List of Experiments

1. Layout of Strength of materials Lab.

2. Study of Instruments used in Strength of Materials lab.
3. Direct Shear Test on plain steel bar and plate.
4. Compression Test on Wooden Samples to observe anisotropic behavior of wood.
5. Tension test on steel specimens ASTM A615/A.
6. Hardness Test on steel specimens ASTM E18.
7. Impact test on steel samples under bending and in tension.
8. Flexural test on wooden beam.
 LAYOUT OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

Layout: -

Legend: -
1) 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine.
2) 50 Ton Dension Universal Testing Machine.
3) Shimadzu 500 kN Tension Testing Machine.
4) Avery Torsion Testing Machine.
5) Charpy Impact Testing Machine.
6) 100 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine.
7) Shimadzu Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.
8) Brinell Hardness Testing Machine.
9) Shimadzu Fatigue Testing Machine.
 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTS

Objective: -
 This test will help us to overview the location, orientation, and purpose of the machinery
present in the strength of materials laboratory.

10 Ton BUCKTON Universal Testing Machine: -

The manufacturer of this machine is JASHUA BUCTON CO. LTD
LEEDS ENGLAND. Types of Tests Performed are Tension Test,
Compression, Bending, Torsion Test, Shear Test and Punching
Test.
Its capacity is 10 tons and least count is 0.001 tons.1 ton is divided
into 10 divisions each division is 0.1 ton, which is further divided
into 10 divisions each division is 0.01 ton and it is further divided
into 10 division on venire scale to measure up to 0.001 tons.

Figure 1

Denison Universal Testing Machine: -

The manufacturer of this machine is SMAL & DENISON SON LTD
LEDDS ENGLAND. It has electric hydraulic system for the
application of load. It consists of two parts. The upper part is fixed
whereas the lower part of the machine can move. Types of tests
Performed are Tension Test, Compression Test and bending Test.
It has four different scales.
 5 tons LC = 0.005 tons
 10 tons LC = 0.01 tons
 25 tons LC = 0.025 tons
 50 tons LC = 0.05 tons
Figure 2
 SHIMARDZU Testing Machine:
This machine is made in Japan. It is the latest machine for testing
tension and compression. The upper and lower parts of the machine
can be moved. This machine can be connected to the computer to
get stress strain curve digitally. The machine switches the scale
automatically from one scale to another according to the load. Types
of Tests Performed Tension Test, Compression Test and Bending
Test.
Following is the commonly found scale of it:
 10 kN LC = 0.01 per div
 25 kN LC = 0.025 per div Figure 3
 50 kN LC = 0.05 per div
 100 kN LC = 0.10 per div
 250 kN LC = 0.25 per div
 500 kN LC = 0.50 per div

AVERY Torsion Testing Machine:

The manufacturer of the machine is W & T AVERY LTD BIRMINGHAM ENGLAND. It has a
fixed head and a twisting head. It is used to perform torsion test.
Rotating Speed:
 0-3.33 degree per min
 0-10 degree per min
 0-30 degree per min
 0-90 degree per min
Scale:
 0-1500 pounds inch
 0-3000 pounds inch
 0-7500 pounds inch
 0-15000 pounds inch

Figure 4
 CHARPY Impact Testing Machine:
The manufacturer of the machine is CHARPY LTD ENGLAND. In this machine fork moves and
then hit the specimen for a short interval of time and then it gives the value of impact load. It is
operated manually. Its capacity is 0-170 degrees.
Impact load is the sudden application of significant magnitude of load for a very short interval of
time.
It can perform impact test under two conditions:
 Tension.
 Bending.

Figure 5

100-ton BUCKTON Universal Testing Machine:

The manufacturer of the machine is BUCKTON MANUFACTURERS. The upper part of the
machine is fixed, and lower part is moved for test. The machine is both electrically and hydraulically
to apply load. Its capacity is 100 tons (200,000 pounds). It can perform Tension Test, Compression
Test and Bending Test.
Scale:
 20,000 pounds
 200,000 pounds
 Figure 6

Rock Well Hardness Testing Machine:

The manufacturer of the machine is W & T AVERY LTD BIRMINGHAM ENGLAND. This
machine is used to determine the hardness of a material. It is used to perform hardness test.
Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation or penetration.
Scale:
 B-Scale for low carbon steel.
 C-Scale for high carbon steel.
Types of Penetrators:
 Steel ball 1/16 in Día for low carbon steel.
 Diamond cone for high carbon steel.

Figure 7

SHIMARDZU Fatigue Testing Machine:

This machine is used for finding the fatigue test in any material.
Repeated loading which causes reversal of stresses in the material (i.e., in one condition tension and
another condition compression) is known as fatigue. Material fatigue is a phenomenon where
structures fail when subjected to a cyclic load. This type of structural damage occurs even when the
experienced stress range is far below the static material strength.

