O.

OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Basic solutions/key
pointsin mathematics for
engineers and scientists

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Coordinate Geometry
 Cartesian Coordinate …………………………………….1 – 18
 Polar Coordinate …………………………………………19 - 32
2. Three Dimension as Coordinates ………………………………34 – 36
3. Conic Section
Circle …………………………………………………………….37 – 56
Parabola …………………………………………………………59 – 67
Ellipse ……………………………………………………………67 – 78
Hyperbola ……………………………………………………….79 – 83
Polar Coordinate form of ……………………………………… 83 - 87
4. Quadric Surfaces
Ellipsoid ………………………………………………………….88 – 92
Hyperboids ………………………………………………………92 – 99
Paraboloids ……………………………………………………..99 – 107
Solid Geometry
i. Geometry Cone …………………………………………. 107
ii. Cylinder ………………………………………………….. 108
iii. Sphere …………………………………………………109 - 119
5. Linear programming ………………………………………120 – 136
6. Vector & Algebra ……………………………………………137 – 138
Matrix algebra ………………………………………………138 - 145
7. Classical optimization
 Maximum and minimum for ………………………………146
One Variable functions
 Maximum, minimum and…..…………………………... 146
Saddle point for
Two variables functions

Answers …………………………………………………………151 - 152

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

CHAPTER1: CORDINATE GEOMETRY 1

POINT AND STRAIGHT LINES
1.1 Distance Between Two Points in TwoDimensionalCoordinate

Y2 B (X2,Y2)

Y1 L
A (X1,Y1)

X1 X2

The distance between two points say A(X1, Y1) and B(X2, Y2) can be gotten by the
Pythagoras theorem
[ AB]2 =[AL]2 + [ LB]2
Where [AL] = (X2 – X1) and [LB] = (Y2 – Y1)
So, AB = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1 2 + 𝑌2 − 𝑌1 2

1.2 Distance Between Two Points in 3-Dimensional Coordinate

B(X2,Y2,Z2)

A(X1,Y1,Z1)
The distance between two point say A(X1,Y1,Z1) and B(X2,Y2,Z2) is given by

[ AB] = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1 2 + 𝑌2 − 𝑌1 2 + (𝑍2 − 𝑍1 )2

1.3 Gradient (M): The gradient of points or line joining two point from
𝑌2 −𝑌1
(X1,Y1) and (X2,Y2) is given by M=
𝑋2 −𝑋1

𝑑𝑦
Also M = tan or M = 𝑑𝑥
𝑌 −𝑌 𝑑𝑦
Therefore, M= 2 1 , or M = 𝑑𝑥 or M = tan
𝑋2 −𝑋1

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Where = angle between the line and the x-axis

Y2
B

Y2-Y1


Y1
A (X2-X1)

X1 X2
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑌2 −𝑌1
Recall, Tan = = = Gradient.
𝑕𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑋2 −𝑋1

1.4 Mid-Points: The mid point between two points A(X1,Y1)

AndB(X2,Y2)is given by
𝑋1 +𝑋2 𝑌1 +𝑌2
Mid point = (X, Y) = ( , )
2 2

1.5 Parallelism And perpendicularity of Line Joining Points

Given two straight lines with gradients M1 and M2
 For parallelism, M1 = M2
1
 For perpendicularity, M1xM2=-1 or M1=-
𝑀2

1.6 Equation of A Straight Line

The following are the forms in which the equation of a straight line can be written

 Slope-intercept form, y=mx+c

Where m=slope or gradient, c=intercept on y
𝑥 𝑦
 Double intercept form, + = 1
𝑎 𝑏
Where a and b are the intercepts on x and y axis respectively.
 As a line through two points (X1,Y1) and (X2,Y2)
𝑌 −𝑌
(Y-Y1) = 2 1 (X-X1)
𝑋2 −𝑋1
 As a line through a given point with a slope
Let the point be (X1,Y1) and slope be M,
(Y-Y1) = M(X1-X1)
 General Cartesian form: ax±by±c=0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

1.7 Area of A Triangle Formed By Intersecting Lines

Given three points A(X1, Y1), B(X2, Y2) and C(X3, Y3). The area of the triangle ABC is
given by
1 A
Area = X1(Y2-Y3) + X2(Y3-Y1) + X3(Y1-Y2)
2

B C

1.8 Distance between a Point and a Line

Given a point (X1,Y1) and a line ax±by±c=0, the distancebetween the point and the line
is given by
ax ±by ±c
d=
± 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2

NB: The sign of the root depend on the sign of c. if the sign for c is negative (-c), the
root will be –vei.e.− 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and vice versa, i.e. if positive then the root will be
+ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
1.9 Distance Between Two Lines
The distance between two lines is given by
d = d1± d2
where d1 and d2 are the respective distance of the lines from origin (0,0).
 When one of the lines has positive c and the other line has negative c, d = d1 + d2
e.g. 2x + 4y – 6 = 0and 4x + 3y + 2 = 0
line 1 Line 2
2 0 +4 0 −6 4 0 +3 0 −2
d= d=
− 22 +4 2 − 4 2 +32
6 2 2
= = =
20 25 5
6 2
d= +
20 5

 When c for both line are of the same sign (positive or negative), we have
d = d1 - d2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 1: Find the distance between the following points; A(-3,1), B(2,-3),
1
(a) 41(b) 40(C) 13(d) 106 2004/2005Q1
2

Solution

The distance between two points = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1 2 + 𝑌2 − 𝑌1 2

= 2 − −3 2 + −3 − 1 2

= 25 + 16

= 41 (a)

Question 2:Find the gradient of the lines joining (ap2,2ap) and (aq2,2aq)

(a) 2 (𝑝 + 𝑞) (b)𝑝 (𝑝 + 𝑞) (C)1 (𝑝 + 𝑞) (d)3 (𝑝 + 𝑞) 2004/2005/Q9

Solution
𝑌2 −𝑌1
Recall gradient=
𝑋2 −𝑋1

2𝑎𝑝 −2𝑎𝑞
=
𝑎𝑝 2 −𝑎𝑞 2

2𝑎(𝑝−𝑞)
=
𝑎(𝑝 2 −𝑞 2 )

2(𝑝−𝑞) 2
== = (a)
(𝑝−𝑞 )(𝑝+𝑞) (𝑝+𝑞)

Question 3: Find the mid-point of the line segment joining A(1,1) and B(4,5)
1 1
(a) (4,3) (b) (2,3) (C) (2 ,3) (d) (-3, 2 ) 2004/2005/Q3
3 2

Solution
𝑋1 +𝑋2 𝑌1 +𝑌2
Mid point = ( , )
2 2
1+4 1+5
=( , )
2 2
1
= (2 ,3) (c)
2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 4: The distance between two points (6,1) and (m,-5) is 10 units where m is a
constant. Find the possible values of m.
Solution

Distance between two points = 𝑋2 − 𝑋1 2 + 𝑌2 − 𝑌1 2 = 10

= 𝑚−6 2 + −5 − 1 2 = 10

= 𝑚−6 2 + 36 = 10
2
= 𝑚−6 + 36 = 102
= 𝑚 − 6 2 = 102–36

m – 6 =± 64
m = 6± 8
m = 6 – 8 or 6 + 8
= -2 or 14

Question 5: The mid-point of points M(4,-1) and N(x,y) is P(3,-4) find the coordinate
of N.
(A) (2,-3) (b) (2,-7) (C) (-1,-3) (d) (-10, -7)
Solution
𝑋1 +𝑋2 𝑌1 +𝑌2
Recall, mid-point =( , )
2 2
4+𝑥 −1+𝑦
(3,-4)=( , )
2 2

By comparing both sides,

4+𝑥 −1+𝑦
=3, = -4
2 2

X = 6-4, y = -8+1
X = 2, y = -7
∴ (x,y) = (2,-7) = B

Question 6:Find the distance between the point (-4,-3) and the point of intersection of
the lines x-2y-5=0 and 2x-y-1=0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solution
The first thing is to find the coordinate of the point of intersection of the two lines
L1
P (-4,-3)


Q
L2

This is done by solving the two equations simultaneously

2 × x – 2y = 5 ……………………………….(1)
1 × 2x – y = 1 ……………………………….(2)
2x – 4y = 10
2x – y = 1
- 3y = 9, so y = -3
From (1)
X = 5 + 2y
X = 5 + 2x – 3 = -1
Q(-1,-3)

So, the distance required = −1 − −4 2 + −3 − −3 2

= 9
=3units

Question 7: A line passes through A on the y-axis with y = 4 and B(8,-2), determine the
coordinates of the mid point of AB
(A)(8,2) (b) (8,-1) (C) (4,3) (d) (4, 1)

Solution

Since the line passes through y-axis at A, x will be

4 A(0,4) zero at A. so, A(0,4)

8 0+8 4−2
 AB = Mid point=( , )
2 2
-2 
B(8,-2) = (4,1) = D

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 8: Find the angle of the line joining points (4,-3) and (6,8).
(A)1100 (b) 830 (C) 1200(d) 79.70

Solution
𝑌2 −𝑌1
Recall, M= slope = tan =
𝑋2 −𝑋1

8−−3
=
6−4
1
 = tan-1(1 ) = 79.70 = D
2
1
Question 9:Find 9the angle of the slope of a line if the gradient is
3

(A)18.40 (b) 600 (C) 800(d) 1200

Solution
Recall, gradient (m) = tan
1
So, =tan
3
1
 = tan-1 ( )
3
0
=8.4
Question 10:Find the equation of the linethrough the points (6,5) which are
(a) Perpendicular to 3x – 4y = 0
(b) Parallel to 3x – 4y = 0 (exercise -1/Q1)
Solution
(a) 3x – 4y = 0 or 4y = 3x
3
Y = x (Gradient – Intercept form)
4
3
Where M1 = and c = 0
4
1 4
For perpendicularity, M2 = - = -
𝑚 3

So, the equation is (Y – Y1) = M2(x – x1)

4
(Y – 5) = - (x – 6)
3

3y – 15 = -4x + 24
4x + 3y – 39 = 0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

3
(b) For parallelism, M1 = M2 =
4
3
So, the equation will be (Y – 5) = (x – 6)
4
4y – 20 = 3x – 18
3x – 4y + 2 = 0

Question 11: Find the equation of the line through the points (3,6), (5,7) and show that
it is perpendicular to the –line joining the points (-3,4) and (-2,2).
Solution
𝑌2 −𝑌1
Using Y – Y1 = (x – x1)
𝑋2 −𝑋1

7−6 1
(y – 6) = (x – 3) (y – 6) = (x – 3)
5−3 2

Recall, (Y – Y1) = M2(x – x1)

1
So, M1 =
2

2y – 12 = x – 3 x – 2y + 9 = 0
For the line with points (-3,4),(-2,2),
2− 4 2
M2 = =-
−2−−3 1

M2 = -2
But M1xM2 = -1 for perpendicularity
1
𝑥 − 2= -1 Therefore, the two lines are perpendicular
2

Question 12: Rewrite the equation of the line 5x – 4y – 20 = 0 in (a) intercept form (b)
the slope intercept form Ex. 1/3
Solution
(a) 5x – 4y – 20 = 0 5x – 4y = 20, divide 2ru by 20
5𝑥 4𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
- =1 - =1
20 20 4 5
(b) Slope intercept form is y = mx + c
So, 5x – 4y – 20 = 0
4y = 5x – 20
5
Y= x–5
4

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 13: Findthe equation of a straight line with gradient 1 3 which passesthrough

the point (1,2)

(A)3x - y - 1 = 0(b) x – 3y + 5 = 0(C) 2x – 3y + 1 = 0(d) 3x – 2y + 1 =0
Solution
Recall Y – Y1 = M(x-x1) –for A point and slope
1
Y – 2 = (x – 1)
3

3y – 6 = x – 1
X – 3y + 5 = 0 (B)

Question 14: Find the equation of the line passing through the points (2,2) and parallel
to the line 3x + 2y + 7 = 0
(A)3x -2y-10 =0 (b) x+3y -7 = 0 (C) 3x+2y+10 =0 (d) x+3y+7 =0
Solution
1 7 3
From 3x + 2y + 7 = 0, y = - x- , M1 = -
3 2 2
3
Since the requirement line is parallel to this line, M2 = -
2
3
The newequation is (y – 2) = - (x – 2)
2

2y – 4 = -3x + 6
3x + 2y – 10 = 0 (A)
NB:
Whenever the origin of a straight line is change to a new point (a,b), the new equation
will be (y - 𝑦1 + b) = m (x - 𝑥1 + a)
where the gradient remain constant.

Question 15: If the origin is changed to the point (1,-2), find the new equation of the
line 3x + 7y – 5 = 0
Solution
Rewrite the equation into the form (y - 𝑦1 ) = m(x - 𝑥1 )

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

3x + 7y – 5 = 0
7y = -3x + 5
3 5 3 5
Y=- x+ y = - (x - )
7 7 7 3
3 5
Or (y – 0) = - (x - )
7 3

So, the new equation is (y – 0 + b) = m(x - 𝑥1 + a)

3 5
(y – 2) = - (x - + 1)
7 3

7y – 14 = -3x + 2
3x + 7y – 16 = 0
Question16: If the origin is changed to the point (3,2), find the new equation of the line
2x + 3y – 12 = 0
(A)2x+6y=0 (b) 4x+6y= 0 (C) 2x+3y=0 (d) 2x–3y=02004/2005/Q15
Solution
2x + 3y – 12 = 0 3y = -2x + 12
2
Y=- x+4
3
2
Y = - (x - 6)
3
2
The new equation is (y – 2) = - (x – 6 + 3)
3
2
(y + 2) = - (x – 3)
3

3y + 6 = -2x + 6
2x + 3yy = 0 (c)
LINE DIVISION
Whenever a line A(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ), B(𝑥2 ,𝑦2 ) is divided at point say P in the ratio m:n, the
coordinateof P is gotten by
𝒎𝒙𝟐 + 𝒏𝒙𝟏 𝒎𝒚𝟐 + 𝒏𝒚𝟏
( , ) A P Bfor internal division
𝒎+𝒏 𝒎+𝒏

mx2−nx 1 my 2−nyi
, P………………A Bfor external division
m−n m −n

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 17: If P divides the line AB in the ratio 2:1 and the coordinates of A and B are
(7,4) and (5,9) respectively, find the coordinate of P
17 21 17 22 −17 22 −17 22
(a) ( , ) (b) ( , ) (C) ( , ) (d) ( , )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Solution
𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 1 𝑚𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑦 1
P=( , ) where m:n = 2:1
𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 +𝑛
2 𝑥 5+1 𝑥 7 2 𝑥 9+1 𝑥 4 17 22
=( , ) = ( , ) (B)
2+1 2+1 3 3

Question 18:Given line PQ with coordinate P(8,5) and 0Q(4,3). If the line is divided in
the ratio of 5:4 at point A, find the coordinate of A.
52 35 −52 35 21 15 32 24
(a) ( , ) (b) ( , ) (C) ( , ) (d) ( , )
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Solution
𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 1 𝑚𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑦 1
Coordinate of A = ( , ) where m:n = 5:4
𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 +𝑛
5 𝑥 4 +4 𝑥 8 5 𝑥 3 +4 𝑥 5
=( , )
5+4 5+4
20+32 15+20
=( , )
9 9
52 35
= ( , ) (A)
9 9

Question 19: The line 9x – 3y – 3 = 0 is perpendicular to the line 2x–3y - 3= 0. Find the
value of the constant K.
−27 2
(a) (b) -6 (C) (d)6
2 27

Solution
Find the gradient of the two lines 9x – ky + 7 = 0
Ky = 9x + 7
9 7 9
Y = x + where 𝑚1 =
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

Also, 2x – 3y – 3 = 0
3y = 2x – 3
2 2
Y = x – 1 where 𝑚1 =
3 3

But for perpendicularity, 𝑚1 𝑥 𝑚2 = -1

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

9 2
So, x + = -1
𝑘 3

K = -6 (B)

Question 20:A straight line passes through the point (-3,5) and makes intercepts of 3k
and 4k on the x and y axes respectively. Find the value of k.
3 3 1 1
(a) (b) (C) (d)
16 4 3 4

Solution
𝑥 𝑦
Recall the double intercept form of a straight is + = 1 where
𝑎 𝑏

a = intercept on x-axis
b = intercept on y-axis
given (x,y) = (-3,5) and (a,b) = 3k,4k)
−3 5
then, + =1
3𝑘 4𝑘
−1 5 −4+5
+ =1 =1
𝑘 4𝑘 4𝑘
1
1 = 4k k= (D)
4

Question 21: Obtain the area of the triangle at the origin and the points (5,4) and (-6,10)
(A)50 (b) 37 (C) 4 (d) 74 2004.2005/Q5
Solution
1
Recall, for a triangle, Area = 𝑥1 (𝑦2 - 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 - 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 - 𝑦2 )
2

Where (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = (0,0), (𝑥2 ,𝑦2 ) = (5,4) and (𝑥3 ,𝑦3 ) = (-6,10)
1
Area = 0(4 - 10) + 5(10 - 0) + −6(0 - 4)
2
1 1
= 0 + 50 + 24 74
2 2

=37sq units
Question 22: Find the area of the triangle with vertices
3 5 −3
A ( , -4), B( ,3), C( ,2)
4 2 2
1
(A)4 (b) 6 (C) 3(d) 9 2004/2005/Q8
2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solution 3
A ( , −4) 1 3 5 3
4 Area = 3−2 + 2 − −4 + − (−4 − 3)
2 4 2 2
1 3 21
= + 15 +
2 4 2

B C
−3 = 13.125sq unit (None)
5 ( , 2)
( , 3) 2
2
Question 23:Find the area of the triangle formed by the origin and the points
(acos,sin) and (bcos,bsin) where a > 0, b > 0 and0≤, < 3600 and <
1 1 1
(A) absin( − ) (b)absin(-) (C) ( − ) (d) absin( − )
2 4 2
2004/2005/Q8
Solution
The vertices of the triangle are
A(0,0); B(acos,asin); C(bcos,bsin)
1
Area = 𝑥1 (𝑦2 - 𝑦3 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑦3 - 𝑦1 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑦1 - 𝑦2 )
2
1
= 0(𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 - 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 + acos(bsin-0) + bcos(0 - asin)
2
1
= ( 0 + 𝑎𝑏cossin- abcossin)
2
Recall from compound angles formula, sin(A-B) = sinAcosB – sinBcosA
1
So, Area = absin(-)
2
1
= absin(-) (A)
2

Question 24: Find the perpendicular distance from (1,4) to the line5x ±12y ± 13 = 0
66 66 33 60
(a) (b) (C) (d)
13 17 5 7

Solution
Recall that the distance between a point and a line is given as
ax ± by ± c
𝑑=
± 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
So, from 5x ± 12y ± 13 = 0 and (1,4),
5x1 + 12x4 +13
Perpendicular distance =
± 25 + 144
66 66
= = (A)
169 13

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 25: Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the
line7x +5y = 15
−15 15 15 −15
(a) (b) (C) (d)
17 17 74 74

Solution
From theorigin (0,0) to the line 7x + 5y -15 = 0
7x+ 5y−15 7(0)+ 5(0)−15
Length = =
− 72 + 52 − 49+ 25
−15 15
= == (C)
− 74 74

Question 26: Find the distance of the line7x – 24y – 10 = 0 from the origin.
Solution
ax ± by ±𝑐
Note that the perpendicular form of a line = in case the point (x,y) is not given,
± 𝑎 2+ 𝑏2
express the form in terms of x and y for the line 7x – 24 – 10 = 0 from origin (0,0), x =
0, y = 0
7(0)+ 24(0)−15 −10
Distance = =
− 72 + (−24)2 − 49+ 576

10 2
= =
25 5

Question 27: What is the distance between the lines 3x + 2y + 6 =0 and3x + 2y + 8 = 0

Solution
Recall, to find the distance between two lines if no point is given, we take origin as the
reference point.
d = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 for c with opposite sign i.e. –c and c
d = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 when the c for both lines are of the same sign.
Given Line 1: 3x + 2y + 6 = 0, c is +vei.e 6
Line 2:3x + 2y + 8 = 0, c is also +vei.e 8
So, d = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
3 0 ±2 0 +6 6
Where 𝑑1 = = from origin
32 + 22 13

3 0 ±2 0 +8 8
𝑑2 = = from origin
32 + 22 13

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

d = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 or 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 . Distance is always positive

8 6 2 13
= - = x
13 13 13 13

2 13
=
13

Question 28: Find the equation of a line which is parallel to x + 2y – 4 = 0 and passes
through the point (4,-3). What is the perpendicular distance between these two lines?
Solution
From the line x + 2y – 4 = 0
1 1
Y = - x + 2 where gradient 𝑚1 = -
2 2
1
Recall for parallelism, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 . So, 𝑚1 = - for the 2nd line using
2

(y - 𝑦1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) where(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )= (4,-3)
1
(y - −3) = - (x-4)
2

2y + 6 = -x + 4
X + 2y + 2 = 0
So, the two lines are x + 2y – 4 = 0 and x + 2y + 2 = 0
Distance between the two lines is gotten by d = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 since one c is –ve i.e. -4 and the
other is +ve i.e. +2
x+ 2y+4 1 0 + 2 0 −4
𝑑1 = = from origin (0,0)
− 12 + 22 − 5

x+ 2y+2 1 0 + 2 0 −2
𝑑2 = = from origin (0,0)
− 12 + 22 − 5

2 4 2 4+2 6 5 6 5
= . So, d = + x =
15 5 5 5 5 5 5

Question 29: Find the equation of a line parallel to6x – 3y + 18 = 0 and passes through
the point (2,7) what is the perpendicular distance between these two lines?
Solution
Rearranging the equationof the, we have
6𝑥 18
y= +
5 3

17
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

y = 2x + 6 where 𝑚1 = 2
since the line is parallel to the required line, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 2
so, the new equation is y – 7 = 2(x-2)
y – 7 = 2x – 4
2x – y + 3 = 0
The 1st line: 6x – 3y + 18 = 0 Or 2x – y + 6 = 0
2nd line: 2x – y + 3 = 0
2 0 +1 0 +6 6
𝑑1 = = from origin (0,0)
22 +12 5

2 0 +1 0 +3 3
𝑑2 = = from origin (0,0)
22 +12 5

The distance between the lines, d = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 since both times have the samesign of c i.e.
+6 and +3 (positive for both).
6 3 3
d= - =
5 5 5

POLAR COORDINATE
Polar coordinate of a point P is written as (r,) where , r is the distance OP and the
angle POQ.
P

r y


O x Q
Relationship Between Rectangular CoordinateAnd Polar Coordinate
Using the graph above, POQ is a right angled triangle
𝑝 𝑦
sin = =
𝑜𝑝 𝑟

y = rsin
𝑄𝑂 𝑥
cos = =
𝑂𝑃 𝑟

x = rcos
18
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

also, r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
tan =
𝑥
𝑦
 = tan-1( )
𝑥

Question 30: Convert (4,300) into rectangular coordinates

Solution
By comparism, (r,) = (4,300)
X = rcos
= 4cos30
3
= 4x =2 3 4 y
2

y = rsin
= 4sin30 300
=2 x

∴The rectangular coordinate = (2 3, 2)

Question 31: Express (- 3,1) in polar 0coordinates

Solution
𝑦
Recall, tan =
𝑥
-1 𝑦
 = tan ( )
𝑥
−1
= tan-1( )
3
= -30
 = -30 + 180 = 1500

Also, r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

= ( 3)2 + 12

= 3 + 1= 4 = 2
∴the polar coordinate = (2, 1500 )

19
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 32: Express (6,4200) in Cartesian coordinates

 = 4200 - 3500
= 600 and r = 6
X = rcos

= 6cos60 = 3, Y = rsin=6sin60 = 3 3

Therefore, the Cartesian coordinate = (x,y) = (3, 3 3)

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PONTS IN POLAR COODINATES
Given two points A(𝑟1 , 1 ) and B(𝑟2 , 2 ), the distance

(2 − 2 )where 2 > 1

[AB] = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos⁡

𝐵(𝑟2 , 2 )

[𝐴𝐵]
𝑟2

𝐴(𝑟1 , 1 )
 2 − 2 𝑟1
1 2

Question 33: Find the distance between points P(3,700) and Q(2,400).
Solution
[PQ]2 = 32 + 22 – 2x3x2cos(700-400)

[PQ] = 9 + 4 − 12𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠30

= 13 − 12𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠30
= 1.615
EQUATION OF A LINE IN POLAR CORDINATE
Two cases are considered in determining the equation of a line in polar form. These are
i. A line passing through the origin or pole
ii. A line not passing through the pole

20
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

CONVERSION OF EQUATION OF A LINE FROM CARTESIAN FORM TO

POLAR FORM OR VICE VERSA
𝑦
To do this, we need to recall that x = rcos, y = rsin r = x 2 + y 2 and = tan-1( )
𝑥

So, when the equation is from Cartesian form, we will substitute the necessary values

𝑟
Question 34:Convert the polar equation to Cartesian form rsin( - ) = 5
3

Solution
The 1st thing if to recall the compound angle formula
Review
Sin(A+B) = SinAcosB + sinBcosA  = 1800
2 2
Sin(A-B) = SinAcosB–sinBcosA = = X 180
3 3

Cos(A+B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB = 1200

Cos(A-B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
2
So, rsin( - ) = 5
3
2 2
rsin cos - sincos =5
3 3

3 1
r cos - (- )sin = 5
2 2

3 𝑟
𝑟cos+ sin= 5 but x = rcosandy = rsin
2 2

3 𝑟
𝑥+ =5 3𝑥 + y =10
2 2

Question 35: Convert r = 1-cos to Cartesian equation.

