may view soils as a material upon which infrastructure is built, while a

diplomat may refer to “soil” as a nation’s territory. From a soil scientist’s perspective,

soil is: The surface mineral and/or organic layer of the earth that has experienced

some degree of physical, biological and chemical weathering (Soil Science Society of

America, 2023).

Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization is a very common process for almost all the road projects.

Broadly, all types of soil stabilization can be classified into two groups, i.e.

mechanical stabilization and chemical stabilization. In mechanical stabilization, the

grading of a soil is changed by mixing it with other types of soils of different grades.

7
By doing so, a compacted soil mass can be achieved. On the other hand, chemical

stabilization is associated with the modification of soil properties by the addition of

chemically active materials. In soil stabilization, it is very important to understand the

material properties involved in the mixture and the outcome after mixing. Moreover,

it is important to find out how the material is going to perform after stabilization. At

the same time the effects of the process on the nearby structures and surrounding

conditions need to be evaluated. Accordingly, decisions can be taken on the selection

of materials and the corresponding doses. In addition to the selection of materials and

the doses there are many other factors governing the effectiveness of this method, e.g.

mixing and spreading, selection of roller, compaction layer thickness, compaction

effort, sequence of operation, curing, environmental and climatic conditions, etc. In

this chapter, the mechanical and different types of chemical stabilizations are

discussed (Patel, A. (2019).

Soil Problems on Road Pavement

When problem soils form part of pavement or bed layers, they may negatively

influence the performance of the pavement, if not appropriately addressed during the

design stage. This can be readily noted in the way they impede free vehicles’

movement. This effect is due to the pavement’s conspicuous changes in load-bearing

capacity with climatic changes, leading to pavement distress as a result of their

structural deformation. The variations of these soils’ load-bearing capacity, which

lead to pavement distress, are mainly related to these soils’ changes in moisture

content during the dry and wet seasons (Mwaipungu R. & Ahmed S. (2017).

The authors’ opinion is that further improvement of local prediction models

of problematic soils’ negative effects will come with an understanding of the key

8
roles played by soil characteristics in influencing negative behaviour. Performance

studies of soils under the interaction of traffic’s wheel loads and climatic changes will

further add to said improvement.

According to Mwaipungu and Ahmed, based on the method of deposition, soil

can be grouped into two major categories: residue and transported soils. Residue soils

were formed from the weathering of rocks and remain at the location of their origin.

Residue soils include particles of a wide range of sizes, shapes and compositions;

depending on the duration and type of weathering and the minerals in the parent rock.

Transported soils are those materials that have been moved from their place of origin.

The medium of transport could be: gravity, wind, water, glaciers or human activities.

Transported soils are often segregated according to size, during the transportation

process. The method of transportation and deposition has significant effects on the

resulting soil mass properties. The processes for soil deposition are still effective, to

date. Before embarking on pavement design, the type and condition of soil deposits

underlying the proposed road construction site must be reckoned with by the civil

engineers concerned (Mgangira and Green, 2008). through site investigation, which

aims to identify the soil’s composition, structure and characteristics. The structure and

characteristics of problematic soils (in this paper they shall also be known as

challenging soils) varies with the origin and type of soil, climate, location, and stress

history. All these variations influence the design, construction, and management of

road pavements; hence, those responsible for the design of pavement structures need

to take into consideration any in situ soil characteristics, in order to identify any

challenging soils and deal with them accordingly (Mwaipungu and Ahmed, 2017).

9
 Challenging soil in road construction is any soil having an effect on the

performance of a pavement due to induced stresses and strains following movements

caused by volume changes in the subgrade materials (Rogobete and Grozav, 2013).

It should be mandatory for the civil engineers involved with pavement design

to understand the type of soil under the road profile, their engineering composition

and their characteristics, prior to the use of the same for the optimal performance of

the pavement in question (Mwaipungu and Ahmed, 2017).

Soil Type in Misamis Occidental

It has an area of about 6,387.22 hectares or 3.29 per cent of the provincial area

of Misamis Occidental. The clay loam surface soil is light brown, columnar in

structure, slightly friable and moderately compact. It contains a fair amount of organic

matter (Abayon, 2013).

Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics refer to synthetic materials that are used in geotechnical and

civil engineering applications. These materials are specifically designed to provide

specific functions and improve the performance of geotechnical structures and

systems. Geosynthetics are typically made from polymeric materials such as

polypropylene, polyester, or polyethylene. There are eight different types of

geosynthetic materials produced (Koerner, 2005). Geo-composites, geogrids,

geofoam, geomembranes, geonets, geopipes, geotextiles, and geosynthetic clay liners.

A geocomposite consists of a combination of one or more geosynthetics, specifically

a geogrid, a geotextile, a geomembrane, and/or a geonet, with another material.

Geotextiles are used primarily for applications requiring separation, filtration,

10
reinforcement, and drainage. Geogrids are used as reinforcement to improve the

strength of soil or other materials. Geofoam is a lightweight, foamed polymeric

material (typically polystyrene) that is formed into large lightweight blocks, typically

on the order of 1 ± 0.25 m × 0.75 ± 0.25 m × 2.5 ± 0.5 m, for use as a replacement for

soil fill and/or as an insulator. Geonets are relatively thin, planar geosynthetics used

for drainage applications, whereas geopipes are buried plastic pipes used for drainage.

Geomembranes and geosynthetic clay liners are thin (~ 10 ± 5 mm), relatively

impervious geosynthetics that are used as barriers in containment applications for

waste disposal and in situ remediation. Geosynthetics have gained widespread use

only since about 1990, but their use in geoenvironmental engineering applications

involving liquid and waste containment has grown substantially in the last decade. A

detailed description of the properties, characteristics, and uses of each of these types

of geosynthetics can be found in Koerner, (2005).

Geosynthetics, including geotextiles, geogrids, erosion-control products,

geocells, geonets, and geomembranes, are commonly used in road systems for various

purposes. These materials play important roles in improving unpaved roads built on

soft subgrade soils and reducing reflective cracking in asphalt overlays. However,

there has been inconsistent terminology used in the technical literature regarding the

application of geosynthetics in roads. To address this issue, a proposed framework

aims to establish a consistent terminology for the design of roads with geosynthetics.

This framework takes into account that different geosynthetic functions are associated

with specific properties and that the application of geosynthetics in road projects

varies depending on the specific design goals. Each geosynthetic application can

involve one or multiple functions to enhance the mechanical and hydraulic

performance of roadways (Zornberg, 2017).

11
 Geosynthetics and its Applications

Materials made of geotextiles are generally used to reduce stresses and

deformations while also enhancing the bearing capacity and lifespan of underlying

layers. These geosynthetics are placed over compacted platforms and covered with a

protective material to be used between existing surfaces or frost protection layers.

Ensuring an adequate bearing capacity of the subbase is crucial during the

construction of roads on soft soils to prevent undesirable differential settlements in the

road structure. When the subsoil lacks sufficient bearing capacity, stabilization

measures are necessary. These measures can involve methods such as excavating the

soft material, utilizing chemical stabilization techniques using materials like chalk, or

employing geosynthetics. When geosynthetics are used in paved road structures with

an asphalt or concrete surface layer, it is important to consider their long-term

performance. The objective is to maintain the required bearing capacity on top of the

base throughout the entire lifespan of the road (Meyer and Elias, 1999).

Geogrid and Its Components

12
 Note. From “Polymer Geogrids: A Review of Material, Design and Structure

Relationships. Materials, 14(16), 4745 (https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164745)

Geogrids are plastics formed in a wide open, regular netlike structure,

purpose-developed for the reinforcement of soil. Geonets are produced by a

continuous extrusion of intersecting ribs that form a network structure, suitable for

liquid drainage. The most widely used polymer in the production of geogrids and

geonets is polyethylene; polyester and polypropylene are also used. The purpose of

geogrid is to retain or obtain the aggregates collectively. By using this method of

interlacing the aggregates facilitate in an earthwork that is settled mechanically. The

apertures in geogrid allow interlacing the aggregates or the soil arranged over them.

