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Laser Physics Rajkumar

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Laser Physics Rajkumar

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(LASER PHYsics) 30 Temporal and Spatial Coherences 1, Coherence Awave which appears to be a pure sine wave for an infinitely long period of time, or in an infinitely extended space, is said to be a Perfectly coherent wave. In such a wave there is a definite relationship between the phase of the wave al a given time and at a certain time later, or ata given point and at a certain distance away. No actual light source, however, emits a perfectly coherent wave, Light waves which are ure sine waves only for a limited period of time or ina limited space are partially coherent waves ‘There are two different criteria of Coherence; the criteria of time and the criteria of space. This gives rise to temporal coherence and ‘Spatial coherence, 2, Temporal Coherence The oscillating electic field E of a perfectly coherent light wave would have a Constant amplitude of vibration at any point, while its phase would vary linearly with ime _ Asa function of time the field would appear as shown in Fig. 1. Its an ideal sinusoidal - function of time. (Fig. 1) However, no light emitted by an actual source produces an ideal sinusoidal field for all values of time. This is because when an excited atom returns to the initial state, it emits light “pulse” of short duration such as of the order of 10°" second for sodium atom. Thus, the field remains sinusoidal for time-intervals of the order of 10° '° second, after which the hase changes abruptly. Hence the field due to an actual light source will be as shown in Fig. 2. ' r k#—— L-—} (ig. 2) Coherence Time and Coherence Length : The average time-inerval for which the femains sinusoidal (that is, definite phase relationship exists) is known as “coherence 524 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser time” of the light beam, and is denoted by t. The distance L for which the field is sinusoidal is given by. L=te, where ¢ is the speed of light. L is called the "coherence length” of the light beam. The coherence time (or the coherence length) can be measured by means of Michelson’s interferometer (Fig. 3). A light beam from the source S falls on a semi-silvered Fig.) plate P at which it is partly reflected and partly transmitted. The reflected and the transmitted beams, 1 and 2, are reflected back from mirrors M, and M; respectively and enter the telescope T in which interference fringes are observed. We know that two beams can produce a stationary interference patter only if there is a definite phase relationship between them. Let My’ be the image of Mz formed by the plate P. The arrangement is then equivalent to an air-film enclosed between (wo reflecting surfaces M; and My’. If d be the separation between Mf; and My’, then 2d will be the path difference between the interfering beams. Now, if 2d<>L, there will be no definite phase relationship and the fringes will not be observed. Therefore, starting with equal path-lengths, as the distance d is increased (by moving one mirror), the fringes become gradually poorer in contrast and finally disappear. The path difference at disappearance gives an estimation of coherence length. As an example, for the neon 6328-A line, the interference fringes disappear when the Path difference between the light beams is about 3 cm, so that the coherence time is L 3om 10 tee «10s. © 3x10" cm/s the other hand, for the red cadmium line, ee hs 6438 4 ovtich i The coherence time fora laser bea ig Il-controll a : Se i Scars ae t interference fri “oberence lengths ir yt se * Fines can be obtain PD thal wig Taser a ¢ Path differences, Temporal Coherence as ) Ti Telated with Monochromaticity of Bver spectral ine has ante width wh ; 4 bution of wavelengths insome narow inser ae ‘ Corresponds to a continuous the fact that for every spectal line te interferons ta + Ad. This is obvious er experiment eventually disappears "nce pattern in the Michelson Py mee st es related tothe widih Corapaent length, Thus, the concept of tana when Sea Spread (or Width at ely oF mone aici) ce wana in ine, the path difference between the inn rect Line: Let us adopt the cn + Coherence length is about 30 bE for each wavelength lying between i and 1 + ta, there is a corresponding Alyng between 2 + 1% and A + AR) such thatthe minima of one fall on Of the other, causing the fringes to disappear. In other words, the fringes will MEE m x 1088) x x 10! me') w Bx 10m = 600 ium) vthe lated — 526 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Lay er have a very poor contrast for or ‘Thus, if the fringes become indistinct when the path difference exceeds ‘conelude that the spectral line (of mean wave-length 2) has a wavelen; L, we can given by Bth-spread (width) 2 aa For the cadmium red line (4 = 6438 A) Lis as large as about 30cm, ‘This corresponds to a ‘wavelength-spread given by 2 438 Ay aw tn = 001A, L 30x 10°A For the sodium yellow line (A = $893 A), L is about 3 cm, and = ONE og, 3x 10°A Furher, since v = 5, the frequency-spread Av of aline would be av= Sak ‘We know that t L : ; et where 1 is coherence time. . 1 v dvs. ‘Thus, the frequency-spread of a spectral line is of the order of the inverse of the coherence time, that is, longer the coherence time, the smaller is the frequency-spread. (A perfectly sharp monochromatic line, AV = 0, would correspond to an infinite interval of coherence time, t = »). For an ordinary source, t= 10°'°s, and so the frequency spread is Ay = 10° Hz, For sodium yellow line (A = $893 A), we have 10 © _ 30x10! ems 5 x 10" He 2 5893 x 10cm ve and thus dv _ 10!” v "5x 10" He ‘The quantity Av/v represents the monochromaticity (spectral purity) of the source. Clearly, even for an ordinary light source, the monochromaticity is quite small. For a laser beam, Av/v = 4.x 10%, =2x 10% Temporal and Spatial Coherences S27 4, Spatial Coherence £ The spatial coherence is the relationship between the radiation fields at different points in space. Let us consider ligt ¥ waves emitting from a source $ (Fig. 4) Let > Aand B be two points lying on a line them with S. The phase relationship between the points A and B depends on the distance AB aa on the temporal coherence of the bearn, If AB < < L (coherence length), there will be a definite phase’ relationship 4) between the points A and B, that is, there will be high oe i igh coherence between the points AB>>L, there will be no coherence between the points A and B. Let us now consider points A and C which are equidistant from §. If the source S is a true point source, then the waves shall reach the points A and Cin exactly the same phase, that is, the two points will have perfect (spatial) coherence. If however, the source $ is extended, the points A and C will no longer remain in coherence. This may be demonstrated by Young's double-slit __ experiment illustrated in Fig. 5, Light emitting from a narrow slit $ falls on two slits Sy and Sy placed | symmetrically with respect to S. The beams emerging | Ss from S; and $2, having been derived from the same 5 original beam, maintains a constant phase difference a (| Sa all points on the screen. Hence a stationary interference | pattern is observed on the screen. SCREEN (Fig. 5) If, however, the width of the slit S is gradually increased, the pattern becomes poorer and poorer in constrast and finally disapp-srs, This “means that as the size of the source is increased, the situation of spatial coherence on the Sereen changes into a situation of incoherence. This happens because when the slit $ is wide, the slits 51 and 52 receive waves from different independent Parts of S and hence do ‘ot remain coherent with respect to each other. Spatial Coherence as related to the size of the Source ‘We may derive a relationship between the spatial coherence and the size of source, An Source is made up of a large number of point-sources. Let us first consider the when the Young's double-slit is illuminated by two independent point-sources S* at a distance / apart (Fig. 6). We shall find that minimum value of 1 at which on the screen would disappear. The waves from S which --ach the point O on the via Young's slits 5, and S, have zero path difference. Hence there is a bright fringe 528 ‘Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser (Fg. 8) at O due to S, Now, the waves from S’ reaching the point O via Sy and Sz have a path difference 5’S; — S'S, = KS. Clearly, we shall obtain a dark fringe at O due to S’ when a Ky = 5+ Ai) where 2 is the wavelength of light. When this is the case, the maxima of the interference pattern due to S will fall on the minima due to 5’ so thatthe fringes would disapper. Now, from the figure, KS) = Od, where d is the separation between S, and Sp, Let a be the distance between S and Q. Now, again from the figure ‘Assuming that 1 > > £;we can write* 2 ks, = #4, @ ‘Thus, in view of eg (the interference pattern would disappear if id. a. 2 or 1s he mc) From this itis clear that if we illuminate the double-slit with an extended source whose linear dimension exceeds 2 a/2 d , then no interference pattern will appear on the screen Now, if we have an extended incoherent source having linear dimension roughly .a/d_then for every point_on the source, there int at a distance a/2d_which * infact the distance is very small compared to 1, but this fact has been ignored in Fig. § the sake of clariy. Temporal and Spatial Coherences 529 produces fringes shifted by half a fringe- observed. Thus, for an extended (i point-sources, interfernce fringes of g width. Hence the interference pattern will not be incoherent) source made up of independent ‘od contrast will be observed only when Aa 1 a2. << a or, when dan A. the extended source SS’ subtends an angle o at the slits, that is, at point Q,, then a= la, and the above condition for obtaining fringes of good contrast takes the form d<< a The distance J, given by nad is termed as “lateral spatial coherence width’ spatially coherent. We conclude that to obtain double-slit, the separation between the slits (S coherence width, ___Using ordinary extended light sources, order to obtain a spatially coherent beam of spatially coherent. a It is the distance over which the beam is @ good interference pattern with Young's and 2) shoule be kept much less than the we must pass the light through a pinhole in light. However, a laser beam is itself highly SOLVED PROBLEMS 1, The orange krypton line (A = 6058 A) has a coherence length of ~ 20cm. Calculate the line width in terms of wavelength. Solution. The wavelength spread of a spectral line of wavelen AA = VL, igth A is given by where L is coherence length. Thus Aa ~ (6058 Ay? 20 x 10°A 2. Laser linewidths as low as 20 Hz occur, ¢=3.0 x 10°ms"!, Solution. As above, = 0018 A. Calculate the coherence length. Given : Ah=V/L. “V = c/ and so the frequency spread of a line is =£y06 av= Gans -1 bw SOx ms is x 10’m = 15000km, av 20s 3. The coherence time for the red cadmium line (A = 6438 A) is about 107° s, the monochromaticity of the line. Solution. The frequency spread of a spectral line is related to coherence time as 530 ‘Atomic and Molecular Spectra: Laser Av = 1/t. Here t = 10°%s, av = 10's! ‘The frequency of the red cadmium line is -1 yao 2 30K mS 66 x 10S. X 6438 x 10°"? m ~. monochromaticity of the line is ° av, 10s ox 0% Vv 466 x 10s 4. The sun subtends an angle of about 32’ on earth. Suppose sunlight is falling normally on Young's double-slit arrangement having a filter which allows only light of wavelength 5000 A through it. What should be the separation between the two slits in order to obtain good- contrast fringes on the screen ? Solution. The angle subtended by the extended source (sun) at the double-slitis a= 32 = 3) ae «(3) rad = 0.009 rad ~ 0.01 rad. ‘Thus, the lateral spatial coherence width is & _ 5000 x 10-%em t= 5. DO et ~ 0005 em. Thus, if the separation between the two slits is small compared to 0.005 em, interference fringes of good contrast are obtained on the screen. QUESTIONS Explain the concept of coherence. Discuss temporal coherence and spatial coherence, illustrating them with the help of suitable experiments 2, Distinguish between spatial and temporal coherences is laser emission. (Meerut sp. paper 2001, 99) Explain how the purity of a spectral line is related with the concept of temporal coherence. Show that the frequency-spread of a spectral line is of the order of the inverse of the coherence time. Discuss spatial coherence as related to the size of the source. Obtain expression for the lateral spatial coherence width and give its significance. 31 LASER: Einstein's Coefficients and Light Amplification sched state can transit to a lower energy state through the emission of electromagnetic tion. The emission may be spontaneous or stimulated, as predicted by Einstein, Let us these processes separately. (Stimulated) Absorption of Radiation : An atom, initially in alower state |, rises to Sate 2 by absorbing a quantum of radiation (photon) of frequency V, given by er 2 EPORE WER a! hy ‘E; and E, are the energies of} Mom in the states 1 and 2 —s—. 5, ig. 1). This is (STIMULATED ABSORPTION) the absorbed photon (Fg. 1) fa if, ate Ww) na \ium) hi the slated — UU 332 Atomic and Molecular Spectra. Laser being the stimulaung photon. (The absorption is necessarily stimulated). Spontaneous Emission of Radiation : Let us sow consider an atom intially im the higher (excited) energy state 2 (Fig. 2) Observations show that its life-time in higher state is usually very small (= 10°" second) Berort and it, of der own accord, decays 0 the 2——*—— lower energy state |. emitting » photon of frequency v = (£, ~ E,)vh Thins ‘spontaneous’ emission of radiaton M1 & there is an assembly of atoms, tuen the (growrantous f™nS$10%) radiation emitted wpostaneoualy by each me tom has 2 random direction ond & random phase, and 19 therefore racohermat from one stom to another Stimulated Emisnion of Radiation : Acconting to Einstein, an atom i an excited energy state, under the influence of the electromagnet field of a photon of frequency y incident upon i, decays to 4 lower errors arTEeR ‘energy state, emicting an additional 1——e—§ & Photon of same frequescy v (Fig 3} _he se. ‘Thus, two photons of same a frequency, one incident and the ’ g e, other emined, move on This (SFPRAATED EPRSSION) “surnulated’ (or induced) eminsion o> of radiation The direction of propagation, energy, phase and sate of polarisation of the emitted photon is exactly the same as that of the incident stimakating photon. In other words, the stimulated radiation is completely coherent with the stimulating radiation. As a rerult of this process, radiation ‘passing through an assembly of atoms is amplified. 