Figure 8
 BRINELL hardness Testing Machine:
This machine is also used to measure the hardness of the material or to test the materials that have
coarse or rough surface. It ranges from 300-3000 kg. in stages of 250 kgf. Its capacity is 3000 kgf.

Figure 9

Models of different structures:

 Plate girders and beck bridges:

Figure 10

 Truss models:
It also includes fink roof truss, bridge truss and joints of trusses.

Figure 11
 EXPERIMENT 01:
STUDY OF SMALL INSTRUMENTS

Objective:
To get awareness of various small instruments which are used in the lab for small measurements.

Instruments:
 Vernier caliper
 Micrometer screw gauge
 Betty’s extensometer
 Dial gauge
 Deflection gauge
 Spring divider
 Inside caliper
 Outside caliper

Vernier Caliper:
The Vernier caliper is a highly precise length measuring instrument usually used to measure diameter
of cylindrical objects and length of small objects.
A vernier caliper consists of following parts:
 Main Scale
 Vernier Scale
 Upper Jaws
 Lower Jaws
 Lock Screw
 Thumb Screw
 Depth Rod

Taking Measurements: Figure 12

Place the object whose diameter or length is to be measured between the jaws of the vernier caliper.
Note down the main scale reading and then note down the vernier scale reading. Check the vernier
scale division which considers with the main scale division. Multiply the number of divisions with
the least count of vernier caliper and add to the main scale reading. Add correction if there is any zero
error.
Screw Gauge:
Micrometer Screw Gauge is defined as an instrument that is used for measuring the diameter of thin
wires and the thickness of small sheets such as glass or plastics. The maximum opening size of screw
gauge is 25 mm.
Parts of Screw Gauge:
 Main Scale
 Circular Scale
 Frame
 Anvil/Stud
 Spindle
 Sleeve
 Thimble
 Ratchet
 Screw
 Lock
Taking Measurements:
Place the object whose diameter is to be measured between anvil and spindle of the screw gauge with
gentle pressure. Note down the main scale reading and then note down the circular scale reading.
Check the circular scale reading which coincide with the base line of the main scale. Multiply that
reading with the least count of Screw Gauge and add to the main scale reading. Add correction if
there is any zero error.

Figure 13
Betty’s Extensometer:
It is useful for stress-strain measurements and tensile tests. Betty’s Extensometer is used to measure
extension in steel bars. It has two scales a large scale and a small scale. Large scale is graduated from
0 to 25 and small scale from 0 to 100.
1 1
It can measure extension from “ ” to 1 ” Dia. Its least count is 1/20,000”.
2 2
Taking Measurements:
Read the reading from large scale and then add small scale reading in it and then multiply the whole
reading with least count to get extension in inches.

Figure 14

Dial Gauge:
Dial Gauge is an instrument which is used to measure small lengths and diameter of different objects.
Its scale has graduation from 0 to 1”. Its least count is 0.0025”.
Taking Measurements:
Read the reading from large scale and then add small scale reading in it and then multiply the whole
reading with least count to get dial gauge reading.

Figure 15
Deflection Gauge:
Deflection gauge is an instrument that is used to measure the extension in various objects. It has two
scales a large scale (apparently small) and a small scale (apparently large). It can measure deflection
up to 1”. Its least count is 0.001”.
1 division on the large scale means one complete revolution on small scale. It is used to measure
deflection during bend test on wooden beam. Its bottom part can behave like a magnet which is used
to fix it firmly.
Taking Measurements:
Read the large-scale reading which is in smaller size and multiply it with 100 because 1div = 100 in
large scale and then add the small-scale reading. Multiply the whole reading with least count to get
deflection in inches.

Figure 16

Spring Divider:
This instrument is used for the measuring extension in lengths. It has no scale. Open it up to the
required limit and then place it on the ruler to read the reading.

Figure 17
Inside caliper:
A caliper that has two legs with feet that turn outward is called inside caliper. It is used to
measure inside dimensions, as the diameter of a hole. It has no scale.

Figure 18

Outside caliper:
A caliper whose legs turn inward so that it can measure outside dimensions, as the diameter of a rod
is called outside caliper.

Figure 19
 EXPERIMENT 02:
TO PERFORM DIRECT SHEAR TEST ON PLAIN STEEL BAR
AND PUNCHING SHEAR TEST ON STEEL PLATE

Objective:
 This test is used to determine the shear strength of steel samples.