Many researchers have conducted laboratory studies for assessing the

interaction mechanism of soil and geosynthetics and have shown that the performance

of flexible pavement is enhanced by geosynthetic reinforcement through extending

their service life or decreasing the base course thickness. However, there is a lack of

comprehensive comparisons between different studies. This paper reviews laboratory

studies available in the literature and presents a review of the main contributions. This

literature review reveals that improvement of the performance due to the geosynthetic

reinforcement relates to various factors and variables, including geogrid stiffness and

geometry, geogrid location/depth, asphalt surface and aggregate thicknesses, and

subgrade stiffness. Based on synthesizing laboratory testing studies, a regression-

based formulation is proposed to predict the Granular Equivalent (GE) factor of

geogrid reinforcement of flexible pavements. The predictive model is robust as it

includes the key parameters mentioned above. This formula was developed from a

regression analysis by back calculating the variety of the results of the performed

13
experimental tests using the AASHTO1993 design method to evaluate the equivalent

base course thickness of reinforced sections compared to unreinforced sections. The

benefit of this study is realizing and understanding the structural benefits of geogrids

and applying GE factors to a pavement design to reduce the thickness of gravel and/or

asphalt and consequently extend the service life and reduce maintenance costs. It is

expected that the appropriate use of geogrids can be a significant cost saving per

project.

Geogrids have been widely used in the roadway construction as reinforcement

in pavement systems. Geogrids have been effective in practice for reducing rutting

damage,distributing traffic loads within the pavement foundation layers, increasing

the resilient modulus of base course, and stabilization effects on the subgrade layer.

Evaluating structural benefits of geogrids in the pavement structure depends on

factors such as geogrid stiffness, geogrid rib shape, the geogrid location, hot mix

asphalt thicknesses, base aggregate stiffness, thicknesses, and subgrade stiffness. This

research project is a comprehensive study of geogrid reinforcement of flexible

pavements and includes laboratory tests, field tests, and finite element simulations to

evaluate geogrid reinforcement advantages and GE gain factors in reinforced

pavements. The overall research methodology is proposed by a highly-qualified and

multi-disciplinary team with expertise in pavement foundations, geogrids, field, and

laboratory testing, construction, and cost analysis at Iowa State University (ISU),

Ingios Geotechnics incorporation, and technical advisory panel in MnDOT.

Geogrids are a class of geosynthetic materials made of polymer materials with

widespread transportation, infrastructure, and structural applications. Geogrids are

now routinely used in soil stabilization applications ranging from reinforcing walls to

14
soil reinforcement below grade or embankments with increased potential for remote-

sensing applications. Developments in manufacturing procedures have allowed new

geogrid designs to be fabricated in various forms of uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial

configurations. The design flexibility allows deployments based on the load-carrying

capacity desired, where biaxial geogrids may be incorporated when loads are applied

in both the principal directions. On the other hand, uniaxial geogrids provide higher

strength in one direction and are used for mechanically stabilized earth walls. More

recently, triaxial geogrids that offer a more quasi-isotropic load capacity in multiple

directions have been proposed for base course reinforcement. The variety of

structures, polymers, and the geometry of the geogrid materials provide engineers and

designers many options for new applications. Still, they also create complexity in

terms of selection, characterization, and long-term durability. In this review, advances

and current understanding of geogrid materials and their applications to date are

presented. A critical analysis of the various geogrid systems, their physical and

chemical characteristics are presented with an eye on how these properties impact the

short- and long-term properties. The review investigates the approaches to mechanical

behavior characterization and how computational methods have been more recently

applied to advance our understanding of how these materials perform in the field.

Finally, recent applications are presented for remote sensing sub-grade conditions and

incorporation of geogrids in composite materials.

15
Note. Retrieved from “Hegde, A. M., & Sitharam, T. G. (2015). Three-dimensional

numerical analysis of geocell-reinforced soft clay beds by considering the actual

geometry of geocell pockets. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 52(9), 1396-1407.”

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Properties-of-geocell-and-

geogrid_tbl1_273496544)

Biaxial Geogrid Design as Reinforcing Material

Biaxial Geogrid Biaxial (BX) geogrids are stretched in two directions, the

longitudinal and transverse, equally distributing stress along both directions. While

woven geogrids are still commercially available, extruded punched-and-drawn

geogrids made of polypropylene are the most deployed among biaxial geogrids.

Providing the geogrid with the ability to distribute loads over a wider area than usual

while increasing its capacity in base stabilization applications. Biaxial geogrids are

best for applications such as foundations for roadbeds, railroad truck beds, permanent

16
unpaved roads, airport runways, construction haul roads, working platforms on weak

subgrades, and parking lots (Creative, 2021).

Note. Retrieved from Biaxial geogrid for base and soil reinforcement.