3. Einstein Coefficients Let us consider an assembly of stoms (sample of matter) which is in thermal ‘equilitrium with radiation of frequency v and spectral energy density u(v)* at temperature T.Let Ny and N; be the number of atoms per unit volume in energy states | ‘and 2 with eneagies E, and £, respectively at any instant. An atom in the lower energy state E, can absorb radiation and get excited to the state Ey. The probability rate of occurrence of the absorption transition 1 + 2 would be proportional to N; and also to w(v). Thus, the number of absorption transitions per unit time per unit volume can be written as The proportionality constant B;) is a characteristic of energy states | and 2, and is known as ‘Einstein's “B° coefficient of absorption of radiation’ Let us now consider the emission transitions at frequency v (both spontaneous and stimulated) when an atom de-excites from energy state E; to Ey . ‘The energy density uy) is defined such that uv) dy is radiation energy per unit volume within the frequency interval v and v + dv 532 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser being the stimulating photon. (The absorption is necessarily stimulated) __ Spontaneous Emission of Radiation : Let us now consider an atom initially in the higher (excited) energy state 2 (Fig. 2). Observations show that its life-time in higher state is usually very small (= 10°® second) BEFORE AFTER and it, of its own accord, decays to the 2——*—— Fa 5 lower energy state 1, emitting a photon wo of frequency v = (Ey — E,)/h. This is ” ‘spontancous’ emission of radiation. If 1 Ey g there is an assembly of atoms, then the (SPONTANEOUS EMISSION) Tadiation emitted spontaneously by each atom has a random direction and a oe random phase, and is therefore incoherent from one atom to another. Stimulated Emission of Radiation : According to Einstein, an atom in an excited energy state, under the influence of the electromagnetic field of a photon of frequency y incident upon it, decays to a lower BEFORE aeteR energy state, emitting an additional 2—_*—£, 2 photon of same frequency v (Fig. 3). _&v a LE Biman Thus, two photons of same frequency, one incident and the fecesesremntyy, E, other emitted, move on. This is (STIMULATED EMISSION) “stimulated” (or induced) emission (Fig. 3) of radiation, The direction of propagation, energy, phase and state of polarisation of the emitted photon is exactly the same as that of the incident stimulating photon. In other words, the stimulated radiation is completely coherent with the stimulating radiation. As a result of this process, radiation passing through an assembly of atoms is amplified. 3. Einstein Coefficients Let us consider an assembly of atoms (sample of matter) which is in thermal equilibrium with radiation of frequency v and spectral energy density u(v)* at temperature T. Let N; and Np be the number of atoms per unit volume in energy states 1 and 2 with energies E, and Ep respectively at any instant. An atom in the lower energy state E; can absorb radiation and get excited to the state E>. The probability rate of occurrence of the absorption transition 1 + 2 would be proportional to Nj and also to u(v). Thus, the number of absorption transitions per unit time per unit volume can be written as The proportionality constant B2 is a characteristic of energy states 1 and 2, and is known as ‘Einstein's ‘B’ coefficient of absorption of radiation’ Let us now consider the emission transitions at frequency V (both spontaneous and stimulated) when an atom de-excites from energy state E, to E) . * The energy density uv) is defined such that Uv) dy is radiation energy per unit volume within the frequency interval v and v + dv. ’ ; . i. LASER : Einstein's Coefficients and Light Amplification 533 ‘The probability rate of spontaneous emission 2 — 1 is determined only by the ties of the states 2 and 1, and is proportional to the number of atoms N2 in the energy state 2. Thus, the number of spontancous emission transitions per unit time per unit volume can be written as Again, the proportionality constant Az, , depends on the properties of energy states 2 and 1, and is known as ‘Einstein's ‘A’ coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation’. Finally, the probability rate of stimulated emission transition 2 — 1 is proportional to the energy density u(v) of the stimulating radiation. Thus, the number of stimulated emission transitions per unit time per unit volume can be written as where Bp, is ‘Einstein's ‘B’ coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation’ ‘At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transitions 1 + 2. should be equal to the number of downward transitions 2 — 1, that is, Ny Bizu(v) = Na[Aai + Bai u(v)] @ ~ Na An An 1 = “) = NB — M2Bx ~ Ba Mi Ba N2\ Bu ‘The equilibrium distribution of atoms among different energy states at temperature T is given by Boltzmann's law according to which Ny EY war or . A-F, ,. F because V = “Ta k is Boltzmann's constant. Consequently A; u(y) = 42 —___1 __., Ail) Bu war( Br) _ y By This is a formula for the spectral energy density of radiation of frequency v in thermal equilibrium with atoms in energy states 1 and 2, at temperature T. It must be consistent with black body radiation. Hence comparing it with Planck radiation formula 8nhv 1 u(y) = wr we get and «Aiv) 534 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser These results were obtained by Einstein in 1917, and that is why the coefficients 4,,, Byz and Bz, are called Einstein's A and B coefficients. From eq. (iii), we conclude that the coefficient of stimulated absorption (82) is equal to the coefficient of stimulated emission (Bz)). It means that im presence electromagnetic radiation, the probabilities of stimulated absorption and stimulated ‘emission in atom are equal. From eq, (iv) we sce that the ratio of spontaneous emission coefficient to stimulated emission coefficient varies with frequency as v’. It means that larger the difference between the two states (E;~ E,= hv), the much more likely is Spontaneous emission compared to stimulated emission. 4. Possibility of Amplification Spontancous emission gives out radiation at random moments and in random directions, Stimulated emission, on the other hand, has a very important property. If a narrow beam of radiation passes through a region containing only excited atoms, then the ‘emilted (stimulated) radiation has the same direction, frequency and phase as the incoming (stimulting) radiation. Hence the stimulating radiation and stimulated (emitted) radiation are strictly coherent and the resultant beam is amplified Clearly, for the amplification of the beam, stimulated emission should predominate over spontaneous emission. Now, the ratio of the probability Az; of spontaneous emission to the probability Bz, u(v) of stimulated emission is given by An wor . a am 1. fby eq. (ii) and (iii) above] In the visible region with ordinary optical sources, Av>>kT, and so, for atoms in thermal equilibrium with radiation, spontaneous emission is far more probable than stimulated emission, As an example, for an ordinary optical source, T = 10°K and v= 5 x 10's"! (corresponding to A = 6000 A). Then, we have AY . (663 x 10 *3s)(5 x 10s") _ aT (1:38 x 10°23. K7}) (10° K) This gives An par u 10 ted -1=e%—1= 10% By wv) . Thus, from ordinary light sources, the emission is predominantly due to spontaneous transitions and hence the emitted light is incoherent. On the other hand, if AV < Ni)is known as “population inversion”. In this situation, the assembly of atoms would lase. ‘Stimulated emissions are further encouraged by increasing the radiation density u(V) of the stimulating radiation. This is achieved by enclosing the emitted radiation in a “cavity is back and forth, * between two parallel reflectors. The radiation repeatedly travel and the photons passing through the atoms g0 00 ‘multiplying by repeated stimulated emission, Hence a strong coherent beam of light emerke® from the system. ‘Mathematical Treatment : Let us consider @ ‘collection of atoms (an active medium) and let 2 nearly monochromatic light beam of