Structural Failure – Builders’ Perspective

1.0 Introduction
In recent times there have been an upsurge in the number of buildings failing and collapsing out
rightly including buildings where people congregate, other forms of completed building and
buildings under construction. Unfortunately, many lives are being lost in these occurrences and
where there are very few fatalities, a large number of people are often at the risk of losing one thing
or the other. These collapses, when quantified, constitute a great loss to the country in terms of
physical, human and material resources. Hence, the need to emphasize the importance of design
and construction of buildings in such a way that their structural stability, safety and serviceability
will not be impaired by use, misuse or deterioration. This paper therefore discusses what constitutes
structural failure of building structures. It goes further to discuss the various influencing factors
and the consideration that reinforce the vital importance of structural stability of building structures.
Summarily, we shall be concerned with the behaviour of structures under load as far as that
behaviour affects the safety of the structures itself and of the persons using it.

2.0 Definition of Some Key Terms

A structure is that which carries loads and transfers the loads from the point of load application to
the point of load support.

Building Structure
A building is essentially a space that is protected from the natural environment and is constructed
for a specific use. Structures are part of a building and cannot be conceived in isolation but must be
conceived as part of the whole design – architectural, structural, services, etc. The structure of the
building is therefore that part of the building construction which gives the construction sufficient
strength to withstand the loads to which the whole building is subjected. A building structure does
this by carrying the load imposed on it and transferring them safely to the foundations and hence,
into the ground. Thus, every part of a building structure is a structure. There is no correct structure
as alternatives always exist. However, once the chosen structure is able to fulfil its performance
requirements then it becomes the correct structures.

A builder is a person who has appropriate academic training in the science, technology and
management process of producing and maintaining building and is statutorily registered by the
Council of Registered Builders of Nigeria (CORBON).

Loads
The loads a building structure has to withstand are usually classified as follows:
a) Dead Load: This is the load due to the weight of the structure itself. Examples are the
weights of the structural elements, plumbing fixtures, air-conditioning fixtures and other
forms of mechanical and electrical equipment.

1
 b) Live or Imposed Load: This represents the load of other materials (which may be transient
or mobile in nature). Examples are the weights of people and movable objects within a
building, temporary partitions, etc.
Wind Load is another type of load frequently encountered in building. It is the impact of the local
wind on the structure. Its effect is horizontal while that of live and dead loads are in most cases,
vertical. The wind speed is converted to force and the effect on the structure analysed. This is
common with all structures especially tall buildings and masts. Wind load can also be combined
with both the dead and live loads.
Structural Failure can be defined as loss of the load-carrying capacity of a component or member
within a structure or of the structure itself. It can also be defined as the inability of a structure or
structural member to perform its intended function. Structural failure is initiated when the material
in a structure is stressed to its strength limit, thus causing fracture or excessive deformations.

2.1 Basic Functional Requirements of a Building Structure

The basic requirements that a structure must satisfy may be summarised thus:
a) Each and every member of a structural system should be able to resist without failure
or collapse, the applied loads under service conditions. In other words, it must possess
adequate strength. This demands that the materials of the structure must be adequate to
resist the stresses generated by the loads and shape and size of the structure must be
adequate. A measure of the ability of a material of a structure or the structure itself to
resist stress without fracturing or failing is called its strength.
b) Every component of the structure should be able to resist deformation under loading
conditions. Deformation implies a change in size or shape when a body is subjected to
stress. Excessive deformations that is deformations exceeding specified acceptable limits
will impair the functional performance of a structure and any attached services. This
demands that the component should possess adequate stiffness. Thus, the stiffness of a
beam or column is a measure of its resistance to bending or buckling. It should be
noted that a component may be strong and not stiff and vice-versa. A material or
structure that is very strong but lacking in stiffness will so much deform that it will not be
able to resist the applied loads. For example, a floor slab that is strong but not stiff may
deflect excessively under load and may cause discomfort to the occupants, a situation that is
not acceptable, or cause cracking of attached finishes (e.g. tiles). Thus, the safe
performance of a structure requires that it should be strong and stiff.
c) Every component of a structure must be stable, otherwise the whole structure is
assumed to be unstable. Structural stability is needed to maintain shape. It is the ability
of a structure to retain, under load, its original state of equilibrium. It can mean
anything from resistance to a minor degree of movement to resistance to sliding,
overturning, partial or complete collapse. Any phenomenon (which will be a potential
source of load) that can alter the load carrying behaviour of a structure if not properly taken
care of can lead to instability, a condition in which the support reaction is less than applied
load. Thus to ensure stability loads must be balanced by reactions and the moments due to
reactions. We therefore conclude that an unstable structure implies unbalanced forces,
hence, once a net force is acting there will be a lack of equilibrium and a resultant
acceleration of the structure or its component.

