PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERM REVIEWER

THE COMMUNICATION AND ITS COMPONENTS

COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
- Process of sharing meaning in any context. Verderber (1999), both a route traveled by the message
- Wood (2003) Communication in our lives – systematic and the means of transportation. Message are
process in which people interact with and through transmitted through sensory channels. Face to face
symbols to create and interpret meanings. communication has two basic channels: sound (verbal)
and light (non-verbal).
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
• EXTERNAL NOISE
- sights, sounds and other stimuli that draw people’s
attention away from what is being said.
• INTERNAL NOISE
- thoughts and feelings that intervene with the
communication process.
• SEMANTIC NOISE
- unintended meanings aroused by certain symbols that
prevent comprehension.
FEEDBACK
Responses to message are called feedback. It shows how
the message sent is heard, seen and understood.
CONTEXT Feedback improves communication.
setting in which communication occur
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
• PHYSICAL CONTEXT
- refers to where communication takes place. • VERBAL
(temperature, lightning, noise level) - encompasses any form of communication involving
words, spoken , written , signed.
• SOCIAL CONTEXT
- relationship that exist between and among participants. • NON-VERBAL
- includes body language, such as gestures, facial
• HISTORICAL CONTEXT expressions, eye contact and posture.
- background provided by the previous communication
between the participants that influences understanding LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
of the current encounter. • INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
• PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT – occurs within the person, this is sometimes referred to
- includes the moods and feelings each person brings to as cognitive or personal communication or “self-talk”
the communication. • INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
• CULTURAL CONTEXT – refers to communication that occurs between two
- includes beliefs, values, norms, that are shared by a persons who establish a communicative relationship.
large group of people. • PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
PARTICIPANTS – a speaker sending message to an audience.
People communicating – sender, receiver FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
MESSAGES • We communicate to meet needs.
Encoded / decoded information • We communicate to enhance or maintain our sense of
self.
• We communicate to fulfill social obligations.
 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERM
THE COMMUNICATION AND ITS COMPONENTS INTERCULTURAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

• We communicate to develop relationships. WHAT IS CULTURE?

• We communicate to exchange information.
- Culture and language culture does not create different
• We communicate to influence others. communication but different communication creates
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION “culture”

1. COMMUNICATION IS PURPOSIVE - Cultures are created through communication; that is

- the purpose of communication may be trivial or communication is the means of human interaction
significant but one way of evaluating if communication s through which cultural characteristics, whether customs,
successful is if it has accomplished its purpose. roles, rituals, laws, or other patterns –are created and
shared.-
2. COMMUNICATION IS CONTINUOUS
- communication happens nonstop, even silence Communication shapes culture and culture shapes
communicates something. communication (encyclopedia.jrank.org)

3. COMMUNICATION MESSAGES VARY IN CONSCIOUS Culture – something that other people have – unusual
ENCODING clothes, strange foods, or odd customs.
- Communication may occur spontaneously (w/o much Believing that your culture is the benchmark of all others
thought), it could also be based on a learned “script”, or is called ETHNOCENTRIC BIAS: Your own cultural way of
it could be constructed based on the understanding of a acting is right and normal, and all other ways of acting
situation. are only variants of the only really good way to act.
4. COMMUNICATION IS RELATIONAL CULTURE AS GEOGRAPHY OR ETHNICITY
- communication plays a role in developing, maintaining
and dissolving relationships. Let’s start by looking at “culture” as a structure, place
and national identity that identifies different nation’s
5. COMMUNICATION HAS ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS culture.
-We must recognize some ethical standards.
CROSS – CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
6. COMMUNICATION IS LEARNED. – generally compares the communications styles and
- communicating well is a skill, simply talking is not patterns of people from very different cultural/social
communicating. It involves, listening, processing structures, such as nation-states.
thoughts and opinions then speaking.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION ETHICS - deals with people from these cultural/social structures
“A speaker who uses language that degrades or injures speak to one another and what difficulties or differences
human personalities by exaggeration, psuedotruths, they encounter, over and above the different languages
twisting of words and name calling is clearly acting they speak.
unethically” (Berko,1995)
Ethical communicators or speakers according to Berko DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
(1995) should :
CULTURES are not synonymous with countries. Cultures
1. Speaks with sincerity
do not respect political boundaries. Cultures refer to the
2. Does not knowingly expose an audience to falsehood
following Jandt (2010):
or half-truths that can cause significant harm,
3. Does not premeditatedly alter the truth, - a community or population sufficiently large enough
4. Presents the truth as she or he understands it, to be self-sustaining, that is large enough to produce
5. Raises the listeners level of expertise by supplying the new generations of members without relying on outside
necessary facts, people.
6. Employs message that is free from mental as well as
physical coercion, - the totality of that’s group thoughts, experiences, and
7. Does not invent or fabricate information patterns of behavior and its concepts, values and
8. Gives credit to the source of information.
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INTERCULTURAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

