ST.

BRITTO’S ACADEMY

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

CLASS-X 2023-24

EXPERIMENTS:

1. Determination of Focal Length of Concave Mirror and Convex Lens

2. Tracing Path of a Ray of Light Passing Through a Glass Slab
3. Tracing the Path of the Rays of Light Through a Glass Prism
4. Dependence of Potential Difference Across a Resistor on Current with Graph
5. To Determine the Equivalent Resistance of Resistors When Connected in Series and
in Parallel

INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITING RECORD

 Be careful about RHS and LHS.

 Write RHS with pen and LHS with pencil.
 Start LHS with circuit diagram/ Ray diagram/ Experimental set up followed by
observation table and calculation.
 All headings and side headings should be in capital letters.
 Double underline all headings and side headings with pencil.

INDEX

1.1 CONCAVE MIRROR

1.2 CONVEX LENS
2. REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB
3. REFRACTION THROGH PRISM
4. OHM’S LAW
5.1 RESISTORS IN SERIES
5.2 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
RHS

CONCAVE MIRROR

EX.NO:1.1
DATE:

AIM
To determine the focal length of concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object.

THEORY
Following are the ways to obtain the focal length of the concave mirror:

 A concave mirror is defined as the spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved
inwards and follows laws of reflection of light.
 The light rays coming from a distant object can be considered to be parallel to each
other.
 If the image formed is real, inverted and very small in size, then the parallel rays of
light meet the point in the front of the mirror.
 The image formed by the convex lens is real and can be obtained on the screen.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

PROCEDURE

1. The distance between the selected distinct object should be more than 50 ft.
2. The concave mirror placed on the mirror stand and the distant object should be facing
each other.
3. The screen should be placed in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. To obtain
a clear, sharp image the screen should be adjusted.
4. Using a metre scale the distance between the concave mirror and screen can be
determined. The distance is the same as the focal length of the given concave mirror.
5. Repeat the above procedure thrice to calculate the average focal length.
LHS

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

OBSERVATION TABLE

SL NO Position of concave mirror (M) Position of screen (S) Focal length= (M – S)

cm cm cm
1.
2.
3.
4.

Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct
image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant
object, incident on the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the
measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring
scale for precise measurements.

RESULT
The focal length of the given concave mirror = ………..cm
RHS

CONVEX LENS

EX.NO:1.2
DATE:

AIM
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

THEORY

 The convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edges and is also known as
the converging lens.
 The refracted rays from the parallel beam of light converge on the other side of the
convex lens.
 If the image is obtained at the focus of the lens, the image would be real, inverted and
very small.
 The image can be obtained on the screen as the image formed by the lens is real.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Convex lens, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

PROCEDURE

1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a
table, so that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
2. Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant
object falls on it.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences
and record the same. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the
position of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the
convex lens.
 LHS

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

OBSERVATION TABLE

SL NO Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length= (L – S)

cm cm cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. The placing of the convex lens should be vertical.

2. There should not be any hurdle between the rays of light from the object and the
convex lens.
3. To get a well illuminated and distinct image of the distinct object, the distant object
should be well illuminated.
4. The convex lens stand and the screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.
RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens = ………..cm
RHS

REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB

EX NO: 2

DATE:

AIM
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and angle of emergence,
and interpret the result.

THEORY
Laws of refraction
Following are the laws of refraction:

 The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence, and the refracted ray lie in the
same plane.
 Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is constant.

Refraction of light
The refraction of light is a property of light due to which it changes its path when it passes
from one medium to the other.
Lateral displacement
Lateral displacement is defined as the perpendicular shift in the path of light when it emerges
out from the refracting medium.
MATERIALS REQUIRED

A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a
scale, a pencil and thumb pins.

PROCEDURE

1. Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its outline
boundary with pencil.
3. Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
4. On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E, draw a perpendicular EN and label
it as normal ray.
5. With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q
on the ray of this angle, the distance between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.
6. Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when seen
through the glass slab all
the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line when
seen through the glass slab], ‘
8. Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin
points.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
11. Join points E and F with the pencil.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and
emergent angle.
13. Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The
distance between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
 LHS

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

OBSERVATION TABLE

SL.No Angle of incidence Angle of Angle of ∠i – ∠e

∠i = ∠PEN refraction emergence ∠PEN – ∠SFM’
∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’

1. 30°
2. 45°
3. 60°
Due to human error the value of ∠i – ∠e may not be equal to zero.
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should lie in straight line.
5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a
distance of about 5 cm between the two pihs.
6. Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
7. Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8. Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9. Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.

2. All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.

RESULT

1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from
rarer to denser optical medium.
3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.
4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser
medium (glass) the light bends towards the normal.
RHS

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

EX.NO: 3

DATE:

AIM
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

THEORY

 A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other.
Refraction of light through a prism
 In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the incident
ray of light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light when it enters
the prism and hence show the refraction of light.
 RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.
The angle D shows the angle of deviation.
The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by ‘A’.
 In the figure, the relation between
• angle of incidence ∠i, i. e., ∠PQN
• angle of refraction ∠r, i.e., ∠FEN,
• angle of deviation ∠D, i.e., ∠HGF and
• angle of prism ∠A, i.e., ∠BAC. ∠A + ∠D = ∠i + ∠e

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor, drawing
board.

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the
outline of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a
straight line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the
figure, later mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism,
i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S
appear to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q
when viewed through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend
(backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e
and ∠D as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.
LHS

OBSERVATIONS

1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it
travels from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the
direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D).
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance
from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the
four pins can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either side while viewing
them. They all appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.

