LEARNING MATERIAL

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
UNIT-3:Protective Relaying
CLASS DURATION-
OBJECTIVES: After completion of the chapter the student will be able to-
 Summarize the zones of protection.
 Distinguish primary & back up protection.
 List essential qualities of protection.
 Classify protective schemes.
 Illustrate basic circuit diagram CVT & CCVT.
 Write working principle of CVT & CCVT.
 select CVT & CCVT as per requirement
 Recall operating principle and construction of electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, statics
relays and microprocessor based relays.
 Develop the time current characteristics of definite time, instantaneous, inverse time and IDMT
relays.
 Explain function of very inverse type o/c relay and extremely inverse type o/c relay.
 Solve numerical related to time setting, current setting and PSM.
 Develop constant product characteristics and polar characteristics of directional relay.
 Explain dead zone.
 Determine the suitability of distance protection.
 Develop the operating characteristics of impedance relay, reactance relay, MHO relay.
 Interpret current differential protection for an internal fault.
 Design schematic diagram of voltage balance differential protection.
 Explain operation of voltage balance differential protection.
 Explain static over current relays
 Interpret µP based over current relay
PRE-REQUISITES:
1. Power system
2. Fundamentals of AC, DC Machines

Zones of protection: Protection zone is defined as the part of the power system which is
protected by a certain protective scheme. It is established around each power system equipment.
When the fault occurs on any of the protection zones then only the circuit breakers within that
zone will be opened. Thus, only the faulty element will be isolated without disturbing the rest of
the system.
The protection zone cover the entire power system, and no part of the equipment is left
unprotected. It usually consists one or more element of the power system. The protection zone of
the power system mainly depends upon the rating of the machine, its location, the probability of
faults and abnormal condition of the equipment.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

Primary Protection
The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power
system elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection comes into play only when
the primary protection fails.

The backup protection is provided as the main protection can fail due to many reasons like,
Failure in circuit breaker
Failure of CTs or PTs operation
Failure in protective relay
Failure in tripping circuit
Failure of DC supply to the tripping Circuit
Loss of voltage or current supply to the relay
Backup protection
Consider the backup relaying employed for the transmission line section EF as shown in the
Fig. ,The relays C, D, G and H are primary relays while A, B, I and J are the backup relays.

 The backup relaying often provides primary protection when the primary relays are out
of service for repairs.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
 It is obvious that when the backup relay operates, the larger part of the system is
disconnected.
 Normally backup relays are tripped if primary relay fail. So if the primary relay E fails
to trip, then backup relays A and B get tripped. The backup relays and associated
backup relaying equipments are physically apart from the faulty equipment.
 The important requirement of backup relaying is that it must operate with sufficient time
delay so that the primary relaying is given a chance to operate.
 When fault occurs, both the type of relays starts relaying operation but primary is expected
to trip first and backup will then rest without having had time to complete its relaying
operation.

 Essential qualities of protection:

(i) Selectivity. It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers within that zone will be opened. This
will isolate only the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the healthy circuits intact.
(ii) Speed. The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the following
reasons:
(iii) Sensitivity. It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.
Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-amperes input to the coil of the relay necessary to cause its
operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause relay operation, the more sensitive is the
relay. Thus, a 1 VA relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that relay system should be
sensitive so that it operates with low values of volt-ampere input.
(iv) Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could even become
a liability.
(v) Simplicity. The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. Reliability is
closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
(vi) Economy. The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of protection and
a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of
total cost. However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator,
main transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often subordinated to reliability.
 Basic Relay Terminology –

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
 First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (CT.) which is connected in
series with the line to be protected.
 Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and Cu. the relay operating coil.
 Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a source of
supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line
increases to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing
the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker,
making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this
way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and normal working of the
healthy portion of the system.
 Requirements of C. T.s Used for Protection
Current transformers are used to reduce the heavy current flowing in an element of a power system
to low values that are suitable for relay operation. The current rating of a protective relay is usually 5 or
1 ampere. Besides reducing the current level, the C. T. also isolates the relay circuit from the primary
circuit which is a high voltage power circuit, and allows the use of standardized current rating of relays.
The requirements of C.T.s used for protective relays are quite different from those of instrument C.T.s. A
C.T. used for instrumentation is required to be accurate over the normal working range of currents, whereas
a C.T. used for protection is required to give a correct ratio up to several times the rated primary current.