assumptions about life that guide behavior and how scheduled. Change is slow and time is a process that
those evolve with contact with other cultures. belongs to others and nature.
Hofstede (1994) classified these elements of culture in 5. LEARNING
four categories: symbols, rituals, values and heroes. – Multiple sources of information are used. Thinking
proceeds from general to specific.
• SYMBOLS – refer to verbal and non-verbal language
• RITUALS – socially essential collective activities within • LOW CONTEXT CULTURE
a culture - emphasizes commitment to the job, adherence to
• VALUES – feelings not open for discussion within a plans, concern for others’ privacy, emphasis on
culture about what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly, promptness and attention to detail.
normal or abnormal which are presented in majority of
Low-context culture often displays the following
members of a culture.
tendencies according to Halverson:
• HEROES – real or imaginary people who serve as
behavior models within a culture. 1. ASSOCIATION
– Relationships begin and end quickly. Productivity
CROSS CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
depends on procedures and paying attention to the
Cross cultural characteristics: goal. The identity of individuals is rooted in themselves
(a) context, (b) collectivism/ individualism, (c) time, (d) and their accomplishments. Social structure is
conflict (Duck &McMahan, 2009) decentralized.

A. CONTEXT 2. TERRITORIALITY
- Space is compartmentalized. Privacy is important, so
• HIGH CONTEXT CULTURE people stand farther apart.
– emphasizes commitment to people, flexibility in plans,
relationships and open friendliness rather than privacy. 3. TEMPORALITY
high context culture often displays the following – Events and tasks are scheduled and to be done at
tendencies according to C.B Halverson’s book Cultural particular times. Change is fast, and time is commodity
Context Inventory. to be spent or saved.

1. ASSOCIATION 4. LEARNING
– Relationships build slowly and depend on trust. – One source of information is used. Thinking proceeds
Productivity depends on relationship and the group from specific to general. Learning occurs by following the
process. An individual’s identity is rooted in groups explicit directions and explanations of others.
(family, culture, work) Social structure and authority are
B. COLLECTIVISM/INDIVIDUALISM
centralized.
• COLLECTIVISM/TOGETHERNESS
2. INTERACTION
– stress group benefit and overriding value of working
- Nonverbal elements such as voice tone, gestures, facial
harmoniously rather than individual personal
expression and eye movement are significant. Verbal
advancement.
messages are indirect and communication is seen as an
art form or way of engaging someone. Disagreement is • INDIVIDUALISM/INDIVIDUALITY
personalized, and a person is sensitive to conflict – focusing on the individual person and his or her
expressed in someone else’s nonverbal communication. personal dreams, goals, and achievements, and right to
make choice.
3. TERRITORIALITY
– Space is communal. People stand close to each other C. TIME
and share the same space.
• MONOCHROMIC
4. TEMPORALITY – think of time as a straight line from beginning to end.
– Everything has its own time, and time is not easily People do one thing at a time or multitask only because
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INTERCULTURAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