Solution
Multiply through by r
𝑟 2 = r(1 - cos)

𝑟 2 = r - rcos but 𝑟 2 = x2 – y2, r= x2 + y2

x2+ y2 = x 2 _ y 2 − 𝑥

x2+ y2 + x = x 2 + y 2
21
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

square both sides

(x2 – y2 + x2 ) = x2 + y2
X4 + y4 + 2x2y2 + 2x3 + 2xy3 – y2 = 0

Solution 36: Which of the following gives the Cartesian form of thepolar equation
3
r=
2 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 

(A)4x2 -5y2-18y - 9 = 0 (b) 4x2+ 27y2+18y-9 = 0 (C) x2-4y2+18+9 = 0

(d) 4x2-5y2-18y+9 = 0
Solution
As before, just a way of getting r, rcos and rsin from any polar equation given
3
r=
2 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 

r(2+3sin) = 3
2r + 3sin = 3

2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3y = 3

2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 3 - 3y
Square both sides
4(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 9 – 18y + 9y2
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 – 9y2 + 18y + 9 = 0
𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 18y - 9 = 0 (A)

Solution 37: Convert the equation ((𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2 into polar coordinate

Solution
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2
Take thesquare root of both sides
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2xy
But 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , x = rcos& y = rsin

22
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

So, 𝑟 2 = 2rcosrsin
𝑟 2 = 2r2sincos
1 = 2rsincos but sin2 = 2sincos
1 = sin2
Sin2 - 1 = 0

Question 38:Convert 𝑟 2 = 2rcos + 3rsin into Cartesian form

(A)x2 + y2-2x–3y = 0 (b) x2+ y2+2x+3y = 0 (C) x2+y2-2x+3y= 0
(d) x2-y2-2y – 3y = 0
Solution
Multiply through by r, so r2 = 2rcos + 3rsin
x2 + y2 = 2x + 3y
x2 + y2 – 2x – 3y = 0 (A)
Question 39: Change to polar coordinate the equation2x2+3y2 –x–y=0\
𝑐𝑜𝑠  −𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑐𝑜𝑠  + 𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑐𝑜𝑠  −𝑠𝑖𝑛 
(A) r = (B) r = (C) r =
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 2  2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 2  2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 
(D) r =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 

Solution
2x2- 3y2- x –y = 0
2(rcos)2 + 3(rsin)2 - rcos + rsin = 0
2r2cos2- 3r2sin2 = r(cos- sin)
r2 (cos2 - 3sin2) = r(cos - sin)
𝑐𝑜𝑠  −𝑠𝑖𝑛 
r= (A)
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 

NB:If a line does not pass through the origin of pole, the equation in polar form will be
rcos(-)=𝑙𝑝 where (r,) is any point on the line and 𝑙𝑝 is the length of the perpendicular
from origin to the line
 = angle between the perpendicular and the horizontal OX
Let AB be the line and P(r,) be any point on AB which is joining the point P(r,) and
the pole (0,0), M is a point perpendicular to the line AB
23
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)
A
P(r,)

M
- In this case, < 90
𝑙𝑝


(0,0) B X
Pole

In a case when 1800>> 900, we have

B

P(r,)

𝑙𝑝
r
-


A
0 X
The idea behind finding the equation of a line AB in polar form is equating the distance
[OM]
Considering the triangle OMP P

-
𝑙𝑝 O
Using SOHCAHTOA ,cos( - ) = M 𝐿𝑝
𝑟

𝑙𝑝 = rcos( - )
Question 40: Find the equation of the line AB given in the fig. below

450

O B
2 2 24
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solution

O
A
P(r,) 2 2
90-45

M
r
 - 45 Also. For MPO
45
𝑙𝑝 B
M
 90-45 P
45

0 B
2 2

45

M O

𝑂𝑀 = rcos ( - 45)
Comparing BMO and MPO
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑀
rcos ( - 45) = 2

NB:cos(-) = cos or rcos( - ) = 2
4

Question 41: Find the equation of the line through (4,120o) which is perpendicular to the
line joining (4,120) and the pole (0,0).
(A)rcos(-150) = 6 (B)rcos(1200-) = 4 (C)rsin(1200-)= 4(D)rsin1200
Solution
B

M(4,1200) m
p
P(r,)

4
r -1200
r -1200


A
0 X
o
25
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

FromMPO, [OM] = rcos(-1200) = 4 = 𝑙𝑝

But cos(-) = cos

So, rcos(-1200) = rcos(-(120-) = rcos(120-)) = rcos(120-) = 4 (B)
Question 42:A line passes through the point (4,300) and makes angle of 1500 with the
polar axis. Find its equation

(A) rcos(-600)=2 3 (B)rcos(-600)=2 (C) rsin(160-)=2 3

(D) rsin120=2 3
Solution
The diagram is shown below
A
Where AB is the given line and T(4,300) is
T(4,300) the point given on the line whilethe line is
at 1500 to the polar axis.
4
300 300 1500

B x
0
OTB + OBT + TOB = 180 (sum of angles in a triangle)
OTB + 30 + 30= 1800
OTB = 1200
Also, OTB + OTA=180 (sum of angles on the straight line)
120 + OTA = 180
OTA = 180
In order to get the polar equation of the –line AB, we need to project a line joining AB at
m(𝑙𝑝 ,) to the pole (0,0)and perpendicularline AB. Finally, we project another [line
joining AB at any point at any point P(r,) to the pole
A

P(r,)
m(𝑙𝑝 ,)

T(4,300)
6 600
𝑙𝑝
4
 1500
 90-45
26 30 0

0 B x
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

FromMOT, MOT + 600 + 900 = 1800

M
MOT = 180 – 150 = 300
But  = MOT + TOB 𝐿𝑝
60
So,  = 30 + 30 = 600 T
r
𝑙𝑝
Still on MOT, sin60 = O
4

𝑙𝑝 = 4sn60 = 2 3 P

From POM,POM= - =  - 600

60 M
𝑙𝑝 r
Cos(-600) =
4
𝐿𝑝
0  - 600
rcos( - 60 ) = 𝑙𝑝 But 𝑙𝑝 = 2 3

O
∴rcos( - 600) = 2 2 (A)
NB:The working of the last question is not as long as that. I was only showing how such
a question should be handled. There are similar questions below but with a short solution
since the concepts have been explained.

Question 43: A line passes through the point (6,200) and makes an angle of 1700 with
the polar axis. Find its equation.
Solution

P(r,)
m
T(6,200)
𝐿𝑝 300
600 1500 1700
0
200 10
O B
4
From OMT, sin30 =
6

𝑙𝑝 = 6sin30 = 3

 = BOM = 60 + 20 = 180
 = BOP
From MOP rcos(-)

27
 O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solution
A A
P(,r)
M
P M
or
T 𝑙𝑝 T 600
600 6 r
0 - 
120 0 120 4
4 1200 0 1500
30
0 300 300 300 1200
30 30 0 150 0
B
B 0
r 0

From OMT, 𝑙𝑝 = 4sin600 0r 4cos302 3

From OMP, rcos(-1200) = 2 3 or rcos(1200-) = 2 3 (B)

ANOTHER CASE
Given a line AB (i) perpendicular to OX i.e. to he polar axis
(ii) Parallel to the axis, OX
A
(i) P(r,)
(ii) when AB is below polar axis
O M
r T X


r 𝐿𝑝

B
B A M P(r,)
O X

HINT: For (i) equate

When AB is above polar axis
[OB] gotten from O M
X

OBT and OBP
r 𝐿𝑝
For (ii) , equate [OM] to 𝑙𝑝
B
A M P(r,)
Question 45: Find the equation of the –line through the point (2,300) and perpendicular
to OX.
Solution A From OBT
P(r,) [𝑂𝐵]
Cos30 =
2

r T(2,300) [OB] = 2cos30 = 3

From OBP
2 [𝑂𝐵]
Cos30 =
 𝑟
30 0 28
O
[OB] = rcos
B X
rcos = 3
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 46: Find the polar equation of a straight line parallel to the polar OX and 4
units above it.
Solution

M P(r,) 4
A B sin =
 𝑟

rsin = 4
4 r
or rsin - 4 = 0
O

TAKE AWAY
Try the following questions
1. A line passes through the point (8,600) and makes an angle of 1700 with the polar
axis. Find the equation
Ans:rcos(-800) = 7.5
2. Find the equation of the line through (10,1500) which is perpendicular to the line
joining (10,1500) and the pole (0,0)
5
Ans:rcos(- ) = 10
6
0
3. Find the equation of the line through the point (4,60 ) and perpendicular to the
polar axis OX
Ans:rcos–2 = 0
4. Find the polar equation of a straight line parallel to the polar axis OX and 2 units
below it.
Ans:rsin + 2 = 0
5. Find the equation of the line –AB given in the figure below

Ans:rcos(-30) = 6 3
A

Or rcos( - ) = 6 3
6

Or rcos( − ) = 6 3
6

NB: cos(-) = cos

600
O 12 B X

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

CHAPTER 2: THREE DIMENSIONAL COORDINATES

These comprise the rectangular coordinates, cylindrical coordinate and spherical
coordinates.
KEYPOINTS
1. Rectangular Coordinates System
 It’s written in the form (x,y,z)
 Distance between two points = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 2

2. Cylindrical Coordinate System

 It’s written in the form (r,,z)
 Where r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
 = tan-1( )
𝑥
3. Spherical Coordinate System
 It’s written in the form (,,)
 Where  = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
x = rcos
y = rsin
but in this coordinate system, r = sin, z = cos
so, x = sincos
y = sinsin

Question 1:Convert the coordinate (0,1,1) into spherical coordinate system.

Solution
The coordinate (0,1,1) is a rectangular coordinate (x,y,z)
But spherical coordinate is (,,)

= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

= 02 + 12 + 12 = 2

r = sin. Also r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

sin = 02 + 12 = 1

2𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 1
1 
 = sin-1( )= 450 or
2 4

30
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑦 1
Also, if  = tan-1( ) = tan-1( )= indeterminate
𝑥 0

Using x = rsin, y = rsin. So, 0 = 1cos


 = cos-1(0) = 900 or
2
 
∴= 2,  = ,  =
4 2

The spherical coordinate = ( 2, , )
42

 3
Question 2:Convert the spherical coordinate (2 2, , ) into rectangular coordinate.
2 2
(A) (0,2 2,0)(B) (0,-2 2,0) (C) (0,1, -2 2,) (D) (1,0, -2 2,)
Solution
Recall, for spherical coordinate. We have (,,)
 3
So,  = 2 2,  = ,  =
2 2

Where r =sin, z = cos = 2 2,cos = 0
2

= 2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
=2 2
3
But x = rcos = 2 2 cos( ) = 2 2 x 0 = 0
2
3
y = rsin = 2 2 sin ( ) = 2 2 x -1 = −2 2
2
∴ The rectangular coordinate = (x,y,z)

= (0, −2 2,0) (B)

Question 3: Convert the rectangular coordinate (0, −2 2, 0) into a cylindrical

coordinate
   
(A) ( 2, ,2) (B) (2 2, ,0) (C) (2 2,− , ,) (D) (0, ,-2 2,)
2 2 2 4

Solution
For rectangular coordinate, we have (x,y,z) = (0, −2 2, 0)
For cylindrical coordinate, we have (r,,z)
Where r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 02 + (−2 2 )2 = 4 𝑥 2
=2 2
X = rcos or y = rsin
−2 2 = −2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛
sin = -1

 = - 90 or -
0
2

The cylindrical coordinate = (2 2,− , ,) C
2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

CHAPTER 3: CONIC SECTIONS

A conic section is a locus of a point which moves so that the distance from a fixed
point called focus to the distance from a fixed line called directrix is in a constant ratio.
This ratio of the distance from a fixed point (focus) to the distance from a fixed line
(directrix) is called eccentricity (e).
Circle, parabora, ellipse and hyperbola are the conic sections we shall be
considering.
3.1 CIRCLE
A circle is a locus of a point which moves so that it is equidistant from a fixed point.
Key Points
1. Form of the Equation of a Circle
 Given its radius to be r and centre at origin, the equation isx2 + y2 = r2
 Given its radius as r andcentre (a,b), the equation is(x-a)2 + (y-b)2 = r2
On expansion, we have x2 + y2 – 2ax – 2by + a2 + b – r2 = 0
Let g = -a, f = -b and c = a2 + b2 – r2
So, is the general equation
X2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

NB: For an equation to be called a circle,

i. The coefficient of x2 and y2 must be the same
ii. The highest power in the equation must be 2
iii. There should not be term in xy

2. Special Cases of a Circle

2(i) Circle with points –at the ends of a diameter.
 Given points A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
as the ends of the diameter of a circle
and p(x,y) is the centre of the circle,
which is also the mid point of AB.
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦
 Recall, midpoint = ( 1 2 , 1 2 )
2 2 A  B
Here, P(x,y) = P(a,b) = centre of the circle. P(x,y)
 Radius, r = distance from centre P(a,b) to any of
the points in the case, r = AP or PB
Recall, the distance between two points = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2

→
So, r = AP = 𝑎 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑏 − 𝑦1 2
→ 2 2
Or r = PB = 𝑥2 − 𝑎 + 𝑦2 − 𝑏

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

2(ii) Circle with centre (a,b) andtouching one of the X or y axis or aline.

y
y

b r (a,b)
(a,b)
b 
r
Fig. i Fig. ii
a x a x
From fig i, fig. ii
Radius r = b = distance from the centre to the x-axis
= y coordinate (b) at the centre
From fig i,
Radius r = a = distance from the centre to the y-axis
= x coordinate (a) at the centre
 For line, r = distance between the centre and the line

2(iii) Circle with three points given

The best way of getting the centre (a,b)
And the radius r is to substitute the
coordinate of each point into the general A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
equation: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. This
will generate three equations which when
solved simultaneously will give the values
of g, f and c. but g = -a, f = -b and c = a2 + b2 – r2.
Hence, we can get (a,b) and r A
2(iv) Equation of tangent and normal toa circle (𝑥3 , 𝑦3
 A tangent is a straight line that touches A )
the circle at a point (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
 A tangent is always perpendicular to
the radius of a circle Normal
 The equation of tangent is
(y-𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 (x-𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑦
Where𝑚1 = at point P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑥
r p(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

𝑑𝑦
Hint: from the equation of the circle, find at P(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to get 𝑚1 . Then use (y-𝑦1 ) =
𝑑𝑥
𝑚1 .then use(y-𝑦1 )= 𝑚1 (x-𝑥1 ). Just like that!
Tangent
33
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

 A normal is a line perpendicular to the tangent

 Equation of the normal is
(y-𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 (x-𝑥1 )

1 1
Recall for perpendicularity, 𝑚2 = − =−
𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡

2(v) length of tangent from a point

(x,y)A
From ACP, P
PC = r
r
AC = 𝑎−𝑥 2 + 𝑏−𝑦 2

AP = length of the tangent C (a,b)

= AC2 + PC 2
Where (a,b) is the centre of the circle
(x,y) is the coordinate of the point A

Question 1: Which of the following represent a circle?

(A) 10x2–2y2+3x+4y–1=0(B) x2–y2+xy–5=0 (C) x2–y2+4x-3y+1=0
(D)5x2–5y2+6x+4y–12=0
Solution
Recall, for a circle, i. the coefficient of x2 and y2 must be the same
ii. there must not be term in xy
from the options, only D satisfy the conditions
Ans: D

Question 2: Find the equation of the circle with the following centre and radius (-1,2)
1
and 2 .
2

(A) x2–y2+8x-4y–25=0(B)4x2+4y2+8x–16y-25=0(C)4x2–4y2+8x+16y+25=0
(D) 4x2+4y2+8x+16y+25=0
Solution
1
Given centre (a,b) = (-1,2) and r = 2
2

34
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

But g = -a, f = -b and c = a2 + b2 – r2

5
So, g = 1, f = -2, c = 1 + 4 – ( )2
2
5
C=−
4

Using x2–y2+2gx+2fy+c=0
5
We have x2+y2+2x-4y+ =0
4

Multiply through by 4
4x2+4y2+8x-16y-5=0 (None)

Question 3: Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (0,0),
(2,0), and (0,4).
(A) x2+y2+6x-2y–15=0 (B)x2+y2-2x–4y=0 (C)x2–y2-2x+4y=0
(D) x2-y2-2x+4y=0
Solution
Recall for three given points on a circle, we substitute each coordinate of the points into
the general equations
x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
for point (0,0) 02+02 + 2g(0) + 2f(0) + c = 0
4 + 4g + c = 0
4g = -4
G = -1
For point (0,4),02+42 + 2g(0) + 2f(4) + c = 0
0 + 16 + 0 + 8f + 0 = 0
8f = -16
F = -2
The equation is x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2+ y2 + 2x – 1x+ 2x - 2y + 0 = 0
x2+ y2 + 2x – 4y = 0
x2+ y2- 2x – 4y = 0

Question 4: A circle passes through the points (-1,1), (0,6) and (5,5). Find the equation
of the circle.
35
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

(A) x2+y2-6x-2y–8y=0 (B) x2+y2-4x+4y=0 (C) x2+y2-4x - 6y=0

(D) x2-y2-4x - 6y=0
Solution
For point (-1,1), x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
(-1)2+ (1)2 + 2g(-1) + 2f(1) + c = 0
-2g + 2f + c = -2………………………(i)
For point (0,6), 02+ 62 + 2g(0) + 2f(6) + c = 0
0g+ 12f + c = -36……………………(ii)
For point (5,5) 52+ 52 + 2gx 5+ 2f x 5 + c = 0
10g+ 10f + c = -50 ………………….(iii)
Solving equation (i),(ii),(iii) simultaneously
g = -2, f = -3, c = 0
the required equation is x2+ y2 + 2(-2)x + 2(-3)y + 0 = 0
x2+y2- 4x - 6y=0 (C)

Question 5: Find the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the line y =
x, x = 4, and 2y + x = 0
(A) x2+y2+6x–8y=0 (B) x2+y2-6x-4y+6=0 (C) x2+y2- 6x - 2y=0
(D) x2-y2+6x - 2y=0
Solution
To solve the type of question, we should equate the equation of any two lines to get the
point of intersection of the lines, from the equation,
[AC] is 2y + x = 0 …………………………………(i)
[AB] is y –x = 0 ………………………………….(ii)
[BC] is x = 4 or 0y + x = 4 ………………………...(iii)
Equating lines [AC] and [AB]
2y + x = 0 ……………..(i)
Y – x = 0 ……………...(ii)

36
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, x = 0, y = 0, so A(0,0)

Equating lines [AC] and [BC]
2y + x = 0…………………………..(i)
0y + x = 4 ……………………………(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously x = 4, y = -2, so C(4,-2)
Equating lines [AB] and [BC]
y – x = 0 ……………………………(ii)
0y + x = 4 ………………………….(iii)
Solving (ii) and (iii) simultaneously, x = 4, y = 4 –so B(4,4)
The three points are A(0,0), B(4,4) and C(4,-2).
The next step is to substitute into the general circle equation for point A(0,0), x2+ y2 +
2gx + 2fy + c = 0
02+ 02 + 2g(0) + 2f(0) + c = 0
C=0
For point B(4,4), 42+ 42 + 2g(4) + 2f(4) + 0 = 0
8g + 8f = -32
g + f = -4 ……………………………..
For point c(4,-2), 42+ 42 + 2g(4) + 2f(-2) + 0 = 0
8g – 4f = -20
2g – f = -5 …………………………..**
Solving * and ** simultaneously, g = -3, f =-1
The required circle equation is x2+ y2 + 2(-3)x + 2(-1)y + 0 = 0
x2+ y2 - 6x - 2y = 0 (C)

Question 6:Find the centre and radius of the circle

3x2+ 3y2 + 3x + 8y + 2 = 0
1 8 7 3 65 1 4 7 14 7
(A) (− ,− ), (B) (− ,−4), (C) (− ,− ), (D) ( , ),
2 5 6 2 2 2 3 6 23 6

Solution

37
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Always make sure the coefficients of x2 and y2 s one before doing anything.
8 2
So, x2+ y2+ x + y + = 0
3 3

But the general equation is x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

8 2
By comparing both equations, 2g = 1, 2f = . C =
3 3
1 8 2
G= ,f= ,c=
2 6 3

But g = -a, f = -b, c = a2 + b2 – r2

1 8 1 8 2 49
So, a = - , b = - , r2= (− )2 + (− )2 - =
2 6 2 6 3 36
7
r=
6
1 4 7
∴centre (- , - ), radius = 𝐶
2 3 6

Question 7: A circle have the points (2, 3) and (-4, 5) as the ends of its diameter. Find
the equation of the circle
(A) x2+y2- 2x+7y + 27=0 (B) x2+y2+2x-8y+7=0 (C) x2-y2+2x - 8y +27=0
(D) x2 + y2 -2x +8y +7=0
Solution
Given diameter AB and 0centre C(a, b) A(2,3)  B
𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 𝑦 1 +𝑦 2 C(a,b)
Recall, midpoint = ( , ) (-4,5)
2 2
2+(−4) 3+5
So, centre (a ,b) = ( , )
2 2

= (-1,4)
Radius r = [AC] or [CB]