(n.d.).(https://www.geogridfabric.com/geogrid/biaxial-geogrid.html)

Comparison of Biaxial to other types of geogrid

Biaxial geogrids, characterized by their bidirectional grid structure, possess

strength in both horizontal directions, whereas uniaxial geogrids primarily offer

strength in a single direction. In contrast, triaxial geogrids, a relatively new concept,

exhibit inferior performance in soil reinforcement compared to biaxial geogrids. The

enhanced lateral confinement of granular material within the apertures of biaxial

geogrids has been identified as a key factor contributing to their superior

performance, as evidenced by numerous laboratory and field trials. Triangular

geogrids with additional ribs exhibit lower tensile stresses, making them less effective

in reinforcing pavements, particularly flexible pavements (Global Synthetics, 2023).

17
Biaxial vs Uniaxial

The bidirectional grid structure of biaxial geogrids enables them to possess

significant strength in two directions, while uniaxial geogrids primarily provide

strength in one direction (along the roll length) and offer minimal strength in the other

direction, which is necessary to support the open aperture structure (Tensar, 2021).

Biaxial vs Triaxial

Biaxial geogrids have been widely used for many years in reinforcing

pavements, as well as in constructing ballast and capping layers for road and railway

projects. In more recent times, a new approach utilizing triangular apertures was

introduced as a potentially improved method for soil reinforcement. However,

subsequent independent laboratory and field trials, such as the comprehensive full-

scale trial conducted by Montana State University and the US Department of

Transportation (DOT) in 2014, as well as the full-scale trial conducted by Technical

University Clausthal in Germany in 2016, demonstrated that the performance of

biaxial geogrids was superior. These trials provided substantial evidence supporting

the effectiveness of biaxial geogrids over the concept of triangular apertures. In the

conducted trials, the test sections reinforced with triaxial geogrids exhibited notably

weaker performance compared to other sections. This outcome is in line with

expectations. The primary mechanism behind the reinforcement of geogrid-supported

pavements, particularly flexible pavements, relies on the lateral confinement of the

granular material. This confinement is primarily achieved through the interlocking of

granular particles within the apertures of the geogrid. It should be noted that triangular

geogrids, due to their increased rib count, result in reduced tensile forces experienced

18
by each rib. This reduction in tensile forces is a contributing factor to the inferior

performance observed with triangular geogrids (Global Synthetics, 2023).

Physical and Geometric Characteristics of Geogrid

The properties of a geogrid are contingent upon the geometric configuration

and material characteristics employed during its manufacturing process. The

mechanical properties are notably influenced by the grid's geometry, encompassing

the size of the apertures, the percentage of open area, and the thickness. The aperture

size must be sufficiently large to facilitate the penetration and interlocking of the

geogrid with the aggregate and soil. This interlock mechanism is vital in achieving the

desired composite behavior necessary for soil stabilization. The typical percentage of

open area for a geogrid is around 50%. The grid thickness pertains to both the rib and

junction dimensions, both of which should possess ample thickness and rigidity to

enable the infiltration of surrounding soil, stone, or other geotechnical materials. It is

worth noting that the geogrid junctions typically exhibit greater thickness compared to

the ribs (Carrol, 1998).

In order to fulfill the design and serviceability requirements, the physical

properties of the geogrid, including creep behavior, tensile modulus, junction strength,

and flexural rigidity (ASTM D7748), are crucial factors of consideration (Berg and

Bonaparte, 1993).

Conventional Geogrid

Plastic polymer geogrids, which are composed of synthetic materials derived

from non-renewable resources such as petroleum (Müller and Saathoff, 2015), have

associated environmental concerns due to their production and disposal, leading to

19
waste generation and pollution. Despite efforts to explore more environmentally

friendly alternatives, plastic geogrids still have adverse environmental impacts.

Geogrids, a specific type of geosynthetic material, possess the ability to interlock with

granular or soil materials placed above them. These geosynthetic materials exhibit

notable tensile strength, a characteristic used for classification based on their

resistance to tension. The open apertures in geogrids allow for material confinement,

enhancing the shear strength of the overlying granular fill. A study conducted by

Tensar International and Geopier Foundation Company highlighted the high tensile

strength exhibited by geogrids, representing their maximum load capacity without

experiencing performance degradation. Another significant physical property of

geogrids is their ability to uniformly distribute loads in a complete 360-degree range

without undergoing elastic deformation, known as radial stiffness.

