Starting Out with C++ Early Objects

Tenth Edition

Chapter 5
Looping
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Topics 1 of 2

5.1 Introduction to Loops: The while Loop

5.2 Using the while loop for Input Validation
5.3 The Increment and Decrement Operators
5.4 Counters
5.5 Keeping a Running Total
5.6 Sentinels

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Topics 2 of 2

5.7 The do-while loop

5.8 The for loop
5.9 Deciding Which Loop to Use
5.10 Nested Loops
5.11 Breaking Out of a Loop
5.12 Using Files for Data Storage
5.13 Creating Good Test Data
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5.1 Introduction to Loops: The while

Loop

•Loop: a part of a program that may execute > 1

time (i.e., it repeats)
• while loop format:
while (condition)
{ statement(s);
}
•The {} can be omitted if there is only one
statement in the body of the loop

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How the while Loop Works

while (condition)
{ statement(s);
}

condition is evaluated
–if it is true, the statement(s) are executed,
and then condition is evaluated again
–if it is false, the loop is exited

An iteration is an execution of the loop body

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while Loop Flow of Control

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while Loop Example

int val = 5;
while (val >= 0)
{ cout << val << " ";
val = val - 1;
}

• produces output:
5 4 3 2 1 0

•val is called a loop control variable

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while Loop Is a Pretest Loop

•while is a pretest loop (the condition is

evaluated before the loop executes)

•If the condition is initially false, the statement(s) in

the body of the loop are never executed

•If the condition is initially true, the statement(s) in

the body will continue to be executed until the
condition becomes false

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Exiting the Loop

•The loop must contain code to allow the

condition to eventually become false so the
loop can be exited
•Otherwise, you have an infinite loop (i.e., a loop
that does not stop)
•Example infinite loop:
x = 5;
while (x > 0) // infinite loop because
cout << x; // x is always > 0

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Common Loop Errors

•Don’t put ; immediately after (condition)
•Don’t forget the { } :
int numEntries = 1;
while (numEntries <=3)
cout << "Still working … ";
numEntries++; // not in the loop body
•Don’t use = when you mean to use ==
while (numEntries = 3) // always true
{
cout << "Still working … ";
numEntries++;
}
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while Loop Programming Style

•Loop body statements should be indented

•Align { and } with the loop header and place them

on lines by themselves

Note: The conventions above make the source code

more understandable by someone who is reading it.
They have no effect on how the source code
compiles or how the program executes.

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5.2 Using the while Loop for Input

Validation
Loops are an appropriate structure for
validating user input data
1. Prompt for and read in the data.
2. Use a while loop to test if data is valid.
3. Enter the loop only if data is not valid.
4. In the loop body, display an error message and
prompt the user to re-enter the data.
5. The loop will not be exited until the user enters valid
data.

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Input Validation Loop Example

cout << "Enter a number (1-100) and"

<< " I will guess it. ";
cin >> number;
while ((number < 1) || (number > 100))
{ cout << "Number must be between 1 and 100."
<< " Re-enter your number. ";
cin >> number;
}
// Code to use the valid number follows

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5.3 The Increment and Decrement

Operators
•Increment – increase the value in variable
++ adds one to a variable
val++; is the same as val = val + 1;

•Decrement – reduce the value in variable

-- subtracts one from a variable
val--; is the same as val = val – 1;

•can be used in prefix mode (before) or

postfix mode (after) a variable

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Prefix Mode

•++val and --val increment or decrement the

variable, then return the new value of the
variable.
•It is this returned new value of the variable that is
used in any other operations within the same
statement

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Prefix Mode Example

int x = 1, y = 1;

x = ++y; // y is incremented to 2,
// then 2 is assigned to x
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 2 2

x = --y; // y is decremented to 1,
// then 1 is assigned to x
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 1 1

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Postfix Mode

•val++ and val-- return the current value of

the variable, then increment or decrement the
variable
•It is this returned current value of the variable
that is used in any other operations within the
same statement

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Postfix Mode Example

int x = 1, y = 1;

x = y++; // y++ returns a 1

// The 1 is assigned to x
// and y is incremented to 2
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 1 2

x = y--; // y-- returns a 2

// The 2 is assigned to x
// and y is decremented to 1
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 2 1