frequency v be propagating through the vesdiumn along the x direction. The intensity /y of ight beam of frequency Vv is related “Atoms axcited to higher energy stal to absorption give up their energies by spontaneous tnconerent) emission and by colisions with other ators Se 536 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser to the energy density u(v) ofthe light. If the light beam in question has frequencies in the range v and V+ Av, then the relation between the intensity and the energy density can be written as I, bv = cu(v) Av, where c is the speed of light in the medium. Let Nj and Nz be the number of atoms per unit volume of the medium in energy States Ej and E, respectively at any instant. In practice, the energy levels are not absolutely sharp, but have a finite energy spread due to Doppler effect and certain other causes. Therefore, during the passage of the light beam of frequency V through the medium, only certain number of atoms, say AN, out of Nj atoms in the eneig, *rie A undergo absorption transitions. The rate of such upward transitions per unit volume is AN; Biz u(v) = AN, By (I//e) . where By2 is Einstein's B coefficient. Similarly, the rate of downward induced transitions is AN? By u(V) = AN2 By (Iy/e)- During each upward transition, a quantity of radiation energy AV is absorbed from the Propagating light beam. Similarly, during each downward induced transition, an equal amount of energy is added to the light beam. So, the rate of change of spectral energy density of the beam in the frequency interval AV is {u(v) Av} = {AN Bar (ly/e)} hv — {AN By2 (ly/c)} Av = Xam, - aman, Ai) because Bo, = Bj. Here we have neglected the radiation arising out of spontaneous emission because such radiations propagate in random directions and are, in general, lost from the beam. Suppose, the light beam covers a distance dx in time dt in the medium, ‘Then dz = edt, or dt = de/c. Now, we have d a d ao Av} = ae u(v) Av} = a vdv). Therefore, eq. (i) can be written as d h ae AV) = 2 (ANs ~ AN) Bia hy dly _ hy ( Nr - AN, or ee (an. Letus put hy ( AN2 = AN, . “ Tee = oy, wail) where 1, is ‘gain constant’ at frequency v, Then, we have dy ea dh or 7, = adr. i Integrating, we get —ASER: Einstein's Coefficients and Light Amplification 337 b= Uy ii) Jo is a.constant term. ,, since the levels E, and E, have finite widths, the spectral line due to transition these levels has a finite frequency-spread. say Av , about a mean frequency Vo can estimate the value of gain constant a, at this mean frequency Vo by putting ‘AN = N ineq. (ii). Thatis, where (Iv) =e = (a =( a an _ Au _ 8xhv Using he relation Git = ~*~". and remembering that Bry = B12. we set = M¥e( Ma - Ny Aye oe = ae ae? ¢ . TM = NDA: ti a (ode © te 2” Now, there may be two cases If Na>N; (as a result of population inversion), then (ct}o is positive, and from eq. (iii), f, increases as x increases ‘This means that as the light beam progresses through the medium, its intensity [, increases exponentially, that is, there is an amplification of the imensity of the light beam. Thus, population inversion is necessary for light ‘amplification. If, on the other hand. N2 B0>71 and hence the diffraction loss will be extremely small. The loss can be reduced by using spherical mirrors to form the resonant cavity (Fig. 6). ‘The spherical mirrors help in focusing; hence causing much less loss due to diffraction. However, only certain combinations of curvatures and mirror separations can give low diffraction loss. These resonators are referred to as stable resonators. The stability condition can be expressed as : . (Fig. 6) os (tbls) Ry Ro where R, and Rp are the radii of curvatures of the mirrors. QUESTIONS 1. What is a laser ? Explain the terms ‘absorption’, ‘spontaneous emission’, and ‘stimulated emission’ of radiation. (Meerut 99 8, sp. paper 2006, 02, 00) 2. Explain stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of radiation. Obtain a relation between transition probabilities for the two emissions. (Meerut 2005 sp. paper) 3. What are transition probabilities ? Explain spontaneous emission and induced An _ 8nhv’ B; ° (Meerut 2003 sp. paper) 4. Obtain a relation between transition probabilities of spontancous and stimulated emissions, What are Einstein’s A and B coefficients? (Meerut 2006 sp. paper) 5. What is a laser ? What are the important features of stimulated emission ? Discuss the essential requirements for producing laser action. (Meerut 2000 sp. paper) emission. Prove ! 6. 1 ‘Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser ‘What is meant by Einstein's A and B coefficients ‘What is stimul ‘Under what condition there is a possibility of radiation growing in intensity as it passes through matter ? __(tdaerut2006, 88 6p. Paper) Explain the meaning of amplification of the intensity of| light. ‘Show mathematically that population inversion is necessary for the amplification of light intensity (laser action), ical pumping. (Meerut 2006 sp. paper) 3, What is pumping process ? Explain opti explain optical pumping. Hint : Take example of ruby laser to What is optical resonator ? Explain its rol PROBLEM What ia the frequency difference between two adjacent modes in an, Optical ‘Ans. 150 MHz, 1e in maintaining laser oscillations. resonator having a cavity of length 1.0 m. 32 Types of Lasers : Characteristics and Applications of Lasers 1. Introduction Any laser device consists of three main components : the active medium, the pumping source, and the optical resonator. The active medium is an assembly of atoms, molecules, or ions (in solid, liquid, or gaseous form), which acts as an amplifier for light beams. As such, there are different types of lasers depending upon the active medium. However, to amplify a light beam, the medium has to be maintained in a state of population inversion, that is, a state in which the number of atoms in an upper energy level is larger than the number of atoms in a lower energy level. The pumping source provides a state of population inversion between a pair of energy levels of the atomic system. When the active medium is placed inside an optical resonator, the system acts as an oscillator. 2. The Ruby Laser : A Three-level System The ruby laser was the first laser developed in 1960. It is a solid-state laser. It consists of a pink ruby cylindrical rod whose ends are optically flat and parallel (Fig. 1). One end is COILED XENON FLASH LAMP RUBY ROD ASER EAM FULLY SILVERED CAER ES (Fig. 1) fully silvered and the other is partially silvered. The two ends thus form a resonant cavity. The ruby rod is placed inside a coiled xenon flash lamp. The flash lamp is connected to a capacitor (not shown) which discharges a few thousand joules of energy in a few milliseconds, resulting in a power output of a few megawatts from the flash lamp. Working : The ruby rod is a crystal of aluminium oxide (Al,O;) doped with 0-05% chromium oxide (Cr;O,), so that some of the Al ions are replaced by Cr*** ions. These “impurity” chromium ions give pink colour to the ruby and give rise to the laser action, A simplified version of the energy-level diagram of chromium ion is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of an upper short-lived energy level (rather energy band) E, above its Bround-state energy level Ej), the energy difference E, — E, corresponding to a wavelength of about 5500 A. There is an intermediate excited-stax evel Ey which is RADIATIONLESS TRANSITION metastable* having a life-time of 3 x 10°? s (about 10° times greater than the life-time of Ey which is = 10°"). Normally, most ofthe chromium ions ae i the ground stale E}. When a flash of light (ovhich lasts