In the realm of geogrids, the elastic modulus is a fundamental physical

property primarily associated with their stiffness characteristics, rather than their

performance in typical applications. In reinforced soil applications, particularly in the

construction of retaining walls and slope reinforcement, the long-term design strength

of geogrids plays a pivotal role. These applications involve the incorporation of

geosynthetic materials, including geogrids, within the fill material to establish the

final structure. The physical characteristics of geogrids exhibit variations based on

their intended applications. However, it is important to acknowledge that many of the

commonly used physical properties in the industry for evaluating geogrid

performance are not applicable for this purpose.

20
Introduction of Eco-Fibers

Natural fibers are becoming more popular due to their biodegradability, low

cost, renewable nature, abundance, and environmental friendliness (Bichang'a et al.,

2022). Bichang’a et. al stated that the majority of natural fibers are extracted from

plants using a variety of techniques, such as mechanical extraction, chemical retting,

water retting, and others. Natural fibers are extracted from plant parts including the

stem, leaf, and fruit. Additionally, the natural plant fibers, sometimes referred to as

cellulosic fibers, have a chemical makeup that includes pectin, lignin, cellulose,

hemicellulose, wax, and other volatile compounds. Depending on the species,

environmental factors, age, and growing site, different plants have different amounts

of these chemical compounds in their cellulose fibers. Lignin and other non-cellulosic

elements may change the properties of natural plant fibers. The type of plant fiber,

growing circumstances, and structural strength are just a few of the variables that

determine the mechanical properties of natural plant fibers (Bichang'a et al., 2022).

Musa acuminata “Lakatan Banana”

Banana (Musa acuminate) is a popular fruit worldwide due to its flavor,

texture, nutritional value, and convenience of being easy to peel and eat (Bautista-

Baños et. al, 2016). Lakatan banana is a variety of banana that is widely grown in the

Philippines, especially in Mindanao. It’s known for its sweet taste and distinct flavor,

making it a favorite among locals and tourists alike. Compared to other varieties like

Cavendish, Lakatan bananas are shorter and plumper with thicker skin. They’re also

more fragrant than their counterparts. The color of ripe Lakatan bananas varies from

light yellow to deep orange, depending on how much time they’ve spent ripening on

the tree. These bananas typically grow up to 8-9 inches long and have an average

21
weight of 120 grams each. One thing that sets them apart from other types of fruit is

that they can be eaten when fully ripe or cooked while still green (Masa, 2023).

Musa acuminata Phytochemistry

The phytochemical analysis of different parts of Musa acuminata such as fruit,

peel, flower, leaf, pseudostem, and rhizome has shown the presence of a rich diversity

of phytochemicals like saponins, terpenoids, steroids, anthocyanins, fatty acids,

tannins, phenols, and alkaloids. Phytochemicals content is reported to vary with the

extraction method employed, and compounds identified in various plant parts of Musa

acuminata (Jiwan and Tasleem, 2018). Plants continue to be an important source of

bioactive compounds and involve a multidisciplinary approach combining

ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and biological techniques to provide new chemical

compounds. The presence of bioactive compounds like apigenin glycosides, myricetin

glycoside, myricetin3-O-rutinoside, naringenin glycosides, kaempferol-3-Orutinoside,

dopamine, N-acetyl serotonin, and rutin, has been reported in different species of

Musa (Pothavorn et al., 2010).

Banana Fibers

Banana fibers, which are concentrated near the outer surface, are extracted by

hand scraping, chemically, by retting, or using raspadors. They can also be extracted

by boiling leaf sheaths in sodium hydroxide solution. Hand-stripped fibers are

generally of better quality than those obtained by raspador. During the monsoon the

stalks are usually plentiful. The extraction of the fiber from the stripped leaf sheath

cut to a size of 0.3–0.4 m long and 0.07 m wide is done by hand scraping using 0.15

m long blunt blades on a soft wooden plank. The pith is then removed continuously

22
until the fibers appear clean. Fresh pseudostems yield fibers which are 1.5% of the

pseudostem weight (Chand and Fahim, 2008). Tuba et al. stated that, recommended

use of the banana fiber as soon as possible after decorticating to sustain its strength,

otherwise it will be brittle if it is used for a much longer time.