 Requirements of P.T.s Used for Protection

Potential transformers are also known as voltage transformers and they are basically step down
transformers with extremely accurate turns ratio. Potential transformers step down the voltage of high
magnitude to a lower voltage which can be measured with standard measuring instrument. These
transformers have large number of primary turns and smaller number of secondary turns.
A potential transformer is typically expressed in primary to secondary voltage ratio. For example, a
600:120 PT would mean the voltage across secondary is 120 volts when primary voltage is 600 volts.
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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

 Capacitive Voltage Transformers

Definition: The capacitive voltage transformer step-down the high voltage input signals and
provide the low voltage signals which can easily measure through the measuring instrument. The
Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) is also called capacitive potential transformer.
The capacitive potential divider, inductive element and the auxiliary transformer are the three main
parts of the capacitive potential transformer.
For measuring high voltage (above 100kV) the high insulated transformer is required. The highly
insulated transformer is quite expensive as compared to the normal transformer. For reducing the
cost, the capacitive potential transformer is used in the system. The CVT is cheap, and their
performance is not much inferior to the highly insulation.

 Electromagnetic Relay:
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be actuated by d.c. or a.c.
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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
quantities. The important types of electromagnetic attraction relays are :
Attracted armature type relay. Fig. below shows the schematic arrangement of an
attracted armature type relay.
(i) It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted laminated
armature. The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair of spring
contact fingers at its free end.
(ii) Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such that
counterweight holds the armature in the position shown.
(iii) However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil increases
sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the relay
armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame. This
completes the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and,
therefore, in the disconnection of the faulty circuit.

(ii) Solenoid type relay.Fig. below shows the schematic arrangement of a solenoid type relay. Itconsists
of a solenoid and movable iron plunger arranged as shown. Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil Cis such that it holds the plunger by gravity or spring in the position shown.
However on the occurrence of a fault, the current through the relay coil becomes more than the pickup
value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the
trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit.

(iii) Balanced beam type relay. Figure below shows the schematic arrangement of a balanced beam type
relay. It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam. Under normal operating conditions, the
current through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal position by the spring.
However, when a fault occurs, the current through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value and
the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the
faulty circuit.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION RELAY –

Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are widely used for
protective relaying purposes involving a.c. quantities. They are not used with d.c. quantities owing to
the principle of operation. An induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed
in two alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space. The torque
is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents induced in the disc
by the other.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

The quantities involved in an Induction Type relay may be expressed as follows:

Ø1 = Ø1msinwt

Ø2 = Ø2msin (wt + Ɵ)

Where Ɵ is the phase angle by which Ø2 leads Ø1. It may be assumed with negligible error that the paths
in which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-inductance, and hence rotor currents are in phase with
their voltages:

iØ1 ∝ d Ø1 / dt ∝ Ø1coswt

iØ2 ∝ d Ø2 / dt ∝ Ø2cos (wt+Ɵ)

As clear from the figure shown above, the two forces F1 and F2 are in opposition, and consequently we
may write the equation for the net force (F) as follows:
F = (F2 – F1)
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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
∝ (Ø2iØ1– Ø1iØ2) …………………..(1)
Putting the values of the quantities into equation (1), we get
F ∝ Ø1mØ2m[sin (wt + Ɵ)coswt – cos (wt + Ɵ)sinwt ] ………….(2)
Therefore,
F ∝ Ø1mØ2mSinƟ
Thus the actuating force in an Induction Type Relay is directly proportional to the phase displacement
between the two fluxes. For maximum actuating force, the phase displacement Ɵ must be 90°.
Thus to summarize, actuating force is produced in the presence of out-of-phase fluxes. One flux alone
would produce no net force. There must be at least two out-of-phase fluxes to produce any net force, and
the maximum force is produced when the two fluxes are 90° out of phase. Also, the direction of the force-
and hence the direction of motion of the relay’s movable member-depends on which flux is leading the
other.
The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase difference in
the fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relays :
(i) shaded-pole structure
(ii) watthour-meter or double winding structure
(iii) induction cup structure
(i) Shaded-pole structure. The general arrangement of shaded-pole structure is shown in Fig.
below.
It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an electromagnet. One halfof each
pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring.
The alternating flux φs in the shaded protion of the poles will, owing to the reaction of the current
induced in thering, lag behind the flux φu in the unshaded portion by an angle α . These two a.c. fluxes
differing inphase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the disc. The driving torque T isgiven by;
T ∝φs φu sin α
Assuming the fluxes φs and φu to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil,
T ∝ I2 sin α
This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in the relay coil.