2
 It should be noted that a structure may become unstable at certain load levels which are safe
for strength and stiffness requirements. For example a long thin (or slender) member upon
being subjected to compressive loading may collapse through buckling if the load exceeds a
certain critical value. From the foregoing, it becomes obvious that the concept of a safe
structure is a function of the strength, stiffness and stability of the structure the latter
three being like man’s spirit soul and body that exist differently, yet cannot be separated
from one another.

2.2 Safety of Building Structures and Role of Structural Design

A building structure will be judged to be safe if it is stiff, stable and strong. BS8110 states that
the aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability that structures being
designed will perform satisfactorily during their intended life. Designing a structure is the act of
positioning constituent elements and formulating interrelations with the objective of imparting a
desired character to the resultant structural entity. The notion that elements are positioned and that
relationship exist among these elements are basic to the concept of designing a structure.
A structure is therefore safe if it is able to withstand all the loads applied on it during its
lifespan. If it continues to serve the functions for which it was designed (that is, if it is
serviceable), and does so to the satisfaction of its users and owner, without causing danger or undue
discomfort to the general public and in the extreme case without collapsing. BS8110 requires that a
structure must not reach a limit state. There are two Limit States – namely the Ultimate Limit State
and the Serviceability Limit State. The former is the most critical limit state for most building
structures and it includes the limit states of collapse, overturning and buckling, all of which have to
do with structural stability, strength and stiffness of the structure. The serviceability limit state
include, among others, the limit states of deflection, cracking and vibration.
The goal of structural design is to ensure that the structure designed and constructed is able
to safely sustain and transmit all the loads and deformations of normal construction from the
highest supported level to the foundations. The various interaction variables are:
 Use of suitable structural materials of adequate stiffness, strength, durability and resistance
to effects of misuse and fire
 Proper choice of structural form
 Correct structural conception
 Adequate design and detailing of members and connections or joints
 Adequate quality control
 Good supervision
At all times, it should be borne in mind that structural design does never aim at perfect safety,
rather it is concerned with assessing degrees of safety measured in some cases by the probability
and costs of failure during the life of the structure.

3
3.0 BEHAVIOUR OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
There are certain basic concepts that provide aid to understanding the overall behaviour of any
structural system. Once, these concepts are taken care of, one is sure of the overall stability of the
structure.
These basic ideas are:
a) A structure is subjected to loads/forces
b) A structure is an assembly of elements. An understanding of the behaviour of the structural
elements is essential to the understanding of the behaviour of the whole structural form.
c) The load path for each load should be identified. Besides the load path geometry should be
established.
d) The building geometric knowledge is important
e) Correct choice of materials and elements
f) Efficient design of connections and joints
g) Interaction of the building structure with the overall building construction

3.1 Conceptual Load Paths

The load path joins the load from its point of application to the final support point. Certain things
are obvious here
a) All loads must have a load path from their point of application to the final support.
The designer of a building structure must be able to identify load path for each load – the
load path is what carries the load, that is, it is the structure for the load it is transferring.
Thus, the definition of the structure will vary for each load in other words there are usually
different structures resisting the different loads identifying the sequence of structural actions
in the load path is synonymous with determining now the load is carried.
b) All the load paths must be completed from the highest supported level to the
foundation. Such paths must not be interrupted by non-structural requirements
- Incomplete load paths leads to structural instability.
Further questions could be asked. For example, is the structure capable of withstanding
accidental loads? Could local carriage to any component or connection caused by accident
or deterioration endanger the stability of the whole structure? Thus two other factors in
relation to load path concepts come into view.
c) The layout and planning of the structure should be done such that damage to a small
area of the building structure should not lead to collapse of major parts of the
structure. BS8110 recommends that for five or more storey buildings. Key elements
should be identified within the layout of the building. A key element is that the failure of
which would cause collapse of more than a limited portion close to the element in
question.
d) Generally, for all building structures the concept of multiple independent load paths should
be adopted so that the building is resistant to the effects of local damage and over load.
However, this should be minimized.
3.2 Structural Actions of Structural Elements
Structures are usually conceived and designed as assemblies of structural elements. This means the
structural behaviour can be quantified by considering the behaviour of each structural element in
each load path. A structural element carries the load on it to an adjoining structural element by a