Fiber Lamination

The utilization of environmentally friendly resources is currently made

possible by the development of technology; in particular, resources derived from

plants are sustainable and have ecological benefits. Due to their eco-friendly

characteristics, natural fiber composites are becoming more and more popular.

Banana fibers, an easily available natural fiber made from the bark of banana plants,

are used in this work to strengthen the composite material. Furthermore, one

technique for laminating uses epoxy resin. According to Mital et al. (2016), epoxy

resin is a multipurpose polymer that is robust, long-lasting, and resilient. It contains

no volatile chemicals, is electrically insulating, and is resistant to moisture and

chemical attack. They can be pressure-free heat-cured or room-temperature-cured

using curing chemicals. They can stick to almost any surface, including metal, glass,

wood, and organic materials. The banana fibers shrink very little or not at all after

curing. Banana fibers are separated from banana peels, treated with 5% NaOH, and

then cut to a length of around 30 mm on average. Epikote 240 epoxy resin is applied

to banana fiber in the following mass percentages: 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%. The

outcomes were assessed using SEM, mechanical traits, fire resistance, and thermal

properties. The testing results showed that the tensile, compressive, and impact

strengths of biosynthetic materials increased by up to 20% by weight in comparison to

epoxy raw. Flame retardant and thermal properties are preserved when 20% banana

23
fiber is used; a limiting oxygen index of 20.8% and sufficient thermal stability are

reached.

Banana Fiber Optimization Result

Note: Retrieved from PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS ON THE CHARACTERISTIC OF

LAMINATED TWINED BANANA FIBER AS AN ECO-GEOGRID p. 61

Apiag et. al showed the optimization results for all the data indicating that the

epoxy component, within the range of 3.5-4.2, along with a fiber weight ratio of

22.5% and an alkali treatment duration of 0 hours, have the greatest influence on

maximizing the strength of twine banana fiber. This combination yields a strain range

value of 0.11-0.29.

Fiber Length

According to Venkateshwaran (2011), literature demonstrated that the

characteristics of composites are influenced by both fiber length and composition. By

accurately predicting the ideal fiber length and composition, it becomes possible to

create composites with superior mechanical properties. The American Society for

Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards prescribe the testing of tensile strength,

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flexural strength, and impact strength, as well as assessing the water absorption

capacity of the composite. The surfaces of fragmented specimens are analyzed using a

scanning electron microscope. Utilizing banana fiber as a reinforcement in an epoxy

matrix has proven to be an effective approach.

The increase in fiber length resulted in an increase in the modulus of elasticity.

The maximum values of the modulus of elasticity were observed at a fiber weight

fraction of 30%, regardless of the fiber length, after which there was a significant

decrease. Specifically, at a fiber weight fraction of 30%, the maximum modulus of

elasticity was 4.97 GPa for fiber lengths ranging from 10-30mm, and 3.98 GPa for

fiber lengths ranging from 1-6mm. These results highlight the significant impact of

fiber length on the modulus of elasticity. It is evident that there exists a critical fiber

length for each type of fiber that plays a crucial role in controlling the transfer of

stress from the fiber to the matrix. Additionally, Ekhlas A. (2013), found that at a

fiber length of 10-30mm, the tensile strength increases with an increase in fiber

weight fraction.

Fiber Diameter

The diameter of banana fibers can range from 3mm to 4mm, depending on the

desired length and the corresponding fiber weight range for different fiber weight

ratios. In contrast, the diameter of laminated banana fibers varies from 4.8000mm to

5.0000mm.

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Tests on the Actual Fabricated Geogrid

CBR (California Bearing Ratio)

According to the study of Serin, S., & Gönül, V. E. (2023) demonstrated the

significant improvement in the load-bearing capacity of geogrid samples that were

reinforced with natural jute fibers. In comparison to control samples, it was observed

that the geogrids containing natural fibers demonstrated a significant enhancement in

bearing strength. Specifically, a 39.7% increase in bearing strength was observed for a

CBR value of 2.5 mm , while a more substantial increase of 48.5% was observed for a

CBR value of 5 mm. In addition, it was observed that the utilization of bitumen-

coated jute fiber geogrids resulted in a significant enhancement in bearing capacity.

