C

Cyber-Physical Systems intersection, not the union, of the physical and

the cyber. It is not sufficient to separately under-
László Monostori stand the physical components and the computa-
Institute of Computer Science and Control, tional components. We must understand their
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, interaction” (Lee and Seshia 2014).
Budapest, Hungary
Department of Manufacturing Science and
Technology, Budapest University of Technology
Theory and Application
and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
Origin, Short History
Most of the researchers originate CPS from the
Synonyms
embedded systems (Park et al. 2012), which are
defined as a computer system within some
Smart systems
mechanical or electrical system to perform
dedicated specific functions with real-time com-
puting constraints. These embedded systems
Definition
are characterized by tight integration and coordi-
nation between computation and physical
Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are systems of col-
processes. According to this conception, in CPS
laborating computational entities which are in
various embedded devices are networked to
intensive connection with the surrounding physi-
sense, monitor, and actuate physical elements in
cal world and its on-going processes, providing
the real world.
and using, at the same time, data-accessing and
The CPS notation can be traced back to 2006,
data-processing services available on the internet.
when the first NSF Workshop on Cyber-Physical
With other words, CPS can be generally charac-
Systems was held in Austin, Texas, October
terized as “physical and engineered systems
16–17. The following announcement can be read
whose operations are monitored, controlled, coor-
on the conference web page: “The research initia-
dinated, and integrated by a computing and com-
tive on Cyber-Physical Systems seeks new scien-
municating core” (Rajkumar et al. 2010). The
tific foundations and technologies to enable the
interaction between the physical and cyber ele-
rapid and reliable development and integration of
ments is of key importance: “CPS is about the

# CIRP 2018
The International Academy for Production Engineering et al. (eds.), CIRP Encyclopedia of Production
Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35950-7_16790-1
2 Cyber-Physical Systems

computer- and information-centric physical and Cyber-Physical Production Systems

engineered systems. The goal of the initiative is (CPPS)
to usher in a new generation of engineered sys-
tems that are highly dependable, efficiently pro- If we look through the development of computer
duced, and capable of advanced performance in science, information and communication technol-
information, computation, communication, and ogies, and manufacturing science and technology,
control. . . .Sensing and manipulation of the phys- a parallel development can be observed (Fig. 1).
ical world occurs locally, while control and The development of computers led to the
observability are enabled safely, securely, reliably numerical control of machine tools and robots,
and in real-time across a virtual network. This the microprocessor constituted the heart of
capability is referred to as Globally Virtual, computer numerical control (CNC), and the appli-
Locally Physical” (N.N. 2006). cation of computer graphics resulted in computer-
aided design (CAD) systems. The development of
manufacturing systems was unimaginable without
Application Fields
computer networks. The data of computer-
“The potential of CPS to change every aspect of
integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems were
life is enormous. Concepts such as autonomous
stored in databases. The then novel results of
cars, robotic surgery, intelligent buildings,
artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
smart electric grid, smart manufacturing, and
(ML) significantly contributed to the intelligent
implanted medical devises are just some of the
manufacturing systems (IMS). Computer vision
practical examples that have already emerged”
algorithms were applied in robotics for recogniz-
(N.N. 2013a).
ing the environment and the object to grasp. The
The following main applications fields of CPS
internet revolutionized the cooperation of humans
were identified by the CPS Vision Statement
and systems (extended enterprises (EE), supply
issued by the federal Networking and Information
chain management (SCM), or production net-
Technology Research and Development (NITRD)
works (PN)). Multi-agent systems were applied
CPS Senior Steering Group (N.N. 2012a):
for realizing agent-based manufacturing and
holonic manufacturing systems (HMS) (Van
• Agriculture
Brussel et al. 1998; Valckenaers and Van Brussel
• Building controls
2005; Monostori et al. 2006). Wireless communi-
• Defense
cation, sensor networks, and internet of things
• Energy response
(IOT) made the development of high resolution
• Energy
manufacturing systems possible (Schuh et al.
• Healthcare
2007) and tracking and tracing solutions in pro-
• Manufacturing and industry
duction (Monostori et al. 2009). Embedded sys-
• Society
tems helped in realizing smart automation
• Transportation
solutions and product-service systems, while the
semantic web solutions supported the interopera-
In the same mission statement, crosscutting
bility of systems by using ontologies. Grid
challenges were also outlined that are essential
computing led to grid manufacturing and, simi-
to success in all sectors:
larly, cloud computing to cloud services to
manufacturing.
• Cybersecurity
Summarizing, the results of CS and ICT
• Economics
undoubtedly contributed to the development in
• Interoperability challenge
production, but this was not a one-way street:
• Privacy
the importance and highly complex nature of pro-
• Safety and reliability
duction gave newer and newer challenges for the
• Socio-technical aspects of CPS
representatives of other disciplines. As we look at
Cyber-Physical Systems 3