aly for about a ailisecood) falls pon the ruby rod, the $800-A radiation photons are absorbed by the chromium ions which are “pumped” (raised) to the excited state Es, The transition 1 is the (optical) pumping transition. The excited ions rapidly give up, by collision, part of their energy to the crystal lattice and decay to the “metastable” slate Ey, The corresponding transition 2 is thus a radiationless transition. Since the state Ey has a much longer life-time, the number of ions in this state goes on increasing while due to pumping, the number in the ground state E, goes on decreasing. Thus, population inversion is established between the metastable (excited) state E, and the ground state E), ‘When an (exciiéd) ion passes spontaneously from the metastable state to the ground state (transition 3), it emits a photon of wavelength 6943 A. This photon travels through the ruby rod and, if itis moving parallel to the axis of the crystal, is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it stimulates an excited ion and causes it to emit a fresh photon in phase with the stimulating photon. This “stimulated” transition 4 is the laser transition. (The photons emitted spontaneously which do not move axially escape through the sides of the crystal). The process is repeated again and again because the photons repeatedly move along the crystal, being reflected from its ends. The photons thus multiply. When the photon-beam becomes sufficiently intense, part of it emerges through the partially-silvered end of the crystal. Drawback : There is a drawback in the three-level laser such as ruby. The laser requires very high pumping power because the laser transition terminates at the ground state, and more than one-half of the ground-state atoms must be pumped up to the higher state to achieve population inversion. Moreover, ions which happen to be in their ground state absorb the 6943-A photons from the beam as it builds up. aioe antinnn panei an *A metastable state is relatively long-lived state whose life-time may be 10s, or more, instead of the usual ife-time of 10°* s, 543 ypes of Lasers : Characteristics and Applications of Lasers that is, it emits laser light in pulses. 1—I pis; the time interval The duration between two The ruby laser is a “pulsed” laser, o* — 10° W. of an individual pulse is of the order of 0 10 ps ; the power of each pulse is as high as 1 n be explained as follows = successive pulses is about 1 — -r of a millisecond, but it is ‘The phenomenon is known as ‘spiking’ in ruby laser and cal ‘The duration of the exciting flash of light is of the orde vie enough to build up population inversion very rapidly. As soon as a large the laser action starts producing a pulse. This level population more rapidly than it roseconds. In the intense population is produced in the upper level, (ihat is, the stimulated transitions) depletes the upper | 7 js restored by the flash light. The laser action then stops for a few mic! he ‘mean time, the flash lamp again builds up population inversion producing another pu 7 ‘This sequence is repeated. Hence a series of pulses is produced until the intensity of flash light falls to such a level that it can no longer rebuild the required population inversion. 3. Four-Level Solid State Lasers ‘The ruby laser is a three-level laser and hence not very efficient. There are more efficient solid state lasers based on the 3 four-level system shown in Fig. 3. Level 1 is the ground level and levels 2, 3, and 4 are the excited levels of the system. Atoms from level Laser 1 are lifted by a pump right to level 4, from 2 where they rapidly decay to Ievel 3 through some non-radiative transition. Level 3 is a metastable level with a (long) life-time of the PUMP ~~>» order of 107" s, This level becomes the upper laser level and level 2 becomes the lower laser 1 level. Level 2 must have a very short life-time so that the incoming atoms from level 3 decay (Fig. 3) atonce from level 2 to level 1 from where they are again pumped to level 4. If the rate of decay of atoms from level 2 to level 1 is faster than the rate of arrival of atoms into level 2 Population inversion is established between levels 3 and 2, and laser action is initiated. neni ere 4 contd be = a iv Then, an optical pump emitting radiation over a can efficiently lift atoms from level 1 to level 4. Ni . Now, cannot be the upper laser level because the upper laser level ee ea Iwor laste Tose 2 mut be eo level must be narrow. Further, the senpetaniea ihe populabor sin cent ly abots the ground level 1 so that at ordinary h level 2 is negligible (otherwi i for ape inversion would be much more). the pumping power needed so-called Nd : YA i G laser is an example of lasers using various energy levels of the neodymium ion Nd* * * fF : There ions are ki . . like Y5 Als O,, lattice, abbreviated as YAG. nown to be situated into a number of lattices, 544 Atomic and Molecular Spectra Losey A simplified energy-level diagram of Nd*** ions is sbown in Fig. 4, ‘The ‘mised to energy levels (rather energy bands) above the metastable level M by CRETE OTT ions are Means of 4 6 (Fig. 4) flash lamp or a continuous wave lamp. The excited ions deca, which has a life-time of about 0-25 ms, Laser action is now M and Lath = 1-06 yum in the infra-red region. [The Nd : YAG lasers can give pulses of 100 ps duration having intensities a high ag 10" W/em?, They are used to study laser-induced fusion reactions, 4. The Helium-Neon Laser y to the metastable eve} M obtained between the levels ‘The helium-neon laser was the first gas laser to be operated Successfully. It was fabricated by Javan in 1961. It is a four-level laser in which Population inversion is achieved by electric discharge. ‘The helium-neon laser consists of a long and narrow discharge tube filled with a mixture of He and Ne in a ratio of about 1 0 : 1 ata pressure of about 1 mm of mercury (Fig. 5). The gas mixture (He + Ne) forms the lasing medium. Its placed between ¢ pair ~ LASER BEAM FULLY PARTIALLY SILVERED SILVERED MIRROR MIRROR’ (Fig. 5) rors which form ar ity. of optically plane and poral iors wi or ey of he Ore se the laser light. An electric discharge may | geted to a high-frequency electric source. ixture, electrons are i “pump” (excite) Temted electrons collide with, and “Pit ‘down the tube. These accel “pone ne Ne toms to metastable states 20.66 eV respect oe ground states (Fig, 6): Some COLLISION LO — METASTABLE STATE Mi el 20:61eV— METASTABLE 2 LASER TRANSITION) STATE 18-70 eV SPONTANEOUS TRANSITION ELECTRON IMPACT RADIATIONLESS TRANSITION GROUND 0 ° ‘STATE He Ne A FOUR-LEVEL LASER (Fig. 6) Ne atoms by collisions, with the 0-05 eV of additional energy being provided by the kinetic energy of atoms*. Thus, He atoms help in achieving 4 population inversion in the Ne atoms. When an excited Ne atom passes spontaneously from the metastatic state at 20-66 eV to the state at 18-70 eV, it emits a 6328-A photon. This photon travels through the gas-mixture, and if it is moving parallel to the axis of the tube, is reflected back and forth by the mirror-ends unit it stimulates an excited Ne atom and causes it to emit a fresh 6328-A photon in phase with the stimulating photon. This stimulated transition from 20.66-eV level to 18:70-eV level is the laser transition. This process is continued and a beam of coherent radiation builds up in the tube. When this red-light beam becomes sufficiently intense, a portion of it escapes through the partially-silvered end. “The advantage of this collision process is that the li pumped ighter He atoms can be e% x their excited states; the much heavier Ne atoms could not be raised efficiently ookten “es Asomac and Molecalar Spectra. Laser the Ne som pases dows sponuineously 00 4 lower pnts ne emenay ern gh ad Sal eo a gh ling wih the tube walls, The final wammiton is thus cadintioniess. 