= (𝑎 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑏 − 𝑦1 )2 (distance betweentwo points)

= (−1 − 2)2 + (4 − 3)2

= 10, r2 = 10
But c = a2 + b2 + r2
= (-1)2 + 42 – 10 = 7

38
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

The required equation is x2+y2+2(1)x+2(-4)y+7=0

x2+y2+2x-8y+7=0 (B)

Question 8: In the diagram, PQRS P(-2,2) is a square. Find the equation of the circle
that will pass through the four vertices of the square
(A) x2+y2-8 = 0 (B) x2+y2-4 = 0 (C) x2+y2-8 = 0 P(-2,2) Q
2 2
(D) x +y +8 = 0
Solution

Let C(a, b) be the centre of the circle
−2+2 2+(−2)
C(a, b) = ( , )
2 2
S R(2,-2)
= (0,0), g = 0, f = 0
Radius = [PC] or [CR] P(-2,2)

= (𝑎— −2)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2


C(a,b)
= (𝑎 + 2)2 + (0 − 2)2

R(2,-2)
r= 8
r2 = 8, c = a2 +b2 – r2
substituting into the general formula x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2 + y2 + 2(0)x + 2(0)y + c = 0
x2 + y2 – 8 = 0

Question 9:Find the possible values of the constant K for which the curve (6k – 5)x2 +
(k2 + 4)y2 + 4x – 6y + 3 = 0, is a circle.
(A) 4 and -5(B) -4 and 5 (C)-3 and 3 (D) 3twice
Solution
Recall that one of the conditions for a curve to be a circle is that the coefficient of x2 and
y2must be the same. So, from the curve
(6k – 5)x2 + (k2 + 4)y2 + 4x – 6y + 3 = 0,
39
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

(6k – 5) = (k2 + 4)
K2 – 6k + 4 + 5 = 0
K2 – 6k + 9 = 0 (k – 3)(k - 3) =0
K = 3twice (D)
Question 10: A circle passes through the points (0,3) an d (4,1). If the centre of the
circle is on the x-axis, find the equation of the circle.
Solution
Let the two points be P(0,3) and Q(4,1)
The centre (a,b) is (a,o) since the centre is on the x-axis
Radius, r = [PC] = [CQ]

(𝑎 − 0)2 + (0 − 3)2 = (4 − 𝑎)2 + (1 − 0)2

𝑎2 + 𝑎 = 4−𝑎 2 +1
By squaring both sides, a2 + a = (4-a)2 + 1
y
a2 + a = 16 – 8a + a2 + 1
8a = 8 P(0,3)

A=1 Q

So, a = [PC] = 𝑎2 + 9 = 1 + 9 = 10 (4,1)

0 C(a,0)
r2 = 10
but g - -a, f = -b and c = a2 + b2 – r2
g = -1, f = 0, c = 1 + 0 – 10 = -9
the required equation is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2 + y2 + 2(-1)x +0 - 9 = 0
x2 + y2 - 2x +0 - 9 = 0

Question 11: Find the equation of a circle passing through (6,0) and (0,4) and having its
centre on the line 2x – 7y + 8 = 0
(A) x2 + y2 - 6x -4y = 0 (B) x2 + y2 - 6x -4y +13 = 0 (C) x2 + y2 + 6x -4y = 0
y
40
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

(D) x2 + y2 - 6x -4y -26 = 0

P(0,4)
Solution 
C(a,b) which is the centre of the circle is

A point on the line 2x – 7y + 8 = 0 C(a,b)
So, at C(a,b) we have 2(a) – 7(b) + 8 = 0 Q
2x – 7y + 8 = 0 (6,0)
2a – 7b = 8 ……………………………(i)
Radius r = [PC] = [CQ]

(𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2 = (6 − 𝑎)2 + (0 − 𝑏)2

a2 + b2 – 8b + 16 = 36 – 12a + a2 + b2
12a – 8b + 16 – 36 = 0
12a – 8b – 20 = 0
12a – 8b = 20…………………(ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii) simultaneously, a = 3, b = 2

Then r = 32 + (2 − 4)2

= 13 or r2 = 13
g = -3, f = -2, c = (-3)2 + (-2)2 – r = 9 + 4 – 3 = 0
The required equation is x2 + y2 + 2(-3)x + 2(-2)y + c = 0
x2 + y2 – 6x – 4y = 0 (A)

Question 12: What is the equation of the circle, centre (2,-3) which touches the x-axis?
Solution
0 2
Recall, when a circle touches the x-axis 
x
The radius = the y coordinate of the centre
So, r =3 i.e. magnitude of -3
-3  
From the centre (2,-3), g = -2, f = 3, (2,-3)

c = (-2)2 + (3) – 32 = 4
The required equation is x2 + y2 + 2(-2)x + 2(3)y + 4 = 0

41
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

x2 + y2+ 8x - 6y + 9 = 0 (D)

Question 13: What is the equation of the circle, centre (-4,3) which touches the y-axis?
(A) x2+y2+8x-6y+9=0 (B) x2+y2-8x+6y+9=0 (C) x2+y2+8x+6y-9= 0
(D) x2+y2+8x+6y-9= 0
Solution
Similarly when a circle touches the y-axis,
y
Radius r = x-coordinate of the centre
In this case, r = 4
NB: 4 instead of -4 should be used since  3
(-4,3)
r is the modulus or absolute value. r
From the centre –(-4,3), g = 4, f = -3
-x 0
-4
C = a2 + b2 - r2 = (-4)2 + (3)2 - 42
C=9
The required equation is x2+y2+2(4)x+2(-3)y-9= 0
x2+y2+8x+6y-9= 0 (D)

Question 14: Find the coordinate of the centres of the circles of radius 3, which touch
the y-axis and whose centres lies on the line 3x = 4y. What are the equations of these
circles?
Solution
 Recall that for circles touching a line
Radius r = x coordinate of the centre
So, from centre (a,b), a = r = 3
(3,b)
 Since the circle can either be on the
Positive or negative side of x-axis,
A = 3 or -3

42
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Substitute a and b into the line equation 3x = 4y

So, 3a = 4b
9
When a = 3, 3x3 = 4b, b =
4
9
When a = -3, -3x3 = 4b, b = - i. y
4
9 9
He centres are (3, - ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑(-3, - )
4 4
9 9 
(g,f) = (-3, - ) and (3, - ) c (a,b)
4 4
r

C = a2 + b2 – r2 -x
-3
2 9
C=3 + ( )2 –3 2
4
81
=
16 ii.
9 81 y
The required equations are x2+y2+2(-3)x+2(- )y+ = 0
4 16

Multiply through by 16

16x2+16y2-96x-72y+ 81= 0 c (a,b)
9 81 r
And x2+y2+2(3)x+2( )y+ = 0
4 16

16x2+16y2+96x+72y+ 81= 0 3 +x

Question 15: Find the equation of the circle whose centrelies on the linex – 2y + 2 = 0
and which touches the positive axis
(A) x2+y2+4x+4y+2=0 (B) x2+y2-4x-4y+4=0 (C) x2+y2+4x+4y+12=0
(D) x2+y2-4x-4y+81=0
Solution y

Since the circle touched the positive axes

It means it touches both x and y axis b r 
(a,b)
So, radius r = x – coordinate of the centre (a) r
Or y – coordinate of hecentre (b)
a x
That is, r = a, or r = b

43
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

NB: r = a = b in this case

Given that the centre lies on the line x – 2y + 2 = 0
Substitute (a,b) into the equation
a – 2b +2 = 0 But r = a or b
r – 2r + 2 = 0, r = 2
Hence, a = 2, b = 2 g = -2, f = -2
C = x2+y2– 22 = 4
The required equation is x2+y2+ 2(-2)x+ 2(-2)y+4= 0
x2+y2-4x-4y+4=0 (B)

Question 16: Find the equation f the circles which touch the x-axis radius 5, and pass
through the point (0,8).
Solution
y
Recall for circle touching the axis
Radius r = y-coordinate of the centre (b)
r=b 5 r  (a,b)
Given r = 5, b = 5
r
 P(0,8)
But [CP] = radius

So, (0 − 𝑎)2 + (8 − 5)2 =5 x

𝑎2 + 9 = 5
𝑎2 + 9 = 25
𝑎2 = 25 − 9

A = 16
∴The centre C(a,b) = (4,5) or (-4,5)
C = 42 + 52 – 52 = 16, (g,f) = (-4,5) or (4,-5)
The required equation is x2+y2+ 2(-4)x+ 2(-5)y+16= 0
x2+y2- 8x- 10y+16= 0
or x2+y2+ 2(4)x+ 2(-5)y+16= 0
44
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

x2+y2+ 8x- 10y+16= 0

Question 17: A circle whose centre is at the point (-1,2), passes through the mid point of
the line joining the points (-1,7) and (5,5). What is the equation of the circle?
(A) x2+y2+2x-4y-20=0 (B) x2+y2+2x-4y+20=0 (C) x2+y2-2x+4y+30=0
(D) x2+y2+2x-4y+29 =0
Solution
Given a line with point s A(-1,7) and B(5,5).
𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 𝑦 1 +𝑦 2
Mid point D(x,y) = ( , ) 
2 2 A(-1,7) C(-1,2)
−1+5 7+5
=( , ) r
2 2 
= (2,6) 
D(x,y)
But the circle touches the line at this mid point
So, radius of the circle r = [CD] where c(-1,2) is the centre B(5,5)
= (2 − −1)2 + (6 − 2)2

= 32 + 42

r = 25

(g,f) = (-a,-b) = (1,-2), c = a2 + b2 – r2 = (-1)2 + 22 – ( 25)2

C = -20
The requiredequation is x2+y2+2(1)x+ 2(-2)y-20=0
x2+y2+2x-4y-20=0 (A)
Question 18: A circle with centre (-5,4) touches a line 4x + 2y – 4 = 0. Find the
equation of the circle
Solution
The line is tangential to the circle C(-5,4)

 Recall that a tangent is perpendicular to the
radius r r
So, [BC] which is = r is a perpendicular 
distance of the line from point c B(p,q)
 But for perpendicular distance of a line ax + by + c = 0
4x+2y-4=0
45
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑎𝑥 1 ±𝑏𝑦 1 ±𝑐
From point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is d =
± 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2
For the line 4x + 2y – 4 = 0
𝑎 −5 +2 4 −4
[BC] = r =
− 4 2 +22

16 16 20 16 4𝑥5 8𝑥2 5
r= = x = =
20 20 20 20 10

8 5
r=
5

8 5 2 64
r2 = ( ) =
5 5
64
(g,f) = (-a,-b) = (5,-4), c = a2 + b2 – r2 = (-5)2 + (4)2 –
5
141
The required equation is x2+y2+2(-5)x+ 2(-4)y + =0
5

x2+y2+50x- 40y + 141 = 0

Tangent and Normal

Question 19: Find the equation of the tangent to thecircle x2 + y2 = 17 at (1,-4)
(A) x+4y+17=0 (B) x-4y-17=0 (C) x-4y+17=0 (D) 4x-y-16=0
Solution
Recall, to get the equation of the tangent to a circle we use
𝑑𝑦
(y-𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 (x-𝑥1 ) where 𝑚1 = at the given point
𝑑𝑥

Given a circle x2+y2 = 17

𝑑𝑦
Differentiate this equation gives 2x + 2y =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦 1
At point (1,-4), =
𝑑𝑥 4
1
The required tangent equation is (y—4) = (x-1)
4

4y + 16 = x – 1
X – 4y – 17 = 0 (B)

46
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 20: Find the equation of the normal to the circle

x2+y2-2x+ 4y -6 = 0 at (-2,1)
Solution
Differentiating the circle equation gives
𝑑𝑦 4𝑑𝑦
2x + 2y –2+ =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑦 +4)𝑑𝑦
= 2 – 2x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2−2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 +4

𝑑𝑦 2−2(−2)
At point (-2,1), = =1
𝑑𝑥 2(1)+4

𝑑𝑦
But = 𝑚1
𝑑𝑥

So, 𝑚1 = 1
1
 Also 𝑚2 = - where 𝑚2 = gradient of the normal
𝑚1
1
= - = -1
1
 Te required equation of the normal is
(y - 𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 (x - 𝑥1 )
(y - 𝑦1 ) = −1(x - - 2)
Y – 1 = -x -2
X+y+1=0

Question 21: Find the equation of the tangent to the circle

x2+y2- 4y = 10 at (4,-1)

Solution
𝑑𝑦
From the circle equation, 2x + 2y –4=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4−2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦

𝑑𝑦 4−2(4)
At point (4,-1), = =2
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦

The required tangent equation is (y - - 1) = 2(x - 4)

47
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

y + 1 = 2x – 8
2x – y – 9 = 0

Question 22: Find the length of the tangent to the circle

x2+y2- 4x-2y - 20 = 0 at the point (5,7)

(A) 2 5(B) 5 (C) 5(D) 46

Solution
A
From the equation given Tangent B
a = 2, b = 1, c = -20 r
but c = a2+b2 – r2 
2 2 2 C(a,b)
so, r = a +b – c
= 22+12 – - 20

r = 25 = 5 = [AC]

Distance [BC] = (𝑎 − 5)2 + (𝑏 − 7)2

= (2 − 5)2 + (1 − 7)2 = 45
Considering ABC, we can get [AB] using Pythagoras theorem
[𝐴𝐵]2 = [𝐵𝐶]2 − [𝐴𝐶]2

= ( 45)2 - 52
= 54 – 25
= 20
[AB] = 20 = 4𝑥5 = 2 5 (A)

Question 23: Find the length of the tangent to the circle x2+y2= 49 at the point (5,6).
Solution A
B(5,6)
From the equation given, a = 0, b = 0
C = -49, where c = a2+b2- r2

2
So, r = 49 or r = 7 = [AC] C(0,0)

[BC] = (0 − 5)2 + (0 − 6)2 = 61

48
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Using Pythagoras theorem, [𝐵𝐶]2 = [𝐴𝐵]2 + [𝐴𝐶]2

[𝐴𝐵]2 = [𝐵𝐶]2 − [𝐴𝐶]2

= ( 61)2 - 72
= 12

[AB] = = 12

3.2 PARABOLA
A parabola is a point equidistant from a fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix)
Key points
 The eccentricity e of a parabola = 1
 General equation
i. (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4a(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) at point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and symmetrical about x-axis
 At origin, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (0,0), the equation becomes 𝑦 2 = 4ax

2a 2a

V Latus 
V

(0,0) f Rectum f (0,0) x
2a
or 2a

For y2 = 4ax For y2 = -4ax

 Focus = f(𝑎 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) for a given point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 or focus = f(a,0) at
origin
 Directrix = D(-a,0) at origin or x = -a
Directrix = D(-a+𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) or x = -a + 𝑥1 for a given point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
 Latusi rectum = 4a. it’s a vertical line through the focus to the conic section
 Vertex = v 𝑥1 , 𝑦1

49
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

 General form: y2± Ay ±Bx ± c = 0 where B ≠0 because if B = 0, the

equation becomes quadratic
ii. (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4a(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) at given point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and symmetrical about y-axis

2a 2a

f
x
or
x 2a 2a

f

 General form: x2± Ax ±By ± c = 0 where B ≠ 0

 Focus = f((0,a) when it passes through origin
=f(𝑥1 , 𝑎 + 𝑦1 )when it passes through the point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
 Directrix = D(𝑥1 , −𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) or y = -a + 𝑦1 at point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
= D(-a) or y = -a at origin
Latus rectum = 4a
 Vertex = v 𝑥1 , 𝑦1
𝑒 2 (𝑙 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑦 +𝑛)2
2
 General equation for conic sections : (x-a) + (y-b) = 2
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2
Where D = 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛 = equation of directrix
E = eccentricity
Focus = (a,b)
𝑒 2 (𝑙 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑦 +𝑛)2
 For a sphere or a circle, r2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2
And e = 1

Question 24: Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y2 = 12x
(A) (-3,0) and 8 (B) (3,0) and 3 (C) (3,0) and -3 (D) (-3,0) and -3
Solution
Recall, y2 = 4ax
Comparing this with the given equation,

50
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

4a = 12
A=3
Focus = f(a,0) = f(3,0)
Directrix = D(-a,0) = D(-3,0) (C)

Question 25: Find the focus and vertex of the parabolax2-10x-16y-7 = 0

Solution
 The first thing is to express the given equation in the general form (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 =
4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) or (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) as the case may be
 This can be done by completing the square
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 − 25 – 16y – 7 = 0
(𝑥 − 5)2 = 16y + 32
(𝑥 − 5)2 = 16(y + 2)
Comparing his to the equation (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )
𝑥1 = 5, 𝑦1 = -2, and 4a = 16 or a = 4
So, vertex = v(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = v(5, −2)
Focus = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) = 𝑓(5,4 ± 2)
= f(5,-2)
NB: for (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) , focus = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑎 + 𝑦1 )
For (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) , focus = (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )as
Stated earlier.

Question 26:Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola

y2-6x-2x+19 = 0
Solution
y2-6x-16y+19 = 0
(𝑦 − 3)2 - 9 -2x + 19 = 0
(𝑦 − 3)2 = 2x – 10
(𝑦 − 3)2 = 2(x-5)
51
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Br comparison
1
𝑦1 = 3, 𝑥1 = 5, 4a = 2 or a =
2

Vertex = v(𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = v(5,3)

1 11
Focus = f(a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = f( + 5,3) = ( ,3)
2 2
1 9
Directrix = D(-a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = D( + 5,3) = ( ,3)
2 2

Question 27: The focus and vertex of a parabola are (2,2) an d (-1,2) respectively. Find
the equation of the parabola
(A) y2-4y-12x-8=0 (B) x2-4y+18=0 (C) x2-4x-12y-8=0
(D) y2+4y-12x-8 =0
Solution
Given focus (2,2) and vertex (-1,2)
 But for a given vertex (x,y), focus = f(a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) or f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 )
depending on the coordinate which is unchanged
Generally, i. If the y – coordinate is unchanged, the equation will
be (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4a(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) and f(a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = focus
ii. If x-coordinate is unchanged, the equation will be
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4a(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) and f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) = focus
from the question y-coordinate is unchanged
so, focus = f(a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = (2,2)
vertex = v(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (-1,2)
By comparison
𝑦1 = 2, 𝑥1 = -1, a + 𝑥1 = 2 or a= 2 -𝑥1 = 2- - 1 = 3
The equation is (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4a(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
(𝑦 − 2)2 = 4x3(𝑥 − − 1)
y2-4y+4 = 12x + 12
y2-4y-12x-8=0 (A)

Question 28: find the equation of the parabola with vertex (5,-1) and focus (5,2).

52
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

(A) x2-4x+10y+8=0 (B) x2-10x-16y-7=0 (C) x2+4x+12y-7=0

(D) x2-10x+16x+7 =0
Solution
Using the same procedures used in Question 2,3,4.
The x-coordinate is unchanged between v(5,-2) and f(5,2)
S0, focus = f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) = (5,2)
Vertex = v(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (5,-2)
By comparison 𝑥1 = 5, 𝑦1 = -2, a + 𝑦1 = 2, a + - 2 = 2
a=4
The required equation is (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 = 4a(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )
(𝑥 − −5)2 = 4x- 1 (𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 2 +10y+25 = -4x + 12
x2+10y+4 +13 =0 (D)

Question 30: Sketch the parabola 4x2-8x-12y +1 = 0

Solution
We need vertex (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and focus f(a+𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) or f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) to plot the graph
4x2-8x-12y +1 = 0
y
2
4(x -2x) = 12y -1
4(x2-2x) – 4 = 12y -1
12 1 3 1
(x2-1) = (y - ) = (1, + ) 3
4 12 4 12
5 f
(1, )
6 1
3 v
Latus rectum = 4 X 12
4

=3 x

Question 31: determine the focus, directrix, axis and vertex of the parabola and make a
sketch for each

53
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

i. X2 = 12y
ii. 4x2 + 4x + 4y + 13 = 0
iii. X2 = -8y
Solution
i. Given x2 = 12y. by –comparing with x2 = 4ay. at origin
4a = 12, a = 13
Vertex = v(𝑥1 , y1 ) = (0,0)
Focus = f(0,a) = (0,3)
Directrix = D(0,-a+𝑦1 ) = (0,-3) or y = -3
Latus rectum = 4a = 4x3 L = 12

L=12

 F(0,3)


V(0,0) x

-3 Directrix
ii. 4x2 + 4x + 4y + 13 = 0
4(x2 + x) + 4y + 13 = 0
1
4(x + )2 – 1 + 4y + 13 = 0
2
1 2
4(x + ) = - (4y+ 12)
2
1 2
4(x + ) = - 4(y + 3)
2
1 2
(x + ) = - (y + 3)
2

By comparing with (x -𝑥1 )2 =4a(y -𝑦1 )

1 1
𝑥1 = - , 𝑦1 = −3, 4a = -1 or a = −
2 4
1
Vertex = v(𝑥1 , y1 ) = (- ,-3)
2
1 1 1 1
Focus = f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) = (- , - -3) = (- , -3 )
2 4 2 4
1 1 1 3
Directrix = D(𝑥1 ,−𝑎 + 𝑥1 ) = (- , - - -3) = (- , -2 )
2 4 2 4

54
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

The sketch is shown below

 x
-1 1
−
2 3
-3 Directri
1  4
V( ,-3)
 2 3 x

 1 1
f(- ,-3 )
2 4

iii. X2 = -8y
By comparing with X2 = 4ay at origin,
𝑥1 = 0, 𝑦1 = 0, 4a = -8 or a = -2
Vertex = v(𝑥1 , y1 ) = (0,0)
Focus = f(0,𝑎) = (0, -2)
Directrix = D(0,−𝑎) = (0,− − 2) = (0,2) or y = 2
The sketch is shown below

2 Directrix

V(0,0)
 x

 F(0,-2)

The various natures of parabola curve has been explained at the beginning of this topic.
Take note!

55
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 32: Find the equation and sketch the graph of the parabola with focus and
directrix f(1,2) and x = -1 respectively
Solution
Given focus = f(1,2) and directrix x = -1
But focus = f(𝑎 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ,)when directric x = -a + x1
Or (f(𝑥1 ,𝑎 + 𝑦1 ) when directrix y = -a + y1
By comparison, we have
f(𝑎 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ,) = f(1,2), a + x1 = 1
D(𝑎 + 𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) = (-1, 𝑦1 ), − 𝑎 + 𝑥1 = -1
Where 𝑎 + 𝑥1 = 1 ………………………(i)
− 𝑎 + 𝑥1 = -1 ………………………(ii)
2𝑥1 = 0
𝑥1 = 0 and 𝑦1 = 2, from (i) a = 1
The vertex = v(0,2)
The equation is (y - 𝑦1 )2 = 4a(x - 𝑥1 )
(y -2)2 = 4(1)(x - 0) = (y -2)2 = 4x
y2 -4y – 4x + 4 = 0
The sketch is

Directrix y

F(1,2)
y  V(0,2) 


 Alternatively, -1 1 equation for conic sections since
we can use the general
we know the focus and the directrix

𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛 )2
Recall, (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2

56
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Where (a,b) = focus, (𝑙𝑥 ± 𝑚𝑦 ± 𝑛) = Directrix, e = 1 for parabola

12 (𝑥+1)2
So,(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 =
12 +02

NB: x =-1 or x + 1= 0 was given as directrix

x2 - 2x + 1 + y2 – 4y + 4 = (𝑥 + 1)2
x2 - 2x + y2 – 4y + 5 = 𝑥 2 + 2x + 1
x2 - 𝑥 2 - 2x + 2x + y2 – 4y + 5 - 1 = 0
y2 – 4y - 4x +4 = 0 Just like that!