Apparatus:
 10-ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine
 Shear jigs
 Vernier caliper
 Screw gauge
 Steel bars
 Steel plate

Related Theory:
Shear Force:
Shear force is a force applied perpendicular to a surface, in opposition to an offset force acting in the
opposite direction. It is a force to slide two surfaces against each other.
Shear Stress:
Shear stress is the intensity of the internal force on a plane when the forces are acting parallel to the
section. In other words, it is the force tending to cause deformation of a material by slippage along a
plane or planes parallel to the imposed stress.
v
τ=
A
Types of Shear Stresses:
Following are some types of shear stress:
 Direct Shear Stress
(a) Single Shear Stress
(b) Double Shear Stress
(c) Punching Shear Stress
 Induced Shear Stress
Direct Shear Stress:
If force applied is parallel to the area being sheared is called direct shear.
(a) Single Shear Stress:
Stress induced due to a force causing single area of cross section to be sheared is known as single
shear.
V
V
Single Shear Stress = = 2 π
A D ( )
4

(b) Double Shear Stress:

Stress induced due to a force causing two areas of cross section to be sheared is known as double
shear.
V
V
Double Shear Stress = = 2 π
2 A 2D ( )
4

(c) Punching Shear Stress:

Stress induced due to a force causing one part to punch into the other is known as punching shear.
V V D + Di
Punching Shear Stress = = where D = o
A πDt 2
Induced Shear Stress:
Shearing stresses induced due to a force which acts an angle to an area being sheared.

Procedure:
Procedure In this experiment, there are two samples steel bar and steel plate. Single shear test is
applied on steel bar and punching shear test is applied on steel plate. For this, first of all measure the
diameter of the steel bar and its cross-sectional area of the bar and inside and outside diameter of the
jigs. Fix the sample in the shear jigs and place it between the two jaws of 10ton Buckton universal
testing machine. Then load is applied on the samples until the bar gets sheared and this gives force
that tries to punch the steel plate or slide the two parts of the steel bar. After putting the values of
forces which are obtained experimentally, we get the values of single shear stress and punching shear
stress for steel bar and steel plate respectively.
 Observation and Calculations

For Steel Bar:

Load Diameter Area (m2) Shear Stress
Sr. No. Test Sample (mm) (Mpa)
Tons N
1 Steel Bar 1.27 12654.30089 6 2.87×10-5 440.302
For Steel Plate:
Punching
Diameter Average Plate
Sr. Test Load Area Shear
(mm) diameter thickness
No. Sample Stress
Tons N D0 D1 (mm) (mm) (mm2) Mpa
2.3
Steel 23216.1583 15.
1 3 14.9 15.05 2.1 9.82 2364.17
Plate 2 2

Precaution:
• Note the reading carefully
• Jerk may cause error in noting

Comments:
I performed the above experiment and with the help 10 Ton UTM I calculated the directed shear
stress values for steel bar is 440.302 Mpa and punching shear stress value for steel plate is 2364.17
Mpa.
 Experiment 03:
TO CARRY OUT COMPRESSION TEST ON WOODEN CUBES
WHEN LOAD IS APPLIED PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN
AND PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN
Objective:
 To determine compressive strength of wood.
 To determine modulus of elasticity of wood.
 To determine modulus of stiffness of wood.
 To determine anisotropic behavior of wood.
 To study the failure pattern and failure modes

Apparatus:
 5oo kN Shimardzu Universal Testing Machine
 Wooden samples (2 samples)
 Vernier caliper
 Deflection gauge

Related Theory:
Compressive Strength:
The maximum stress that a material can bear in compression is called compressive strength.
Modulus of Elasticity (E):
It is the ratio of stress to strain and is determined by the slope of straight line from zero to
proportional limit of stress strain diagram.
σ
E=
ϵ
σ =E∗ϵ
P E∗δ
=
A L
PL
δ=
AE
 1
δ∝
E

Also,
P AE
=
δ L

AE
k=
L
Where k is modulus of stiffness.
Modulus of Stiffness (k):
It is the force required to produce unit deformation.
AE P
k= =
L δ
Isotropic Materials:
The materials which exhibit same properties in different direction are known as isotropic materials
e.g., steel.
Anisotropic Materials:
The materials which exhibit different properties in different directions are known as anisotropic
materials e.g., wood.
Failure of Wooden Cube when Load is Applied:
Parallel to grains:
When load is applied parallel to grains, the wooden sample will take more load to fail. The ability of
wood to take more load parallel to grains before failing is because each fiber acts as a column to take
load.
Perpendicular to grains:
When load is applied perpendicular to grains, wooden sample takes comparatively less load. This is
because each fiber behaves as a beam and the failure of single fiber will cause the failure of whole
sample.
Procedure:
When load is applied parallel to the grains:
Place the wooden specimen between the lower platoon and the platform. The specimen is placed in
such a way that the load applied is parallel to the grains of the specimen. Now applied load on it and
use a deflection gauge to find deflection in it. Check the deflection after some interval of load like
5kN. Stop checking when load stops increasing. It is the point of failure of specimen. To calculate
deformation of any point, take the difference of deflection of that point and initial point. And convert
it into mm. This deformation is used to calculate the strain which is deformation divided by original
height. And then it is converted into %strain by multiplying it with 100. Calculate stress which is the
ratio of load and area. Plot graph between stress (y-axis) and %strain (x-axis). The slope will give
modulus of elasticity. Plot another graph between load (y-axis) and deformation (x-axis). The slope
will give modulus of stiffness.