19 78e¥ en Actually. there ar ether energy levels berween the 2046-2 snl = Ne stom; oni tramicions berween tem rest in the emission of radiadioa having wavelengihs 339 um. | 1S pm bendes Ge visible radiation of wavelength 06328 um 6328 ‘ sl pret epee t-te howe ed SP fein wen for of about $- 10 W ‘ort gus toe to “nnablr oe The Hn ler ca be toad fn) wo ie tadiation in any desired wavelength range The can Se done by choosing end mirror, having high reflectvity ower only the requred wavelength range Advantages of Gan Lasers over Sefth-state Lasers) ) The gm laser, in genera. cms fight which & more directional and mory monochromatic m compared 1 thst trom volkd-stare tenes. This in dive 10 the absence of certain effects like crystalline angerfaction, thermal dieertion and scattering which appear 9 woltd-state tasern (i) Gas tasers can be operated contionmanty temas clvctron impacts that eXCite he He and Ne stoms occur ail the tne (enilihe the puted excitation trem the tence flash lamp 10 the ruby laser) Hence, they ae capable of sapptymg 2 continuous laset beam without any coolg arrangement. (Wi) Parther, ance the kuser wamstion dom set teememate at the ground state, the power eedeu for excitation 1 bens than that i a thewe-level ruby laser. ‘The techeque of ottunang population mveruce m four-level gas lasers is different han that im @wee-tevel solsé-sate laser tn solidse lasers, population inversion is obtained by optical pumping in whch the lung medium is pumped to a slate of Population inversion by means of a flash lump or » high-power continuous lamp. Optical Pumping would be very inefficient for gas lasers because gas atoms are characterised by ‘sharp energy levels, whereas solid atoms ave usually characterised by energy bands. This is why for gascous laser medium the electrical discharge is an efficient method of pro‘uciag populaton imverucn. 5. The Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser ‘The CO; laser is a molecular gas luser. A molecule is made up of two of more atoms. Hence, in addition to the electronic motions; atoms in the molecule may vibrate in different modes, and the molecule as a whole may rotate about some axis. For example, Fig. 7 - tad - - - @—o—0 BAN S—a—_5 o co 2 c © oj ¢ @ Stae Tern Benois Staetenng Wp @) Wy Fo7) 346 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser Prom the 18-70-eV level the Ne atom passes down spontancously to a lower metastable state emitting incoherent light, and finally to the ground state through collision With the tube walls. The final transition is thus radiationless. ‘Actually, there are other energy levels between the 20-66-eV and 18-70-eV levels in Ne atom; and transitions between them result in the emission of radiation having wavelengths 3-39 jum, 1-15 um besides the visible radiation of wavelength 0-6328 um (6328 A), Typical power outputs of He-Ne lasers lie between 1 and 50 mW of continuous wave for inputs of about 5 ~ 10 W. He-Ne gas laser is a ‘tunable’ laser. The He-Ne laser can be tuned (adjusted) to give radiation in any desired wavelength range. This can be done by choosing end mirrors having high reflectivity over only the required wavelength range Advantages of Gas Lasers over Solid-state Lasers : () The gas lasers, in general, emit light which is more directional and more monochromatic as compared to that from solid-state lasers. This is due to the absence of certain effects like crystalline imperfection, thermal distortion and scattering which appear in solid-state lasers. (ii) Gas lasers can be operated continuously because electron impacts that excite the He and Ne atoms occur all the time (unlike the pulsed excitation from the xenon flash lamp in the ruby laser). Hence, they are capable of supplying a continuous laser beam without any cooling arrangement. (iii) Further, since the laser transition does nor terminate at the ground state, the power needed for excitation is less than that in a three-level ruby laser. ‘The technique of obtaining population inversion in four-level gas lasers is different than that in three-level solid-state lasers. In solid-state lasers, population inversion is obtained by optical pumping in which the lasing medium is pumped to a state of population inversion by means of a flash lamp or a high-power continuous lamp. Optical pumping would be very inefficient for gas lasers because gas atoms are characterised by sharp energy levels, whereas solid atoms are usually characterised by energy bands. This is why for gaseous laser medium, the electrical discharge is an efficient method of producing population inversion 5. The Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Laser The CO; laser is a molecular gas laser. A molecule is made up of two or more atoms. Hence, in addition to the electronic motions; atoms in the molecule may vibrate in different modes, and the molecule as a whole may rotate about some axis. For example, Fig. 7 - = ax 42 - = a—o—p 1" Sgl ©—a— oO o co oc ° SYMMETRIC BENDING ANTISYMMETRIC STRETCHING STRETCHING wp @,) ( (Fig. 7) Types of Lasers : Characteristics and Applications of Laser 7 TT Ore $4 shows the three modes of vibration of a CO, stretching mode (frequency vy = 1337 cm"), (iy lecule. These are : (i) symmetric asymmetric stretching mode (vy = 2349em"}, Heine (Va = 667 cm”) and electronic levels (like atoms), each electronic level has & molecule has discrete Stoucisted with it, and cach vibrational level ban a tember cna Seg bassin betveed vo alectre Woes gives rd ooo Yolo a ultraviolet; a transition between vibrational levels of the same Nad ee aaron in the near infared region, while a wansiion between rotational level gives same vibrational level gives radiation in the far infra-red or microws =a ofthe Working : The laser uses CO; gas mixed with Nz gas. The acive comes are the CO; molecules which lase when transitions occur between a routionl level assoc ‘vith a vibrational level, and a rotational level associated with a lower vibrations vaveletronic ground state. In Fig. 8 are shown vibrational (and rotational) one ot tectronic ground state of COs, and those of No. = Ys v, 5 ENERGY — q a == ——+ ENERGY (m7) g a= & No ©, 9.8) When a discharge is passed in a tube containing CO,, the electron collisions excite the Nz and COz molecules to higher vibrational-rotational levels. The collision cross-section forexcitation of CO: to the level A (Fig 8) is very large. This level is also populated by radiationless transitions from upper excited levels. Further, the level A of CO isnearly rrincident with the highly populated v/” = 1 level of Na. Thus there is a very efficient transfer of energy from a Np molecule to a CO2 molecule, resulting in the excitation of CO; molecule. This increases the pumping efficiency of the CO, laser. (Here Nz plays the same role as He plays in He-Ne laser). ‘As a result of the above processes, populatio ‘A and the lower levels B and C. This initiates laser action prod 96m and 10-6 um. 1 inversion is established between level ucing laser beams at ‘Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser 548 watts are obtained ral hundred Applications ; Output powers of several watts to sevel laine: from co; pete anos CO; laser, because of its high output power, finds eT in i o ca industry for welding, drilling, cutting etc. They are also used in open air ion systems and optical radar systems. 