Name: Abdul Musawer Shinwari

Teacher: Abdul Baqi Oriakhael

Subject: English grammar project
Academic year: 2022-2023
 Content
1. English tenses
2. Present and past
participles
3. Clauses
4. Infinitives and gerund
What are tenses in English?
A tense is a form of the verb that allows you to express time. The tense
of the verb tells us when an event or something existed or when a person
did something. Past, present, and future are the three main types of
tenses.

What are the three main types of tenses and why do we need them?

Past, present and future are the three main types of tenses.

Past tense
The past tense is used to describe an activity or an event that has
happened in the past or a past state of being and needs to include a time
marker for when the event or action took place.

Structural formula:

Subject + verb (2nd form) + object.

Examples:

 We met yesterday.
 He bought a new laptop last week.

Present tense
The simple present tense or present tense is one of the most basic tenses
in English. We use present tense to talk about something that is currently
going on, something that is habitually performed, or a state that
generally or currently exists.

Structural formula:

Subject + verb (s/es) + object.

Examples:

 She lives in Spain.
 Bob drives a taxi.

Future tense
The future tense is a verb tense used to describe an event or action that
has not yet happened and is expected to happen in the future. Structural
formula, Subject + shall/will+ verb (s/es) + object.

Example:

 He will be here soon.

Apart from the three main types of tenses - present, past, and future -
there are different subtypes of tenses which are mentioned below.

What are the subtypes of tenses?

Past continuous tense

The past continuous tense is used to describe events or actions that have
already occurred in the past. It's employed to describe any action which
has happened in the past.

Structural formula:

Subject + helping verb (was/were) + verb (ing) + object.

Examples:

 I was watching TV.
 We were sleeping.
 She wasn’t eating her lunch.

Past perfect tense

The past perfect tense is used to describe an event that occurred before a
completed action in the past.

Structural formula:

Subject + had + verb (ed) + object.

Examples:

 He had gone when she became ill.

 She had not lived in New York.
 They had not been married long when I was born.

Past perfect continuous tense

The past perfect continuous tense represents any action or event that
started in the past and sometimes continued into another action or
another time.

Structural formula:

Subject + had been + Verb (ing) + object (optional) + time of action.

Examples:

 We had been playing games for 6 hours when Dad came home.
 She had been reading magazines for 1 month before she decided to
apply for the job.
 Had she been washing dishes all day?

Present continuous tense

The present continuous tense is used to talk about the ongoing actions,
events, or conditions that are still not finished.

Structural formula:
Subject + helping verb (is / am/ are) + main verb (ing) + object.

Examples:

 She is playing basketball.
 Birds are flying in the sky.
 I’m learning English.

Present perfect tense

The present perfect tense is used to describe a situation or event that has
already occurred but has immediate ramifications. The present perfect
tense can be used to describe experiences, and situations that occurred in
the past but still have an influence on the present. We don't use it with
time markers.

Structural formula:

Subject + helping verb (have/has) + verb (ed) + object.

Examples:

 She has not finished her work yet.

 I have seen that movie twice.
 We have visited LA several times.

Present perfect continuous tense

The present perfect continuous tense shows a situation that has started in
the past and continues in the present.

Structural formula:

Subject + helping verb (have/has) + been + verb (ing) + object (optional)

+ since / for + time duration + object.

Examples:
  I have been learning English for many years.
 He has been working here since 2010.
 We have been saving money.

Future continuous tense

The future continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action that
will occur or occur in the future.

Structural formula:

Subject + shall/will be + verb (ing) + object.

Example:

 He will be coming to visit us next week.

 She will be watching TV.
 He will be writing a letter to Mary.

Future perfect tense

The future perfect is used to describe an action that will be completed
between now and a certain point in the future.

Structural formula:

Subject + shall/will + have + verb (3rd form) + object.

Examples:

 They will have finished the film before we get home.

 She will have cleaned the house by 9pm.

Future perfect continuous tense

We use the future perfect continuous to focus on the duration of an
action before a specific time in the future.
Structural formula:

Subject + shall/will + have been + verb (ing) + object (optional) + time

instant.