Specifically, the geogrids exhibited a notable increase of 17.8% and 22.4% in bearing

capacity for CBR values of 2.5 mm and 5 mm, respectively. In the study conducted, it

was observed that the implementation of basalt geogrids resulted in notable

enhancements. Specifically, the CBR values particle sizes of 5 mm and 2.5 mm

exhibited improvements of 6.68% and 5.05% respectively, when compared to the

control samples. These findings suggest that the utilization of basalt geogrids can

positively impact the performance and stability of the tested materials.

Pull-out Test

The purpose of pull-out testing is typically to evaluate the anchoring or pull-

out strength of geosynthetics. This capability is critical in applications where the

geosynthetic is anchored into stable ground that is outside the zone of failure, such as

retaining walls, slopes, and bridging over voids. The test can also be used to evaluate

26
the stiffness and shear resistance of the interface in situations where the soil is moving

in relation to the geosynthetic, such reinforced roads (Collin, 2007).

The test is carried out using the equipment seen in Fig. 1 and detailed in

ASTM D6706. 2.3, where the dimensions indicated are the minimum sizes and may

need to be increased based on the geosynthetic's structure, the soil's particle size, and

any side-wall friction-reduction measures. A response frame and the top of the soil are

positioned between an airbag to achieve normal stress confinement. Where the

geosynthetic enters the box from the front, a sleeve that reaches a minimum of 150

mm inside the box is installed. The sleeve's function is to lessen the natural stress

created along the box's front wall as the geosynthetic is drawn out. Applied pull-out

load, horizontal displacement of the geosynthetic's front, and horizontal displacement

of the geosynthetic at various points along the material's length are the usual

measurements made during testing. The latter is achieved by using a telltale, which is

made up of a shielded wire connecting to the geosynthetic's measuring point and

extending out from the box's back where it is connected to a displacement-sensing

device. Calculating the pull-out resistance or anchoring capacity involves dividing the

line load, which represents the force required to cause pull-out, by the specimen's

width. The friction angle at the geosynthetic-soil interface divided by the friction

angle of the soil itself is used to calculate the interaction coefficient, which is a

common use of this force. It is crucial that a sufficiently substantial displacement

occurs along the whole embedment length of the geosynthetic so that the ultimate

shearing resistance is fully mobilized in order to perform the calculations indicated

above. This might not be the case, in which case the test must be viewed as a

boundary-value problem for which a number of solutions have been proposed (Juran

et. al).

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Rut Depth

Vehicle weight, running gear settings, and other factors influence how deep

ruts are (Braunack and Williams, 1993). Vehicle speed (Horn et al., 1989) and type of

movement, such as turning or straight travel (Liu et al., 2009), will also affect rut

formation in addition to the number of vehicle passes. According to Stevens et al.

(2016), one important factor in estimating off-road trafficability is soil moisture.

According to Lal and Shukla (2004), soils are most easily compacted when their water

content is close to that of plastic limit and shear strength is at its lowest. When soil

moisture is high, deeper ruts are typically detected (Liu et al., 2010). The amount of

ruts also depends on the soil's organic matter concentration and texture. Saarilahti

(2002) claimed that rut formation on frictional and cohesive soils develops differently

based on research by Meek (1996).

Tensile Strength

Abdullah et al. (2006) found that several factors can influence the performance

of composites reinforced with natural fibers. These factors include the hydrophilic

nature of the fibers, the amount of fibers and fillers used, and the choice of processing

parameters. Increasing the fiber content in the composites generally leads to improved

tensile characteristics, so having a significant amount of fiber is important for good

performance. The selection of appropriate processing techniques and parameters is

also crucial for producing high-quality composite products.

In a study by Benini et al. (2013), banana peel lignocellulosic fibers were

treated with water to enhance their compatibility with a polymeric matrix. The

researchers compared the properties of these washed fibers with unwashed fibers. The

washed banana fibers were then mixed with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and

28
processed into specimens for tensile testing. Tensile tests and thermal analysis were

performed to evaluate the washed banana fiber/HDPE composites. The water

treatment effectively removed extractives from the fibers and increased their surface

roughness, resulting in enhanced thermal stability. However, the thermal stability of

the composites decreased overall when washed banana fibers were added, although

the melting and crystallization temperatures increased. Compared to pure HDPE, the

incorporation of 5% fiber content improved the mechanical properties of the

composites.

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