it helps them work toward particular goals with tasks in CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
sequence and communication fitting into a particular
order. 1. DOMINATING STYLES
– Involve forcing one’s will on another to satisfy
• POLYCHROMIC individual desires regardless of negative relational
– independent and unconnected tasks can be done consequences.
simultaneously. People often carry one multiple
2. INTEGRATING STYLES
conversations with different people at the same time.
– necessitate a great deal of open discussion about a
D. CONFLICT conflict at hand to reach a solution that completely
satisfies everyone involved.
Cultures can also be distinguished according to their
understanding of and approach to conflict, which 3. COMPROMISING STYLES
involves real or perceived incompatibilities of processes, – a solution is reached following discussion to the
understandings, and viewpoints between people. conflict. However, making a compromised demands that
Communication scholars Judith Martin and Thomas everyone must give something up to reach a solution,
Nakayama (2007) – differentiate two cultural approaches and as a result, people never feel fully satisfied.
to conflict: conflict as opportunity and conflict as
4. OBLIGING STYLES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
destructive.
– involve giving up one’s position to satisfy another’s this
• CONFLICT-AS-OPPORTUNITY style generally emphasizes areas of agreement and
These cultures tend to be individualist. This approach to deemphasizes areas of disagreement.
conflict is based on the following four assumptions
5. AVOIDING STYLES OF CONFLICT
(Martin & Nakayama,2007)
- People avoid the conflict entirely either by failing to
1. Conflict is a normal, useful process. acknowledge its existence or by withdrawing from a
2. All issues are subject to change through negotiation. situation where it arises.
3. Direct confrontation and conciliation are valued.
Dutch management researcher Geert Hofstede (1980)
4. Conflict is necessary renegotiation of an implied
also identified five value dimensions that vary across
contract-a redistribution of opportunity, release of
cultures. He labeled these dimensions as individualism,
tensions and renewal of relationships.
masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance,
Viewed conflict as a normal and useful process, and and task versus social orientation.
inherent part of everyday life.
•INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM DIMENSION –
• CONFLICT-AS –DESTRUCTIVE describes cultures from loosely structured to tightly
These cultures tend to be collectivist, stressing group integrated.
and relational harmony above individual needs and
• MASCULINITY – femininity dimension describes how a
desires. Four assumptions in the destructive nature of
culture’s dominant values are assertive and nurturing.
conflict (Martin & Nakayama, 2007)
• POWER DISTANCE – refers to the distribution of
1. Conflict is a destructive disturbance of the peace.
influence within a culture.
2. The social system should not be adjusted to meet
the needs of members; rather members should •UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE - reflects a culture’s
adapt to established values. ambiguity and acceptance of risk.
3. Confrontations are destructive and ineffective.
4. Disputants should be disciplined. • TASK VERSUS ORIENTATION refers to the end-goal of
a group of people within a communicating setting.

INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISM

- Individualist culture refers to how people define
themselves and their relationships with others. In an
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INTERCULTURAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