Wooden
Cube

Cylinder

When load is applied perpendicular to the grains:

First place the wooden specimen between the lower platoon and the platform. The specimen is placed
in such a way that the load applied is perpendicular to the grains of the specimen. Now applied load
on it and use a deflection gauge to find deflection in it. Check the deflection after some interval of
load like 1kN. Stop checking when load stops increasing. It is the point of failure of specimen. To
calculate deformation of any point, take the difference of deflection of that point and initial point.
And convert it into mm. This deformation is used to calculate the strain which is deformation divided
by original height. And then it is converted into %strain by multiplying it with 100. Calculate stress
which is the ratio of load and area. Plot graph between stress (y-axis) and %strain (x-axis). The slope
will give modulus of elasticity. Plot another graph between load (y-axis) and deformation (x-axis).
The slope will give modulus of stiffness.
 P

Wooden Cube

Cylinder

Procedure: -
First of all, determine the dimension (L, W, and H) of all three sides of the wooden cube by the
Vernier Caliper. Then fix the cube in the machine and apply load in increments. And note the
readings of load and deflection readings. Then calculate the deformation, stress, and strain, and
modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.

 Parallel to grains
Sr# LOAD Deflection Deformation %Strain Stress Modulus Modulus
(KN) Gauge (δ) Of Of
Reading(inch) Elasticity Stiffness
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 5 17 0.4318 0.8636 0.002 0.231589 11.57943
3 10 22 0.5588 1.1176 0.004 0.35791 17.89549
4 15 25 0.635 1.27 0.006 0.472441 23.62205
5 20 27 0.6858 1.3716 0.008 0.58326 29.16302
6 25 30 0.762 1.524 0.01 0.656168 32.8084
7 30 32 0.8128 1.6256 0.012 0.738189 36.90945
8 35 35 0.889 1.778 0.014 0.787402 39.37008
9 40 37 0.9398 1.8796 0.016 0.851245 42.56225
10 45 39 0.9906 1.9812 0.018 0.90854 45.42701
11 50 41 1.0414 2.0828 0.02 0.960246 48.01229
12 55 43 1.0922 2.1844 0.022 1.007142 50.35708
13 60 45 1.143 2.286 0.024 1.049869 52.49344
14 65 48 1.2192 2.4384 0.026 1.066273 53.31365
15 70 50 1.27 2.54 0.028 1.102362 55.11811
16 75 54 1.3716 2.7432 0.03 1.093613 54.68066
17 80 57 1.4478 2.8956 0.032 1.105125 55.25625
18 85 63 1.6002 3.2004 0.034 1.062367 53.11836
19 88.7 70 1.778 3.556 0.03548 0.99775 49.88751

 Perpendicular to grain

Sr# LOAD Deflection Deformation %Strain Stress Modulus Modulus

 (KN) Gauge (δ) Of Of
Reading(inch) Elasticity Stiffness
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 7 0.1778 0.3556 0.0008 0.224972 11.24859
3 4 13 0.3302 0.6604 0.0016 0.242277 12.11387
4 6 18 0.4572 0.9144 0.0024 0.262467 13.12336
5 8 26 0.6604 1.3208 0.0032 0.242277 12.11387
6 10 63 1.6002 3.2004 0.004 0.124984 6.249219

Experiment 05:
TO PERFORM TENSION TEST ON HOT ROLLED DEFORMED
STEEL BARS
Objective:
 To study stress strain behavior of the specimen.
 To check the adequacy of the specimen according to the standards.
 To determine different mechanical properties of steel.

Apparatus:
 500 kN Shimardzu Universal Testing Machine
 Extensometer (L.C 1/20,000”)
 Spring Divider
 Vernier Caliper (L.C 0.05 mm)
 Weighing Balance
 Steel Tape
 Hot Rolled Steel Bar