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Increment & Decrement Notes

•They can be used in arithmetic expressions
result = num1++ + --num2;
•They must be applied to a variable, not an
expression or a literal value. You cannot have
result = (num1 + num2)++; // Illegal
•They can be used in relational expressions
if (++num > limit)
•Pre- and post-operations will cause different
comparisons
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5.4 Counters

•Counter: a variable that is incremented or

decremented each time a loop iterates
•It can be used to control the execution of the loop
(as a loop control variable)
•It must be initialized before entering loop
•It may be incremented/decremented either inside
the loop or in the loop test

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Letting the User Control the Loop

•A program can be written so that user input

determines loop repetition
•This can be used when program processes a list
of items, and the user knows the number of items
•The user is prompted before the loop is entered.
The user input is used to control number of
repetitions

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User Controls the Loop Example

int num, limit;
cout << "Table of squares\n";
cout << "How high to go? ";
cin >> limit;
cout << "\n\nnumber square\n";
num = 1;
while (num <= limit)
{ cout << setw(5) << num << setw(6)
<< num*num << endl;
num++;
}
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5.5 Keeping a Running Total

•running total: an accumulated sum of numbers

from iterations of loop
•accumulator: a variable that holds running total
int sum = 0, num = 1; // sum is the
while (num <= 10) // accumulator
{ sum += num;
num++;
}
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is "
<< sum << endl;
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5.6 Sentinels

•sentinel: a value in a list of values that indicates

the end of the list
•It is a special value that cannot be confused with a
valid value, e.g., -999 for a test score
•It is used to terminate input when user may not
know how many values will be entered

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Sentinel Example

int total = 0;
cout << "Enter points earned "
<< "(or -1 to finish): ";
cin >> points;
while (points != -1) // -1 is the sentinel
{
total += points;
cout << "Enter points earned: ";
cin >> points;
}
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5.7 The do-while Loop

•do-while: a post test loop (condition is

evaluated after the loop executes)
•Format:
do
{ 1 or more statements; Note the
} while (condition); required ;

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do-while Flow of Control

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do-while Loop Notes

•The loop body always executes at least once

•Execution continues as long as the condition
is true; the loop is exited when the condition
becomes false
•{ } are not required if the body contains a single
statement
•; after (condition) is required

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do-while and Menu-Driven Programs

•do-while can be used in a menu-driven program

to bring the user back to the menu to make
another choice
•To simplify the processing of user input, use the
toupper (‘to uppercase’) or tolower (‘to
lowercase’) function. This allows you to check
user input regardless of the case of the input.
Note: requires cctype to be included.

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Menu-Driven Program Example

do {
// code to display menu
// and perform actions
cout << "Another choice? (Y/N) ";
} while ((choice =='Y')||(choice=='y'));

The condition could be written as

(toupper(choice) == 'Y');
or as
(tolower(choice) == 'y');

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5.8 The for Loop

•It is a pretest loop that executes zero or more times

•It is useful for a counter-controlled loop
Required ;
•Format:
for( initialization; test; update )
{ 1 or more statements;
}
They don’t
go here
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for Loop Mechanics

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for Loop Flow of Control

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for Loop Example

int sum = 0, num;

for (num = 1; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is "
<< sum << endl;

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for Loop Notes

•If test is false the first time it is evaluated, the

body of the loop will not be executed
•The update expression can increment or
decrement by any amount
•Variables used in the initialization section should
not be modified in the body of the loop

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for Loop Modifications

•You can define variables in initialization code

–Their scope is the for loop
•Initialization and update code can contain more than
one statement
–Separate the statements with commas
•Example:
for (int sum = 0, num = 1; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;

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More for Loop Modifications

(These are NOT Recommended)
•Can omit initialization if already done
int sum = 0, num = 1;
for (; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;
•Can omit update if done in loop body
for (sum = 0, num = 1; num <= 10;)
sum += num++;

•Can omit the loop body if all of the work is done in

the header

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5.9 Deciding Which Loop to Use

• while: pretest loop (loop body may not be

executed at all)
• do-while: post test loop (loop body will
always be executed at least once)
• for: pretest loop (loop body may not be
executed at all); has initialization and update
code; is useful with counters or if precise
number of iterations is known

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5.10 Nested Loops

•A nested loop is a loop that is inside the body of

another loop
•Example:
for (row = 1; row <= 3; row++)
{
for (col = 1; col <= 3; col++)
{
cout << row * col << endl;
}
}
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Notes on Nested Loops

•The inner loop goes through all of its iterations

for each iteration of the outer loop
•The inner loop completes its iterations faster than
the outer loop
•The total number of iterations for inner loop is
product of number of iterations of the two loops.
In previous example, inner loop iterates 9 times
in total.