(ii) Watthour-meter structure

 This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to
rotate in between them.
 The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the electromagnet is obtained by the flux
generated by the two magnets having different resistance and inductance for the two circuits.
 E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings the primary and the secondary. The primary
current was carrying the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the windings
of the U-shaped electromagnet.
 The primary winding carries relay current I1 while the secondary current induces the emf in the
secondary and so circulate the current I2 in it.
 The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet.
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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
 These fluxes induced in the upper and lower magnetic differs in phase by angle θ which will
develop a driving torque on the disc proportional to φ1φ sinθ.
 The most important feature of the relay is that opening can control their operation or close the
secondary winding circuit. If the secondary winding is opened, then no torque will be developed,
and thus relay can be made inoperative.

Induction Cup Relay:

The relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction cup relay.
The relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the relay coil. The static iron core is placed
between the electromagnet as shown in the figure below.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
 The relay has two, four or more electromagnets energized by the relay coils.
 The rotor is a hollow metallic cylindrical cup which is free to rotate in the gap between the
electromagnets and the stationary iron core
 The rotation depends on the direction of rotation of the field and the magnitude of the applied
voltage or currents and the phase angle between them.
 Control spring on an arm are attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.
 Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-pole or the
watt-hour-meter structures.
 Microprocessor based relays
With the developments in LSI technology, microprocessors appeared in 1970s and have made remarkable
progress in recent years. Fast and sophisticated microprocessors at low price are now .available. Their
application to powersystem protection will result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable
relays than the existing ones. Though digital techniques have already been adopted for static relays,
hardwired circuitry has very limited flexibility. The addition of microprocessors increases the flexibility of
relays due to its programmable approach. A number of characteristics as required can be obtained using the
same interface. With the help of multiplexer, the microprocessor can obtain the desired signals for a
particular characteristic. Different programs can be used for different characteristics. Microprocessor based
protective schemes have attractive compactness in addition to flexibility. They can provide protection at
low cost and compete with conventional relays. Microprocessor-based relays are being used in distance and
differential protection.

 Thermal Relay:
The thermal relay works on the principle of the thermal effect of electrical energy. The bimetallic strips,
heating coils and the current transformers are the important parts of the thermal relay.The current
transformer supplies the current to the coils of the heater. The thermal energy of the heater coils heated the
bimetallic strips. The bimetallic strips are made of the alloy of nickel and steel. The alloy of the nickel and
steel has high steel resistivity, and also they are free from thermal ageing. The insulated liver arm is
connected to the trip coil along with the spring and the bimetallic strips. The tension of the spring is varied
by the help of the sector-shaped plate. When the system is in normal operating condition, the spring
remains straight. When the fault occurs on the system, the bimetallic spring is heated and getting bent. The
tension of the spring becomes releases which trip the relay contacts. The contact of the relay energizes the
trip circuit because of which the contacts of the circuit breaker close. Thus, the system remains safe. The
thermal relay is mainly used in the low voltage Squirrel Cage induction motor and in low output rating DC
motor. The thermal relay has low overloading capability. It is designed to operate under 6 to 7 times more
than the full load current. Such type of relay is not used under short-circuit condition. The short circuit
current increases the temperature of the bimetallic strips due to which the contacts of the relay close. The
thermal relay is used with the short circuit relay or with the time limit fuse.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

 Static Relay:
Definition: The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such type of
relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc. The relay
which consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called static relay because the static units obtain the
response and the electromagnetic relay is only used for switching operation.The component of the static
relay is shown in the figure below. The input of the current transformer is connected to the transmission
line, and their output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the
relaying measuring unit.

The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit. The output signal
from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The output of the relaying
measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.
The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output device activates
the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the output devices only when the
measurand has the well-defined value. The output device is activated and gives the tripping command to
the trip circuit.
The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical quantities like heat
temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical signal and then act as an input for
the relay.
Advantages of Static Relay
The following are the benefits of static relays.
1. The static relay consumes very less power because of which the burden on the measuring
instruments decreases and their accuracy increases.
2. The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy and it is
shockproof.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
3. The reset time of the relay is very less.
4. The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity.
5. The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.
Limitations of Static Relay
1. The relay is easily affected by the high voltage surges. Thus, precaution should be taken
for avoiding the damages through voltage spikes.
2. The working of the relay depends on the electrical components.
3. The relay has less overloading capacity.
4. The static relay is more costly as compared to the electromagnetic relay.