Related Theory:
Steel:
For a material to be classified as steel there should be no free graphite in its composition.
Classification of Steel:
Steel can be classified into the following classes based upon its carbon content:
 Low Carbon Steel
 Medium Carbon Steel
 High Carbon Steel
 Mild Carbon Steel
(a) Low Carbon Steel:
It is also called Dead Mild Steel. If carbon content is less than 0.2% than this type of carbon is known
as Low Carbon Steel.
(b) Medium Carbon Steel:
If carbon content ranges from 0.2% - 0.6% then it is called Medium Carbon Steel.
(c) High Carbon Steel:
If carbon content ranges from 0.6% - 1.0% then it is called High Carbon Steel.
(d) Mild Carbon Steel:
If carbon content ranges from 0.15% - 0.3% then it is called Mild Carbon Steel.
Chemical Composition of Mild Steel is:
 Carbon C 0.25%
 Sulphur S 0.06%
 Phosphorous P 0.06%
Billets/Ingots:
After steel is obtained in molten form it is converted into molten form it is converted into solids cubes
using ingots. Ingots are like a mould that are used to shape the molten steel.
1. 75mm by 75mm for grade 40
2. 100mm BY 100mm for Grade 60
Effect on mechanical properties of steel when carbon content increase:
1: Decrease ductility
2: Increase the tensile stress
3: Increase the Hardness
4: Lowers the melting Points of steel
5: Increase the difficulty in welding the steel
6: Lowers the Temperature required to heat the steel
Stress:
Stress can be defined as force per unit area. It is a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces
that neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other. Its SI unit is N/m2.
F
Stress =
A

Strain:
Measure of deformation of an object is known as strain. It is the ratio of change in length to the
original length. It has no unit.
∆l ∆V ∆γ
Strain = = =
l V γ

Stress-Strain Diagram:
The stress-strain curve is a graph that shows the change in stress as strain increases. It is a widely used
reference graph for metals in material science and manufacturing. Stress and strain are calculated on the
basis of tension test data plotted on a graph with the ordinate representing stress and abscissa representing
the strain is called Stress-Strain Diagram.

Proportional Limit:
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is the linear
function of strain is called Proportional Limit.
(No proportional limit exists for brittle materials; it exits only for ductile materials because brittle
materials don’t undergo appreciable deformation before failure and suddenly breaks.)
Elastic Limit:
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that there is no permanent
or residual deformation when load is entirely removed is called Elastic Limit.
Hook’s law is not valid after elastic limit and the numerical values of proportional limit and elastic
limit are usually identical.
Yield Point:
A point on Stress-Strain Curve after which there is increase in strain with no significant increase in
stress is called yield point. The phenomenon is called yielding.
The stress corresponding to yielding point is known as Yield Strength of the material which if
represented in “ksi” gives the grade of steel. The stress may actually decrease momentarily resulting
in upper and lower yield points. Grade 40 and 60 are most commonly used.

Strain Hardening Zone:

If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point without failure, the material
is said to be strain hardened. It is a zone after yielding when the particles of material re-arrange
themselves and start taking load again, so stress starts increasing.
Ultimate Strength:
Ultimate strength is the maximum load that can be carried by one square inch of cross-sectional area
when the load is applied as simple tension. In other words, it is the maximum engineering stress in a
uniaxial stress-strain test. Maximum or highest stress on Stress-Strain Diagram is also called Ultimate
Strength. It is the maximum strength of the material. It is also known as tensile strength.
Necking:
Localized decreased in cross sectional area of sample ager the ultimate strength is called Necking.
Necking continuous up to the failure of the material. Due to necking (cup and cone formation) the
cross-sectional area is reduced.

Actual Rupture Strength (ARS):

Stress developed in a material at rupture is known as actual rupture strength. It is not necessarily
equal to ultimate strength. Actual Rupture Strength can be obtained by dividing the rupture load with
actual rupture area. Actual rupture strength is higher than Nominal rupture strength.
Nominal Rupture Strength (ARS):
Failure stress calculated on the basis of nominal area is known as nominal rupture strength. For
ductile materials, Nominal rupture strength is always less than Actual rupture strength.

Modulus of Elasticity:
It is the ratio of stress to strain and is determined by the slope of straight line from zero to
proportional limit of stress strain diagram. It is also known as Young’s Modulus.
According to Hook’s law
stress∝ strain
σ =E∗ϵ
σ
E=
ϵ
Modulus of the elasticity for steel is 200,000 MPa or 29x106 psi.
Resilience:
The ability of a material to absorb energy in an elastic range (i.e., without permanent deformation) is
called Resilience.
Modulus of Resilience:
The maximum amount of energy per unit volume that a material can absorb and still return to its
original position is known as Modulus of resilience. It is the amount of work done on a unit volume
of material as a simple tensile force is increased from 0 to proportional limit and is calculated as the
area under stress-strain diagram from 0 to proportional limit. Its units are MPa or psi.
Toughness:
The ability of a material to absorb energy in plastic range (i.e., with permanent deformation) is called
Toughness. It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing.
Modulus of Toughness:
The amount of strain energy density (strain on a unit volume of material) that a given material can
absorb before it fractures is known as modulus of toughness. It is the amount of work done (energy
absorbed) on a unit volume of material as simple tensile force is increased from 0 to failure of
specimen. Its units are MPa or psi.
Gauge Length:
Gauge length is the length between two marks on the bar. It is the part of a test specimen actually
being measured for elongation during a tensile test. For commercial purposes, we take gauge length
as 8” and for academic purpose, we take 2” or 50mm.
Methods for Determination of Yielding:
Following are the methods for determination of yielding.
1. Halting of Machine Method
2. Offset Method
3. Loder Line Method
4. Specific Strain Method
1. Halting of Machine Method
In this method, the stress may actually decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower yield
points. The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by Halting of machine. It is also
called Drop of Beam Method.
2. Offset Method
Offset method is used to determine the yield strength of those materials who do not give well defined
yield point. This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress strain diagram at
0.2% strain.
3. Loder Line Method
When the specimen yields, a pattern of fine lines appears on the polished surface.
4. Specific Strain Method
In this method, simply 0.5% of the total strain is marked to determine the corresponding stress, which
is yielding stress.