4
system of bending moment, shear force and axial forces acting in one, two or three directions,
depending on the nature of the structural element.
Conceptual load paths give no information about the actual geometry of the load paths. The
geometry of the load path will determine the type of structural behaviour of the load path – beam,
frame, truss or funicular behaviour. Other structural elements include slabs, arches, cables and
columns. The choice of load path geometry depends on many other aspects of building design
– use, economics, aesthetics, planning laws, etc. The structural designer must be aware of what
type of structural behaviour will result from the chosen load path geometry.

Beams
These are horizontal structural members carrying lateral loads which cause bending and shearing in
them. A beam breadth is very small relative to the span (that is a slender beam) will also be subject
to buckling. Besides the presence of large eccentric applied loads can cause twisting to the beams.
Bending of flexural stresses are critical in accounting for the depth of a beam.

Slabs
They are horizontal plate elements subject to lateral loads that cause bending in them. Bending
stresses are the basic determining factors in the estimation of the depth of a slab. Since both
concrete beams and slabs are primarily subject flexure, they are classified as flexural members.

Columns
A column is a vertical member primarily carrying axial load but may be subject to a combination of
axial load and bending moment. A column that is subject to large compressive force such that its
resistance to such applied loads become ineffective is said to be overloaded.
When overloaded, a short column will fail by crushing while a long column will fail by buckling or
crippling. A column usually will buckle along the plane that is least able to resist the crippling
load. This is usually the plan dimension of the column. Thus, the plan size of a column will
determine by buckling consideration. A column can be internal or external in a building. It can
also occupy the corner of a building.

Walls
A wall is a vertical plate element subject to vertical concentric (axial), lateral or in-plane loads.
The wall may support floor beams. Consequently, such a bearing wall will be required to support
or carry axial loads which result from the reaction of the floor beams. A bearing wall may in
addition, be required to resist lateral loads from wind or earthquake forces. Shear wall are capable
of resisting both lateral loads and in-plane loads.
Since columns and bearing walls carry primarily large compressive loads, they are classified as
compression members. At points of instability, these members are usually out of plumb – they bow
out.

5
3.3 Structural Geometry
Each part of a structure must have a shape or form. Stability is a measure of the ability of a
structure to maintain its designed structural geometry. The bigger a building is the more the
geometry of the total structure becomes critical in determining the building is response to the loads
on it. The ability of a structure to maintain its designed structural geometry is affected more by the
relative stiffness and flexibility of structural components and their connections than by the stiffness
and strength of the structural materials themselves.
If the relative stiffness of large components and sub-assemblies with an overall structural system
are not compatible, the structure may suffer distress from differential movements. At the same
time, excessive flexibility of the overall structure or its major components invalidates the geometric
assumptions made in the design e.g. that compression members remain straight or that plane trusses
have no lateral movements.

3.4 Choice of Materials

(i) For any structure, all the elements that make up each load path must be strong enough to
resist the internal structural actions caused by the loads. The stresses in the structural
elements that are in the load path must be less than the maximum stress allowed for the
structural material being used.
(ii) The structural material must be compatible with the structural form
(iii) To ensure stability of the structure, the choice of materials which are resistant to the
effects of time and weathering should be used. If the structural material is not durable and
not of the right quality there will be deterioration in structural strength such that failure
occurs under normal loads.
3.4.1 Significance of Strength of Materials
The strength of a component is defined as it ability to resist applied force. This section will be
discussed with respect to reinforced concrete that is commonly used in building construction. With
regard to concrete for structural purposes, it is taken as the stress required to cause rupture.
Rupture may be caused by applied tensile stress (failure in cohesion), by applied shearing (sliding)
stress or by compressive (crushing) stress. Thus we talk of tensile strength, shearing strength and
compressive strength of materials and components.
Another important property of reinforced concrete is bond with reinforcement. This has to do
with the resistance to slipping of the steel reinforcing bars, which are embedded in concrete. Such
resistance is provided by adhesion of the hardened pasted by friction and by bearing of the lugs of
the deformed bars.
Bond strength at the initial stages of failure (slip) depends largely on the magnitude and uniformity
of lateral pressure that exist or may be developed between steel and surrounding concrete. Bond
strength varies considerably with type of cement and water-cement ratio both of which influence
the quality of the paste.
It has been discovered that for concrete to be classified as good, it must have a satisfactory
compressive strength in the hardened state. Strength is invariable specified because it is easy to
measure and it is a measure of the intrinsic quality of the concrete in the structure. The same goes
for most other materials. Thus strength is an easy way of ascertaining compliance with the
specification and sort out contractual obligations. However, it is important to understand that, so