6. Semiconductor Injection Laser ei ‘ An important class of broadly tunable lasers which have proved fo sernlecnduenn Particularly in optical communication and optical-computer design 1° 1 Ne itty injection lasers. This is the third historical development in lasers. I sipratint de Duraffourg for the first time put forward the idea that stimulated canis ° PI co possible in semiconductors from transmission between conduction ee a Since then, semiconductor lasers have been rapidly developed. The first semiconductor laser was made from gallium arsenide, GaAs. ‘ | Principle : A semiconductor has a small energy gap €, (= 1 €V) mancare is watence band having energy states occupied by electrons, and the empty See : ig. 9 a). At room temperature, however, some of the valence electrons tl a Bal in greater than €, and cross over into the conduction band, leaving a oles ‘ib the valence band. If a light photon of energy greater than €, happens to se aientes ie electrons, one of the two processes may occur : (i) the photon may be absorbed by a valence-band electron which would be excited to the conduction band leaving behind a hole in the valence band (Fig. a); (ii) the photon may stimulate an already excited conduction-band electron which would drop to the valence band, emitting a fresh photon in coherence with the stimulating photon (Fig. b). Which of the two processes is more probable depends upon whether most of the electrons are in the valence band or in the conduction band. CONDUCTION BAND CONDUCTION BAND S VALENCE BAND. DW UNOY ABSORPTION STIMULATED EMiSSION (a (b) (Fig. 9) Under ordinary conditions of thermal equilibrium, the number of electrons in gher-energy states (conduction band) is much smaller than in lower-energy states alence band), so that there is little stimulated emission compared with absorption. If iwever, by some means a large number of electrons are made available in high-energy utes, stimulated emission is promoted. Once this situation called “population inversion” types of Lasers : Characteristics and Applications of Lasers 549 Types fT achieved, the photons go on multiplying by repeated stimul i vs perent beam of light emerges from the semiconductor, ee erielns anton ‘Achievement of Population Inversion : Population inversion can be achieved near a pn junction having high doping densities and forward currents, The large number of fnjested carriers creales a region near the junction where there is a very large number of the conduction band together with a very large number of holes in the valence electrons in band, that is, a population inversion (Fig. 9 b). Basic Structure : The basic structure of a gallium arsenide p-n junction, used as an injection laser is shown in Fig. 10. The pair of parallel planes perpendicular to the plane of iy REGION POLISHED WALLS 10) hed, while the two remaining sides of the diode are roughened. When a ied to the laser diode, a current flows. The injected electrons move de and the holes from the p-side to the n-side. As the electrons itted. These photons are reabsorbed or radiated away. hhich occurs in all directions at low current. As the shold current is reached at which the emitted photons Simulate the emission of more photons. These photons are internally reflected several mes at the polished walls, stimulating more and more photons, all coherent with them. ‘When the photon beam becomes sufficiently intense, it emerges out from the junction. ‘The main difficulty with this GaAs laser is the high threshold current Hence this laser could be operated only at ure lasers Fig the junction is polis! forward bias is app! from the n-side to the p-si and holes recombine, photons are emi This is the spontaneous emission wi current is increased, eventually a thres density (= 10° A/cm?) at room temperature. low temperatures at which the required currrent density is lower. Heterostruct have now been built which operate at room temperature at moderate current densities. Comparison With Other Lasers : Semiconductor lasers are similar to other lasers in that the emitted radiation is intense, monochromatic, directional and highly coherent, both spatially and temporally. However, in some respects, semiconductor lasers differ from other lasers : (i) In semiconductor lasers, the electron transitions are associated with the band structure of the materials, whereas in other lasers the transitions take place between discrete energy levels. Therefore, the radiation from a semiconductor laser is less monochromatic (has wavelength range of few angstroms) than that from other lasers (which have a range of only a fraction of an angstrom). a 350 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser $50 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Laser ae nema vs renan in u enc tt Wo re nn liters. ¢ of the laser beam is considerably larger in case of other (iii) A semiconductor laser is very compact in size, less than 1 mm. (iv) The spectral characteristics of a semiconductor laser are strongly influenced by the properties of the junction medium, such as the band gap and refractive index Variations, (9) In the p-n junction taser, the laser action is produced by passing a forward current through the junction. Hence the emitted laser light can be modulated into light pulses simply by modulating the current (vi) Semiconductor lasers have very short photon life times. ‘Therefore, modulation at high frequencies can be achieved. (vii) The semiconductor laser, because of its compact size and capability for high-frequency modulation. is the best light source for optical-fiber communication 7. Dye Lasers Dye lasers are liquid lasers which have several advantages over solid-state lasers, Besides having a very high optical cavity, liquid lasers are free from distortions caused by optical strain, imperfections and internal damages in crystals used in solid-state lasers. In dye laser, an organic dye dissolved in a suitable solvent like ethyl alcohol, methanol, toluene, benzene, water, etc. is SINGLET. TRIPLET used as the active medium. STATES STATES ‘The lasing range covered by various dyes is from 3000 Ato 13,000 A. The most widely S used dye is rhodamine 6 G which emits in yellow-red region. For emission in blue-green region, coumarin dyes are used. The levels involved in the laser transition are different vibrational levels of the different electronic states of the dye molecule. A typical energy-level diagram of a dye molecule is shown in Fig. 11. The molecule has singlet as well as triplet electronic states. So represents the ground electronic level (a singlet); Sy, Spy ee Fepresent excited singlet electronic levels; while 7), 7, tepresent the So triplet electronic levels. Each electronic level has a large 9.11) Si Tt LASER TRANSITION Types of Lasers : Characteristics and. Applications of Las ers number of vibrational levels and each ofthe = se, in ‘ liquids. the rotational levels are s0 close that thar omits Vera rotational eve petween the vibrational levels. °F BNE rise to a continuum of leven By optical pumping (absorption of ight), So toa higher vibrational-rotational level of the n i ext electroni distribution in the level S, , most of the dye mlecles door ee * level B of S; within atime of about 10°" s through a none vs i; action takes place when the molecules decay from the level . eae Process. Now, laser vibrational level of So, from which they return to the lowe nt higher lying non-radiative process. ‘west level by another Molecules from the state S, can also make a non-radi radiative tr: evel T; (a process known as ‘intersystem crossing’). This reduces thoporalaien a ne 5; which is the upper laser level, thus reducing the gain. This difficulty is over ea passing oxygen through the solution which acts as a quenching agent of the tipet ae " For the tuning of laser wavelength, one mirror ofthe usual laser cavit : the dye molecules rise from the ‘Stound state a West vibrational diffraction grating, as shown in Fig. 12. In order thatthe laser radiation be where PUMPING RADIATION we TLL x ——— aionncttnsen ‘ ~~ BEAM | DYE | CAVITY DYE OUT DYE IN (Fig 12) along the cavity axis, the angle @ between the normal to the grating and the cavity axis must satisfy the condition 2dsin® = nh, n=1,23, where d is the grating element and 2 is the radiation wavelength. Only for this wavelength, the radiation reflected back will travel along the cavity axis. The tuning of wavelength is done by rotating the grating which changes the angle 8. Dye lasers play an important role in atomic and molecular spectroscopy. This laser has Jed to a rapid growth in non-linear spectroscopy. 