 Flags
When a relay operates, a flag is indicated to show its operation. When on a relay panel there are several
relays, it is the flag that indicates, the relay that has operated. This helps the operator to know the cause of
the tripping of the circuit breaker. It is also called the target or indicator.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

 Auxiliary switch
An auxiliary switch is connected in series with the trip-coil circuit, as shown in Fig above. It is
mechanically interlocked with the operating mechanism of the circuit breaker so that the auxiliary switch
opens when the circuit breaker opens. The opening of the auxiliary switch prevents unnecessary drainage
of the battery. When the trip-coil of the circuit breaker is energised, it actuates a mechanism of' the circuit
breaker, which causes the operating force to come into action to open the circuit breaker.

 Relay timing
An important characteristic of a relay is its time of operation. By ‘the time of operation’ is meant length of
the time from the instant when the actuating element is energised to the instant when the relay contacts are
closed. Sometimes it is desirable and necessary to control the operating time of a relay. For this purpose,
mechanical accessories are used with relays.
(i) Instantaneous relay - An instantaneous relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided.
In this case, the relay contacts are closed immediately after current in the relay coil exceeds the
minimum calibrated value. Fig. below shows an instantaneous solenoid type of relay. Although there
will be a short time interval between the instant of pickup and the closing of relay contacts, no intentional
time delay has been added. The instantaneous relays have operating time less than 0·1 second. The
instantaneous relay is effective only where the impedance between the relay and source is small compared
to the protected section impedance. The operating time of instantaneous relay is sometimes expressed in
cycles based on the power-system frequency e.g. one-cycle would be 1/50 second in a 50-cycle system.

(ii) Inverse-time relay- An inverse-time relay is one in which the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity.
Fig.shows the time current characteristics of an inverse current relay. At values of current less than
pickup, the relay never operates. At higher values, the time of operation of the relay decreases

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
steadily with the increase of current. The inverse-time delay can be achieved by associating mechanical
accessories with relays.
In an induction relay, the inverse-time delay can be achieved by positioning a permanent magnet (known as
a drag magnet) in such a way that relay disc cuts the flux between the poles of the magnet. When the disc
moves, currents set up in it produce a drag on the disc which slows its motion.

Fig. a Fig.b Fig.c

(iii) Definite time lag relay. In this type of relay, there is a definite time elapse between the instant of
pickup and the closing of relay contacts. This particular time setting is independent of the amount of
current through the relay coil ; being the same for all values of current in excess of the pickup value.
It may be worthwhile to mention here that practically all inverse-time relays are also provided with definite
minimum time feature in order that the relay may never become instantaneous in its action for very long
overloads.
 Time-current Characteristics
·Deflnite time Overcurrent Relay
A definite-time overcurrent relay operates after a predetermined time when the current exceeds its pick-up
value. Curve (a) of Fig. below shows the time-current characteristic for this type of relay. The operating
time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current above the pick-up value. The desired definite
operating time can be set with the help of an intentional time-delay mechanism provided in the relaying
unit.
lnverse-tlme Overcurrent Relay
An inverse-time overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds its pick- up value. The operating time
depends on the magnitude of the operating current. The operating time decreases as the current increases.
Curve (b) of Fig. shows the inverse time-current characteristic of this type of relays.

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the current exceeds its pick up value. The
operating time is constant irrespective of the value of current. There is no intentional time delay, It operates
in O.ls or less. Sometimes the term like "high set" or "high speed" is used for very fast relays having
operating times less than 0.1s.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M. T.) Relay

This type of a relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at lower values of the fault current
and definite-time characteristic at higher values of the fault current. Generally, an inverse-time
characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug setting multiplier. is below 10. For values of plug setting
multiplier between 10 and 20, the characteristic tends to become a straight line, i.e. towards the definite
time characteristic. Figure below shows the characteristic of I.D.M.T. relay along with other
characteristics. I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribution lines. Such relays have a
provision for current and time settings.

Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay

A very inverse-time over current relay gives more inverse characteristic than that of a plain inverse relay or
the I.D.M.T. relay. Its time-current characteristic lies between an I.D.M.T. characteristic and extremely
inverse characteristics,. The very inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the I.D.M.T.
characteristic. Hence, it can be used where IDMT Relay fails to achieve good selectivity. Its recommended
standard time current characterestics is given by
T= 13.5/ ( I -1)
The general expression for time-current characteristic of overcurrent relays is
given by
t = K / ( In - 1)
The value of n for very inverse characteristic may lie between 1.02 and 2.
Very inverse time-current relays arc recommended for the cases where there is a substantial reduction of
fault current as the distance from the power source increases. They are particularly effective with ground
faults because of their steep characteristic
Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
When I.D.M.T. and very inverse relays fail in selectivity, extremely inverse relays are employed. I.D.M.T.
relays are not suitable to be graded with fuses. Enclosed fuses have time-current characteristics according
to the law
I3.5t = K
The electromagnetic relay which gives the steepest time current characteristics is an extreme inverse relay.
The time current characteristics of an extremely inverse relay is I2t = K. Their characteristic is not good
enough to be graded with fuse.
Extremely inverse relay is very suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. TI1e heating
characteristics of machines and other apparatus is also governed by the law I 2t = K. Hence, this type of
relays are used for the protection of alternators, power transformers, earthing transformers, ex-pensive
cables, railways trolley wires, etc. The rotors of large alternators may be overheated if an unbalanced load
or fault remains for a longer period on the system. In such a case, an extremely inverse relay, in

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
conjunction with a negative sequence network is used. By adjusting the time and current settings, a suitable
characteristic of the relay is obtained for a particular machine to be protected.

Plug setting multiplier(PSM) -

Plug setting multiplier is nothing but a ratio between the actual fault current in the relay operating coil
to pick up current (the relay current setting).

Relay pick up current= %current setting * CT ratio

Significance of Plug setting Multiplier:

The plug is a small short link that connects the relay operating coils and resistance.

The high number of plug position increases the resistance value, therefore to operate the relay coils which

need a high value of current to energize.

At the same time, the lower number of plug positions would be of less resistance, hence to operate relay

coil, which needs low current value.

Therefore, The plug position ensures the current setting value of the relay. Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
Indicates the severity of the fault.
Example -
Suppose we are using CT of 100/1 A, a fault current of, say 5000 A is flowing through the network
protected by the relay.
Fault current in CT secondary = (5000×1) / 100 = 50 A
Assume that Current Setting or the position of plug is at 5 then
PSM = 50 / (1×5) =10
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
Time Setting Multiplier (TSM):

A Relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation of the Relay. This adjustment is
known as Time Setting Multiplier or TSM. Normally a Time Setting Dial is provided which is calibrated
from 0 to 1 s in step of 0.05 s.

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Here the position zero indicate the tripping position and green colour shade indicate the operating position.

In the first disc, position indicates the TMS is 10%.

It means the relay operating time is 10% of the Plug setting multiplier time.

The total relay operating time= Plug setting Multiplier time (Which is available in the relay) * Time

Multiplier Setting

Take an example of the above mentioned, in this, consider relay TMS is 10% and PSM=8.. Hence the

timing for PSM 8, Time =2 sec…then the relay operating time is 2 * 10% = 0.02sec .

Problem –

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Induction Type Directional Power Relay -
This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a specific direction.
Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the direction of the torque set
up in the relay depends upon the direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is associated.

Consider a Power system consists of 6 circuit breaker A, B, C, D, E and F. In this, A, B, C, E are the Non
directional over current relays and D, F is a directional over current relay. Consider a fault occurs at a point
P. You should remember one thing first, the current always flow through the low impedance
path. Hence the fault current flows from the generator G through the breaker A and E. Also the fault
current comes from the breaker series A, B, C, and F. In this, the directional relay F operates the breaker of
F, but the remaining all relay operates the respective circuit breaker in non-directional relay. Here the
directional Relay D become in operative, because the load only observes the current.

Constructional Details -
 It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two
electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb which is
connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source.
 The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the secondary of
C.T.in the line to be protected. The current coil is provided with a number of tappings connected
to the plug setting bridge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any desired current setting.
The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.
 The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts when the disc
has rotated through a pre-set angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc can be
adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can be given to the relay.

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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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Operation -
The flux Φ1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90° lagging behind the applied voltage V. The
flux Φ2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating current I.