Examples:

 He will have been studying hard for 2 weeks before the exam.
 By the time the alarm goes off, we will have been sleeping for 8
hours.
Present and past participles:
A present participle is a verb in the “-ing” form. It can be used in three
ways:
1. With the auxiliary verb to be. Example: I am explaining the use of
the present participle.
2. As an adjective. Example: The grueling workout exhausted me.
3. In a phrase. Example: Boarding the bus, the passenger tripped and
fell. (“Boarding the bus” is a phrase that describes the passenger.)
The “-ing” form of a verb is called a gerund when it functions as a noun.
As a noun, the gerund can be a subject, direct or indirect object, or an
object of a preposition. It is important to be able to distinguish between
a gerund and a present participle in English because often the form of a
gerund in another language will differ from that of the present participle.
Here are some examples of gerunds:
 I’m thinking about going to the concert. (thinking = present
participle; going=gerund, object of the preposition “about”)
 Reading is my favorite hobby. (reading = subject)
 She likes singing so much. (singing = direct object)
A past participle is a verb form that follows an auxiliary verb. Past
participles take many forms: written, said, cooked, gone, been, etc. Here
are some contextualized examples with the auxiliary verbs to
have and to be:
 I have been to Germany many times. (Present perfect)
 The class already had studied the material. (Past perfect)
 I had learned to ski, but now I have forgotten everything I knew.
(Past perfect and present perfect)
 They say that history is written by the winners. (Passive voice
with to be)
 What time will the work be done? (Passive voice with to be)
Lastly, the past participle can also be used as an adjective:
 The confused man walked the wrong way.
 She will eat cooked green beans, but not raw ones.
Clauses
A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and
a finite verb. It contains only one subject and one verb. The subject of a
clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and
distinguishable.
A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and
functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence.” –
Merriam-Webster
Example:
o I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
o When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause
sentence)
 

Types of Clauses
 Independent Clause
 Dependent Clause
o Adjective Clause
o Noun Clause
o Adverbial Clause

Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much
like a regular sentence.
In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by
the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.
Example:
o He is a wise man.
o I like him.
o Can you do it?
 o Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)
o I read the whole story.
o I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two
independent clauses)
o He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second
clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an independent clause.)
o Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought
unfinished. It is also called a subordinate clause. These help the
independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a
complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to
another clause to complete the sentence. In each of the dependent
clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative
pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
o When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.
o I know the man who stole the watch.
o He bought a car which was too expensive.
o I know that he cannot do it.
o He does not know where he was born.
o If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
o He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

 
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –

1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective
Clauses have similar qualities as Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns
and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called Relative
Clauses and they usually sit right after the Nouns they modify. 
Examples:
o I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.
o Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
o You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead
the class out. 

2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun
Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These often start with “how,” “that,” other
WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and
Whom), if, whether etc. 
Examples:
o I like what I hear.
o You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.
o He knows how things work around here. 

3. Adverbial Clause
By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means
that these clauses have the power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other
Adverbs. 
Examples:
o Elham did the dishes till his legs gave up.
o Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.
o I went through the book at a lightning speed.
What Is an Infinitive? 
An infinitive is the verb form that has “to” at the beginning. It is the
simplest verb form that you have to modify to fit into sentences. For
example, “to do,” “to sleep,” “to love” and “to create.” 
The sentence “She sleeps” no longer contains the infinitive of the verb
“to sleep.” Instead, it has been conjugated into the simple present third
person form of the verb “to sleep”: sleeps.

What Is a Gerund?
Gerunds are formed by adding “-ing” to the verb. For example,
“sleeping,” “drawing” and “swimming.”
These are not the “-ing” verb forms that you see in the present or past
continuous tense. They look the same, but gerunds are actually verb
forms that act as nouns.

Let’s take the infinitive of the verb “to sleep” and use it in two different
sentences. This is the present continuous. “Sleeping” here is part of the
verb. It is not a gerund.
I am sleeping.
Here’s the second sentence. This is present simple, but it contains a
gerund. “Sleeping” is the direct object of this sentence.
I don’t like sleeping.

Now that you know the difference between infinitives and gerunds, let’s
introduce the rules that will help you use both correctly.
5 Simple Rules to Master the Use of Gerunds and Infinitives

1. Gerunds can be used as a subject of a

sentence.
Take a look at some examples.
Walking is good for your health.
Making friends has become more difficult since I moved to a new city.
Becoming a millionaire is a dream of many young people today.
Here, the gerunds are part of the sentence subjects (“walking,” “making
friends,” “becoming a millionaire”). All three sentences sound like
normal, everyday English.
Now read these two sentences, which are quotes from William
Shakespeare.
“To be or not to be—that is the question.”
“To mourn a mischief that is past and gone is the next way to draw new
mischief on.”
In those two quotes, the infinitives “to be” and “to mourn” are used as
the sentence subjects. However, the sentences are more complex and
literary. 
So, it is possible to use both infinitives and gerunds as subjects, but
gerunds are much more commonly used as subjects. Just pay attention to
how the choice reflects the tone and meaning of your sentences.