Cyber-Physical Systems, Fig. 1 Interplay between CS, ICT, and MST (Monostori et al. 2016)

this parallel, mutually inspiring developments, a processes, and the linking of production and
kind of convergence can be observed, namely, high-quality services leading to so-called hybrid
between the virtual and physical worlds (Fig. 1). products (Kagermann et al. 2013)”.
Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPS), CPPS consist of autonomous and cooperative
relying on the newest and foreseeable further elements and subsystems that are getting into
developments of computer science (CS), informa- connection with each other in situation dependent
tion and communication technologies (ITC), and ways, on and across all levels of production, from
manufacturing science and technology (MST) processes through machines up to production and
may lead to the fourth Industrial Revolution, fre- logistics networks. Modelling their operation and
quently noted as Industrie 4.0 (Kagermann et al. also forecasting their emergent behavior raise a
2013). According to the Federal Ministry of Edu- series of basic and application-oriented research
cation and Research, Germany (BMBF): “Indus- tasks, not to mention the control of any levels of
try is on the threshold of the fourth industrial these systems. The fundamental question is how
revolution. Driven by the Internet, the real and to explore the relations of autonomy, cooperation,
virtual worlds are growing closer and closer optimization, and responsiveness. Integration of
together to form the Internet of Things. Industrial analytical and simulation-based approaches can
production of the future will be characterized by be projected to become more significant than
the strong individualization of products under the ever. One must face the challenges of operating
conditions of highly flexible (large series) produc- sensor networks, handling big bulks of data, as
tion, the extensive integration of customers and well as the questions of information retrieval,
business partners in business and value-added representation, and interpretation, with special
4 Cyber-Physical Systems

Cyber-Physical Systems, Fig. 2 Decomposition of the automation hierarchy with distributed services (N.N. 2013b)

emphasis on security aspects. Novel modes of the configuration level (Level 5) realizes the feed-
man-machine communication are to be realized back from the cyber space to the physical space.
in the course of establishing CPPS. The importance of CPPS is hard to underesti-
CPPS partly break with the traditional automa- mate. In the PCAST’s Report to the President on
tion pyramid (left side of Fig. 2). The typical Capturing Domestic Competitive Advantage
control and field levels still exist which includes in Advanced Manufacturing of July 2012, 18 rec-
common PLCs close to the technical processes to ommendations were formulated (N.N. 2012b).
be able to provide the highest performance for In Recommendation No. 2 on Increase R&D
critical control loops, while in the other, higher Funding in Top Cross-Cutting Technologies, the
levels of the hierarchy a more decentralized way first point was Advanced Sensing, Measurement,
of functioning is characteristic in CPPS (right side and Process Control (Including Cyber-Physical
of Fig. 2). Systems).
The general assumption, i.e., CPPS consists of In Germany CPPS play an especially favored
two main functional components, is manifested in central role, e.g., (Zühlke and Ollinger 2012;
the right side of Fig. 2. The lower one is respon- Spath et al. 2013; Schuh et al. 2013; Schmitt and
sible for the advanced connectivity which ensures Große Böckmann 2014; Bauernhansl et al. 2014;
real-time data acquisition from the physical world Michniewicz and Reinhart 2014). The strategic
and information feedback from the cyber space, initiative Industrie 4.0 underlines the fact that
while the higher level incorporates intelligent data “Germany has one of the most competitive
management, analytics, and computational capa- manufacturing industries in the world and is a
bilities that constructs the cyber space. global leader in the manufacturing equipment sec-
The 5C architecture introduced in Lee, et al. tor” (Kagermann et al. 2013). The implementation
(2015) consists of five levels in a sequential of three features of Industrie 4.0 was targeted:
workflow manner and illustrates how to construct
a CPPS from the initial data acquisition, through • Horizontal integration through value networks.
analytics to the final value creation (Table 1). In • End-to-end digital integration of engineering
the table some examples are also given from the across the entire value chain.
field of process, machine, or system level moni- • Vertical integration and networked manufac-
toring. In a CPPS approach, the smart connection turing systems (Kagermann et al. 2013).
level (Level 1) manifests the physical space, while
Cyber-Physical Systems 5

Cyber-Physical Systems, Table 1 5C architecture for implementation of CPPS. (After Lee et al. 2015)