[See vector diagram in above Fig. The interaction of fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 with the eddy currents induced in the
disc produces a driving torque given by :

It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the direction of power flow in the
circuit to which the relay is associated. When the power in the circuit flows in the normal direction, the
driving torque and the restraining torque (due to spring) help each other to turn away the moving contact
from the fixed contacts. Consequently, the relay remains inoperative. However, the reversal of current in
the circuit reverses the direction of driving torque on the disc. When the reversed driving torque is large
enough, the disc rotates in the reverse direction and the moving contact closes the trip circuit. This causes
the operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.

Polar Characteristics –

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Directional relays needed reference voltage to identify the direction of currents. This is the voltage taken
from Potential Transformers. The reference voltage is called polarising voltage. The relay operates for
the defined direction when the fault current is in the same direction and exceeds the over current setting
value.

Distance Protection Scheme -

The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty section and the
position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance relay.
It is a voltage controlled equipment.
The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT and PT
respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts operating then the relay starts
operating.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
Induction Type Impedance Relay -
The figure above explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer supplies the
voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current transformer. The current
transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB. The Z is
the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall below the
impedance Z then the relay starts working.
Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the relay setting
impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the circuit breaker. If the fault
reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.
Induction Type Impedance Relay –
This relay consists current and voltage element. The relay has an aluminium disc, which is rotating
between the electromagnets.
The upper electromagnet has two separate windings. The primary winding is connected to the secondary
coil of the current transformer. The current setting of the winding is varied by the help of the plug bridge
placed below the relay.

In normal operating conditions the force exerted on the armature is more than the induction element which
keeps the trip contacts open. When the fault occurs in the system, then the aluminium disc starts rotating,
and their rotation is directly proportional to the current of the electromagnet.

The angle of the rotation of the disc for relay operation depends on the force acting on their armature. The
force acting on the armature is directly proportional to the applied voltage. Thus, the angle of rotation also
depends on the voltage.

Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay –

The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the impedance relay.
The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage storage element generates
the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is shown in the figure below

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current. When the
relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in the figure below.

The positive torque region of the impedance relay is above the operating characteristic line. In positive
torque region, the impedance of the line is more than the impedance of the faulty section. Similarly, in
negative region, the impedance of the faulty section is more than the line impedance

The impedance of the line is represented by the radius of the circle. The phase angle between the X and R
axis represents the position of the vector. If the impedance of the line is less than the radius of the circle,
then it shows the positive torque region. If the impedance is greater than the negative region, then it
represents the negative torque region.

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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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Drawbacks of Plan Impedance Relay

The following are the disadvantages of the impedance relay.

1. It gives the response on both the side of the CT and PT. Thus, it becomes difficult for the breaker to
determine whether the fault is external or internal.
2. The relay is easily affected by the arc resistance of the line.
3. It is very sensitive to the power swing. The powerful wings generate the faults on the line because of
which the impedances of the line vary.
Reactance Relay -
The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an over current element and a
current-voltage directional element. The current element developed positive torque and a current-voltage
developed directional element which opposes the current element depending on the phase angle between
current and voltage.

Reactance relay is an over current relay with directional limitation.

Construction of Reactance Relay -

A typical reactance relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure below. It has a four-pole
structure carrying operating, polarizing, and restraining coils, as shown in the figure below. The operating
torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due to current carrying coils, i.e., the interaction of fluxes
of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining torque is produced by the interaction of fluxes due to poles 1, 2 and 4.

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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the restraining torque will be
proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°).

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay -

The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is the reactance of the
protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is the resistance component of the
impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance component of the impedance has no consequence
on the working of the relay, the relay reacts solely to the reactance component. The point below the
operating characteristic is called the positive torque region.

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Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is inoperative under load
conditions. Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for ground fault because its reach
is not affected by fault impedance.

Mho Relay -
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as the admittance relay. In this relay operating torque
is obtained by the volt-amperes element and the controlling element is developed due to the voltage
element. It means a mho relay is a voltage controlled directional relay.

A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure below. The operating torque is
developed by the interaction of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the controlling torque is developed due to
poles 1, 2 and 4.

If the spring controlling effect is indicated by –K3, the torque equation becomes,
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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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Where Θ and τ are defined as positive when I lag behind V. At balance point, the net torque is zero, and
hence the equation becomes

Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay -

The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in the figure below. The diameter of the circle is
practically independent of V and I, except at a very low magnitude of the voltage and current when the
spring effect is considered, which causes the diameter to decrease. The diameter of the circle is expressed
by the equation as ZR= K1 / K2 = ohmic setting of the relay

The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay within the circle. The operating characteristic
showed that circle passes through the origin, which makes the relay naturally directional.