Question 33: Find the equation of the parabola –with –focus (-3,2) and directrix x-y +
1= 0
Solution
To do this we will use the general equation of conic section
𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛 )2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2

Given focus = (-3,2) = (a,b) and directrix x – y + 1 = 0

12 (𝑥−𝑦 +1)2
(𝑥 − −3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 =
12 +(−1)2
(𝑥−𝑦 +1)2
(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 =
2
2x + 12x + 18 + 2y – 8y + 8 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1)2
2 2

2x2 + 12x + 2y2 – 8y + 26 = x2 - xy + x + y2 – xy – y + x – y + 1

2x2 + x2 + 12x – x – x + 2y2 – y2 - 8y + y +y +xy + xy+26– 1 = 0
x2 + y2 + 2xy + 10x – 6y + 25 = 0

Question 34: Find the equation of a parabola with directrix x = y and focus (2,3)
Solution
𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛)2
Using the equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2
Where focus = (2,3) and directrix x = y or x – y = 0
12 (𝑥−𝑦 )2
So, (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 =
1+(−1)2

(𝑥−𝑦 )2
x2 - 4x + 4 +𝑦 2 - 6y + 9 =
2
2x2 - 8x + 8 + 2y2 – 12y + 18 = x2 - xy + y2 – xy
2x2 + x2 + 8x + 8 + 2y2 – y2 - 12y + 2xy +18 = 0
x2 + y2 + 2xy - 8x – 12y + 26 = 0

3.3 ELLIPSE (e<1)

57
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

It is a conic section in which the distance from a fixed point (focus) is less than the
distance from a fixed line (directrix).
Key points
1. The ratio of the distance from the focus to the distance from the directrix is the
eccentricity (e), where e is less than 1.
2. General equation
(𝑥+𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
i. + 2 = 1 ata given centre (𝑕2 ,𝑘1 )
𝑎2 𝑏
 When major axis is on x-axis
2a = length of major axis
2b = length of major axis
 Focus = (±æ + h,k) i.e. (æ + h,k), (-æ + h, k)
𝑐
Where e = eccentricity =
𝑎
And 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 -𝑏 2
Or c = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
This means we can rewrite focus as (±c+h,k) at a given centre (h,k)
 At origin, focus = (±c,0) where c = æ
𝑎 𝑎
 Directrix = ± + h at centre (h,k) i.e. x = ± + h
𝑒 𝑒
𝑎 𝑎
or ± at origin i.e. x = ±
𝑒 𝑒
 Vertex = (±a,0), (0, ±b) at origin
Or (±a + h,k), (𝑕, 𝑘 ±b) at centre (h,k)

V(0,b)

b
V(-a,0) V(a,0)
 
f(-c,0) f(c,0)
b

V(0,-b)

a a
ii. When the major –axis is on y-axis we have
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 at origin
𝑏2 𝑎2
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
𝑜𝑟 + 2 = 1 given centre (h,k)
𝑎2 𝑏
 Focus = (0 ±c) or (0±æ) at origin
Or (h, ± c+ k) or (h, ±æ + k) given centre (h,k)
𝑎 𝑎
 Directrix = ± or x = ±
𝑒 𝑒
 Vertex = (0, ±a),(±b,0) at origin

58
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Or (𝑕, ±a + k),(±b + h,k) given centre (h,k)

V(a,0)

 f(c,0)
a

V(0,b)
V(-b,0)

a f(-c,0)

V(0,-a)
b b
2𝑏 2
3. Latus rectum =
𝑎
4. Distance between the first = 2c or 2æ
5. Major axis = 2a and semi major axis = a
Minor axis = 2b and semi minor axis = b
6. General representation
Question 35: Find (i) the eccentricity (ii) the coordinates of the foci (iii) the equation of
the directrex of the ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
25 16

Solution
𝑥2 𝑦2
By –comparison with the 2 + 2 = 1 since the major 0axis –is on x-axis i.e. the
𝑏 𝑎
denominator with a greater number
So, 𝑎2 = 25, 𝑏 2 = 4
a = 5, b = 4
But 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2
𝑐 2 = 25 – 16
C=±3
𝑐 3
(i) Eccentricity e = =±
𝑎 5
𝑐
Alternatively, e = where 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2 or c = ± 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
𝑎

59
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

± 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 𝑏
e= or 1 − ( )2
𝑎 𝑎
4
e = ± 1 − ( )2
5
9 3
=+ =±
25 5
(ii) Foci = (±c+h,k) where (h,k) = (0,0) i.e. at origin
(±3,0)
𝑎 𝑎
(iii) Directrix = ± or x = ±
𝑒 𝑒
= 5
3
5
(iv) Vertex = (±a,0),(0,±b)
= (±5,0),(0,±4)

V(0,4)

V(-5,0) V(5,0)
 
f(-3,0) f(3,0) x

V(0,-b4)

25
Directrex = − 25
3
Directrex =
3

Question 36: Find the equation of the ellipse given that

(i) Foci (±5,0) and major axis = 26
1
(ii) Centre (2,3), horizontal major axis = 20, e =
2
(iii) Centre (2,3, horizontal axis = 8, vertical axis = 4
1
(iv) Foci (-2,2) and (4,2), e =
3

Solution
(i) By comparing the given foci (±5,0) –with f(±c,0)
C = 5 where major axis is on x-axis
But major axis = 2a
So, 2a = 26 or a = 13
Also 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2

60
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑐 2
𝑏 2 = 132 - 52
𝑏 2 = 144
𝑏 = 12
𝑥2 𝑦2
The required equation is 2
+ =1
𝑏 𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
+ 2 = 1 or + =1
13 2 12 169 144
(ii) Since the given major axis is horizontal, the major axis will be on x-axis
1
Where 2a = 20 and e = , a= 10
2
𝑐 𝑏 2
But e = ± or 1 −
𝑎 𝑎
1 𝑏 2
So, = ± 1 −
2 10
Square both sides
1 𝑏 2
=1−
4 𝑎
𝑏 2 1 𝑏2 3
=1− = =
10 4 100 4
2 3 2
b = 100 x b = 75
4

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
the required equation is 2
+ =1 + =1
𝑏 𝑎2 10 2 75

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
100 75

(iii) Given horizontal axis = 8 and vertical axis = 4, centre (2,3) since horizontal
axis is greater than vertical axis, the major axis is on x-axis
But 2a = major axis and 2b – minor –axis
So, 2a = 8 and 2b = 4
a = 4 and b = 2
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
The required equation is + = 1 where (h,k) = centre
𝑎2 𝑏2
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦 −3)2
+ =1
42 22
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦 −3)2
+ =1
16 4
1
(iv) Given foci (-2,2) and (4,2) and e =
3
 It should be noted that the y-coordinate –of the foci is unchanged
 So we compare it with f(±x+h,k) i.e. (-c+h,k) and (c+h,k)
 We can then conclude that major axis is on x-axis
By comparison (i), k = 2
-C + h = -2 ………………………(i)
C + h = 4 ……………………….(ii)

61
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, c= 3, h = 1

𝑐
But e =
𝑎
𝑐
So, a = = 3 1
𝑒
3

A=9
Also, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2
S0, 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑐 2
= 92 - 32
𝑏 2 = 72
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
The required equation is + = 1 where (h,k) = (1,2)
𝑎2 𝑏2

(𝑥−1)2 (𝑦 −2)2
+ =1
92 72

(𝑥−1)2 (𝑦 −2)2
+ =1
81 72

Question 37: Sketch the graph of theequations

(i) 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 (ii) 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 12x – 24y + 60 = 0

Solution
(i) 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16
Divide through by 16
4𝑥 2 𝑦2
+ =1
16 16
4𝑥 2 𝑦2
+ =1
4 16

Since the denominator of the y2 is greater than that of the x2, the major axis is on y-axis
𝑥2 𝑦2
So we compare with the equation 2
+ = 1centre at origin
𝑏 𝑎2

Where 𝑏 2 = 4 and 𝑎2 = 16
B = 2 and a = 4
But 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2
= 16 – 4

62
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

C = ± 12

Focus = f(0,±𝑐) = (0,- 12) and (0, 12)

Vertex = (±b,0) and (0,±4)
𝑎 𝑐
Directrex = ± where e =
𝑒 𝑎
Directrix
=4 =±
12 V(0,4)
12 4
4 
16
f(0, 12)
=± or y =
12 V(-2,0) V(2,0)
16
±
12 f(0,− 12)

V(0,-4)
Directrix

(ii) 2x2 + 3x2 + 12x -24y + 60 = 0

This can be resolve by completing the square
2x2 + 12x + 3y2 –24y = -60
2(x2 + 6x) + 3(y2 –8y) = - 60
2(x + 3)2 –18 + 3(y − 4)2 = - 60
2(x + 3)2 + 3(y − 4)2 = 48 + 18– 60
2(x + 3)2 + 3(y − 4)2 = 6
Divide through by 6
2(𝑥+3)2 3(𝑦 −4)2
+ =1
6 6

(𝑥+3)2 (𝑦 −4)2
+ = 1 where major axis is on x-axis
3 2

(𝑥+𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑕)2
By comparing with + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

h = -3, k = 4, 𝑎2 = 3, 𝑏 2 = 2
but 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 - 𝑏 2
𝑐2 = 3 – 2 = 1
C = ±1
Focus = (±c+h,k) = (±1+-3, 4)
= (−1+ -3, 4) and (-1+ -3, 4)

63
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

= (−4, 4) and (-2, 4)

Vertex = (±a+h, k) and (h, ±b+k)
= (± 3+ -3, 4) and (−3, - 2+ 4)
= (− 3 -3, 4), (− 3 -3, 4) ,(−3, - 2+ 4), (−3, - 2+ 4)
𝑎 𝑐
Directrix = ± + h where e = = ±
1 Directrix x = 0
𝑒 𝑎 Directrix x = -6
3

=± 3 1 + -3
3

= ±3 – 3 = -3 – 3 or 3 – 3
= - 6 or 0   3  3 4
Directrix x = - 6 or x = 0 F(-4,4) F(-2,4)

-6 -3 0 x

Question 38: Find the equation –of the ellipse whose focus is the point (-1,1), directrix
1
is the line x – y + 3 = 0 and which has an eccentricity
2

Solution
Recall the general equation for conic section is
𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛 )2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2

Where (a,b) represent the focus

e = eccentricity
𝑙𝑥 ± 𝑚𝑦 ± 𝑛 = directrix
1
Given focus = (-1,1) directrix as x – y + 3 = 0 and e=
2
1
( )2 (𝑥−𝑦 +3)2
2 2 2
We have (x − − 1) + (y − 1) =
12 +(−1)2
1
(𝑥−𝑦 +3)2
2 2 4
(x + 1) + (y − 1) =
2

(𝑥−𝑦 +3)2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 1–y2- 2y + 1 =
8

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2xy + 6x − 6y +9
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 1 –y2 - 2y + 2 =
8

8(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2x –2y + 2) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 - 2xy+ 6x- 6y +9

64
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

8𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 + 16x – 16y + 16 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 - 2xy + 6x - 6y + 9

7𝑥 2 + 7𝑦 2 + 10x – 10y + 2xy + 7 = 0
Or 7𝑥 2 + 7𝑦 2 + 2xy + 10x- 10y + 7 = 0

1
Question 39:Find the equation of the ellipse whose eccentricity is , focus is (0,3) and
3
the diretrix has an equation x – 2y + 1 = 0
Solution
Using the general equation of a conic section
𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛 )2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2
1
Where (a,b) = (0,3), e = , direction is x – 2y + 1 = 0
3
1
( )2 (𝑥−2𝑦 +1)2
2 2 3
(x − a) + (y − 3) =
12 +(−2)2
1 2
(𝑥 + 4𝑦 2 − 4xy + 2x − 4y + 1)
2 2 9
𝑥 + 𝑦 - 6y + 9 =
45

45𝑥 2 + 45𝑦 2 - 270y+405=𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 – 4xy + 2x – 4y + 1

44𝑥 2 + 41𝑦 2 + 4xy – 2x – 266y + 404 = 0

Question 40: Determine the centre, focus and vertex of the ellipse
4𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 – 24x – 20y + 36 = 0
Solution
𝑥2 𝑦2
The first thing is to rewrite the ellipse in the form 2
+ = 1 or
𝑎 𝑏2

(𝑥+𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑕)2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

This is done by completing he square

4𝑥 2 - 5𝑦 2 + 24x – 20y = - 36
4(𝑥 2 – 6x) + 5(𝑦 2 - 4y) = - 36
4(𝑥 − 3)2 - 36 + 5(𝑦 − 2)2 - 20= - 36
4(𝑥 − 3)2 + 5(𝑦 − 2)2 = 36 + 20 – 36

65
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

4(𝑥 − 3)2 + 5(𝑦 − 2)2 = 20

4(𝑥−3)2 5(𝑦 −2)2
+ =1
20 20

(𝑥−3)2 (𝑦 −2)2
+ =1 major axis is on x-axis
5 4

By comparison𝑎2 = 5, 𝑏 2 = 4, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 5 – 4 = 1

a = 5, b = 2, c = ±1
centre = (h,k) = (3,2)
focus = (±c + h, k) = (±1 + 3, 2)
= (−1 + 3, 2) and = (+1 + 3, 2)
= (2,2) and (4,2)
Vertex = (±a + h, k) (k, ±b + h)

= (± 5 + 3, 2) (3, ±2 + 2)
= (− 5 + 3, 2), ( 5 + 3, 2), (3,0),(3,4)

Question 41: Find the equation of the normal to the ellipse

𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 2 at (- 2,0)
(A) 0. (B) 1 (C) 2 (D)3 (E) None of the above (EMA381/04-05/Q13)
Solution
Recall, to get the equation of normal, we use (y - 𝑥1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1 𝑑𝑦
Where 𝑚2 = − a nd 𝑚2 = at (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑚1 𝑑𝑥
2 2
From the given equation 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2,
𝑑𝑦
2x + 4y =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=-
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦

𝑑𝑦 (− 2) 2
At point (− 2, 0), =- =
𝑑𝑥 2(0) 0
2
So,𝑚1 =
0
1 0
And 𝑚2 = − =- =0
𝑚1 2
The required equation of normal is (y – 0) = 0(x – (- 2))
y–0=0
y = 0 (A)

Question 42: Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse

66
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 12x – 24y + 60 = 0 at (0,1)

(A) 2x + 3y + 3 = 0 (B) 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 (C) 2x - 3y + 3 = 0 (D) 2x - 3y + 2 = 0

Solution
The equation of the tangent will be (y - 𝑦1 ) = 𝑚1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑦
Where 𝑚1 = at point (𝑥1 , 𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑥
By differentiating the given equation, we have
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2x + 6y + 12 - 24 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(6y – 24) = - (4x + 12)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (4x + 12)
=-
𝑑𝑥 6y− 24

𝑑𝑦 (4(0) + 12)
At point (0,1), =-
𝑑𝑥 6x1− 24
𝑑𝑦 2 2
= or 𝑚1 =
𝑑𝑥 3 3
2
The required equation of thetangent is (y – 1) = (x – 0)
3
3y – 3 = 2x – 0
Or 2x – 3y + 3 = 0 (C)

Question 43: Find (a) The equation of the tangent

(B)The equation of the normal to the ellipse
2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 at (-1,2)
Solution
We first get 𝑚1 for the tangent and then 𝑚2 for the normal
2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5
𝑑𝑦
4x + 2y = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
=-
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑥 −1
At (-1,2), =- =1
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
S0, 𝑚1 = 1
(a) The equation of the tangent is (y - 2) = 𝑚1 (𝑥 − − 1)
y - 2 = 1(𝑥 + 1)
x-y+3=0
(b) The equation of the normal is (y - 2) = 𝑚2 (𝑥 − − 1)
1 1
Where 𝑚2 = − = − = -1
𝑚1 1
(y - 2) = −1(𝑥 + 1)
X+y–1=0

67
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

3.4 HYPERBOLA (e >1)

Is a conic section in which the distance from a point (focus) is greater than the distance
from a fixed line (directrix).
Key points
1. The eccentricity e > 1
𝑥2 𝑦2
2. The equation can be i. 2
- = 1centre at origin (0,0)
𝑎 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
ii. - = 1 centre at origin (0,0)
𝑏2 𝑎2

𝑥2 𝑦2
i. At 2
- = 1, the major axis is on x-axis
𝑎 𝑏2

 Focus = (±c,0) when centre is at origin

Or (±c + h,k) when centre is at (h,k)
𝑎
 Directrix =± when centre is at origin
𝑒
𝑎
± + h when centre is at (h,k)
𝑒
 Vertex = (±a,0)

Vertex = (±a,0) y

V(-a,0) V(a,0)
 
f(-c,0) f(c,0) x

𝑥2 𝑦2
For 2
- =1
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑦2
ii. For - = 1 , the major axis is on y – axis
𝑏2 𝑎2

 Focus = (0, ±c) when centre is at origin

Or ( h, ±c +k) when centre is at (h,k)
 Vertex = (0, ±a)
𝑎
 Directrix =± when centre is at origin
𝑒
𝑎
± + k when centre is at (h,k)
𝑒

68
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑐
 In this case,𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and e = as in ellipse
𝑎
y

f(c,0)



V(0,a)

x
y V(0,-a)


 f(0,-c)

𝑥2 𝑦2
For 2
- =1
𝑎 𝑏2

2𝑏 2
3. Latusrectum =
𝑎

4. Asynptotes: An asymptote is a tangent to a curve at infinity

i.e. Asymptote is a tangent (straight line) to Hyperbola

a curve that will never touch the curve
𝑏
the general equation of asymptotes = ± x
𝑎

𝑥2 𝑦2
5. When a= b in the equation 2
- = 1,
𝑎 𝑏2

it becomes rectangular Asymptote

69
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 44: Find the vertex and focus of the hyperbola

25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 100
Solution
25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 100
Divide through 0by 100
25𝑥 2 4𝑦 2
- =1
100 100
𝑥2 𝑦2
- = 1 where major axis is on y-axis
4 25 f(0, 29)
𝑥2 𝑦2
By comparing with 2 - 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 = 4, 𝑎 = 25 and 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
2 2

B = 2, a = 5 and 𝑐 2 = 25 + 4
c = 29
focus = (0,±c) D=
25 V(0,5)
29
= (0,± 29) x
Vertex = (0,±a) 25
= (0,±5) D=−
29 V(0,-5)
𝑎 5 𝑐
Directrix = ± = ± where e =
𝑒 𝑒 𝑎
29
=
5
= ±5 29 f(0,− 29)
5
±25
=
29

Question 45: Find the equation of a hyperbola whose foci are (-6,2) and (-4,2) and
5
eccentricity is .
4

Solution
From the given foci, we should note that the y-coordinates is unchanged
So, we compare it with the form f(±c+h,k)
Where ±c+h = -4 or -6 and k = 2
C + h = -4 …………………(i)
Or –c + h = -6 ………………….(ii)
2h = -10
H = -5 centre = (-5,2)
From (i) c + h = -4
C – 5 = -4
C=1
𝑐
But e =
𝑎
5 1
=
4 𝑎
4 2 16
a= or 𝑎 =
5 25

70
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4
12 = ( )2 + 𝑏 2
5
2 9
𝑏 =
25
(𝑥+5)2 (𝑦 −2)2
The required equation of the hyperbola is 16 + 9 =1
25 25

Question 46: Determine the focus and vertex of the hyperbola

5𝑥 2 -4𝑦 2 - 20x – 24y + 36 = 0
5𝑥 2 - 20x - 4𝑦 2 + 24y + 36 = 0
5(𝑥 − 2)2 - 20 –4(𝑦 − 3)2 -36 + 36 = 0
5(𝑥 − 2)2 – 4(𝑦 − 3)2 = 0
5(𝑥+5)2 4(𝑦 −2)2
- =1
20 20
(𝑥+5)2 (𝑦 −2)2
- =1
4 5
The major axis is on y-axis
So, 𝑎2 = 4, 𝑏 2 = 25 centre = (2,3)
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑐2 = 5 + 4
𝑐2 = 9
C=3
Focus = (h, ±c + k) = (2, ± 5 + 3)
3
Question 47:Find the equation of the hyperbola whose eccentricity is , focus is (2,0)
2
and directrix has an equation 2x – y + 5 =0
Solution
Since focus eccentricity and the equation of diretrix are given, we will use the general
𝑒 2 (𝑙𝑥 ±𝑚𝑦 ±𝑛 )2
equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 =
𝑙 2 +𝑚 2
3
( )2 (2𝑥−𝑦 +5)2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 2
22 +(−1)2

9(4𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 +20𝑥−10𝑦 +25)

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 =
4𝑥5

20 ( 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 ) = 36𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 - 36xy + 180x – 90y + 225

36𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 - 20𝑦 2 - 36xy + 80x + 180x – 90y + 225 – 80 = 0
16𝑥 2 − 11𝑦 2 - 36xy + 260x – 90y + 145 = 0

71
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

POLAR COORDINATE FORM OF THE CONICS

Let P(r,) be a general point on the conic whose focus is he pole and whose directrix D
is perpendicular to the polar axis and P units to the left of the pole, as shown below

Directrix Y rcos
P m
N
P(r,)

 Polar axis
(-P,0) 0 Pole

Recall, the ratio [OP] to [PN] is a constant known as eccentricity e

[𝑂𝑃]
i.e. e =
[𝑃𝑁]

where [PN] = [NM] + [MP], [NM] = P and [MP] = rcos

so, [PN] = P + rcos
[𝑂𝑃] 𝑟
e= =
[𝑃𝑁] 𝑃+𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 

e(P + rcos) = r
eP = r - ercos 𝑒𝑝
r=
1−𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 
r(1 - ecos) = ep
This above equation is a standard polar coordinate form of the equation of a proper
conic, where the nature of the conic depends upon the value of e.
NB
1. If the directrix is perpendicular to the polar axis and P units to the right of he pole,
the equation will be: 𝑒𝑝
r=
1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 

72
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

2. If the directrix is parallel to the polar axis and P units below or above the pole, the
equation is
𝑒𝑝
r=
1±𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 
Key points

1. Recall, x = rcos, y = rcos and r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

2. Polar equations of conics are in two forms
𝑒𝑝
i. r= when thedirectrix is perpendicular to the polar axis and P units to
1±𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 
the right or left of the polar axis (focus)
𝑒𝑝
ii. r= when the directrix is parallel to the polar axis and P units above
1±𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 
or below the polar axis (focus)
from the equation (i) and (ii) above,
when 0<e<1, the equation represent an ellipse
e = 1, the equation represent a parabola
e > 1, the equation represent a hyperbola
P is the distance between the polar axis and the directrix

Question: Determine the nature of each of the following conics with one focus at the
pole. Determine e and give the location of the directrix in term of its direction with
respect to the polar axis and its distance from the pole.
8 3 4 10
(a) r = (b) r = (c) r = (d) r =
4− 4𝑐𝑜𝑠  1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠  2− 6𝑠𝑖𝑛  5+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 

Solution
8 𝑒𝑝
(a) r = equation in form of r =
4− 4𝑐𝑜𝑠  1− 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 

8
r=
4(1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
2
r=
1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 

by comparison, e = 1, ep = 2
2
p = =2
1

Nature: Since e = 1, it’s a parabola

𝑒𝑝
Location: Since it conforms to the equation r = , the directrix is perpendicular to
1− 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 
the polar axis (focus) and its 2 units to the left of the focus.