individualist culture, the interest of the individual advancing to more responsible jobs, better training, and
prevails over the interest of the group. Ties between so on.
individual are loose. People look after themselves and
their immediate families In groups in socially oriented societies, it focuses more
on collective concerns: cooperative, problem solving,
- Collectivist cultures stress interdependent activities friendly atmosphere, and good physical working
and suppressing individual aims for the group welfare. conditions.
Individualism and collectivism have been associated INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND
with direct and indirect styles of communication. In the COMPETENCE
direct style, associated with individualism, the wants,
needs, and desires of the speaker are embodied in the IDENTIFYING YOUR CULTURE
spoken message. In the indirect style, associated with • YOU BELONG WITHOUT KNOWING IT
collectivism, the wants, needs, and goals of the speaker • YOU DO IT WITHOUT KNOWING IT
are not obvious in the spoken message.
ETHICS ACROSS CULTURES
MASCULINITY VS FEMININITY
Hofstede (1980) found that women’s social role varied • Ethical communicators address people of other
less for culture to culture than men’s. Culture that place cultures with the same respect that they would like to
high value on masculine traits stress assertiveness, received themselves
competition, and material success. Cultures that place • Ethical communicators seek to describe the world as
high value on feminine traits stress quality of life, they perceived it as accurate as possible.
interpersonal relationships, and concern for the weak. • Ethical communicators encourage people of other
cultures to express themselves in their uniqueness.
POWER DISTANCE
Hofstede defines power distance as “the extent to which • Ethical communicators strive for identification with
less powerful members of institutions and organizations people of other cultures.
within a country expect and accept that power is THE LANGUAGE AND ETHICS OF PREJUDICE AND
distributed unequally” RACISM
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE COMMUNICATION can play a role in either spreading
Refers to extent to which people in a culture feel prejudice and racism or stopping their spread. Prejudice
threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. and racism are commonly viewed as being rooted in the
Cultures strong in uncertainty avoidance are active, child’s early socialization and foster in communication
aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security seeking, and with other people who are prejudiced or racist.(Adorno
intolerant; cultures weak in uncertainty avoidance are et al.,1950)
contemplative, less aggressive, unemotional, relaxed,
accepting of personal risks, and relatively tolerant. Out of realizations that speech can cue prejudiced
behavior in others, some have attempted to restrict that
TASK VS. SOCIAL ORIENTATION type of speech, often referred to as hate speech.
Groups in societies with a strong orientation focus
heavily on getting the job done, while those with a high HATE SPEECH includes threats and verbal slurs directed
degree of social orientation are more likely to be against specific groups or physical acts.(Walker,1994)
concerned about the members and their smooth THE LANGUAGE AND ETHICS OF OTHERING
functioning as a team.
OTHERING refers to the labelling and degrading of
Task-oriented societies are characterized by a focus on cultures and subgroups outside of one’s own (Riggins,
making the team more competent through training and 1997).
the use of up-to-date method. In task-oriented societies,
members are highly concerned with individual success:
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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND

COMPETENCE
COMMUNICATION APPROACH TO INTERCULTURAL • IDENTITY MAINTENANCE
COMMUNICATION - the ability to maintain a counterpart’s identity by
communicating back an accurate understanding of that
PERSONALITY STRENGTH person’s identity.
The main personal traits that affect intercultural
communication are self-concept, self-disclosure, self- BARRIERS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
monitoring, and social relaxation.
ANXIETY
• SELF-CONCEPT The first barrier is high anxiety. When you are anxious
- the way in which a person views the self. because of not knowing what you are to do, it is only
natural to focus on that feeling and not be totally present
• SELF-DISCLOSURE in the communication transaction.
– willingness of individuals to openly and appropriately
reveal information about themselves to their ASSUMING SIMILARITIES INSTEAD OF DIFFERENCES
counterparts. When you have no information about a new culture, it
might make sense to assume there are no differences, to
• SELF-MONITORING behave as you would in your home culture. But making
– using social comparison information to control and assumptions could result in miscommunication.
modify your self-presentation and expressive behavior.
Each culture is different and unique to some
• SOCIAL-RELAXATION degree..Boucher (1974), as stated by Jandt(2010), has
- the ability to reveal little anxiety in communication shown how cultures differ as to whom it is appropriate
Effective communicators must know themselves well to display emotions. If you assume that displays of
and through their self-awareness, initiate positive emotions is similar to your culture, you might see people
attitudes. of different cultures in certain circumstances as lacking
COMMUNICATION SKILLS emotions inappropriately.
Individuals must be competent in verbal and non-verbal The inverse can be a barrier as well. Assuming difference
behaviors. Intercultural communication skills require instead of similarity can lead to your not recognizing
message skills, behavioral flexibility, interaction important things that cultures share in common.
management, and social skills
ETHNOCENTRISM
• MESSAGE SKILLS To be ethnocentric is to believe in the superiority of one’s
- the ability to understand and use the language and culture. Everything in a culture is consistent to that
feedback. culture and makes sense if you understand that culture.
Another name for the ethnocentrism is the
• BEHAVIORAL FLEXIBILITY
anthropological concept of cultural relativism. It does not
- the ability to select an appropriate behavior in diverse
mean that everything is equal. It does mean that we try
contexts.
to understand other people’s behavior in the context of
• INTERACTION MANAGEMENT their culture before we judge it.
- emphasizes a person’s other-oriented ability to
It also means that we recognize the subjective nature of
interaction such as attentiveness and responsiveness.
our own cultural behaviors and are willing to re-examine
them by learning about behaviors in other cultures
• SOCIAL SKILLS
(Cohen,1998)
- are empathy and identity maintenance. Empathy is the
ability to think the same thoughts and feel the same A less extreme form of ethnocentrism can be labeled
emotions as the other person. cultural nearsightedness, or taking one’s own culture for
granted and neglecting other culture. It often results in
making assumptions that simple things are the same
everywhere.
 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERM
BARRIERS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE

Stereotypes and prejudice are a destructive stumbling important in all communication, but particularly so in
block to intercultural communication. The term intercultural interactions because the can be quite
stereotype is the broader term commonly used to refer challenging.
to a negative or positive judgments made about • TOLERANCE AND AMBIGUITY
individuals based on any observable or believed group Communicating with people from different backgrounds
membership, whereas prejudice refers to the irrational can be confusing. Tolerance for ambiguity makes it
suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, possible to accept, and even embrace, the often
or sexual orientation. These terms are related in that equivocal and sometimes downright incomprehensible
they both refer to making judgments about individuals messages that characterize intercultural communication.
based on group membership.
• OPEN-MINDEDNESS
• STEREOTYPES It’s one thing to tolerate ambiguity; it’s another to
The word stereotyping was first used by journalist Walter become open-minded about cultural differences. There
Lippmann in 1992 to describe judgments made about is a natural tendency to view others’ communication
others on the basis of their ethnic group membership. choices as “wrong” when they don’t match our cultural
Today, the term is more broadly used to refer to upbringing.
judgments made on the basis of any group membership.
Psychologists have attempted to explain stereotyping as • KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL
mistakes our brains make in the perception of visual The rules and customs that work with one group might
illusions. When information is ambiguous, the brain be quite different from those that succeed with another.
often reaches the wrong conclusion. One way to boost your understanding of cultural
differences is via mindfulness– awareness of your own
- NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION behavior and that of others and how behavior that they
Stereotypes are harmful because they impede consider weird may be simply different.
communication in at least four ways:
➢ They cause us to assume that a widely held belief Communication theorist Charles Berger outlines three
is true when it may not be. strategies for moving forward to a more mindful
➢ Continued use of stereotype reinforces the belief competent style of intercultural communication:
➢ Stereotypes also impede communication when
• PASSIVE OBSERVATION involves noticing what
they cause us to assume that a widely held belief
behaviors embers to a different culture use and
is true of any one individual.
applying these insights to communicate in ways that
➢ The stereotype can become a “self-fulfilling
are more effective.
prophecy” for the person stereotyped.
• ACTIVE STRATEGIES includes reading, watching films
and asking experts and members of the other culture
• PREJUDICE
on how to behave, as well as taking academic courses
Refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion or hatred of a
related to intercultural communication and diversity.
particular group, race, religion or sexual orientation
• SELF-DISCLOSURE involves volunteering personal
(Rothenerg,1992). Persons with the group are viewed
information to people from the other culture.
not in terms of their individual merit but according to the
superficial characteristics that make them part of the
group.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
• MOTIVATION
The desire to communicate successfully with strangers is
an important start. Having the proper motivation is
 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERM
VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