Mho Relay is suitable for long EHV/UHV heavily loaded transmission lines as its characteristics in Z-
Plane is a circle passing through the origin.

Choice Between Impedance Type, Reactance Type, Mho Relay –

The ground resistance is variable. The ground distance relays must be unaffected by
variation in fault resistance. Reactance type relays are preferred for ground fault relaying.
For short line sections, reactance type relays are preferred as they are not affected by the
arc resistance.
The drawback of reactance relay is that they are likely to operate undesirably on severe
synchronising power swings.

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Mho type relays are best suited for phase fault relaying for long lines and particularly where
a severe synchronising power surge may occur.
The impedance type relay is suitable for phase fault relaying for lines of moderate length.
The arc effects the impedance relay more that the reactance relay but less than the Mho
Relay.

Differential Protection Relay –

Definition: The relay whose operation depends on the phase difference of two or more electrical
quantities is known as the differential protection relay. It works on the principle of comparison
between the phase angle and the magnitude of the same electrical quantities.
For example: Consider the comparison of the input and output current of the transmission line. If the
magnitude of the input current of the transmission line is more than that of output current that means the
additional current flows through it because of the fault. The difference in the current can operate the
differential protection relay.

The following are the essential condition requires for the working of the differential protection relay.

 The network in which the relay use should have two or more similar electrical quantities.

 The quantities have the phase displacement of approximately 180º.

The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc. The following are the classification of the differential protection relay.

 Current Differential Relay

 Voltage Differential Relay

 Biased or Percentage Differential Relay

 Voltage Balance Differential Relay

Current Differential Relay

A relay which senses and operates the phase difference between the current entering into the electrical
system and the current leaving the electrical system is called a current differential relay. An arrangement of
overcurrent relay connected to operate as a differential relay is shown in the figure below.

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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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The arrangement of the overcurrent relay is shown in the figure below. The dotted line shows the section
which is used to be protected. The current transformer is placed at both the ends of the protection zone. The
secondary of the transformers is connected in series with the help of the pilot wire. Thereby, the current
induces in the CTs flows in the same direction. The operating coil of the relay is connected on the
secondary of the CTs.

In the normal operating condition, the magnitude of current in the secondary of the CTs remains same. The
zero current flows through the operating coil. On the occurrence of the fault, the magnitude of the current
on the secondary of CTs becomes unequal because of which the relay starts operating.
Biased or Percentage Differential Coil

The simple differential relay is likely to operate inaccurately with heavy through ( external) faults. The
relay may loose its stability for through faults. The drawback is overcome by using percentage-differential
relay or biased – differential relay.

The percentage differential relay is designed to operate the differential current in terms of its fractional
relation with actual current flowing through the circuit. It is used to protect the system under Current
transformer saturation, unequal CT ratios, nuisance trip etc. It increases the stability of the differential

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YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
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protection relays.

Two coils are there in the relay. One is operating coil and another one is restraining coil. here restraining
coil produce force or torque which will oppose the operating coil of the relay. Lets take N is the number of
turns in the operating coil and Nr is the number of turns in the restraining coil. The connection is made as
shown in the figure. In this two coils are placed and the operating coil K carries the differential current
which means I1-I2 and another one coil is restraining coil R carries the current proportional to (I1+I2)/2
because of the coil K is connected in midpoint the restraining coil. Normally current I1 flows in the
restraining coil in Nr/2 parts, the I2 current flows another Nr/2 parts.. hence the effective ampere turns is..

That’s why we have taken the total current through the restraining coil as (I1+I2)/2

Under normal condition, the force produced by the restraining coils is greater than the force produced by
the operating coils. Therefore, relay does not operate.
During fault condition…the operating force become higher than the restraining force, due to this the
operating coil trips the mechanism.
Thus the ratio of differential current to average restraining current is always a fixed percentage.
Therefor it is called as percentage differential relay.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay-

The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders. For the protection of the
feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used. The voltage differential relay uses two similar
current transformer places across the protective zone with the help of pilot wire.

The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer. The relays are connected
in such a way that no current flows through it in the normal operating condition. The voltage balance
differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces regarding current.

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When the fault occurs in the protection zone, the current in the CTs become unbalance because of which
the voltage in the secondary of the CTs disturbs. The current starts flowing through the operating coil.
Thus, the relay starts operating and gives the command to the circuit breaker to operates.