73
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

3 𝑒𝑝
(b) r = , by comparing with r =
1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠  1+ 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 

e = 1, ep = 3
p=3
Nature: It’s a parabola since e = 1
𝑒𝑝
Location: Since it confirms to the equation , the directrix is perpendicular to the
1+ 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠 
focus and 3 units to the right of the focus

P(r,) 3 Directrix

r

0 (3,0)
focus

4 𝑒𝑝
(c) r = , rewrite in the form r =
2−6𝑠𝑖𝑛  1− 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 
4 2
r= =
2(1−3𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 1−3𝑠𝑖𝑛 

by comparing e= 3, ep = 2
2
p=
3

Nature: It’s a hyperbola since e > 1 i.e. e = 3

2
Location: The directrix is parallel to the focus and units below the focus.
3
𝑒𝑝 𝑒𝑝
(d) r = , Rewrite in the form r =
1+ 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠  1+ 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛 
10 2
r= 1 = 1
5(1+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) 1+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 
5 5

1
by comparison, e = , ep = 2, p = 2 1
5
5

p = 10
74
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Nature: It’s an ellipse since e < 1

Location: The directrix is parallel to the focus and 10 units above the focus.

Question: Find the polar equation of the ellipse 9𝑥 2 - 16𝑦 2 = 144

Solution

Recall, x = rcos, y = rsin an d r = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

So, 9𝑥 2 - 16𝑦 2 = 144
9(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠)2 – 16(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛)2 = 144
9𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  + 16𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2  = 144
𝑟 2 (9𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  + 16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ) = 144

75
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

CHAPTER 4
QUADRIC SURFACES
A quadric surface is a surface defined by an equation of the second degree in
three variables (usually x,y and z)
We shall be considering second degree equations of the form
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 +𝐷𝑥+ Ey + Fz + G = 0 where there is no terms in xy, xz or yz.
We shall be considering the following surfaces
1. Ellipsoid
2. Hyperboid
3. Paraboloids
THE ELLIPSOIDS
An ellipsoid is a set of points whose coordinate satisfy the equation
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2
+ + = 1 given centre at the origin
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑐2

(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2 (𝑧−𝑙)2

Or + + = 1 given centre at (h, k,l)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

(0,0,c)

 (0,-b,0)
(-a,0,0)
0

(0,0,-c)
(0,b,c)
y
Where
a = length of –semi-major axis
b = length of semi-manor axis
c = length of semi-minor axis
 The –equation above is for ellipsoid
76
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

whose major axis is on x-axis

 Since only even powers of x, y and z occur in the 9equation 0above the
surface (ellipsoid) is symmetrical with respect to all three coordinate planes
and axes (x,y,z). Therefore, the surface is symmetrical with respect to the
origin, its geometric center.
Key points
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
1. Given equation at origin 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 with major axis on x,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Vertex = (±a,0,0), (0,±𝑏, ±c) an d (0,0,±c)
2. For ellipsoid at center (h,k,l) and major axis on x, the equation is
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2 (𝑧−𝑙)2
+ + 2 =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐
Vertex = (±a+h,k, 𝑙), (h,±𝑏 + 𝑘, 𝑙) an d (h,k,±c + 𝑙)
3. If in the ellipsoid equation s = b, or a = c or b = c, the ellipsoid refers to as
ellipsoid of revolution
But, if a = b = c in the ellipsoid equation, the equation will become the equation of
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
a sphere, i.e. 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 where a = b = c
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
By multiplying through by 𝑎2 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 which is a sphere with centre at
origin and radius a
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
ii. if the equation is 2 + 2 + 2 = - 1, it is refers to as imaginary ellipsoid since
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
no real points is on the surface
4. General equation of an ellipsoid is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = D
Question 1: By completing the squares in x,y and z respectively, -show that the
equation 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 4x – 6y + 8z + 9= 0 represent –an ellipsoid. Locate the
geometric centre, and determine the semi-axis
Solution
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 4x – 6y + 8z + 9= 0
2𝑥 2 - 4x + 3𝑦 2 – 6y + 𝑧 2 + 8z = - 9
2(𝑥 2 - 2x) + 3(𝑦 2 – 2y) + (𝑧 2 + 8z) = - 9
2(𝑥 − 1)2 - 2 + 3(𝑦 − 1)2 - 3 + (𝑧 + 4)2 - 16 = - 9
2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 3(𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 + 4)2 = 12
2(𝑥−1)2 3(𝑦 −1)2 (𝑧+4)2 12
+ + =
12 12 12 12

(𝑥−1)2 (𝑦−1)2 (𝑧+4)2

+ + =1
6 4 12

Geometric centre = (h,k, 𝑙) = (1,1,−4)

77
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Length of the semi-axis = (a,b,c) = 6, 2, 2 3

Question 2: In each of the following equation determine the coordinate of the centre and
the length of the semi-axis
i. 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 + 8x + 12y - 6z + 4 = 0
ii. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 6x – 8y + 2z + 3= 0
iii. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 12x – 16y + 4z – 4 = 0
Solution
By completing the square method we have
i. 2(𝑥 2 + 4x) + 4(𝑦 2 + 3𝑦) + 3(𝑧 2 - 2z) + 4 = 0
3
2(𝑥 + 2)2 - 8 + 4(𝑦 + )2 - 9 + 3(𝑧 − 1)2 - 3 + 4 = 0
2
2 3 2
2(𝑥 + 2) + 4(𝑦 + ) + 3(𝑧 − 1)2 = 16
2
3
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦 + )2 (𝑧−1)2
2
+ + 16 =1
8 4
3
3
Centre (-2, , 1)
2
4 3
Length of semi-axis = (a,b,c) = (2 2, 2, )
3

ii. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 6x – 8y + 2z + 3= 0
3(𝑥 2 + 2x) + 4(𝑦 2 -2𝑦) + (𝑧 2 + 2z) + 3 = 0
3(𝑥 + 1)2 - 3 + 4(𝑦 − 1)2 - 4 + (𝑧 + 1)2 - 1 + 3 = 0
3(𝑥 + 1)2 + 4(𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 + 1)2 = 5
(𝑥+1)2 (𝑦 − 1)2 (𝑧+1)2
5 + 5 + =1
5
3 4
Centre (-1, 1, − 1)
3 3
Length of semi-axis = (a,b,c) = ( , , 5)
3 2

iii. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 12x – 16y + 4z – 4 = 0

3(𝑥 2 - 4x) + 4(𝑦 2 - 4𝑦) + 𝑧 2 + 2z - 4 = 0
3(𝑥 − 2)2 - 12 + 4(𝑦 − 2)2 - 16 + (𝑧 + 2)2 - 4 - 4 = 0
3(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4(𝑦 − 2)2 + (𝑧 + 2)2 = 36
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦 − 2)2 (𝑧+2)2
+ + =1
12 9 36
Centre (2, 2, −2)
Length of semi-axis = (2 2, 3, 6 )
Question 3: Find the equation of the standard ellipsoid (center at origin, axis parallel to
coordinate axes) passing through the points given
i. (2,1,2), (5,0,0), (1,1,2)
ii. ( 2,1,1), (1, 3, -1), (-1,-1, 5)
78
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Solution
Recall from the key points, general or standard form of an ellipsoid is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = D
(i) For point (2,1,1), 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = D
4A + B + C = D ………………………….(i)
For point (5,0,0), 𝐴(5)2 + 𝐵(0)2 + 𝐶(0)2 = D
25A + 0B + 0C = D ………………………(ii)
For point (1,1,2), 𝐴(1)2 + 𝐵(1)2 + 𝐶(2)2 = D
A + B + 4C = D ………………………….(iii)
Solving equations (i),(ii) and (iii) simultaneously
𝐷 4𝐷 1𝐷
A = B = , C= in terms of D
25 5 25
2 2 2
The required equation is 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = D
𝐷𝑥 2 4𝐷𝑦 2 𝐷𝑧 2
+ + =D
25 5 25

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Dividing through by D, + 5 + =1
25 25
4

(ii) Given points ( 2,1,1), (1, 3, -1) and (-1,-1, 5)

For point ( 2,1,1), 𝐴( 2)2 + 𝐵(1)2 + 𝐶(1)2 = D
2A + B + C = D ………………………….(i)
For point (1, 3,0), 𝐴(1)2 + 𝐵( 3)2 + 𝐶(−1)2 = D
A + 3B + C = D …………………….……(ii)
For point (-1,-1, 5), 𝐴(−1)2 + 𝐵(−1)2 + 𝐶( 5)2 = D
A + B + 5C = D ………………………….(iii)
Solving equations (i),(ii) and (iii) simultaneously
4𝐷 2𝐷 𝐷
A = ; B = , C= in terms of D
11 11 11
4𝐷𝑥 2 2𝐷𝑦 2 𝐷𝑧 2
The required equation is + + =D
11 11 11

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
11 + 11 + =1
( ) ( ) 11
4 2

HYPERBOLOID
Hyperboloid is a set of points whose coordinate satisfy the equation
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2
+ - = 1 or - - =1
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑐2

Key points

79
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
1. The equation 2
+ - = 1 represent hyperboloid of one sheet
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑐2

Where sections parallel to the xz or t heyz-plane are hyperbolas, while sections parallel
to the xy plane are ellipses except for hyperboloid of revolution (when a = b) where the
section parallel to xy-plane are circles.
z
𝑥2 𝑦2
That is 2 + 2 for xy-plane (ellipse)
𝑎 𝑏

𝑥2 𝑧2
2
- for xz-plane (hyperbola)
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑧2
2
- for yz-plane (hyperbola) (0,-b,0)
𝑎 𝑐2

 Hyperboloid of one sheet usually (-a,0,0)  (a,0,0)

Parallel to the axis of the negative x

Variable. In he figure above the z-axis
y
(a,b,0)

Hyperboloid of one sheet

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2. The equation 2
+ - = 1 represents a hyperboloid of two sheets
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑐2

Here the two variables (x,y,z) have negative signs.

The sections parallel to the xy or xz-plane are hyperbolas while the sections parallel to
the yz-plane are ellipses except for hyperboloid of revolution. (when a = b) where the
sections are circles.
𝑥2 𝑦2
That is 2
- for xy – plane (hyperboloid)
𝑎 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑧2
2
- for xz-plane (hyperboloid)
𝑎 𝑐2
−𝑦 2 𝑧2 −𝑦 2 𝑧2
- =-( - ) for yz – plane (ellipse)
𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑏2 𝑐2

0
x

y 80
Hyperboloid of two sheet
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

For hyperboloid of two sheets, the surfaces usually be along the axis of the positive
variable.
For instance, the figure above shows that the surface be along x-axis since x is the
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
positive variable in - - =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2
For the equation 2 + - = 1 or - - = 1 , we have the surface lying along z-
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2
axis as in
z

(0,0,c)
0
x
(0,0,-c)

Question 4: By comparing the squares in x,y,z, determine

(a) The nature of the surface
(b) The principle planes of the surface whose equation is
2𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 -2𝑧 2 - 8x + 6y – 12z = 21
Solution
2𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 - 2𝑧 2 - 8x + 6y – 12z = 21
Rearrange by grouping like terms, 2𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 - 2𝑧 2 - 8x + 6y – 12z = 21
2(𝑥 2 - 4x) -3(𝑦 2 - 2𝑦) − 2(𝑧 2 + 6z) = 21
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 8- 3(𝑦 − 1)2 +3-2(𝑧 + 3)2 + 18=21
2(𝑥 − 2)2 -3(𝑦 − 1)2 -(𝑧 + 3)2 = 21 – 18 + 8 – 3
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 3(𝑦 − 1)2 - (𝑧 + 3)2 = 8
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦− 2)2 (𝑧+2)2
Divide through by 8 - 8 − =1
4 4
3

(a) The surface is a hyperboloid of two sheets since there are two negative signs
belonging to two of the variables.
(b) The principle planes is also the centres which is = (h,k,l)
= (2,1-3)

81
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 5: Determine the coordinates of the centre and discus briefly the nature of the
following surfaces
i. 2𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 - 8x - 6y – 12z – 10 = 0
ii. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 - 3𝑧 2 + 4x - 4y – 6z – 9 = 0
iii. 5𝑥 2 - 7𝑦 2 - 𝑧 2 + 20x -28y + 2z – 42 = 20
Solution
(i) 2𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 - 8x - 6y – 12z – 10 = 0
2𝑥 2 - 8𝑦 2 - 3𝑧 2 - 6y – 4𝑧 2 -12z = 0
2(𝑥 2 - 4x) - 3(𝑦 2 +2𝑦) + 4(𝑧 2 -3z) = 10
3
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 8 - 3(𝑦 + 1)2 + 3 +4(𝑧 + )2 - 9 = 10
2
3
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 3(𝑦 + 1)2 - 4(𝑧 + )2 = 10+9– 3 + 8
2
2 2 3 2
2(𝑥 − 2) - 3(𝑦 + 1) +4(𝑧 + ) = 24
2

Divide through by 24
3
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦+1)2 (𝑧+ )2
2
- + =1
12 8 6
3
Centre = (h,k,l) = (2,-1, )
2

Nature: hyperboloid of one sheet with axis parallel to the y – axis (refer to the key
points)
(ii) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 - 3𝑧 2 + 4x - 4y – 6z – 9 = 0
𝑥 2 + 4x + 2𝑦 2 - 4y - 3𝑧 2 -– 6z = 9
(𝑥 + 2)2 – 4 + 2(𝑦 − 1)2 - 2 - 3(𝑧 + 1)2 + 3 = 9
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 2(𝑦 − 1)2 - 3(𝑧 + 1)2 = 12
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦−1)2 (𝑧+1)2
+ + =1
12 6 4

Centre = h, k, l = (−2,11, −1)

Nature: hyperboloid of one sheet with axis parallel to the z-axis
(iii) 5𝑥 2 - 7𝑦 2 - 𝑧 2 + 20x - 28y + 2z – 42 = 20
5(𝑥 2 + 4x) - 7(𝑦 2 + 4𝑦) − (𝑧 2 - 2z) = 42
5(𝑥 + 2)2 - 20 - 7(𝑦 + 1)2 + 28-(𝑧 + 1)2 - 1 = 42
5(𝑥 + 2)2 - 7(𝑦 + 2)2 - (𝑧 − 1)2 = 35
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦+2)2 (𝑧−1)2
- + =1
7 5 35

Center = (-2,-2,1)
82
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Nature: hyperboloid of two sheets with axis parallel to x-axis

NB: Recall that the axis of the positive variable is usually parallel to the hyperboloid of
two sheet.
Question 6: Find the equation of the locus of a point the difference of whose distance
from (2,-3,4) and (2,3,4) is 5.
Solution
Let the point be A(x,y,z) and the given points be
B(2,-3,4) and c(2,3,4)

Distance AB = (2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2

Distance AC = (2 − 𝑥)2 + (3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2

ButAB – AC = 5

So, (2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 = 5 + (2 − 𝑥)2 + (3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2

Square both sides
(2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 = 25 + (2 − 𝑥)2 + (3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 + (2 − 𝑥)2 + (3 − 𝑦)2 +
(4 − 𝑧)2

Collect like terms

2 2 2
12𝑦 − 25 = 100( 2 − 𝑥 + 3−𝑦 + 4 − 𝑧 2)
144𝑦 2 − 600𝑦 + 625 = 100(4 – 4x + 𝑥 2 + 9 – 6y + 𝑦 2 + 16 – 8z + 𝑧 2 )
144𝑦 2 − 600𝑦 + 625 = 100(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 4x – 6y – 8z + 29)
144𝑦 2 − 600𝑦 + 625 = 100𝑥 2 + 100𝑦 2 + 100𝑧 2 - 400x – 600y – 800z + 2900
= 44𝑦 2 − 100𝑥 2 -100𝑧 2 + 400x + 800z + 625 – 2900 = 0

= 44𝑦 2 − 100𝑥 2 -100𝑧 2 + 400x + 800z - 2275 = 0

This is a hyperboloid of two sheets with axis parallel to the y-axis

Question 7: Find the equation of the locus of a point, the difference of whose distances
from (0,0,3) and (0,0,-3) is 4.
Solution
Let the point be –A(x,y,z) and the given points be
B(0,0,3) and c(0,0,3)
83
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

The distance AB = (0 − 𝑥)2 + (0 − 𝑦)2 + (3 − 𝑧)2

= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 − 𝑧)2

Distance AC = (0 − 𝑥)2 + (0 − 𝑦)2 + (−3 − 𝑧)2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 + 𝑧)2
But the difference AB – AC = 4

So, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 − 𝑧)2 - 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 + 𝑧)2 = 4

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 − 𝑧)2 = 4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (3 + 𝑧)2
Take the square of both sides

( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (9 − 6𝑧 + 𝑧)2 )2 = (4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2 )2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 − 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2 = 16 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2

9 – 9 – 6z – 6z – 16 = 8 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2

-(12z + 16) = 8 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2
Again take the square of both sides

(−(12z + 16) )2 = (8 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2 )2
144𝑧 2 + 384𝑧 + 256 = 64(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9 + 6𝑧 + 𝑧 2 )
144𝑧 2 + 384𝑧 + 256 = 64𝑥 2 + 64𝑦 2 + 64𝑧 2 + 384𝑧 + 576)
144𝑧 2 − 64𝑧 2 − 64𝑥 2 − 64𝑦 2 + 384𝑧 − 384𝑧 + 256 − 576 = 0
80𝑧 2 − 64𝑥 2 − 64𝑦 2 − 320 = 0
80𝑧 2 − 64𝑥 2 − 64𝑦 2 = 320
Divide both –side –by 16 (the L.C.M)
5𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 = 20 This is a hyperboloid of two sheets with axis parallel to the z-axis.
Question 8: Find the locus of a point whose –distance from the point (2,-3,4) is twice its
distance from the plane x + 2 = 0
Solution
Let the point be A(x,y,z) and the point be B(2,-3,4)
Recall, the distance between a point (x,y,z) and a line ax ± by ± 𝑐 = 0 𝑖𝑠

84
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

ax ± by ± 𝑐
=
± 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2

Given a line x + 2 = 0
x+ 0y+ 2
The distance between the point A and the line =
12 +02

=x+2
Also, the distance between the point A(x,y,z) and the given point B(2,-3,4)

AB = (2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2

But AB = 2 x distance between point A and the plane x + 2 = 0

S0, (2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 = 2 x (x + 2) (2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 =

2(x + 2)
Square both sides
(2 − 𝑥)2 + (−3 − 𝑦)2 + (4 − 𝑧)2 = 4(𝑥 + 2)2
4 – 4x + 𝑥 2 + 9 + 6𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 16 − 8𝑧 + 𝑧 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 16x + 16
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 4x – 24x + 6y – 8z = 16 – 4 – 9 - 16
− 3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 - 28x + 6y – 8z = -13
The constant term should be positive
So multiply through by -1
3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 + 28x - 6y +8z = 13 This is a hyperboloid of two sheet with axis parallel to
the x-axis
THE PARABOLOIDS
Elliptic Paraboloid
z
𝑥2 𝑦2
This is the locus of an equation of the form + = cz at origin
𝑎2 𝑏2

Key points
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. The equation 2
+ = cz
𝑎 𝑏2
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
Or + = c(z - 𝑙)
𝑎2 𝑏2
Is when the elliptic paraboloid is
along the z-axis as shown in the 0 x
above figure. y
General equation: 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐵𝑦 2 − 𝐶𝑧 2
𝑥2 𝑦2 (𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑙)2
2. The equation 2 + 2 = cz or Or + = c(z - 𝑘)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏2
Is when the elliptic paraboloid is passing along the y-axis

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

General equation: 𝐴𝑥 2 − 𝐵𝑦 2 − 𝐶𝑧 2 = 0
3. If c > 0, the surface lies totally above the xy-plane as in above.
If c > 0, the surface lies totally below the xy-plane
4. If a = b, the surface is called paraboloid of revolution.
Question 9: Find the equation of the paraboloid with its vertex at (0,0,0), axis along he z-
axis and passing through the points (2,0,3) and (1,2,3). Also, find the lengths of the semi-
axes.
Solution
Recall when the paraboloid passes along the z-axis the equation is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 = 0
We were given three points; (0,0,0), (2,0,3) and (1,2,3)
Substituting each point into the equation
For (0,0,0) we have 𝐴(0)2 + 𝐵(0)2 + 𝐶(0) = 0
For (2,0,3) we have 𝐴(2)2 + 𝐵(0)2 + 𝐶(3) = 0
4A + 3C = 0
−3
A=- C
4
For (1,2,3) we have 𝐴(1)2 + 𝐵(2)2 + 𝐶(3) = 0
3
A + 4B +3C = 0 but A = - C
4
3
- C + 4B + 3C = 0
4
3
4b = - 3C + C
4
−9
B= C
16
The required equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 = 0
3𝑐𝑥 2 9𝑐𝑦 2
- - = -cz
4 16
1
Multiply through by -
9𝑐

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧
+ = Elliptic paraboloid
12 16 9

The vertex = (h,k,l) = (0,0,0) when compared with the equation

(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
+ = c(z - 𝑙)
𝑎2 𝑏2
1 1
Length of semi-axis = (a,b,c) = ( 12, 16, ) = (2 3, 4, )
9 9
1
i.e. 𝑎2 = 12, 𝑏 2 = 16, c =
9

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

a = 12, b = 4

= 2 12
Question 10: Locate the vertex of the following paraboloid
i. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 - 8x + 12y + 3z + 23 = 0
ii. 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 - 4x - 24y - z + 36 = 0
iii. 4𝑥 2 +3𝑦 2 -4y + 12z +12 = 20
Solution
i. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 - 8x + 12y + 3z + 23 = 0
2𝑥 2 – 8𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 + 12y + 3z + 23 = 0
2(𝑥 2 - 4x) +3(𝑦 2 + 4𝑦) = -3z - 23
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 8 + 3(𝑦 + 2)2 -12 = -3z - 23
2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑦 + 2)2 - 20 = -3z - 23
2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑦 + 2)2 = -3z – 3
2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3(𝑦 + 2)2 = -3(z + 1)
Divide through by 6 i.e. the LCM of 2 and 3
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦+1)2 1
- = − (𝑧 + 1) = Elliptic paraboloid
3 2 2
H = 2, k = -2, L = -1
Vertex = (2,-2,-1)

ii. 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 - 4x - 24y - z + 36 = 0
2(𝑥 2 - 2x) + 4(𝑦 2 - 6𝑦) = z –36
By completing the square
2(𝑥 − 2)2 - 2 + 4(𝑦 − 3)2 - 36 = z – 36
2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4(𝑦 − 3)2 = z + 2
Divide through by 4
(𝑥−1)2 1
+ (𝑦 − 3)2 = (𝑧 + 2) = Elliptic paraboloid along z-axis
3 4

Vertex = (1,3,-2)
iii. 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 - 4y + 12z + 12 = 20
4𝑥 2 + 3(𝑧 2 + 4z) –4y + 12 = 0
4𝑥 2 + 3(𝑧 + 2)2 –12 = 4y - 12
4𝑥 2 + 3(𝑧 + 2)2 = 4y
Divide through by 12

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑥2 (𝑦 +2)2 𝑦
- = Elliptic paraboloid along y-axis
3 4 3

Vertex = (0,0,-2)
Question 11: Find the equation of the paraboloid with vertex at (0,0,0), axis along the y-
axis and passing through (1,2,1) and (2,1,0).
Solution
Recall, for axis along y-axis, the general equation is
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 = 0
For (0,0,0) we have 𝐴(0)2 + 𝐵(0)2 + 𝐶(0) = 0
For (1,2,1) we have 𝐴(1)2 + 𝐵(1)2 + 𝐶(2) = 0 where x= 1, y = 2, z = 1
A + B + 2c = 0 ……………………………(i)
For (2,1,0) , 𝐴(2)2 + 𝐵(0)2 + 𝐶(1) = 0 where x = 2, y= 1, z = 0
4A + C = 0
1
A=- c
4
1
Substituting - c for A in (i)
4
A + B +2C = 0
𝑐
- C + B + 2C = 0
4
7
B+ C=0
4
7
B=- C
4
The required equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 = 0
𝑐 7
- 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧
4 4
4
Multiply through by -
𝑐
𝑥 2 + 7𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 = 0
Or 𝑥 2 + 7𝑦 2 = 4𝑦
𝑥2 4
+ 𝑧 2 = y Elliptic paraboloid along y-axis
4 7

Hyperbolic Paraboloid
This is a set of points whose coordinates satisfy the equation
𝑥2 𝑦2
2
+ = cz where 0 > c > 0
𝑎 𝑏2

Key points
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. For 2
- = cz, vertex = (0,0,0)
𝑎 𝑏2
(𝑥−𝑕)2 (𝑦 −𝑘)2
For + = c(𝑧 − 𝑙)2 , vertex = (h,k,l)
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
2. From the equation 2
- = cz, the section made by a plane
𝑎 𝑏2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Z = k is a hyperbola
 If k > 0, the transverse and conjugate axis of sections of the hyperboloid are
parallel to the x-axis and y-axis respectively.
 If k < 0, the transverse and conjugate axis are parallel to the y-axis and x-
axis respectively
 If k = 0, the trace of the hyperboloid in xy plane is the pair of intersecting
𝑥2 𝑦2
straight lines 2
- = cz, where z = 0
𝑎 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
= 2
=
𝑎 𝑏2
𝑏2𝑥 2
= 𝑦2
𝑎2

𝑏 𝑏
± x=y y=± x
𝑎 𝑎

Furthermore, note that the –vertex of the surface is a minimum point for its trace in the
xz plane and a maximum point for its trace in the yz plane. Such a point can be called
minimum-maximum point or simply, minimum or saddle point, of the surface.