RESULT

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted
in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It
attains a minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.
RHS
OHM’S LAW
EX.NO: 4
DATE:

AIM
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I)
passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

THEORY
 Ohm’s Law: The potential difference, V across the ends of a given metallic wire in an
electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its
temperature is the same. This is Ohm’s law.
V∝I
.’. V = IR, (Here R = Constant for the given metallic wire)
Or
R=V/I

Factors affecting resistance:

 The nature of resistor (a conductor having some resistance.)

 The length of the resistance. (R ∝ l)
(Resistance increases as the length of the wire is increased)
 The area of cross-section of the resistor. R∝1A
(Resistance decreases with the increase in the cross-section area of the wire)

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A battery, connecting wire, a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a resistor and a piece
of sand paper.

PROCEDURE

 Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

 Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
 Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
 Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
 Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider
and see whether the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
 By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter
V.
 Record your observations in the observation table.
 Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula R=V/I.
 Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis
take I.
 Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.
 LHS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sl.N Current in Ampere (I) Potential difference in Resistance in

o (Ammeter Reading) Volts (V) Ohms(Ω)
(Voltmeter Reading)
R = V/I
1. R1 =
2. R2 =
3. R3 =
4. R4 =
Mean value of resistance = (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4)/4 = …….. Ω

Slope = BC/AC
= (V2 – V1)/(I2 – I1)
=R
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends
should be removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the
circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the
connections to the teacher to take the readings.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters
at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current
flows through the circuit.
7. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations;
otherwise current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change
the resistance of resisters.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. There may be a reading error of ammeter and voltmeter.

2. Area of cross-section of wire may not be uniform.
3. It may be possible that current has flown for longer period of time through the circuit.
4. There may be a loose connection in electrical circuit.

RESULT

1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.

2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.
RHS

RESISTORS IN SERIES

EX.NO:5.1

DATE:

AIM
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

THEORY

 Resistance of a wire can be increased or decreased depending on its combinations and

connections in a circuit.
 Resistors are joined in the circuit in two different methods, i.e., in series and in parallel.
 If two resistors named as R1 and R2 are joined end to end they are said to be connected
in series.

 In such a case the ammeter reading, i.e., current flowing through all two resistors will
be same but the potential difference across each resistor will be different. Hence, the
total potential difference V is the combination of two different volts obtained across
each resistor.

.’. If R1 and R2 are connected in series,

R = R1+ R2
Where current I = constant
But potential difference V = V1 + V2
∴ On applying Ohm ’s law to the three resistors separately, we get
V1 = IR1 …(1)
V2 = IR2 …(2)
Total V = V1 + V2
V = IR1 + IR2
V = I(R1 + R2)
This proves that total resistance R for connection in series combination is:
R = R1 + R2

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Two resistors of different values, A battery, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Plug key, Connecting
wires, Rheostat, a piece of sand paper
RHS

PROCEDURE

1. Make the connections according to the diagram given below.

2. Do not ‘on’ the key.
3. Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in the circuit.
4. Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and ammeter, and
the connections as shown in Fig. I.
5. Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
6. By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
7. Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown in Fig.
II and note down the readings.
8. Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be V 1 .
9. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the second resistor, separately. Let
the value be V2.
10. Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.
LHS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. Voltmeter and resistor should always be in parallel.

2. The least count of voltmeter and ammeter should be calculated properly.
3. Connections should be as per the experimental setup.
4. When no current flows through the ammeter and voltmeter, the pointers should be at
zero.
5. The connecting wires that are used should be thick copper wire and using sandpaper
the insulation at the end of the wires should be removed.
6. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
7. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current should flow
while taking the readings.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. There may be a reading error of ammeter and voltmeter.

2. Area of cross-section of wire may not be uniform.
3. It may be possible that current has flown for longer period of time through the circuit.
4. There may be a loose connection in electrical circuit.

RESULT

1. The calculated value of Rs = R1 + R2 =……. Ω

2. The experimental value of Rs = ……. Ω
The above two values are close to each other.
Hence, Rs = R1 + R2 is verified.
RHS

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

EX.NO:5.2
DATE:

AIM
To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.
THEORY

 When the resistors are connected in parallel with a combination of cells or battery, in
such case the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate value of current through
each branch of the combination.
i.e., I=I1+I2+I3+…..

 In the above circuit let R be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of
resistors.
∴ By applying Ohm’s law we have
I=V/Rp …(1)
 On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor we get

RHS
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistors of different values, A battery, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Plug key, Connecting
wires, Rheostat, a piece of sand paper

PROCEDURE

1. Keep the key off and make all the connections as shown in the given figure I.
2. When the circuit is connected appropriately insert the key.
3. Note three readings of ammeter and voltmeter for the resistors R 1 and R2 separately.
4. Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.
5. The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in parallel.
6. Use the rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Remove the key.
8. Do the calculations from the observation table.
LHS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION TABLE
RHS

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connecting wires used should be thick copper wire and using sandpaper, the
insulation at the end of the wires should be removed.
2. The connections should be tight to avoid introducing external resistance.
3. To make connections, the circuit diagram should be referred to.
4. To make the current entry from the positive terminal and exit from the negative
terminal, the ammeter should be connected in series.
5. Resistor and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
6. The least count of ammeter and voltmeter should be calculated properly.
7. When there is no current flow, the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero.
8. To avoid heating and change the resistor’s resistance value, the current should flow
while taking the readings.
SOURCES OF ERROR

1. There may be a reading error of ammeter and voltmeter.

2. Area of cross-section of wire may not be uniform.
3. It may be possible that current has flown for longer period of time through the circuit.
4. There may be a loose connection in electrical circuit.

RESULT

1. The calculated value of 1/Rp = (1/R1) + (1/R2) = ……. Ω

2. The experimental value of 1/Rp = …….. Ω
3. The equivalent resistance (Rp) is less than the individual resistance (R1 or R2)

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