8. Characteristic Properties of Laser Beam Basically, a laser beam and a beam derived from a normal source of light are both electromagnetic radiation, but they differ drastically in coherency, monochromaticity, directionality and intensity. Some characteristic properties of laser beams are as follows () Laser beam is highly coherent, temporally as well as spatially. The coherence time and coherence length for a laser beam are much larger thas. “*~~> for an ordinary source light. Typically, the coherence time for a laser beam is about 2 ms, giving a tt 552 Atomic and Molecular Spectra : Lase, coheet tenet ‘of 600 km ; against the coherence time of 10°” and coherence length ane ie cadmium light. As a result, high-contrast interference fringes can be comaned by two laser beams having a path difference of several hundred kilometers, The ponding coherence length for light from a discharge lamp is much less than | m. ina batt pnd beam is almost perfectly monochromatic. Alarge coherence time results s ‘quency spread (t = 1/Av) . Hence, whereas light from a fine spectral line in gas discharge tube has a wavelength precise to about | part in 10°, the sharpness of laser line is a thousand times greater, that is, | part in 10” ‘ (iii) Laser beam is highly directional. An ordinary source of light radiates in Possible directions, But, the output from a laser is an ideal uniform plane wave with almos, zero divergence. This means that the laser rays are almost perfectly parallel. Hence a lasey beam is very narrow and can travel to long distances without spreading. Because of the high directionality of the laser beam, it can be brought to an extremely sharp focus. Flux densities of 10'S W/cm? for focussed laser light are readily achieved, {ny contrast, an oxyacetylene flame has a flux density of only 10° W/cm”, (iv) Laser beam is extremely intense. It can vaporise even the hardest metal Because of its high energy density and directional property, a laser beam can produce temperatures of the order of 10*C at a focussed point. 9. Applications of Lasers ‘The monochromacity, directionality and high intensity of laser beam have made possible a large range of investigations in various scientific fields; such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Medicine, etc., many of which would not have been possible without lasers. It has exciting applications in the realms of communication, industry and warfare The following examples just illustrate the wide applicability of lasers. (i Laser in Science and Research : Laser beam has been used to perform an improved version of the Michelson-Morley experiment. The original experiment performed in 1881 had shown that the velocity of light is unaffected by carth’s motion through space within an accuracy of about 150 mm/s. The apparatus using two He-Ne lasers improved the accuracy to about 3 mm/s. Laser beams, being very much collimated, have been used in precision measurements of long distances. The distance to the moon, for example, has been determined to an accuracy of 15 cm. Laser-torch is used to see objects at very long distances. Laser beam is also used in three-dimensional lensless photography (holography) and in nonlinear optics. Laser rays have proved to be useful in detecting nuclear explosions and earthquakes. in vapourising solid fuel of rockets, in the study of the surfaces of distant plancts and satellites. Laser are finding increasing applications in the study of Raman, ESR and NMR spectroscopy - (ii) In Isotope Separation : Lasers (particularly, tunable lasers) are successful 1" separating efficiently the isotopic species of an element present in an isotopic mixture ‘The laser isotope separation is very important in nuclear power generation. Natur uranium ore contains mainly the isotope U2" and only 0-7% of U™* which, infact futts nuclear plants and hence must be separated from the ore. Besides this, there are other — | Types of Lasers : Characte; : ristics and Applica ions of Lasers 353 applications of pure isotopes in med produced economically, |" edie, science and technology if if they could be Laser isotope separation is bi ased same a have slightly different aye ‘oo masses. This difference is call le 10 difference i se eed. By one isotope, ba ant Therefor, ight ccoulsieemeee isotope, but not by the other semen erain frequency may monochromatic light emerging from a properly tuned I ier isotope. Thus, if extremeiy two isotopes, then atoms of only one of the isotopes ae Ge a to fall on a mixture of ‘atoms may be separated from the mixture by one of ae lectively) excited. The excited a otod is a two-step photoionisation method, dexribed below > ns uNble: One Fig. 13 shows two isotopes A and B, their excit ‘ I P |B their excitation levels, ionisati the isotopic shift, k Av . The isotope A is selectively excited by absorption bri a Letacaa od hav hv, — t that . t atoms of different isotopes of the hy, 4 8 (Fig. 13) from a tunable laser. The excited isotope is subsequently ionised by another from the (tunable) laser. The ions are then separated from the cer by applying an electric field. Fusion is a thermonuclear reaction in which atoms of that their nuclei fuse together and a new element ie formed, whose mass is less than the sum of the masses of the two elements. The lost mass appears as energy released in the process. In fact, | gram of mass lost produces 9.0 x 10!°J of energy. Thus, a controlled fusion reaction is almost an inexhaustible energy AV; photon of energy 4 V2 mixture in a mass spectromet (iii) Laser-Induced Fusion : two elements are compressed to an extent source of energy. ‘There are two major problems in initiating and sustaining a thermonuclear fusion reaction, (i) The fusing material should be heated to a high, of the order of 10’ K femperature so thatthe nuclei have kinetic energies high enough to fuse together against their mutual electrostatic repulsion. (ii) Matter at such high temperati> in a fully var ed state, known as a plasma. ICs necessary to confine the hot plasma for long enough to sustain fusion reactions. ‘Alaser is capable of producing very high temperature and pressure required to initiate a fusion reaction, and confining the fusion material by inertial forces ‘generated when an intense laser pulse interacts with the fusion material. In a typical scheme, a very small solid pellet containing di ({usion material) is projected into a chamber where it high-energy laser pulse of short duration (~ 1 ns). This results in surface, and producing temperature and pressure in the interior o enough for the nuclei to fuse, releasing a large amount of enerBy jeuterium-tritium mixture irradiated with intense, the blasting away of pellet f the pellet which are high

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