Procedure:
First of all, write down the shape and size of the specimen. Then measure the length of specimen and
weight it to find the cross-sectional area of specimen. Mark the gauge length on the specimen
throughout the length of the specimen for determination of percentage elongation after fracture, i.e.,
Ductility. Fix the Extensometer to measure the elongation up to its region and grip the specimen in
machine jaws. Apply the load in desired increment and take readings of extensometer. Remove the
extensometer at its limit and record the elongation with a spring divider. After that, join the two
broken pieces together and measure the approximate diameter at failure zones for determination of
final cross-sectional area. Measure the change in lengths for gauge lengths marked throughout the
lengths of specimen for estimation of effect of gauge length on percentage elongation.

Observations And Calculations

Least count of extensometer = 0.001 mm/ div

original diameter of the bar = d = 12.51 mm

Density of steel = 𝜌steel = 7850 kgm-3

Gauge length = 50 mm

Load Elongation %Strain Stress

Extensomete ∆𝑙 𝑃
Sr. No. P r reading ∆l %𝜖 = 𝜎= Remarks
𝐴
×
(kN) (mm) 𝑙 (MPa)
100
1 0 500 0 0.000 0.00
2 2 503 0.003 0.006 15.50
3 4 507 0.007 0.014 31.01
4 6 511 0.011 0.022 46.51
5 8 515 0.015 0.030 62.02
6 10 518 0.018 0.036 77.52
7 12 522 0.022 0.044 93.02
8 14 526 0.026 0.052 108.53
9 16 530 0.03 0.060 124.03
10 18 533 0.033 0.066 139.53
11 20 537 0.037 0.074 155.04
12 22 540 0.04 0.080 170.54
13 24 545 0.045 0.090 186.05
14 26 548 0.048 0.096 201.55
15 28 552 0.052 0.104 217.05
16 30 556 0.056 0.112 232.56
17 32 559 0.059 0.118 248.06
18 34 563 0.063 0.126 263.57
19 36 566 0.066 0.132 279.07
20 38 569 0.069 0.138 294.57
21 40 572 0.072 0.144 310.08
22 42 576 0.076 0.152 325.58
23 44 585 0.085 0.170 341.09
24 46 590 0.09 0.180 356.59
25 47.9 594 0.094 0.188 371.32
26 48 603 0.103 0.206 372.09
27 48.1 650 0.15 0.300 372.87
28 48.1 700 0.2 0.400 372.87
29 48.1 750 0.25 0.500 372.87
30 48.1 800 0.3 0.600 372.87
31 48.1 850 0.35 0.700 372.87
32 48.1 900 0.4 0.800 372.87
33 48.1 950 0.45 0.900 372.87
34 48.1 1000 0.5 1.000 372.87
35 48.1 1050 0.55 1.100 372.87
36 48.1 1100 0.6 1.200 372.87
37 48.1 1150 0.65 1.300 372.87 Yield point
38 48.1 1200 0.7 1.400 372.87
39 48.1 1250 0.75 1.500 372.87
40 48.1 1300 0.8 1.600 372.87
41 48.1 1350 0.85 1.700 372.87
42 48.1 1400 0.9 1.800 372.87
43 48.1 1450 0.95 1.900 372.87
44 48.1 1500 1 2.000 372.87
45 48.1 1550 1.05 2.100 372.87
46 48.1 1600 1.1 2.200 372.87
47 48.1 1650 1.15 2.300 372.87
48 50 1678 1.178 2.356 387.60
49 50.5 1688 1.188 2.376 391.47
50 51 1710 1.21 2.420 395.35
51 51.5 1736 1.236 2.472 399.22
52 52 1768 1.268 2.536 403.10
53 52.5 1805 1.305 2.610 406.98
54 53 1835 1.335 2.670 410.85
55 53.5 1870 1.37 2.740 414.73
56 54 1911 1.411 2.822 418.60
57 54.5 1960 1.46 2.920 422.48
58 55 2010 1.51 3.020 426.36
59 55.5 2055 1.555 3.110 430.23
60 56 2100 1.6 3.200 434.11
61 56.5 2150 1.65 3.300 437.98
62 57 2188 1.688 3.376 441.86
63 57.5 2234 1.734 3.468 445.74
 64 58 2281 1.781 3.562 449.61
65 58.5 2328 1.828 3.656 453.49
66 58.8 2500 2 04 455.81
67 59 52 2 04 457.36
68 60 53 3 06 465.12
69 61 54 4 08 472.87
70 62 55 5 10 480.62
71 63 56 6 12 488.37
72 64 56.5 6.5 13 496.12
73 65 57 7 14 503.88
74 66 58 8 16 511.63
75 68 58 8 16 527.13
76 70 59 9 18 542.64
77 72 59 9 18 558.14
78 74 60 10 20 573.64
Point of
79 74.95 62 12 24 581.01 failure