6
far as you control is concerned, the results of strength tests have meaning only to the extent that
they measure success in attaining qualities. In other words, after writing out material specifications,
job quality control and continual monitoring are very important during construction. This calls for
the continual presence of a resident building manager, i.e. a Professional Builder on site, acting for
the client who will serve as the quality and production control specialist for the client on the site.

3.5 Element Connections

Research has shown that the second largest cause of structural failures is defective detail
design of the joints between members. Hence, the importance of sound connection design cannot
be over emphasized. To ensure stability, the integrity of the connections must not be in doubt. The
manner in which forces are transferred from one structural element to the next and how a structural
system performs as a whole depend to a great extent on the types and construction of joints and
connections used. The connections must be complete and the bearing surfaces adequate. Where
there is a correct design, the construction may not conform to the design assumptions, hence
resulting in a weak, unstable structure.
Choosing the position and types of joints is part of the process of conceiving structures. The
structural designer has to introduce joints to allow the transport and erection of the different
structural elements. What structural behaviour these joints need is determined by how the structure
is expected to behave at the joint positions and the practical considerations of the joint details.

3.6 Structures and Building Construction

The structure should be planned in such a way that it is compatible with other aspects of the
building design. For examples, where openings are to be created in beams, floors and columns to
accommodate services, that should be taken care of in the design. For example, introduction of a
floor duct in a floor will change the reinforcement pattern around the duct area.

4.0 CAUSES OF BUILDING FAILURES

In discussing the issue of building failure/collapse, distinction must be made between buildings
which fail during construction or within the service life and to those that fail after the service life
(usually 25years). The collapse that usually causes the greatest stir is that which occurs under
construction or shortly thereafter.
Let us now examine some of the causes which include but not limited to
a) Poor quality management
b) Structural design incompetence
c) Structure overload
d) Incompetent field production process
These four issues can be further broken down to smaller units. For example, under (b) we can have
issues as inadequate assessment of load, conditions of use, process of fabrication, etc. Regardless of
the hair splitting division done for the purposes of this paper, the four can be treated under two
headings, namely structural design and quality management.

7
4.1 Structural Design
Correct structural design is significant for all buildings but exceptionally essential for tall buildings.
Even a slight probability of failure is not acceptable since the results can be disastrous for human
life and property. Therefore, structural engineers are required to be exceptionally careful and
methodical in ensuring an appropriate building design that can sustain the applied loads. All failure
modes need to be examined by using modern software on the subject. However, a designer cannot
be wholly confident about the design and therefore an appropriate factor of safety is recommended
for the design calculations.

4.2 Quality Management

The need for stringent quality control in material utilization within the construction industry in
Nigeria today cannot be over emphasized. The neglect of quality control in the construction
industry has resulted in many defective and ugly looking buildings and the rise in the number of
collapse building in the past two decades. A number of factors influence the quality achieved in the
Nigerian Construction Industry.
These are as follows:
a) Material variability
b) Testing variability
c) Judgment factor
d) Contractors variability
e) Poorly skilled workmen
f) Unprofessional conduct
4.2.1 Material Variability
This involves the difficulty the contractor experiences in consistently obtaining and/or producing
good quality materials as well as the ability of the client’s representative to understand the correct
control values or make the necessary computation in the field. It goes further into the inability of
manufacturers to make products of the same sizes and specified quality at all times. Blocks that are
of the same sizes and the samples of sharp sand were collected from eight block-making factories in
Ile-Ife. The results of the tests revealed use of sub-standard materials and wide variability in the
materials quality. Importers and exporters also contribute to this material variability by importing
materials of inferior quality through the borders. Each time there is an increase in price of cement
or steel, a series of buildings usually collapse. Concrete blocks often become sand block, while
efforts are made to employ 12mm rods where 20 to 25mm had been designed. Many times
manufacturers reduce the x-section of components in order to increase profits by passing off 10mm
as 12mm or 17mm rods as 19mm. Structural design is based on resistance across the x-section and
1mm reduction could affect area resistance, particularly when combined with increased spacing or
positioning their designed. Professional Builders will see all these and reject sub-standard materials,
if he is employed and is on site to monitor other tricks of the charlatan contractor.