0 x

 When a = b, the surface is called paraboloid of revolution

89
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 2
- = 3z, is paraboloid of revolution about the z-axis
𝑎 𝑏2

Or 𝑥 2 - 𝑦 2 = 6z
NB: Apart from the axis of revolution, the two other axis must have the same
coefficients. So, when given axis of revolution and one other axis, just add the remaining
axis such that the coefficients are the same.
Question 12: Find the equation of each of the surface obtained by revolving the
following curves about the indicated axis. Name the surface
i. X = 4 - 𝑥 2 about the x axis
ii. X = 2 + 4𝑥 2 about the y-axis
iii. 𝑥 2 -3 = 10 about the x-axis
iv. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑧 2 = 10 about the z-axis
Solution
Recall from the key points, apart from the axis of revolution, the other two axis must
have the same coefficients.
i. x = 2 + 4𝑥 2 where axis of revolution is x-axis. So 𝑦 2 and 𝑧 2 will have the same
coefficient i.e. -1
S0, x = 4 - 𝑦 2 + (-2 + 𝑧 2 )
X = 4 - 𝑦2 - 𝑧2
Or 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = - (x - 4) Elliptic paraboloid

ii. y = 2 + 4𝑥 2 , the axis of revolution is the y-axis, the other two axis will be x and
z. so the coefficient of 𝑥 2 and 𝑧 2 will be the same i.e. 4
y = 2+ 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2
or 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 𝑦 − 2 Elliptic paraboloid

iii. 𝑥 2 - 3 = 10 , axis of revolution is x-axis

The remaining axis is z. So, the coefficientof 𝑥 2 and 𝑧 2 will be the same i.e. -3
𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 + (- 3𝑧 2 ) = 10
𝑥 2 - 3𝑦 2 -3𝑧 2 = 10 Hyperboloid of two sheets
iv. When you work it out, you should get 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 16 Ellipsoid. Here is the
working
𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 16 where z-axis is axis –of revolution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 16 Ellipsoid
NB: In a case where x,y or z is given instead of 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 2

Change x into 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 if z-axis is axis of revolution

y into 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 if x-axis is axis of revolution

90
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

z into 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 if y-axis is axis of revolution

Example: Find the equation of the surface obtained by revolving the following curves
about the indicated axis.
Name the surface
i. 2x + 3y = 6 about the y-axis
ii. 2x - y = 10 about the x-axis
Solution
(i) 2x + 3y = 6, axis of revolution is y-axis
Since x is not in form of 𝑥 2 , change x into 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2
So, 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 + 3y = 6
2 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 6 - 3y
Square both sides
4(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 ) = (6 - 3𝑦)2
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2 = (3(2 – 𝑦))2
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑧 2 = 9 (2 – 𝑦))2
Or 4𝑥 2 − 9(𝑦 − 2)2 + 4 𝑧 2 = 0 NB: (𝐴 − 𝐵)2 is the same as (𝐵 − 𝐴)2
It is a cone, Refer to key points on cone
(ii) 2x – y = 10, axis of revolution is x-axis
We were given y instead of 𝑦 2
Change y into 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
So, 2x - 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 10
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 2x – 10
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = (2x – 10)2
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4(x – 5)2
Or 4(x - 5)2 - 𝑦 2 - 𝑧 2 = 0
Question: Find the equation of the paraboloid with vertex at origin symmetric about the
x-axis and passing through the points (1,2,3) and (3,0,3)
Solution
Recall general equation of paraboloid:
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = 0 about z-axis
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑧 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 = 0 about y-axis
𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐵𝑧 2 + 𝐶𝑥 2 = 0 about z-axis
Since theparaboloid is symmetrical about he x-axis we 0have

91
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = 0
For the given point (1,2,3), 𝐴(1)2 + 𝐵(3)2 + 𝐶(1)= 0
4A + 9B + C = 0 ………………… (i)
For the given point (1,2,3), 𝐴(0)2 + 𝐵(3)2 + 𝐶(3)= 0
9B = - 3C
𝐶
B=-
3

Substitute into (i)

4A + 9B + C = 0
𝐶
4A + 9(- ) + C = 0
3
𝐶
A=
2

So, 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 = 0
𝐶 𝐶
𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 + cx = 0
2 3

Divide through by c
𝑦2 𝑧2
- =-x
2 3

Multiply through by -1
𝑧2 𝑦2
- = x hyperbolic paraboloid
3 2

Question: Find the vertex of the paraboloid

𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2 + 2z − 6y − 12x + 6 = 0
Solution
3
Using completing the square, (𝑦 − 3)2 − 4(𝑥 + )𝑥 2 + 9 + 2z + 6 = 0
2
2 3 2
(𝑦 − 3) − 4(𝑥 + )𝑥 = -2z – 6
2
3
(𝑦 − 3)2 − 4(𝑥 + )𝑥 2 = - 2(z+3)
2
Divide through by -4
3
(𝑥+ )2 (𝑦− 3)2 (𝑧+ 3)2
2
- =
1 4 2
3
Vertex =(- , 3, −3)
2
THE QUADRATIC CONES
𝑥2 𝑦2
This surface is defined by the equation 2
- = 𝑧2
𝑎 𝑏2

92
 O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

 If a = b, section in planes of the cone parallel to the xy plane are circles. Such surface
is called cone of revolution of circular cone, for instance, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑧 2 , c > 0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑐2𝑧2 = 0
Consider the triangle AB0 in the z
Cone, with [AB] = radius r, [BO] = height 𝑧 2 B y
 y
And angle  A
r
A B
𝑟
Tan  = 
𝑧 Z

R = ztan
0 x
0
So, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 8
At  = 450, 𝑡𝑎𝑛2  = 1 y
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑧2
 Show that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2  is the same as 𝑧 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )

THE QUADRIC CYLINDER

A cylindrical surface or cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line called the
generator orgeneratrix, moving always parallel to its original point and intersecting a
given plane curve, called the directrix
 Every fixed point or position of the generator is called a ruling or element of the
cylinder.
 The directrix must lie in a plane that is not parallel to the generator
 Note that a cylindrical surface is not necessarily closed since the directrix do not have
to be a closed curve. For instance, if the directrix is a straight line, the cylinder will be a
plane.
 A cylinder surface whose generator is parallel to one of the coordinate axis and whose
directrix is a curve in the coordinate plane that is perpendicular to the generator, will
have the same equation as the directrix.
𝑥2 𝑦2
 If the directrix is an ellipse with the equation 2
+ = 1 the cylinder will have the same
𝑎 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
equation as + = 1 such a cylinder is called an elliptic cylinder
𝑎2 𝑏2 z
Generator Rulings


 
          
Directrix (a,0,0)
(-a,0,0)
93 0 x
(0,b,0)
Point of
intersection y
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

If a = b, the surface is called a right circular cylinder or cylinder of revolution

𝑥2 𝑦2
 If the directrix is a hyperbola of the form 2 - 2 = 1 the cylinder will have the same
𝑎 𝑏
equation
Such a cylinder is called a hyperbolic cylinder
The cylinder is symmetric with respect to all three coordinate planes and axis as shown
below𝑥 2 = cz is called a parabolic cylinder.
The parabola does not contain a
Geometric center, as a result, the z

(-a,0,0)
(a,0,0) x

y z

 The cylinder defined the equation

0 y
The parabola does not contain a
x
Geometric centers as a result, the
Parabolic cylinder has no axis.
It is, howeverSymmetric with respect
to the yz plane and zx plane respectively

 The y axis is sometimes referred to as line of vertices because it contains

The vertices of all the right sections, if the paraboloid lies z axis, z-axis will be the line of
vertices and the equation will be 𝑥 2 = cy or 𝑦 2 = cx.

94
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

SPHERE
This is a surface that satisfy the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 or
(𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2 where r = radius of the sphere

Key points
 If centre is at origin, we have 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2
 If center is at point (h,k,l), we have(𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2
Note that the coefficients of 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 are equal
 General equation of a sphere: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
Where A = -2h, B = -2k, C = -2l and D = 𝑕2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
 Recall that the distance between a point (x,y,z) and a line ax±by±cz±d
ax ± by ± 𝑐𝑧 ±𝑑
is 2 2 2
± 𝑎 +𝑏 + 𝑐
If the point (x,y,z) is the centre of a sphere, then the distance between the point and a
tangent (a line touching the sphere ) is radius.
Question 13: Find the equations of the following spheres
i. Center (1,1,1), radius 2
ii. Center at origin, radius 4
iii. Center at (2,1,0),, radius 3
iv. Centre (5,2,-4) and touching the y-axis

Solution
Recall that for a sphere, (𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2 where (h,k,l) is center
(i) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 − 1)2 = 22
𝑥 2 - 2x + 1 + 𝑦 2 - 2y + 1 + 𝑧 2 - 2z + 1 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 1 = 0
(ii) Given center at Origin, (h, K, l) = (0,0,0)
So, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 42
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 16 = 0
(iii) Given that centers is (2,1,0),
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑍 − 0)2 = 32 z
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 + 𝑍 2 = 9
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5 − 9 = 0
x
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4 =(0,2,0)P
0
(iv) Since it touches the y-axis, the coordinate
of the point will be (o,y,o) = (0,2,0) y C0(0,2,0)

95
O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Similarly, if it touches a-axis the

coordinate will be (x,o,o) which is (5,0,0)
in this case
Let the touching point be P
The radius of the sphere = the distance between P and C

So , r = PC = (5 − 0)2 + (2 − 2)2 + (−4 − 0)2

r = 41
r2 = 41
But (𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑖)2 = 𝑟 2 where (h,k,l) = (5,2, −4)
(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 + (𝑧 − (−4))2 = 41
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 + 𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 + 16 = 14
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 8𝑧 + 16 − 41 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 8𝑧 − 25 = 0
Question 14: Find the equation of each of the following spheres.
i. Center (-4,-2,3) and tangent to the yz plane
ii. Center (0,0,0) and tangent to the plane 9x – 2y + 6z + 11 = 0.
iii. Center (1,2,4) and tangent to the plane 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 7 = 0
Solution
i. The sphere to the yz plane mass it touches so, yz plane means it touches the yz
plane, in this plane, x=0.
So the coordinate of the point of tangency will be (o,y,z) which will be (0,--2,3) in
this case.
NB: If other planes are given, the principle is the same for instance, if the sphere is
tangent to the xz plane, the coordinate will be (x,o,z) a nd if tangent to the xy plane, the
coordinate will be (x,y,o), where x,y,z are equivalent to (h,k.l) in case of tangency.
Le the point of tangency by P
The distance between this point and the center = Radius of the sphere
Given the center c = (-4,-2,3), tangent P = (0,-2,3)

Radium = PC = (−4 − 0)2 + (−2 − (−2))2 + (3 − 3)2

r = 16
r2 = 16
But (𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − −4)2 + (𝑦 − −2)2 + (𝑧 − 3))2 = 16
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 + 𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 + 9 − 16 = 0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 13 = 0
(ii) Recall that the distance between the center of a sphere and a tangent is equal to the
radius (r).
Also the distance between a point (x,y,z) and a line ax±by±cz±d= 0 is
ax ±by ±cz ±d
± 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
9𝑥−2𝑦 +6𝑧+11
So radius = 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 0,0,0
92 +(−2)2 +62

9 0 − 2(0)+6(0)+11 11
= = =1
121 11

Radius, r = 1
The equation will be (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 = 12
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 − 1 = 0
(iii) Using the same method as in (ii) above,
3x + 2y + 4z − 7
𝑟=
32 + (−2)2 + 42
3 1 −2 2 +4 (4)−7
=
29
8
-
29
8
Radius can not be negative, So r =
29

But (𝑥 − 𝑕)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2

2
2 2 2
8
(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑦 − 2) + (𝑧 − 4) =
29
64
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 + 𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 + 16 =
29
64
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8𝑧 + 21 =
29
29𝑥 2 − 29𝑦 2 + 29𝑧 2 − 58𝑥 − 116𝑦 − 232𝑧 + 609 = 64
29𝑥 2 − 29𝑦 2 + 29𝑧 2 − 58𝑥 − 116𝑦 − 232𝑧 + 545 = 0
Question 15: Find the sphere through the points (1,1,1) (1,0,2) (1,2,1) and (2,1,1,)
Solution
In this type of questions where four points are given substitute each point into the
general equation of a sphere. This will give to equator. Solve them simultaneously
general equation of sphere
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
for (1,1,1)
12 + 12 + 12 − 𝐴 1 + 𝐵 1 + 𝐶(1) + 𝐷 = 0
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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

3 + A + B + C +D = 0
A + B + C + D = - 3 ---------------------------------------(i)
For (1,0,2) 12 + 02 + 22 + 𝐴(1) + 𝐵(1) − 𝐶(1) + 𝐷 = 0
5 + A + 2c + D = 0
A + OB + 2C + D = -5------------------------------(ii)
For (1,2,1) 12 + 22 + 12 − 𝐴(1) + 𝐵(2) − 𝐶(1) + 𝐷 = 0
6 + A + 2B + C + D = 0
A + 2B + C + D = -6------------------------------(iii)
For (2,1,1) 22 + 12 + 12 − 𝐴(2) + 𝐵(1) − 𝐶(1) + 𝐷 = 0
6 + 2A + B + C + D = 0
2A + B + C + D = -6------------------------------(iv)
From equation (ii) A + 2C + D = -5
A = -5 – 2C – D-----------------------(v)
Substitute into (i), (iii) and (iv) respectively
From (i) A + B + C + D = -3
(-5 - 2C – D) + B + C + D = - 3
B – C = 2 ------------------------------------------------*
From (iii) A + 2B + C + D = - 6
-5 – 2C – D + 2B + C + D = -6
2B - C = - 1 -----------------------------------------**
From (iv), 2A + B + C + D = -6
2(-5-2C-D) + B + C + D = -6
B – 3C – D = 4 --------------------------------------***
Solving equation *,** and *** simultaneously
R = - 3 , C = -5 and D = 8
From (v) A = -5 – 2C – D
= -5 – 2(-5) – 8 A = -3
The required equation is 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 8 = 0

Question16: Find the equation of the sphere which passes through (1,-3,4) (1,-5,2) and
(1,-3, 0) and has its centers in the plane x + y + z = 0
Solution
This question seems to be different since the center of the sphere was not given as a
point , but as a line. The method is the same.
Let the point at the center be (h,k,l)
The strength line though the center will become h+k+l =0 ------------------- (i)
But general equation of a sphere is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
For point (1,-3,4), 12 + (−3)2 + 42 − 𝐴(1) + 𝐵(−3) − 𝐶(4) + 𝐷 = 0
26 + A - 3B + 4C + D = 0
A – 3B + 4C + D = -26 ------------------------------------------------(II)

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

For point (1,-5,2) 12 + (−5)2 + 22 − 𝐴(1) + 𝐵(−5) − 𝐶(2) + 𝐷 = 0

30 + A – 5B + 2C + D = 0
A – 5B + 2C + D = -30--------------------------------------(iv)
From (i) , h+k+l = 0, But A - 2h, B = -2k, C = -21
𝑠𝑜, 𝑕 = − 𝐴 2 , 𝐾 = − 𝐵 2 , 𝐿 = − 𝐶 2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
− − =0
2 2 2
A+B+C=0
A = - (B+C) -------------------------------------------(V)
Substitute into equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) respectively
From (ii), A – 3B + 4C + D = -26 → -(B+C) -2B + 4C +D = -26
-4B +3 C + D = -26------------------------*
From (iii), A -5B + 2C + D = -30 → (B+C) - 5B + 2C + D = -30
-6B + C + D = -30-----------------------**
From (IV), a – 3B + D = 10 → -(B+C) – 3B + D = -10
-4B – C + D = -10----------------------***
Solving *,** and *** simultaneously,
B = 6, C = -4 and D = 10
From (v), A = - (B+C)
= - (6-4) = -2
The required equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 10 = 0

Question 17: Find the coordinates of the center and the radius of the following spheres
i. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0
ii. 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 − 8𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 12 = 0
Solution
This is done by comparing the given equation with the general this with the
general equation of a sphere
Recall the general equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
Where A = -2h, B = -2k, C = -21
(i) Given the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 22 = 0
By comparing this with the general equation, A = -6, B = 2, C = -2, D = 2
But A = -2h, B = -2k, C = 2l and D = 𝑕2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 = 𝑟 2
−6 −2 −2
So, h = = 2, K = = −1, L = = 1, 2 = 22 + −1 2
+ 12 = 𝑟 2
−2 −2 −2

Center = (h, k,l) = (2,-1,1) r2 = 4 + 1 +1 – 2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Radius = 2 r = 4=2
(ii) 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 − 8𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 12 = 0
Divide through by 4 to ensure that the coefficient of 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 2 is one 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +
𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 + 3 = 0
By comparison, A = -2, B = 3, C = 1, D = 3
−2 3 −1
So, h = = 1, K = ,L= = 1 2, D = 𝑕 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 = 𝑟 2
−2 −2 −2

3 = 1 + (−3 2)2 + (1/2)2 = 𝑟 2

Center = (1, -3/2 , ½) r2 = ½

Radius = 1 r= 1
2 2

Question 18: Find the equation of the locus of a point whose distance from (1,1,1) and
(-2,1,3) are in the ratio 2:3 numerically.
Solution
Let the point be A(x,y,z) and the two given point be B(1,1,1) and (-2,1,3).

Distance AB = (1 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (1 − 𝑧)2

Distance AC = (−2 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (3 − 𝑧)2

But AB and AC are in ratio 2:3,
AB = 2
AC 3

3AB = 2AC
3 (1 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (1 − 𝑧)2 = 2 (−2 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (3 − 𝑧)2
Square both sides
9 (1 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (1 − 𝑧)2 = 4 (2 + 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (3 − 𝑧)2
9(1 − 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (1 − 𝑧)2 - 4(2 + 𝑥)2 + (1 − 𝑦)2 + (3 − 𝑧)2
5𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 + 5𝑧 2 − 16𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 6𝑧 + 29 = 0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 19: A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distance from the three
planes x + 4y + 2z = 0, 2x – y -z = 0, and 2x + y – 3z = 0 is 10. Find the equation of its
locus.
Solution
Let the point be A(x,y,z)
Let the given planes be L1: x + 4y + 2z = 0
L2: 2x – y + z = 0
L3: 2x + y – 3z = 0
x + 4y + 2z
Distance between the point A and L1, 𝐴𝐿1 =
1+4 2 +22
x + 4y + 2z
=
21
2x + y + z 2x + y + z
Distance between the point A and L2, 𝐴𝐿2 = =
22 +(−1)2 +12 6

2x + y + 3z 2x + y + 3z
Distance between the point A and L3, 𝐴𝐿3 = =
22 +12 +(−3)2 14

2 2 2
But 𝐴𝐿1 + 𝐴𝐿2 + 𝐴𝐿3 = 10

x + 4y + 2z 2 2x + y + z 2 2x + y + 3z 2
So, + + = 10
21 6 14
x + 4y + 2z 2 2x + y + z 2 2x + y + 3z 2
+ + = 10
21 6 14

2(x + 4y + 2z)2 + 7(2x + y + z)2 + 3(2x + y + 3z)2

42

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 10 Just like that (JLT)

TAKE AWAY
Question 1: Identify an describe the nature of each of the quadrices represented by the
following equations
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
i. + + =1 ii. + + =1
9 25 16 9 16 25

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑧2
iii. + = 5z iv. - = 3(y-4)
4 9 25 16

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
iv. - - =1
9 25 49
v.

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Question 2: Locate the geometric centres and the lengths of semi axes of each of the
ellipsoid represented by the following equations

i. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 8𝑧 + 3 = 0
ii. 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 10 = 0
iii. 12𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 + 20𝑧 2 + 24𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 40𝑧 − 79 = 0
Question 3: A point moves so that the sum of its distance from ( 3,1,-4) and (3,1,4) is
12 find the equation of the locus
Question 4: find the equation of the locus of a point the difference of whose distance
from (0,0,2) and (0,0,-1) is 6.
Question 5: Find the locus of a point whose distance from the yz plane equals twice
its distance from the point (2,-1,1). Hint: Let point at yz plane be (O,y,z)
Question 6: Find the locus of a point whose distance from the point ( 2,-1,1) is ½ its
distance from the plane y+ 2 = 0.
Question 7: Locate the vertex of the following paraboloids
i. 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 36𝑦 − 36𝑧 − 68 = 0
ii. 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 20𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 15𝑧 − 17 = 0
Question 8: Find the equation of a paraboloid with vertex at (0,0,0) axis along x axis
and passing through (1,2,1) and (1,1,2).
Name the paraboloid
Question 9: Find the equation of each of the surface obtained by revolving the
following curves about the axis indicated. Name the surface
i. 𝑦 2 − 4𝑧 2 = 1 about the Y axis
ii. 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 6 about the x aix
GENERAL EXERCISE
QUESTION1: Which of the following equations represent a sphere?
(a) 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 14𝑧 + 5 = 0
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 + 1 = 0
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 + 2 = 0
(d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 − 3 = 0
QUESTION 2: Describe the surface represented by each of the following equation s
i. 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9 ii. 9𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2 + 9𝑧 2 = 0
iii. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑧 − 3)2
iv. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 10 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

QUESTION 3: Find the coordinates of the center and radius of sphere represented by
each of the following equations
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2 = 0
(b) 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 + 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 = 0
(c) 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 + 12𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9𝑧 + 5 = 0
QUESTION 4: Find the equation of each of the following spheres
I. Center ( 2,-1,3) radius 4
II. Center at origin, radius 2
III. Center (2,-3,2) and tangent to the plane 3x –y+2z+15 = 0
IV. Center (1,1,1) and tangent to the plane x + y + z +3 = 0
V. Center ( 6,3,-4) and touching the y – axis
VI. Center (-3,2,1) and tangent to the xy plane

Question5: Find the equation of a sphere through the points (1,1,0), (2,1,1) (1,2,2) and
(1,0,1).