Difficulties Associated with differential protection –

1.Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of the relay. This is overcome by connecting
adjustable resistors to pilot wires to get equipotential points on the pilot wires.

2. Difference in CT ratio error difference at high values of short circuit currents that makes the relay to
operate even for external or through faults. This is overcome by introducing bias coil.

3. Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage and currents between HV and LV sides and the relay will sense
this and act. Bias coil will solve this.

4. Magnetizing inrush current appears wherever a transformer is energized on its primary side producing
harmonics. No current will be seen by the secondary. CT’s as there is no load in the circuit. This difference
in current will actuate the differential relay. A harmonic restraining unit is added to the relay which will
block it when the transformer is energized.

Static Relay -
Definition: The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such type of
relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc. The relay
which consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called static relay because the static units obtain the
response and the electromagnetic relay is only used for switching operation.

The component of the static relay is shown in the figure below. The input of the current transformer is
connected to the transmission line, and their output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the
input signal and pass it to the relaying measuring unit.
The component of the static relay is shown in the figure below. The input of the current transformer is
connected to the transmission line, and their output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the
input signal and pass it to the relaying measuring unit.

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The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit. The output signal
from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The output of the relaying
measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.

The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output device activates
the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the output devices only when the
measurand has the well-defined value. The output device is activated and gives the tripping command to
the trip circuit.

The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical quantities like heat
temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical signal and then act as an input for
the relay.
Advantages of Static Relay -
The following are the benefits of static relays.
1. The static relay consumes very less power because of which the burden on the measuring instruments
decreases and their accuracy increases.
2. The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy and it is shockproof.
3. The reset time of the relay is very less.
4. It does not have any thermal storage problems.
5. The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity.
6. The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.
7. The static relay can easily operate in earthquake-prone areas because they have high resistance to
shock.

Microprocessor Based Relay

Microprocessor Based Relay

Microprocessor relays provide many functions that were not available in electromechanical or solid-state
designs.

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PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

Relay logic are very important in understanding the microprocessor based relay. The relay can be ON or
OFF i.e. it has two stable states.

Similarly output of a logic function is ON i.e. high or OFF i.e. low. The three basic logic functions are:
AND, OR and NOT functions. All these functions can be achieved using transistors also. It is called
transistor-transistor logic (ML).
The output of line CT is given to the input receiver block where signal is processed. The signal processing
includes surge protector, rectifier, smoothening filters, auxiliary CT etc. depending upon the requirement.
This signal is an analog signal. The A/D converter converts this to a digital signal which is accepted by the
microprocessor. The microprocessor is a decision making block. The digital signal received is compared
with the reference to generate the proper tripping signal. This is a digital signal which is converted to
analog again to operate the tripping coil. This is achieved by the D/A converter. The data logger captures
the data and feeds it to the microprocessor when there is a request from the microprocessor. The
information can be displayed with a proper display device by taking signal from the microprocessor.

The main advantage of such relay is that it is programmable. The programme can take care of on line
calculations and take the decision accordingly. Another important advantage of microprocessor based relay
is that one microprocessor unit can perform the relaying operation of several systems.
Advantages of microprocesser based relay:

Thus various advantages of microprocessor based relay are:

1. Very efficient and reliable.

2. Highly accurate.

3. Very fast in operation.

4. Programmable in nature.

5. One unit can perform relaying of several systems.

6. economical for large systems.

7. Useful for centrally coordinated back up protection.

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
YEAR-2RD , SEMESTER- 4TH
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ

MCQ type:

 Plug setting of a relay can be altered by arranging a) number of turns b) air gap of
magnetic path c) adjustable backup stop d) none of these
 If the fault current is 2000 amps, the relay setting is 50% and CT ratio is 4000/5 the PSM
will be a)50 b) 25 c) 10 d) none of these
 Which of the following relay has inherent directional characteristic a) impedance relay b)
mho relay c) reactance relay d) none of these
 Both voltage and current signals are required for a) plain over current relay b) directional
relay c) differential relay d) biased differential relay
 Air blast circuit breaker is employed up to a) 132 KV b) 66 KV c) 6.6 KV d) 11 KV
Subjective type:

 Define Plug setting & pick up current.

 Expain the function of static relay and thermal relay?
 What are the different types of electromagnetic relay?
 What are the function of auxiliary flag and auxiliary switch?
 What are the advantages of microprocessor based relays?

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