Expectations Towards CPS and CPPS life. In the latter case, we may either talk about
cyber-physical society, which already includes
Expectations towards CPS are manifolds, some- human, social, cultural spheres as well, above
times over exaggerated: the physical- and cyber spaces.
As to CPPS, many see the opportunity for the
• Robustness at every level fourth industrial revolution in it (Kagermann et al.
• Self-organization, self-maintenance, self- 2013). The first industrial revolution is contrib-
repair, generally, self-X uted to the first mechanical loom, from 1764, the
• Safety second to the Ford assembly belt from 1913, the
• Remote diagnosis third to the first PLC in 1968. It is envisioned that
• Real-time control CPPS can bring a similar big jump as the above
• Autonomous navigation mentioned breakthrough inventions.
• Transparency
• Predictability
• Efficiency
R&D Challenges
• Model correctness
The expectations towards CPS and CPPS are ver-
Through CPS, the development of new busi- satile and enormous: robustness, autonomy, self-
ness models, new services are expected which organization, self-maintenance, self-repair, trans-
may change many aspects of our life. The poten- parency, predictability, efficiency, interoperabil-
tial application fields are almost endless: air- and ity, global tracking and tracing, only to name a
ground-traffic; discrete and continuous produc- few. Though there are very important develop-
tion systems; logistics; medical science, energy ments in cooperative control, multi-agent systems
production, infrastructure surrounding us, enter- (MAS), complex adaptive systems (CAS), emer-
tainment, and we could keep on enumerating. gent systems, sensor networks, data mining, etc.,
Through cyber-physical approaches, they could even a partial fulfilment of these expectations
result in smart cities, production-, communica- would represent real challenges for the research
tion-, logistic- and energy systems; furthermore, community.
they could contribute to creating new quality of
6 Cyber-Physical Systems

As to the main R&D challenges on the side of consensus seeking, cooperative learning, and
CS and ICT, we refer to the literature (Lee 2007, distributed detection is required.
2008; Poovendran 2010; Park et al. 2012; Borgia • Identification and prediction of dynamical sys-
2014), here only four fundamental ones with gen- tems. The extension of the available identifica-
eral importance are outlined: tion and prediction methods is required, as well
as development of new ones which can be
• Appropriate handling of time in programming applied under mild assumptions on the dynam-
languages, operation systems, and computer ical system, as well as the disturbance process.
networks. • Robust scheduling. New results are to be
• Development of computational dynamical sys- achieved in handling production disturbances
tems theory. Namely, the behavior of the phys- in the course of schedule execution.
ical parts of the systems can be modelled, • Fusion of real and virtual systems. The devel-
simulated and analyzed using methods from opment of new structures and methods are
continuous systems theory, while the cyber required which support the fusion of the virtual
part by computational systems theory (e.g., and real subsystems in order to reach an intel-
computability, complexity). Hybris solutions ligent production system which is robust in a
in this sense are required. changing, uncertain environment. Novel refer-
• Standardization in the CPS field. Standardiza- ence architectures and models of integrated
tion is of crucial importance and it necessitates virtual and real production subsystems; the
wide range cooperation activities involving the synchronization of the virtual and real modules
main players of the ICT field. Without stan- of production systems and their role-specific
dardization only isolated CPS solutions can be interaction; and context-adaptive, resource-
developed. efficient shop floor control algorithms are
• Security issues in the cyber-physical system needed.
era. CPS consists of various hardware and soft- • Human-machine (including human-robot)
ware parts working together. In addition to symbiosis. The development of a geometric
hardware and software security, operational data framework to fusion assembly features
issues are also required to be considered for and sensor measurements and fast search algo-
safety and dependability reasons. rithms to adapt and compensate dynamic
changes in the real environment is required.
In the coming space only some of the R&D
challenges are outlined from the much bigger set Without any questions, CPPS can be consid-
of research fields which are related to CPPS ered as an extremely important step in the devel-
(Monostori 2014; Monostori et al. 2016). opment of manufacturing systems of cooperative
and responsive nature (Váncza et al. 2011). How-
• Context-adaptive and (at least partially) ever, in order to really come up at least to a portion
autonomous systems. Methods for comprehen- of the partly exaggerated expectations, significant
sive, continuous context awareness, for recog- further R&D&I activities are needed.
nition, analysis and interpretation of plans and The biological transformation in manufactur-
intentions of objects, systems and participating ing, as defined by the authors “the use and
users, for model creation for application field integration of biological and bio-inspired princi-
and domain and for self-awareness in terms of ples, materials, functions, structures and resources
knowledge about own situation, status, and for intelligent and sustainable manufacturing
options for action are to be developed. technologies and systems with the aim of
• Cooperative production systems. New achieving their full potential,” represents a new
theoretical results are to be achieved and and ground-breaking frontier of digitalization
the development of efficient algorithms for and Industry 4.0 (Byrne et al. 2018). The
Cyber-Physical Systems 7

cyber-physical-biological approaches, i.e., the use Monostori L, Váncza J, Kumara SRT (2006) Agent-based
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