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5.11 Breaking Out of a Loop

• break can be used to terminate the execution

of a loop iteration
•Use it sparingly if at all – it makes code harder to
understand
•When used in an inner loop, break terminates
that loop only and returns to the outer loop

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The continue Statement

•You can use continue to go to the end of the

loop and prepare for next iteration
– while and do-while loops go to the test
expression and repeat the loop if test is true
– for loop goes to the update step, then test,
and repeats the loop if test condition is true
•Use continue sparingly – like break, it can
make program logic hard to understand

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5.12 Using Files for Data Storage

•We can use a file instead of the computer screen

for program output
•Files are stored on secondary storage media,
such as a disk
•Files allow data to be retained between program
executions
•We can later use the file instead of a keyboard
for program input
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File Types

•Text file – contains information encoded as text,

such as letters, digits, and punctuation. It can be
viewed with a text editor such as Notepad.
•Binary file – contains binary (0s and 1s)
information that has not been encoded as text. It
cannot be viewed with a text editor.

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File Access – Ways to Use

the Data in a File

•Sequential access – read the 1st piece of data,

read the 2nd piece of data, …, read the last piece
of data. To access the n-th piece of data, you
have to retrieve the preceding (n-1) pieces first.
•Random (direct) access – retrieve any piece of
data directly, without the need to retrieve
preceding data items.

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What is Needed to Use Files

1. Include the ifstream and / or ofstream

header file(s)
2. Define a file stream object
• ifstream for input (read data) from a file
ifstream inFile;

• ofstream for output (write data) to a file

ofstream outFile;

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Open the File 1 of 2

3. Open the file
• Use the open member function
inFile.open("inventory.dat");
outFile.open("report.txt");
• The filename may include drive, path info.
• The filename must include the full name, including
extensions.
• The output file will be created if necessary; an existing
output file will be erased first
• Input file must exist for open to work
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Open the File 2 of 2

Creating a filestream object and opening a file can

be accomplished in a single statement:
ifstream inFile("inventory.dat");
ofstream outFile("report.txt");
Again, input file must exist in order to be opened.
Output file will be created or erased as needed.

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Use the File

4. Use the file

• Can use output file object and << to send data
to a file
outFile << "Inventory report";
• Can use input file object and >> to copy data
from the file to variables
inFile >> partNum;
inFile >> qtyInStock >> qtyOnOrder;
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Close the File

5. Close the file

• Use the close member function
inFile.close();
outFile.close();
• Don’t wait for operating system to close files at
program end
– There may be limit on number of open files
– There may be buffered output data waiting to be
sent to a file that could be lost

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Input File – the Read Position

• Read Position – the location of the next piece

of data in an input file

• It is initially set to the first byte in the file

• It advances for each data item that is read.

Successive reads will retrieve successive data
items.

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User-Specified Filenames
• A program can prompt the user to enter the names
of input and/or output files. This makes the
program more versatile.
• Filenames can be read into string objects. In C++
prior to C++ 11, the C-string representation of the
string object can be passed to the open function:
cout << "Which input file? ";
cin >> inputFileName;
inFile.open(inputFileName.c_str());
• In C++ 11, the string object can be passed to the
open() function directly.
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Using the >> Operator to Test for End of

File (EOF) on an Input File

•The stream extraction operator (>>) returns a

true or false value indicating if a read is
successful
•This can be tested to find the end of file since
the read “fails” (the read expression is false)
when there is no more data
•Example:
while (inFile >> score)
sum += score;

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File Open Errors

• An error will occur if an attempt to open a file for
input fails:
– File does not exist
– Filename is misspelled
– File exists, but is in a different place
• The file stream object is set to true if the open
operation succeeded. It can be tested to see if
the file can be used:
if (inFile)
{
// process data from file
}
else
cout << "Error on file open\n";
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5.13 Creating Good Test Data

•When testing a program, the quality of the test

data is more important than the quantity.

•Test data should show how different parts of the

program execute

•Test data should evaluate how program handles:

–normal data
–data that is at the limits the valid range
–invalid data

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Copyright

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