Comparison Of the Properties

Properties Calculated value Standard value

Diameter 12.51 mm 12.7 mm
Nominal dimensions Area 122.915 mm2 129 mm2
perimeter 39.30 mm 39.9 mm
Yield strength 372.87 MPa
Ultimate strength 581.01 MPa
Modulus of toughness 11.94 GPa
Modulus of elasticity 79.718 MPa
Modulus of resilience 36.48 MPa
Yield Strain 0.21 %
Ultimate Strain 24%
Grade 57.04 40
 Experiment 06: -
To perform hardness test on a given steel specimens using Rockwell
hardness testing machine.
Objective:

 To check the hardness of materials.

 Indirect strength test of materials.
 Quality control in industries.

Apparatus:
1. Shimadzu Rockwell hardness testing machine.
2. Indenters steel balls and diamond cone.

Related Theory:
Hardness:
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration. However, the
term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either mechanical indentation or
abrasion. In general, different materials differ in their hardness; for example hard metals such as titanium and
beryllium are harder than soft metals such
as sodium and metallic tin, or wood and common plastics. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong
intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different
measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. :

Hardness is dependent on:

1. Ductility
2. Elastic stiffness
3. Plasticity
4. Strain
5. Strength
6. Toughness
Hardness Test Methods:
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test
Vickers Hardness Test
Micro hardness Test
Moh's Hardness Test
Scleroscope hardness test

Intenders:
1/16” diameter steel ball for mild C steel sample.
Diamond cone for high carbon steel sample.
Procedure:
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or hardened
steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load usually 10 kg.
When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and
so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the
preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in
penetration. When equilibrium has again been reached, the additional major load is removed but the
preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so
reducing the depth of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the
application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.

Observations and Calculations

Load (kg)
Sr. Type of Hardness Mean
Specimen Scal
No. Indenter Major Minor Number Hardness
e
Load Load
1 1/16” dia- 90 10 HR91B
Mild Carbon
2 steel ball B 90 10 HR89B HR89.8B
3 Steel Specimen 90 10 HR89.5B
indenter
1 Diamond 140 10 HR62C
High Carbon
2 cone C 140 10 HR63C HR62.3C
3 Steel Specimen 140 10 HR62C
indenter

Precautions:
 Avoid any personal error.
 Note the reading carefully.
 Experiment 07
To Perform Impact Test on Different Steel Samples.
Objective:

To determine Modulus of Toughness of Steel in Tension and in Bending.

Apparatus:
1. Charpy’s Impact Testing Machine
2. Steel Samples:
3. Sample of rectangular x-section for impact test in bending.
4. Sample of circular x-section for impact test in tension.

Related Theory
Toughness:
The ability of a material to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before fracture is called
toughness.

Plastic Range:
The stress range in which a material will not fail when subjected to a force but will not recover completely
so that a permanent deformation results when the force is removed.
Modulus of Toughness:

The amount of energy absorbed in plastic range. It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material
as simple tensile force is increased from 0 to failure of specimen.
It is calculated as the total area under stress strain diagram. Its units are Psi and MPa
Types of Loads:

Loads can be divided into three types based on their mode of application.
Static Loads
Dynamic Loads
Impact Loads

Static Loads:
The loads which do not change their magnitude, location or direction are termed as static loads.

For example:
Self-weight of a structure.

Dynamic Loads:
The loads which change their magnitude, direction or location are known as dynamic loads.

For example:
wind load, earthquake load, and traffic load etc.

Impact Load:
A large magnitude of load applied suddenly for a very short interval of time is called impact load.