Question 6: Find the equation of a cylinder whose directrixis a hyperbola in the yz plane
with transverse axis 8 units in length along the y axis and conjugate axis 6 unit in
length.

Question 7: Find the equation of a cylinder whose directrix is an ellipse with semi
axes 5 units and 4 units in length along a pair of coordinate axes, the origin as
geometric center, and whose axis is along (a) x axis (b) y axis (c) z axis

Question 8: Find the equation of a parabolic cylinder that contain the point (3,6,10) and
has the z axis as the line of vertices.

Question 9: Find the equation of the surfaces obtained by revolving the following
curves about the axis indicated
i. x + y = 5; about y
ii. 4x + 2y = 8; about x
iii. 2x + 3z = 5; about z

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CHAPTER FIVE
LINEAR PROGRAMMING/OPTIMIZATION
Terms used
 Objective function (P): this is a function whose optimal(maximal or minimal)
value is to be determined under a stated restrictions or constraints.
 Constraints: these are functions, statements or equations which the objective
function (p) is subjected to or depends on
Example, maximize p=x+2y objective function
Subjected to x+y≤5 constraints
x-2y≤2
Methods of solving linear programming
1. Simplex tableau method
2. Graphical method
The simplex tableau method
This involve the solving or analysis of the objective function with its given constraints
using a table.
Terms commonly used
1. Slack variables (w): these are constants usually added to the constraints. The
number of the slack variables to be added depends on the number of constraints
given. For instance, if there are two constraints, we have
W1 will be added to the first constraint
W2 will be added to the second constraint
If there are three constraints, W1 is added to the first constraint
W2 is added to the second constraint
W3 is added to the third constraint
2. Index row:it is the row consisting all the entries of the objective function
3. Key column: the highest negative entry in the index row determines the key
column.
4. Key row: this is the row with the smallest ratio between the constants

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

(b) and the positive entries in the key column. The point of intersection between the key
column and the key row is known as pivot element
Example, maximize P=7x+4y
Subject to 2x+y ≤150
4x+3y≤350
Solution
Step1: Rewrite the given equations (both the objective function and the constraints)
such that the constants (b) remain at the right and the slack variables (w) added to the
constraints as explained earlier
2x+y+w1+0w2=150
4x+3y+0w1+w2=350
p-7x-4y+…………….=0
Step2 : Draw a table containing x,y,w,b and check at the top, where check is the sum of
the entries in each row in the table
Basis X y w1 w2 b Check
w1 2 1 1 0 150 154 1st row
w2 4 3 0 1 350 363 2nd row
P -7 -4 0 0 0 -11 Index row

from above, the first column(x column) is the key column because it’s the the column
with the highest negative entry at the index row(-7)
for the key row, divide the constant b (150 and 350) by each positive entry in the key
column(2 and 4).
150/2=75; 350/4=87.5 from which 150/2 gives the smallest ratio. Therefore, the key row
is the 1st row
basis X y w1 w2 b Check
w1 2 1 1 0 150 154
w2 4 3 0 1 350 363
P -7 -4 0 0 0 -11
The intersection between the key row and the key column is at 2. Therefore, 2 is the 1st
pivot element. All we do in this topic is 1. Get the pivot element. The pivot element
should be made unit pivot i.e. 1, by dividing all entry in the key row by the pivot
element,like in above by 2 to give
Basis X y w1 w2 B check
w1 1 ½ ½ 0 75 77
W2 4 3 0 1 350 363
P -7 -4 0 0 0 -11
2.We reduce all entry both above and below the unit pivot to zero. If there is still any
negative entry in the objective function row(index row),you get the 2 nd unit pivot and
repeat the procedures above until no more negative entry in the objective function
row(index row)
Question1: given the following linear programming model
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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Maximize p=-4x+8y
Subject to x+3y≤57
7x+4y≤110
-x+5y≤40
Solution
X+3y+w1+0w2+0w3=57
7x+4y+0w1+w2+0w3=110
-x+5y+0w1+0w2+w3=40
P+4x-8y+……………….=0
Step1 :
basis X y w1 w2 w3 b check
w1 1 3 1 0 0 57 62
w2 7 4 0 1 0 110 122
w3 -1 5 0 0 1 40 45
P 4 -8 0 0 0 0 -4
Step2 : y-column is the 1 key column and the 3 row is the 1st key row, the pivot element
st rd

is 5. So divide all entry in 3rd row by 5 to make it unit pivot

x Y w1 w2 w3 b check
w1 1 3 1 0 0 57 62
w2 7 4 0 1 0 110 122
1st unit pivot
Y=w3 -1/5 1 0 0 1/5 8 9
P 4 -8 0 0 0 0 -4 Step3: reduce all the
entry both above and below the unit pivot
x Y w1 w2 w3 b Check
w1 8/5 0 1 0 -3/5 33 35
w2 39/5 0 0 1 -4/5 78 86
Y -1/5 1 0 0 1/5 8 9
P 12/5 0 0 0 8/5 64 68
NB: the reduction is done by multiplying the unit pivot by opposite of the number to be
reduced. Forinstance, to reduce the 3 in y-column to 0, multiply each number in the key
row by -3 and then add the result to the corresponding numbers in the 1st row (the row
containing 3). Similarly, to reduce the 4 in y-column to 0, multiply each numbers in the
key row by -4 and add the result to the corresponding numbers in the 2nd row. Do the same
to reduce the -8 to 0 in the index row.
Since the index row no more contains any negative entry, we draw conclusions
which are on the b-column
Y=W3=8; P=64; W1=33; W2=78 and X=0 since none of the slack variables at the
table left side was replace by x
Question2: given the LP model maximize P=4x+3y+3z
Subject to 4x+y+2z≤40
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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

X+4y+z≤50
2x+3y+4z≤60
a. Find the maximizing value of P
b. Find the value of x, y and z that maximizes p
c. Find the slack variables that are zero
Solution : 4x+y+2z+w1+0w2+0w3=40
X+4y+z+ 0w1+w2+0w3=50
2x+3y+4z+0 w1+0w2+w3=60
P-4x-3y-3z+……………………=0
step1
X y z w1 w2 w3 b check
4 1 2 1 0 0 40 48
w1
w2 1 4 1 0 1 0 50 57
w3 2 3 4 0 0 1 60 70
p -4 -3 -3 0 0 0 0 -10

Step 2 :x- column is the most negative column(-4). Hence x-column is the 1st key column.
The smallest ratio is the first row. So, the first key row is at the first row where the pivot
element is 4.
Divide the key row by the pivot element ‘4’ to make it unit pivot
X y z w1 w2 w3 b check
1 ¼ ½ ¼ 0 0 10 12
X=w1
w2 1 4 1 0 1 0 50 57
w3 2 3 4 0 0 1 60 70
p -4 -3 -3 0 0 0 0 -10
Step 3: Reduce all the entries below the unit pivot element to zero.
X y Z w1 w2 w3 b check
1 ¼ ½ ¼ 0 0 10 12
x
w2 0 15/4 ½ -1/4 1 0 40 45
w3 0 5/2 3 -1/2 0 1 40 46
p 0 -2 -1 1 0 0 40 38
Step4: since we still have two negative entries in the index row (p), we repeat the
procedure. The y-column gives the next key column and the w2-row the next key row.
15/4 is the next pivot element. Divide the w2-column by 15/4 to make the pivot element a
unit pivot.
X y Z w1 w2 w3 b Check
X 1 ¼ ½ ¼ 0 0 10 12

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

0 1 2/15 -1/15 4/15 0 32/3 12

Y=w2
w3 0 5/2 3 -1/2 0 1 40 46
P 0 -2 -1 1 0 0 40 38
Step5: reduce all the entries both below and above the unit pivot to zero
X y z w1 w2 w3 b check
X 1 0 7/15 4/15 -1/15 0 22/3 9
Y 0 1 2/15 -1/15 4/15 0 32/3 12
w3 0 0 8/3 -1/3 -2/3 1 40/3 16
P 0 0 -11/15 13/15 8/15 0 184/3 62
Step6: repeat the procedure again since the index row still has one negative entry (-11/15).
Key row is at W3-row and 8/3 is the pivot element. Divide the key row by 8/3 to make the
pivot element a unit pivot.
1st column
x y z w1 w2 w3 b check
1 0 7/15 4/15 -1/15 0 22/3 9
X
Y 0 1 2/15 -1/15 4/15 0 32/3 12
0 0 1 -1/8 -1/4 3/8 5 6
Z=w3
P 0 0 -11/15 13/15 8/15 0 184/3 62
Step7: reduce all the entries both below and the unit pivot to zero
x y z w1 w2 w3 b check
1 0 0 13/40 1/20 -7/40 5 31/5
X
Y 0 1 0 -1/20 3/10 -1/20 10 56/5
Z 0 0 1 -1/8 -1/4 3/8 5 6
P 0 0 0 13/40 7/20 11/40 65 332/5
Since there is no more negative entry in the index row, answer: a. p=65, b.x=5; y=10;
z=5, c. w1, w2, w3 are slack variables equal to zero since they are no more in the 1 st
column
Question3: given the following LP model maximize p=2x-y+z
Subject to x+y+z≤12
X+y≤8
y≤2
Find a. the maximizing value of p
b. the value of x, y and z that maximize p
c. the slack variables that are zero
Solution : x+y+z+w1+0w2+0w3=12
x+y+0z+0 w1+w2+0w3=8

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0x+y+0z+ 0w1+0w2+w3=2
p-2x+y-z+…………………….=0

Step1 :
X y z w1 w2 w3 b Check
w1 1 1 1 1 0 0 12 16
X=w2 1 1 0 0 1 0 8 11
w3 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 4
P -2 1 -1 0 0 0 0 -2
 The 1 key column is the x-column and the 1st key row is the w2-row
st

 The pivot element is 1 which is already a unit pivot

Step2: Reduce the entries both above and below the unit pivot to zero
X y z w1 w2 w3 b Check
z=w1 0 0 1 1 -1 0 4 5
X 1 1 0 0 1 0 8 11
w3 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 4
P 0 3 -1 0 2 0 16 20
 The next key column is z-column and the key row is w1. The pivot is 1 which is
also a unit pivot. So, reduce the entries above and below the unit pivot to zero
x y z w1 w2 w3 b Check
Z 0 0 1 1 -1 0 4 5
X 1 1 0 0 1 0 8 11
w3 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 4
P 0 3 0 1 1 0 20 25
Note: The operation was only carried on the index row (p-row)
because other entries below the pivot are already zero. Since no more negative entries in
the index row, we get the answers on b-column.
Answer: a. p=20, b. x=8; y=0; z=4, c. w1 w2
Question4: given the LP model maximize p=3x+4y+5z
Subject to 5x+4y+8z≤40
3x+2y+12z≤30
Y ≤8
Find a. The maximizing value of p
b. the values of x, y and z that maximize p
c. the slack variable(s) that is/are equal to zero
solution : 5x+4y+8z+w1+0w2+0w3=40
3x+2y+12z+ 0w1+w2+0w3=30
0x+y+0z+ 0w1+0w2+w3 =8
p-3x-4y-5z+……………………=0
step1

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X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
W1 5 4 8 1 0 0 40 58
W2 3 2 12 0 1 0 30 48
W3 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 10
P -3 -4 -5 0 0 0 0 -12
st st
Step2: the 1 key column is z-column and the 1 key row is w2-row. 12 is the pivot
element. Divide the key row by 12 to make the pivot element a unit pivot
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
W1 5 4 8 1 0 0 40 58
Z=W2 ¼ 1/6 1 0 1/12 0 5/2 4
W3 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 10
P -3 -4 -5 0 0 0 0 -12
Step3: reduce all entries above and below the unit pivot to zero
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
W1 3 8/3 0 1 -2/3 0 20 26
Z ¼ 1/6 1 0 1/12 0 5/2 4
W3 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 10
P -7/4 -19/6 0 0 5/12 0 25/2 8
The next key column is y-column and the next key row is w1-row. The pivot element is
8/3. Divide all entries in the key row by 8/3 to make
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
Y=W1 9/8 1 0 3/8 -1/4 0 15/2 39/4
Z ¼ 1/6 1 0 1/12 0 5/2 4
W3 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 10
P -7/4 -19/6 0 0 5/12 0 25/2 8
Step4: reduce all entries below the unit pivot to zero.
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
Y 9/8 1 0 3/8 -1/4 0 15/2 39/4
Z 1/16 0 1 -1/16 1/8 0 5/4 19/8
W3 -9/8 0 0 -3/8 ¼ 1 ½ ¼
P 29/16 0 0 19/16 -3/8 0 145/4 311/8
 At this stage, many students are usually tempted to stop since the entries for x, y, z
are already positive in the index row. But there is still one negative entry in the
index row(-3/8), so we repeat the procedure one more time
 The key column is w2-column and the key row is w3-row. The pivot element is ¼.
Divide the key row by ¼ to make the pivot element a unit pivot
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
Y 9/8 1 0 3/8 -1/4 0 15/2 39/4
Z 1/16 0 1 -1/16 1/8 0 5/4 19/8
W2=W3 -9/2 0 0 -3/2 1 4 2 1
P 29/16 0 0 19/16 -3/8 0 145/4 311/8
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Reduce all entries b=above and below the unit pivot to zero
X y z W1 W2 W3 b Check
Y 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 10
Z 5/8 0 1 1/8 0 -1/2 1 9/4
W2 -9/2 0 0 -3/2 1 4 2 1
P 1/8 0 0 5/8 0 3/2 37 157/4
Since all entries in the index row are now positive, answer: a. 37 b. 0; 8; 1c. w1 and w3
NB: you can skip the explanations given so far. They are only there to guide you. So don’t
see this topic as cumbersome!
Minimization
The best way of dealing with minimization problems is to maximize the negative function
of the given objective function.
Let Pmax be the maximizing function and Qmin the minimizing function, then Qmin= -
Pmax or Pmax= -Pmin
Example: minimize p=-4x+3y
You should maximize the negative function by using the above relationship, i.e.
Pmax= -Qmin where Qmin is the given objective function to be minimized.
So, pmax= -(-4x+3y)= 4x-3y then you follow the usual procedures
Question5: given the LP model minimize p=-4x+3y
Subject to x+4y≤20
2x+y≤12
x-y≤3
Find a. The minimizing value of p.
b. The values of x and y that minimize p
c. the slacks variables that is/are equal to zero
Solution : recall that pmax= -pmin, pmax=-(-4x+3y)=4x-3y
Step1 : x+4y+w1+0w2+0w3=20
2x+y+ 0w1+w2+0w3=12
x-y+ 0w1+0w2+w3=3
pmax-4x+3y+……………….=0
X y W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 1 4 1 0 0 20 26
W2 2 1 0 1 0 12 16
X=W3 1 -1 0 0 1 3 4
pmax -4 3 0 0 0 0 -1
 The key column is x-column and the key row is w3-row. The pivot element is 1
which is also a unit pivot. Reduce all entries bothbelow and above the unit pivot
X y W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 0 5 1 0 -1 17 22
W2 0 3 0 1 -2 6 8
X 1 -1 0 0 1 3 4

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pmax 0 -1 0 0 4 12 15
The next key column is y-column and the key row is w2-row. The pivot element is 3.
Divide the key row by 3 to get unit pivot.
X y W1 W2 W3 B check
W1 0 5 1 0 -1 17 22
Y=W2 0 1 0 1/3 -2/3 2 8/3
W3 1 -1 0 0 1 3 4
pmax 0 -1 0 0 4 12 15
Reduce all entries above and below the unit pivot to zero.
X y W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 0 0 1 -5/3 7/3 7 26/3
Y 0 1 0 1/3 -2/3 2 8/3
X 1 0 0 1/3 1/3 5 20/3
pmax 0 0 0 1/3 10/3 14 53/3
Since there is no more negative in the index row, pmax=14. But pmax=-pmin, therefore, pmin=-
14
Answer: a. -14 b. 5; 2 c. w2 and w3
SHORT CUT: The above question can be solve simultaneously using calculator. Since
the three constraints have only two unknown x, y instead of three unknown , we pick any
two constraints.
Let 2x+y=12………………..(i)
x-y=3…………………….(ii)
solving the two equations simultaneously gives x=5 ; y=2. Then substitute these values
into the objective function to get Pmax. Pmax=4X-3Y=4*5-3*2=1.
But pmax=-pmin, therefore, pmin=-14
NB : this method is very fast but be careful in using it because if you pick the wrong
equations your answers will be wrong. But if the number of unknown is the same as
the number of equations, the answers in most time are correct.
Hence, it’s unreliable! But in exam situation when you know time is against you,
you can use it.
Question6 : a firm manufacturing two types of switching module A and B, is under
contract to produce a daily output of at least 35 modules in all. Assembly and testing times
for each type of module are as follows
Module Processing time (hours)
Type AssemblyTesting
A 1.0 2.0
B 2.0 1.0
Available staff resources provide a daily maximum of 80hours for assembly and 55 hours
for testing. The profit on the sale of each A module is $4.00 and of each B module $5.00.
Determine a. the daily production schedule for maximum profit
b. the maximum daily profit.

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Solution
This is a typical linear programming problem. To solve this, we will interpret the problem
in form of equations.
For Assembly, x+2y≤80 where x is for A and y for B
Testing, 2x+y≤55
Maximum profit, p=4x+5y
We solve as usual
X+2y+w1+…………=80
2x+y+………w2…... =55
p-4x-5y+……………….=0
x y W1 W2 B Check
Y=W1 1 2 1 0 80 84
W2 2 1 0 1 55 59
P -4 -5 0 0 0 -9

Y ½ 1 ½ 0 40 42
W2 2 1 0 1 55 59
P -4 -5 0 0 0 -9

Y ½ 1 ½ 0 40 42
X=w2 3/2 0 -1/2 1 15 17
P -3/2 0 5/2 0 200 201

Y ½ 1 ½ 0 40 42
X 1 0 -1/3 2/3 10 34/3
P -3/2 0 5/2 0 200 201

Y 0 1 2/3 -1/3 35 109/3

X 1 0 -1/3 2/3 10 34/3
P 0 0 2 1 215 218
ANSWER :a. x=10 ; y=35. So, we have 10typeA+35typeB, b. $215
SHORT CUT : solve the given equations simultaneously to get x and y
i.e. x+2y=80…………..(i)
2x+y=55…………….(ii). Solving eqI and ii simultaneously, x=10 ;
y=35. Substitute the values into the objective function p=4x+5y,
P=4*10+5*35=$215.
NB : as said earlier, the short cut is only advisable when time is against you in exam and
for obj exams since 1.it`s unreliable method 2. It cannot be used to get the pivot
elements 3. It cannot be used to get the slack variables that are equal to zero.

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Question7 : three different types of coupling units are produced by a firm. The times
required for machining, polishing and assembling a unit of each type are included in the
information given in the following table
Type of unit Time in hours per unit Profit (#) per unit
machining polishing Assembling
A 4 1 2 11
B 2 3 1 10
C 3 2 4 12
Available 320 250 280
time
(hr/week)
The firm is required to supply a total of at least 100units of mixed types each week.
Determine a. the weekly output of each type to maximize profit
b. the maximum weekly profit
solution :maximize p=11x+10y+12z
machining: 4x+2y+3z≤320
polishing : x+3y+2z≤250
assembling : 2x+y+4z≤280

X y z W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 4 2 3 1 0 0 320 330
W2 1 3 2 0 1 0 250 257
W3 2 1 4 0 0 1 280 288
P -11 -10 -12 0 0 0 0 -33

W1 4 2 3 1 0 0 320 330
W2 1 3 2 0 1 0 250 257
Z=W3 ½ ¼ 1 0 0 ¼ 70 72
P -11 -10 -12 0 0 0 0 -33

W1 5/2 5/4 0 1 0 -3/4 110 114

Y=W2 0 5/2 0 0 1 -1/2 110 113
Z ½ ¼ 1 0 0 ¼ 70 72
P -5 -7 0 0 0 3 840 831

X=W1 5/2 0 0 1 -1/2 -1/2 55 115/2

Y 0 1 0 0 2/5 -1/5 44 226/5
Z ½ 0 1 0 -1/10 3/10 59 607/10
P -5 0 0 0 14/5 8/5 1148 5737/5

X 1 0 0 2/5 -1/5 -1/5 22 23

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Y 0 1 0 0 2/5 -1/5 44 226/5

Z 0 0 1 -1/5 0 2/5 48 246/5
P 0 0 0 2 9/5 3/5 1258 6312/5
NB :1. The arrow head indicates the pivot elements. Here, they are 4(1st pivot),
5/2 (2nd pivot) and 5/2(3rd pivot)
d. the 2nd row in the 4th table remain unchanged since the entry under the pivot
element(5/2) is already zero
Answer :a. x=22, y=44 and z=48. So we have 22typeA+44typeB+48typeC
b.#1258
short cut : solve the three constraints simultaneously
4x+2y+3z=320…………..i
X+3y+2z=250…………..ii
2x+y+4z=280……………iii
Using calculator,e.g. casio fx-991MS, X=22,Y=44, Z=48,
P=11X+10Y+12Z=11*22+10*44+12*48=1258. Therefore, P=#1258.
Use of artificial variables
Artificial is an additional slack variable usually included to constraints whenever they
have the sign ≥ instead of ≤
QUESTION 8 ; Given the LP model Maximize P = 8x + 5y
Subject to 2x + y ≤80
X+3y≤90
X+y≥30
Find a. the maximizing value of p. b. the values of x and y that maximize p
e. The slack variables that is/are not equal to zero. D. The 1st pivot element
SOLUTION: the model has three constraints where the 3rd constraint has the sign ≥
instead of ≤. A negative slack variable and an artificial slack variable will be added to
the 3rd constraint.
2x+y+w1+………………..=80
X+3y+…..+w2.………….=90
X+y+……………..-w3+w4=30
p-8x-5y+…………………Mw4=0, where w4 is the artificial variable and M is just a
constant large enough to ensure that w4 vanish.
Basis X y W1 W2 W3 W4 B Check
W1 2 1 1 0 0 0 80 84
W2 1 3 0 1 0 0 90 95
X=W4 1 1 0 0 -1 1 30 32
P -8 -5 0 0 0 M 0 M-13
NB: W4 appeared under the basis instead of W3 because W3 is negative. All entries under
the basis should be positive. Also, the slack variables columns should give a unit
matrix. In above table, w1, w2 and w4 give a 3*3 unit matrix
basis X y W1 W2 W3 W4 B Check