DIVERSITY 2. REFERENTIAL
- providing the listener some information referring to
- DIVERSITY IS REALITY -
objects or abstract concepts.
TYPES OF DIVERSITY: Example: The mobile phone unit has been sent via door-
• Socially excluded groups to-door at 10 o’clock. Please notify our office
• Nationality once you have received it.
• Ethnicity 3. EXPRESSIVE
• Race - showing the speaker’s judgement or feelings about
• Gender person, event, or situation.
• Sexual preference Example: It’s truly unbelievable! How could she do such
VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN a terrible thing?
LANGUAGE 4. TRANSACTIONAL
Because of globalization, people in a world where - getting information or making a deal. It has a specific
varieties of spoken and written language cross national purpose and is driven by needs and wants rather than
boundaries. sociability.
Example: A: May I know how much this parcel cost?
There are two factors that distinguish spoken language B: You can give me P100.00.
from written one:
1. The actual situation or context in which the language 5. PHATIC
is used. - engaging in small, plain talk. The speaker and listener
2. The purpose of communication. use minimal amount of language to engage in the
conversation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE Example: A: Coffee?
• The situation in which the spoken variety of language is B: Yes, black.
used and in which it develops presupposes the
CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE
presence of an interlocutor.
• The spoken language is mostly maintained in the form 1. The written variety presupposes the absence of the
of a dialogue. interlocutor.
• The spoken language utilizes the human voice and all 2. The written language is mostly maintained in the form
kinds of gestures which give additional information. of a monologue.
• The spoken language is spontaneous but momentary. 3. The written language is more carefully organized and
• The spoken language cannot be detached from the user more explanatory.
of it. 4. The written language is able to live forever with the
• The spoken language widely uses intensifying words. idea it expresses.
• The spoken language is characterized by the insertion 5. The written can be detached and objectively looked at.
into the utterance of words without any meaning. 6. The written language bears a greater volume of
responsibility than its spoken counterpart.
5 VARIETIES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE
Both varieties, maybe different in terms of their
1. INTERACTIONAL phonetics, morphology, lexicon, and syntax. The most
- having a social function. This makes use of informal type striking difference between the spoken and written
of speech which aims to develop relationships between language is in the vocabulary used.
interlocutors.
Example: A: Hi! How are you today?
B. I’m good. You?
A. I’m OK.
 PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERM
VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

4. Avoid exclusionary gender-specific language.

5. Avoid using explicitly religious terms in mixed religious
company.
6. Avoid expressions that devalue people with physical or
mental disabilities.
7. Refrain from language that groups people in to one
large category

SOME POLITICALLY CORRECT WORDS AND EXPRESSION

Political correctness has an important purpose: it
FORMS/TYPES OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN
promotes equality by demonstrating and an
COMMUNICATION
understanding that all people and groups are valuable to
society regardless of race, culture,religion,gender, or
sexual orientation.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE, ENGAGING AND

APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE
“Calling an illegal alien an undocumented immigrant is
like calling a drug dealer an undocumented pharmacist.”
– Anon
The choice of words is a powerful strategy in
communication. When Confucius said, “when words lose
their meanings, people lose their freedom.” the control
of language is an essential tool for an engaging and
responsive communication. Cultural appropriateness of
language is conforming to a culture’s acceptable
expressions and standards of behavior and thoughts.
This is referred to us “political correctness” which means
being respectful and considerate. CULTURALLY (IN)APPROPRIATE IMAGES
Cultural appropriation of images is the adoption of the
WAYS ON HOW TO CHOOSE APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE iconography of another culture, and using it for purposes
(HOGAN-GARCIA,1999) that are unintended by the original culture or even
1. Notice and reflect on disrespectful language, thoughts, offensive to that culture’s mores.
and actions. Cultural sensitivity is an attitude and way of behaving in
2. Respect people of different races. which you are aware of and acknowledge cultural
3. Use language that includes LGBTQIA+ people. (two differences. This is crucial for effective interpersonal
genders, agender and genderfluid) communication.