2. Both gerunds and infinitives can be used as

objects of a sentence.
Have a look at these two sentences.
I enjoy drawing.
Yesterday, I decided to draw.
Both sentences are correct, but one has an infinitive as the object and the
other has a gerund as the object.
What is the difference?
It’s the verbs that come before the object! Some verbs require a gerund
and some will require an infinitive. In the above examples, we can see
that the formula is “enjoy” + [gerund] and “decide” + [infinitive].
With practice, you will be able to remember which one is which.
Here are a few examples of verbs that need to be followed by an
infinitive.

Verb Examples of Verb + Infinitive

agree I agreed to go to a party with my friend.
decide The president decided not to participate in the discussions.
Verb Examples of Verb + Infinitive
deserve Everyone deserves to be respected.
expect I expect to know my exam grade by tomorrow.
hope We were hoping to avoid traffic by leaving early.
learn He learned not to trust anyone.
need She needs to learn how to cook.
offer I offered to help my brother with homework.
plan We are planning to watch a movie tonight.
promise My friend promised to find the time to help me move.
seem We seem to be lost.
wait I cannot wait to see my family.
want I don't want to go to bed yet.
And here are a few examples of verbs that need to be followed by a
gerund.
Verb Examples of Verb + Gerund
admit They admitted changing the schedule.
advise I advise proceeding (moving forward) with caution.
avoid She avoided looking me in the eye.
consider I considered staying silent, but I had to tell her.
deny I denied knowing about his secret.
involve The course involved writing three tests.
mention She mentioned seeing my brother at a baseball game.
recommend I recommend practicing gerunds and infinitives.
risk Don't risk losing your job!
suggest I suggest reading more English short stories.

3. Infinitives should be used after many

adjectives.
Here are three sample sentences that will help to illustrate this rule.
It is not easy to graduate from university.
It is necessary to speak English to work in a hotel.
It is wonderful to have close friends.
When you describe something with an adjective (underlined in the
examples above), an infinitive should follow (in bold). Using gerunds
here would be incorrect.
But remember! If you want to make that object into a subject (see Rule
1), a gerund should be used, like in these sentences here.
Graduating from university is not easy.
Speaking English is necessary to work in a hotel.
Having close friends is wonderful.
How else do you know if an adjective should be followed by an
infinitive? The construct “too + [adjective]” is another way to tell!
Have a look at these sentences. 
This dress is too big to wear.
This car is too expensive to buy.
And the same is true about “[adjective] + enough.”
My child is not tall enough to ride this rollercoaster.
The course was detailed enough to widen his knowledge base.
This rule is useful enough to understand the usage of infinitives!

4. Only infinitives are used after certain

verbs followed by nouns or pronouns
referring to a person.
Let’s have a look at an example sentence.
We asked her not to go.
In this sentence, “we” is the subject, “asked” is the verb and “her” is
the objective form of the pronoun “she.” You must use an infinitive (“to
go”), never a gerund, after certain verbs followed by nouns or pronouns
referring to people.
To remember this rule, you will have to study verbs that take an object
and an infinitive in this context.
Start with these examples. The objects (nouns and pronouns) are
underlined. Notice how the underlined objects are all followed by
infinitives.
Verb Examples of Verb + Noun/Pronoun + Infinitive
ask Can I ask you to help me with something?
expect I never expected him to become famous.
hire Did the company hire you just to sit in your office?
invite I invited a friend to attend the ceremony.
order She ordered the child to stay at home.
remind Please remind me to wash the dishes.
require The test required him to concentrate fully.
teach That will teach you to follow the rules!
tell Who told you to come here?
urge They urged me to continue my research.
warn I am warning you not to do this!

5. Only gerunds are used after prepositions

(with one exception).
Consider this sentence.
I talked him out of taking that job.
Here, the gerund “taking” follows the preposition “of.”
Prepositions can follow any word, be it a noun, a pronoun, a verb or an
adjective. In the examples below, the prepositions are underlined,
followed by the gerunds in bold.
A preposition that follows a noun:
Novels about growing up are popular among teenagers.
I have an interest in becoming a painter. 
A preposition that follows a pronoun:
I forgive you for not telling the truth.
A preposition that follows a verb:
She is thinking about trying martial arts. 
He looks forward to meeting his cousins.
A preposition that follows an adjective:
I am wary of going alone.
My mom is scared of flying.
There is one exception, which is the word “but.” Thankfully, it should be
easy to remember!
“But” is a short word that connects two clauses of a sentence together. It
is called a conjunction. Sometimes, “but” can also play a role of a
preposition. When “but” is used as a preposition, it is the same in
meaning as “except.”
If “but” or “except” are used like this, they need to be followed by an
infinitive.
I had no choice but to follow her.
(I had to follow her.)
Mary made no stops on the way except to get gas.
(Mary only stopped to get gas.)
There is nothing left for me to do but to collect my money and go.
(I only have to collect my money and go.)
You may not see “but” and “except” used this way often.

Thanks for reading!