4.2.2 Testing Variability

This involves the difficulty of the builder to produce or interpret field test results. It is often that
many builders present on the field are usually no more than Clerk of Works put there by the
architect to record the daily operations. The man himself is usually a novice and has no technical

8
capability for the work he is doing. It is like asking a clerk to do the work of a senior executive
officer, he will be out of this depth.

4.2.3 Judgement Factor

Deals with human errors in knowing whether a product meet the required specifications. There are
general field tests of squeezing, feeling, dropping as well as physical tests of crushing, cutting, or
non-destructive testing.

4.2.4 Contractor Variability

This is the difficulty a client or his representative experiences on large-scale projects in having all
the contractors produced uniform standards of materials and workmanship. The house that
collapsed at Lekki Garden is one of the series being constructed in the Estate. Were not for this
variability, either all the buildings on the estate would collapse or they will all remain standing
which they did not.

4.2.5 Poorly Skilled Workmen

The good old days of Public Works Department (PWD) filtered into the production of even private
houses in terms of the skills of workmen. Currently, the crop of workmen through trade and
technical schools of the olden days. Even those who went through apprenticeship training are no
better than their masters. Poor workmen skill makes it difficult or impossible for workers to
perceive and apply the concepts of quality control and limits of tolerance for building production.

4.2.6 Unprofessional Conduct

This is the national cankerworm of the egunje syndrome which has permeated the total national
fabric and involves improper demands made on contractors payments before certifying quality test
results (even when they satisfy specifications) payment certificates, additional works obtain
payments, etc. Such unprofessional conduct inevitably force increases in the cost of contractors
production which he must recover somehow, to stay in business.