For example:
landing of an airplane, explosion, and passing of vehicles on expansion joints.
Derivation of Modulus of Toughness:

----------
MOT = ∆𝐸 (1)
𝑉

∆𝐸 = E1– E2
∆𝐸 = mgh1 – mgh2 = mg (h1 – h2)----------(2)
where,
h1 = ho + R sin (𝜃1 − 90°) = ho - R cos 𝜃1

h2 = h0 + R sin (𝜃2− 90°) = ho - R cos 𝜃2

Equation (2) ∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 (ho - R cos 𝜃1 − ho + R cos 𝜃2)

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔 (R cos 𝜃2 − R cos 𝜃1)

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔R (cos 𝜃2− cos 𝜃1

Procedure: -
For Bending:
First of all, measure the θ1 without placing the rectangular steel specimen in the machine. Now place the
rectangular specimen and measure the value of θ2. It is to be noted that θ1 will be greater than θ2

For Tension:
Fix the tension producing assembly with the head of machine. Measure θ1 without the circular steel rod.
Measure θ2 by attaching circular rod in the assembly. Finally calculate the value of MOT for both the cases.
 Observations and Calculations

Mass of fork = m = 22.9 kg

Radius of fork =R = 0.7 m = 700 mm

Volume of specimen used in tension = V = 0.25 in3 = 5489.67 mm3 Volume

of specimen used in bending =V = 0.335 in3 = 4096.76 mm3

Specimen and hammer combined mass (in case of tension) = m = 680 g = 0.680 kg

Height attained by fork

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔R (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1) ∆E
Test Initial Final Volume MOT =
V
name Angle Angle
𝜃1 𝜃2
deg deg N-mm mm3 MPa

Bending 138o 116o 47926.97 5489.67 8.73

Tension 139o 83o 141939.043 4096.766 34.65

Comments:
I performed the experiment and with the help of charpy testing machine I performed the testing and
bending test and I found the change in angle that occurred when the specimen is place between the path
of hammer and the change in angle that occurred when the specimen is attached with the hammer.
 Experiment # 8
To Perform Bending Test on a Wooden Beam.

Objective:

There are two objectives of this test:

 To study the Bending behavior of Wooden Beam.

 To study Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture of wood.

Apparatus:

 10 Ton Buckton Universal Testing Machine.

 Wooden Beam.
 Deflection Gauges.
 Measuring Tape.

Related Theory:

Bending Moment:
Bending moment at a particular transverse cross section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all the
moments taken about an axis passing through the centroid of cross section of all the loads and
reactions applied to the portion of beam on either side of the cross section. The axis about which the
moments are taken is normal to the plane of loading.

Formula:

Moments are measured as a force multiplied by a distance.

𝑴=𝑭×𝒅

Units:
They have as unit newton-meters (N-m), or foot-pounds force (ft-lb).

Shear force:

Shear force at any particular transverse cross section of a straight beam on the algebraic sum of
 all the components acting transverse / normal or perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all the
loads and reactions applied to the beam on either side of the cross section.

Elastic Curve:
A line representing the deflected shape of the central line of the beam is called elastic curve.

Bending Stress:
Stresses caused by bending moment are called bending or flexural stresses.
𝑴𝒚

𝝈=
𝑰
Modulus of Rupture:
 It is the energy absorbed per unit volume from zero load up till failure.
 It is also known as flexural strength, bend strength, or fracture strength. It is
the maximum tensile stress which can be developed in a beam before failure.
The flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its moment
of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, σ.
 Modulus of rupture = 𝟑𝑭𝑳

(𝟐𝒃𝒉𝟐)

Procedure:
First of all, measure the breath and height of the wooden sample through the measuring tape. Fix the
wooden beam sample in 10 ton Buckton UTM. Fix the dial gauges under the beam as shown figure the
figure above, according to the distances shown. Now apply the load gradually on the beam and note
down the amount of deflection against each loading. Note down all the deflection up to failure of
specimen and finally find the Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rupture from their respective
formulae.
 Calculations and Observations

a = distance between support and point load = 150mm

L = distance between deflection gauges = 500mm

Rupture load = P = 1.450 tons = 12906 N

No Loa Deflection Gauge Readings

d ∆= (Gc – Mean) L.C
of
obs. Tons N Gc
Gx Gy GX + Gy
Mean = 2
1 0 0 100 100 100 200 0

2 0.05 445 115 115 115 222 2.718

3 0.1 890 145 148 146.5 267 3.061

4 0.15 1335 162 166 164 293 3.277

5 0.2 1780 189 195 192 335 3.632

6 0.25 2225 210 218 214 366 3.861

7 0.3 2670 234 243 238.5 405 4.229

8 0.35 3115 255 268 261.5 435 4.407

9 0.4 3560 285 295 290 473 4.648

10 0.45 4005 305 320 312.5 509 4.991

11 0.5 4450 322 341 331.5 538 5.245