5.0 SUMMARY OF CAUSES OF INTABILITY IN BUILDING SRUCTURE

Collapse of a building can be gradual (plastic failure) or sudden (brittle failure). From the
foregoing, the main causes of structural instability are explained below.
1. Incorrect assessment of loading
2. Adoption of a structural layout and planning which is not suitable for the building to be
constructed. Such layout usually fails to identify the key elements in the building structure.
The overall arrangement of the structure should be correct, stable and robust.
3. Incomplete load paths lead to instability. Errors in design calculations and detailing. This
will result in weak structures. To avoid instability, all calculations and detailing should be
thoroughly checked. All code requirement such as cover for reinforcement, minimum
thickness for fire resistance, minimum and maximum bar areas and spacing, lap lengths, etc
should be adhered to in order to control undesirable cracking. Movement and expansion
9
 joints should be provided every thirty metres, measured horizontally in continuous
structures.
4. Specification of unsuitable structural materials. The materials specified for a particular use
must have adequate mechanical, chemical (where necessary) and physical properties
suitable for that use. The concrete mix, for example must be able to yield the required
strength.
5. Poor construction methods could also lead to structural failure. These include
a) Incorrect placement of steel. Examples are cases where columns are not effectively
tied to the beams and improper spacing and poor placement of reinforcement in the
slab.
b) Inadequate cover to reinforcement e.g when cover to a slab bottom reinforcement is
inadequate. This permits ingress of moisture and gases and leads to corrosion of the
reinforcement and cracking and spalling of concrete.
c) Inadequate quality control during construction. Example are
(i) Use of sand heaps for concrete, which have high clay content
(ii) Poor workmanship resulting in concrete honeycombs and eccentric loading
of columns.
(iii) Segregation due to dropping mix through a great height, fusing a
harsh mix and over-vibration.
d) Incorrectly made construction joints. The main faults are lack of preparation and
poor compaction.
e) Removal of concrete formwork before concrete hardens.
6. Accidental loads can cause instability
7. Overloading: A change in function of the building can lead to overloading for example a
residential upper floor changed to storage rooms. Extreme overloading will cause cracking
and eventual collapse.
8. Structural Alterations. If major structural alterations are made to building the overall
structural integrity of the whole building should be rechecked in case some supports might
have been removed and create a break in the load paths that is expected to be continuous.
9. Settlement of foundations. This may be due to differential settlements, shrinkage of clays
from ground dewatering or drying out in droughts, ground movement from nearby
excavation or piling, mining subsidence, etc.
10. Wind forces causing lateral deflection. The wind forces cause stresses in framing members
and turning moments in foundations. Such stresses can be resisted by stiffening or bracing
the structure. In multi-storey framed buildings, lateral stability is ensure by the use of shear
walls, stairwells enclosed in reinforced concrete walls, the full height of the building and
stiffened by the flights of steps and landings. In wide-span single storey structures, lateral
stability is provided by bracing and providing hinged joints where the columns meet the
foundations. The structure of shell and three-dimensional grid structure provide the needed
rigidity by their structure.
11. Poor connections. This has been explained in details elsewhere in this paper.
12. Misuse: The major cause of collapse of building during the service period can be attributed
to misuse and lack of maintenance culture.
13. Installation of service ducts and pipes in the building structure. This lowers the structural
strength of the structural elements concerned and may eventually lead to failure. For
example, cutting of some reinforcements when service ducts are provided through beams;
too many PVC conduit pipes in the beams.
10
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Factors that would adversely affect the structural stability of a building structure have been
presented. While some of the defects originate from design and detailing stages, some are due to
poor construction methods and misuse. If a structure is to be properly conceived, it cannot be
considered in isolation from overall building construction. Non-structural considerations such as
installation of services, combustibility of materials and susceptibility to chemical attack will always
influence choice of structural materials and elements. Therefore it is important to always bear in
mind that sometimes parts of a structure can fulfil dual purpose as part of the building enclosure
and part of the primary structure.
To reduce the incidences of building collapse in Nigeria and discourage the following steps should
be taken
1. Some basic forms of control of gross errors of structural failures should be adopted. These
include inspection and checking of design and construction works and error-proof design.
2. All structural engineering drawings and calculation should be prepared by qualified
structural Engineers and this must accompany all applications for town planning approval.
3. The issue of adequate supervision and adequate quality control cannot be over-emphasised.
Building owners must engage the service of registered professional builders for the
production management and supervision of the actual construction of buildings.
4. Government, as a matter of urgency should promulgate national building regulation for the
arrest of the spate of collapsed buildings in Nigeria. The committee on building regulation
should include professional builders.

Stable and Unstable Structures

All structures undergo some shape changes under load. In a stable structure, the deformation
induced by the load are typically small and internal forces are generated in the structure by the
action of the load that tend to restore the structure to its original shape after the load has been
removed. In an unstable structure, the deformation induced by a load are typically massive and
often tend to continue to increase as long as the load is applied. An unstable structure does not
generate internal forces that tend to restore the structure to its original configuration. Unstable
structures quite often collapse completely and instantaneously as a load is applied to them.

11
1) Which of the following statements is/are not correct?
a) Every part of a building structure is not a structure
b) The notion that if elements are positioned; that relationship exist among these
elements are basic to the concept of designing a structure.
c) The building structure is that part of building which gives building the strength to
withstand the loads to which the building is subjected to.
d) Structures are usually conceived and designed as assemblies of structural elements.
e) A structure is a device for channelling loads that result from the use/or presence of
the building to the ground.
2) The following statements are correct about a structure except
a) Each and every member of a structural system should be able to resist the applied
loads under service conditions without failure or collapse.
b) A safe structure can have an incomplete load path
c) Every component of a structure should be able to resist deformation under loading
conditions.
d) Every component of a structure must be stable
e) A structure must not reach a limit state
3) Rupture may be caused by all of the following except
a) Failure in cohesion
b) Sliding
c) Flaking
d) Crushing
e) All of the above
4) Which of the following statements is/are not true?
a) Stability is the ability of a structure to retain its original state of equilibrium.
b) Structural failure is the ability of a structure to perform its intended function.
c) Strength is the ability of a material of a structure to resist stress without fracturing.
d) A structure may be strong but neither stiff nor stable
e) All of the above
5) All of the following can lead to building collapse except
a) Correct assessment of loading
b) Incomplete load path
c) Settlement of foundation
d) Poor construction methods
e) None of the above
6) A safe structure must always possess the following except
a) Strength
b) Stability
c) Durability
d) Stiffness
e) All of the above

12
 Answers
1. e
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. c

13