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W3=W1 0 -1 1 0 2 -2 20 20
W2 0 2 0 1 1 -1 60 63
X 1 1 0 0 -1 1 30 32
P 0 3 0 0 -8 8+M 240 M+243

W3 0 -1/2 ½ 0 1 -1 10 10
W2 0 2 0 1 1 -1 60 63
X 1 1 0 0 -1 1 30 32
P 0 3 0 0 -8 8+M 240 M+243

W3 0 -1/2 ½ 0 1 -1 10 10
W2 0 5/2 -1/2 1 0 0 50 53
X 1 ½ ½ 0 0 0 40 42
P 0 -1 4 0 0 M 320 M+323

W3 0 -1/2 ½ 0 1 -1 10 10
Y=W2 0 1 -1/5 2/5 0 0 20 106/5
X 1 ½ ½ 0 0 0 40 42
P 0 -1 4 0 0 M 320 M+323

W3 0 0 2/5 1/5 1 -1 20 103/5

Y 0 1 -1/5 2/5 0 0 20 106/5
X 1 0 3/5 -1/5 0 0 30 157/5
P 0 0 19/5 2/5 0 M 340 M+1721/5
Answer:a. p=340 b. 30; 20 c.w3d. 1
Question9: given the LP maximize p=3x+4y
Subject to x+4y≤76
-5x+8y≥40
-x+4y≥32
Find a. the maximizing value of p. b. the values of x and y that maximize p.
Solution: in this question, there are three constraints with two them having the sign ≥. So,
two artificial variables W4 and W5 will be added to the second and third constraints
respectively. X+4Y+W1…………………………..=76
-5X+8Y+…..-W2………+W4……….=40
-X+4Y+………….-W3………….+W5=32
P-3X-4Y+…………………+MW4+MW5=0

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basis X Y W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 B Check
W1 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 76 82
Y=W4 -5 8 0 -1 0 1 0 40 43
W5 -1 4 0 0 -1 0 1 32 35
P -3 -4 0 0 0 M M 0 2M-7

W1 7/2 0 1 ½ 0 -1/2 0 56 121/2

Y -5/8 1 0 -1/8 0 1/8 0 5 43/8
X=W5 3/2 0 0 ½ -1 -1/2 1 12 27/2
P -11/2 0 0 -1/2 0 M+1/2 M 20 2M+29/2

W3=W1 0 0 1 -2/3 7/3 2/3 -7/3 28 29

Y 0 1 0 1/12 -5/12 -1/12 5/12 10 11
X 1 0 0 1/3 -2/3 -1/3 2/3 8 9
P 0 0 0 4/3 -11/3 M-4/3 M+11/3 64 64+2M

W3 0 0 3/7 -2/7 1 2/7 -1 12 87/7

Y 0 1 5/28 -1/28 0 1/28 0 15 453/28
X 1 0 2/7 1/7 0 -1/7 0 16 121/7
P 0 0 11/7 2/7 0 M-2/7 M 108 2M+767/7
Since all the entries in the index row are positive and all the artificial variables on the
basis column have been replaced, answer: a. 108 b. 16; 15
Short cut: solve any two of the three constraints simultaneously
Let x+4y=76……………….i
-5x+8y=40……………….ii, solving eq I and ii, x=16; y=15
Substitute x and y into p=3x+4y, p=3*16+4*15=108.
NB: as said earlier, a wrong combination of any two of the three constraints will give
a wrong answer. So, be careful!
3. all the artificial slack variables must have be replaced by other variables (which can
be x, y, z or the normal slack variables) before conclusion on answers even if there
is no more negative entry in the index row.
Question10 : maximize p=8x+4y
Subject to 2x+3y≤120
x+y≤45
-3x+5y≥25
Solution :

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2x+3y+w1+……………….=120
X+y+…….+w2+…………=45
-3x+5y+………….-w3+w4=25
p-8x-4y+………………+Mw4=0
basis X y W1 W2 W3 W4 b check
W1 2 3 1 0 0 0 120 126
X=W2 1 1 0 1 0 0 45 48
W4 -3 5 0 0 -1 1 25 27
P -8 -4 0 0 0 M 0 M-12

W1 0 1 1 -2 0 0 30 30
X 1 1 0 1 0 0 45 48
W4 0 8 0 3 -1 1 160 171
P 0 4 0 8 0 M 360 M+372
At this stage, all entries in the index row are positive but the artificial variable (w4) has
not be replaced. The w4-row automatically becomes the key row and y-column the key
column. The pivot element is 8.
Basis X y W1 W2 W3 W4 B Check
W1 0 1 1 -2 0 0 30 30
X 1 1 0 1 0 0 45 48
Y=W4 0 8 0 3 -1 1 160 171
P 0 4 0 8 0 M 360 M+372

W1 0 0 1 -19/8 1/8 -1/8 10 69/8

X 1 0 0 5/8 1/8 -1/8 25 213/8
Y 0 1 0 3/8 -1/8 1/8 20 171/8
P 0 0 0 13/2 ½ M-1/2 280 M+573/2
Since the index row is positive and the artificial variable(w4) in the basis column has be
replaced, here, by Y, answer: p=280; x=25; y=20
Question11 : maximize p=6x-5y-3z
Subject to 5x+8y+4z≤220
2x+y+6z≤154
4x+2y+z≥77
X+y+2z≥55
Solution :
Here, two artificial variables w5 and w6 will be added to the 3rd and the 4th constraints
respectively because they have the sign ≥ instead of ≤.
Recall that Pmax=-Pmin. so, Pmax=-(6x-5y-3z)
=-6x+5y+3z
5x+8y+4z+w1+……………………….=220
2x+y+6z……….+w2+…………………=154

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4x+2y+z……………….-w3+…….w5+…=77
X+y+2z…………………….-w4+……+w6=55
P+6x-5y-3z………………………….+Mw5+Mw6=0

basis x y z W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 B
Y=W1 5 8 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 220
W2 2 1 6 0 1 0 0 0 0 154
W5 4 2 1 0 0 -1 0 1 0 77
W6 1 1 2 0 0 0 -1 0 1 55
Pmax 6 -5 -3 0 0 0 0 M M 0

Y 5/8 1 ½ 1/8 0 0 0 0 0 55/2

W2 11/8 0 11/2 -1/8 1 0 0 0 0 253/2
W5 11/4 0 0 -1/4 0 -1 0 1 0 22
Z=W6 3/8 0 3/2 -1/8 0 0 -1 0 1 55/2
Pmax 73/8 0 -1/2 5/8 0 0 0 M M 275/2

Y ½ 1 0 1/6 0 0 1/3 0 -1/3 55/3

W4=W2 0 0 0 1/3 1 0 11/3 0 -11/3 77/3
W5 11/4 0 0 -1/4 0 -1 0 1 0 22
Z ¼ 0 1 -1/12 0 0 -2/3 0 2/3 55/3
Pmax 37/4 0 0 7/12 0 0 -1/3 M M+1/3 440/3

Y ½ 1 0 3/22 -1/11 0 0 0 0 16
W4 0 0 0 1/11 3/11 0 1 0 -1 7
X=W5 11/4 0 0 -1/4 0 -1 0 1 0 22
Z ¼ 0 1 -1/44 2/11 0 0 0 0 23
Pmax 37/4 0 0 27/44 1/11 0 0 M M 149
Though the entries in the index row are positive, the artificial variable (w5) has not be
replaced. So, w5-row becomes the key row and x-column the key column. 11/4 is the
pivot element.
Y 0 1 0 2/11 -1/11 2/11 0 -2/11 0 12
W4 0 0 0 1/11 3/11 0 1 0 -1 7
X 1 0 0 -1/11 0 -4/11 0 4/11 0 8
Z 0 0 1 0 2/11 1/11 0 -1/11 0 21
Pmax 0 0 0 16/11 1/11 37/11 0 M-37/11 M 75
At this stage, the entries in the index row are positive and the artificial variables have been
replaced. Answer: x=8; y=12; z=21 and pmax=75. But pmin=-pmax, therefore, pmin=-75.

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CHAPTER SIX

𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹 /𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑹𝑰𝑿 𝑨𝑳𝑮𝑬𝑹𝑨

For a brief revision, read the following
1. addition, subtraction and multiplication of vectors
2. resolution of vectors
3. vector space

𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑨𝑹𝑫𝑬𝑷𝑬𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑵𝑪𝑬𝑨𝑵𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑷𝑬𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑵𝑪𝑬
Given a set consist of two or more vectors, the following key points should be considered
in determining the linear dependence or independence of the set
Point1: if one of the vectors in the set can be expressed as a linear combination of the
others, then the set is linearly dependent and vice versa.
Question1: show that v1=(−2 0 1), v2=(1 −1 2) and v3=(4 −2 3 ) are linearly
dependent.
Solution: let`s try to rewrite vectors v1 and v2 in the form of v3
To do this, multiply v1 by -1 and v2 by 2
i.e. v3=(-1)v1+2v2
test: (-1)(−2 0 1)+2(1 −1 2)=(4 −2 3) which is v3. Since v3 is expressed as a
linear combination of v1 and v2, the vectors are linearly dependent, where -1 and 2 are
known as the coefficient of dependence
Point2: for a set of vectors fo rming a square matrix, a. if the determinant=0, the set is
linearly dependent b. if the determinant≠0, the set is linearly independent.
Question2: using quesion1 above, show that v1, v2 and v3 are linearly dependent.
v1 −𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
Solution: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐which is a square matrix. so, get the determinant.
𝒗𝟑 𝟒 −𝟐 𝟑
−2 0 1
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
Determinant= 1 −1 2 ⇒−2 −0 +1 =0
−2 3 4 3 4 −2
4 −2 3

Since the determinant of the set of vectors =0, the set is linearly dependent.

Point3: for a set of vectors forming a non-square matrix, i.e. the number of rows ≠
number of columns, find the determinant of the maximum square matrix that can be
obtain from the non-square matrix, and then apply point2

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Question3: determine whether or not the set {(-1,0 ,2,1), (3,1,-2,0) (0,1,4,3)} is linearly
dependent.
Solution: The maximum square matrix that can be gotten from
-1 0 2 1 -1 0 2 0 21
3 1 -2 0 is 3 1 -2 or 1 -2 0
0143 014 1 43

−1 0 2
The determinant = 3 1 −2 = 0
0 1 4

Since the determinant of the maximum matrix gotten from the given non-square matrix is
zero, the set is LINEARLY DEPENDENT. Easy and fast!

MATRIX ALGEBRA
For a brief revision, read the following aspect
1. properties of a square matrix
2. determinant and properties of determinants
3. transposition, adjoint and inverse of a matrix
4. Hermitian matrices and their transposition
5. consistency of a set of equations and uniqueness of solutions
6. solution of sets of equations and the Gaussian elimination method
RANK OF A MATRIX
To determine the rank of a matrix, note the following;
Rule 1: for a square matrix,
 If determinant of the matrix ≠ 0, rank=order of the matrix
 If the determinant of the matrix=0, rank=order of the maximum submatrix that can
be gotten from the given matrix whose determinant is not zero (≠ 0).
Rule 2: for a non-square matrix, the rank is the order of the maximum subsquare matrix
gotten from the given non-square matrix whose determinant is not zero (≠ 0)

Question: Determine the rank of the following matrices

3 0 4 4 23 -1 0 2 1
(i) 1 1 2 (ii) 2 41 (iii 2 3 0 (iv) 3 1 -2 0
1 -3 -2 1 -1 1 1 1 2 01 43

2 -4 3 1 0
(iv) 1 -2 1-4 2
0 1 -1 3 1
4 -7 4 -4 5

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SOLUTION
3 0 4
(i) Let A= 1 1 2 which is 3×3 square matrix. We use rule 1
1 −3 −2
1 2 1 2 1 1
3 −0 +4 = −4
−3 −2 1 −2 1 −3

Determinant of A, lAl = -4
Since lAl ≠ 0, rank of A= Order of A=3 (Rule 1a)

4 2 3
(ii) Let A= 2 4 1 which is 3×3 square matrix. We use rule 1
1 −1 1

Determinant of A, lAl=
4 1 2 1 2 4
4 −2 +3 =0
−1 1 1 1 1 −1

Since lAl=0, apply Rule 1b.

The maximum sub matrices of A are 4 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 and 4 1
2 4 4 1 1 -1 -1 1

Determinants of any of them = 4 2 = 4×4 - 2×2 =12, which is not zero

2 4

Rank= Order of this sub matrix=2

(iii) Let A= 2 3 0 which is 2x3 non-square matrix. We use Rule 2

1 1 2

The max. subsquare matrix from A is 2 3 or 3 0

1 1 1 2
The determinant = 2 3 = 2x1 – 3x1 = -1 which is non-zero.
1 1
Therefore, rank= order of the submatrix (2x2)
=2
(iv) Let A= -1 0 2 1 which is 3x4 matrix (non-square matrix)
3 1 -2 0 we use rule 2
0 1 4 3

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

−1 0 2 0 2 1
The max square matrix from A is 3 1 −2 or 1 −2 0
0 1 4 1 4 3

The determinant= -1 0 2 = -1 1 -2 -0 3 -2 +2 3 1 =0
3 1 -2 1 4 0 4 0 1
0 1 4

Since the determinant of the submatrix=0, we get the next submatrix which

will be 2x2 matrix. This can be -1 0 or 0 2

3 1 1 -2

Determinant = -1 0 = -1x1 – 3x0 = -1 which is non-zero

3 1 Rank of A = 2
Alternatively, for 3x3 matrices in most cases, if determinant=0, rank=3-1=2.

(v) 2 -4 3 1 0
1 -2 1 -4 2 which is 4x5 matrix (non-square matrix). We use rule 2
0 1 -1 3 1
4 -7 4 -4 5
The maximum square matrix can be 2 -4 3 1 -4 3 1 0
1 -2 1 -4 or -2 1 -4 2 which is 4x4
0 1 -1 3 1 -1 3 1 submatrix
4 -7 4 -4 -7 4 -4 5

The determinant= 2 -4 3 1 + - + -
1 -2 1 -4 - + - + is the sign notation
0 1 -1 3 + - + -
4 -7 4 -4 - + - +

= +2 -2 1 -4 - - 4 1 1 -4 +3 1 -2 -4 -1 1 -2 1
1 -1 3 0 -1 3 0 1 3 0 1 -1
-7 4 -4 4 4 -4 4 -7 -4 4 -7 4

= 22-48+27-1 =0
1 -2 1 from the 4x4 submatrix, Determinant= 2 -2 1 - -4 1 1 +3 1 -2
0 1 -1 1 -1 0 -1 0 1

=1 which is non-zero
rank= 3

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Given a square matrix A, if A.x= λxwhere λ is a scalar or any number.

Then, Ax- λx=0 which can also be written as (A- λI)x=0 where I is a unit square matrix either of order 2*2 or
3*3 depending on the order of the given matrix A.

Taking the determinant of the coefficient of x, we have A-λI =0 where A-λIis called the characteristic
determinant of A and
A-λI =0 is called the characteristic equation. The solution of the characteristic equation gives the values of
λ which are called eigenvalues.

Steps in finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix

1. express the given matrix in the form A-λI =0 from which you can get λ.

2. substitute the eigenvalues λ, gotten in step1 into the original expression

(A- λI)x=0, from which we get the solutions of x. these solutions of x corresponding to the eigenvalues λare called
the eigenvectors.

Question1: find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the following matrices

i 4 -1 ii 2 3 iii 2 1 1
2 1 4 1 1 3 2

-1 1 2

Solution:

Step1: A-λI =0, where I in this case is 2*2 unit matrix since A is also 2*2.

4 -1 - λ1 0 =0,

2 1 0 1

(4- λ) -1 =0

2 (1- λ)

(4 – λ)(1- λ)-2*-1=0

4-5 λ+ λ2+2=0 ⇒λ2-5 λ+6=0 ⇒ (λ-2)( λ-3)=0, λ=2 or λ=3

Step2:to get the eigenvectors, substitute λ1=2 and λ2=3 respectively into (A- λI)x=0

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

For λ1=2, (A- 2I)x=0

4 −1 1 0 𝑋1 2 −1 𝑋1
−2 =0 ⇒ =0
2 1 0 1 𝑋2 2 −1 𝑋2

After multiplying the matrices we have 2x1-x2=0 ⇒ x2=2x1

 Take the ratio of x2 to x1. So, x2:x1=2:1 from which x2=2 and x1=1.
𝑋1 1
 The eigenvector of A corresponding to λ1=2 is =
𝑋2 2
For λ2=3, (A-3I)x=0

4 −1 1 0 𝑋1 1 −1 𝑋1
−3 =0 ⇒ =0
2 1 0 1 𝑋2 2 −2 𝑋2

From which x1-x2=0, or 2x1-2x2=0 ⇒ x2=x1

Taking the ratio of x2 to x1, we have x2:x1=1:1. So, x2=1 and x1=1
𝑋 1
 The eigenvector corresponding to λ2=3 is 1 =
𝑋2 1

2 3
ii let A= 4 1

2 3 1 0
Step1: A- λI=0 ⇒ −λ =0
4 1 0 1

(2 − λ) 3
=0
4 (1 − λ)

⇒ (2- λ)(1- λ)-3*4=0 ⇒ 2-3 λ+ λ2-12=0

λ2-3 λ-10=0 ⇒ (λ+2)( λ-5)=0

λ=-2 or 5. Therefore, the eigenvalues are λ1=-2 and λ2=5.

Step2: for λ1=-2, (A+2I)x=0

2 3 1 0 𝑋1
+2 =0
4 1 0 1 𝑋2

4 3
⇒
4 3

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

From which 4x1+3x2=0 ⇒ 3x2=-4x1

Taking the ratio, x2:x1=-4:3. So, x2=-4 and x1=3
3
Therefore, the eigenvector corresponding to λ1=-2 is
−4
2 3 1 0 𝑋1
For λ2=5, (A- 5I)x=0 ⇒ −5 =0
4 1 0 1 𝑋2

−3 3 𝑋1
⇒ = 0⇒ -3x1+3x2=0 ⇒ 3x2=3x1, from which x2:x1=1:1
4 −4 𝑋2

so, x2=1 and x1=1

1
The eigenvector corresponding to λ2=5 is
1

iii. let A= 2 1 1
1 3 2
-1 1 2
Step1: A- λI=o, ⇒2 1 1 - λ 1 0 0 =0
1 3 2 0 1 0
-1 1 2 0 0 1

(2- λ) 1 1 =0 ⇒ (2- λ) (3- λ) 2 -1 1 2 +1 1 (3- λ) =0

1 (3- λ) 2 1 (2- λ) -1 (2- λ) -1 1
-1 1 (2- λ)

⇒(2- λ)((3- λ)(2- λ)-2)-((2- λ)+2)+(1+(3- λ))=0

⇒ (2- λ)(6-5 λ+ λ2-2)-(2- λ)-2+1+(3- λ)=0
⇒12-10 λ+2 λ2-4-6 λ+5 λ2- λ3+2 λ-2+ λ-2+3- λ+1=0
⇒ λ3-7 λ2+14 λ-8=0
Solving the polynomial, λ=1, 2, 4. Therefore, λ1=1; λ2=2; λ3=4
Step2: for λ1=1, (A-1*I)x=0
2 1 1 1 0 0 x1 1 1 1 x1
1 3 2 - 0 1 0 x2 =0 ⇒ 1 2 2 x2 =0
-1 1 2 0 0 1 x3 -1 1 1 x3
From which x1+x2+x3=0.......i, x1+2x2+2x3=0........ii, -x1+x2+x3=0........iii

From eq(i), x1=-(x2+x3). Substitute into eq(ii) and (iii) respectively to give

From eq(ii), -(x2+x3)+2x2+2x3=0 ⇒ -x2-x3+2x2+2x3=0 ⇒ x2+x3=0 ⇒ x3=-x2

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Taking the ratio, x3:x2=-1:1. So, x3=-1 and x2=1

But x1=-(x2+x3). So, x1=-(1-1)=0

The eigenvector corresponding λ1=1 is 0

-1

For λ2=2, (A-2I)x=0

2 1 1 1 0 0 x1 0 1 1 x1

1 3 2 -2 0 1 0 x2 =0 ⇒1 1 2 x2 =0

-1 1 2 0 0 1 x3 -1 1 0 x3

From which 0x1+x2+x3=0 or x1+x2+2x3=0 or x1+x2+0x3=0

0x1+x2+x3=0 ⇒ x3=-x2, the ratio gives x3:x2=-1:1. X3=-1, x2=1

Also, x1+x2+2x3=0 from which x1=-x2-2x3= -1-2(-1)=1

Therefore, the eigenvector corresponding to λ2 is 1

-1

For λ3=4, (A-4I)x=0

2 1 1 1 0 0 x1 -2 1 1 x1

1 3 2 - 4 0 1 0 x2 =0 ⇒ 1 -1 2 x2 =0

-1 1 2 0 0 1 x3 -1 1 -2 x3

-2x1+x2+x3=0........(i) and x1-x2+2x3=0.........(ii)

From(i), x3=2x1-x2 substitute into (ii) ⇒ x1-x2+2x3=0

x1-x2+2(2x1-x2) = 0; x1-x2 + 4x1- 2x2 =0; 5x1-3x2 = 0; 3x2 =5x1

Taking the ratio of x2 to x1 x2/x1 =5/3 or x2 : x1 = 5:3

Therefore, x2 =5, x1= 3, but x 3= 2x1 – x2

So, x 3 =2 x 3 – 5 = 1, therefore, x13

X2= 5

X31

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O. OMOREGBE (OSAS)

Therefore,The eigenvector corresponding to λ1 =1 , is

-1

The eigenvector corresponding to λ2 =2, is 1

The eigenvector corresponding to λ3 = 4, is 3

TAKE AWAY

1. Determine the dependency or independency of the following set of vectors

a. V1 = 2i + j; V2 = 3i + j and V3 = 2j
b. V1 = 3i + j+k; V2 = j – 3k; V3 = 4i + 2j – 2k
c. V1 = -i + 3j; V2 = j + k; V3 = 2i – 2j +4k; V4 = i + 3k
d. V1 = 5i +2j; V2 =3i – 2j
2. Determine the rank of the following matrices
a. 1 4 5 b 2 4 3 -2 c 3 -1 2 d 0 1 2 -2 e -1 2 3 -2
2 6 8 -3 -2 -1 4 -6 2 4 402 6 2 -5 1 2

3 7 22 6 -1 7 2 -3 1 2 2 1 3 1 3 -8 5 2

5 -12 -1 6

Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the following matrices: a. 1 2 2
b. 2 0 1 c. 3 2 -1 4 1

1 3 1 3 -2 -1 2 0
2 2 1

128
 BY Osaze O.

CHAPTER SEVEN: CLASSICAL OPTIMIZATION

 Stationary points (Maixma and minima)
for functions of one variable: The following should be noted in finding the stationary
points for one variable functions
1. At stationary point, dy/dx=0
2. If d2y/dx2>0, the point is minimum
3. If d2y/dx2<0, the point is maximum
4. If d2y/dx2=0, we have point of inflexion

Question1: find the stationary points on the following curves and distinguish between them i.
y=x2+5x+6 ii y=2x3-5x2+4x-1 iii y=12Inx+x2-10x

Solution i. 1st find dy/dx and then equate to zero

dy/dx=2x+5 » 2x+5=0 » x=-5/2 =stationary point

then, test for d2y/dx2 to know the type of point. d2y/dx2=2 which is>0

From condition2, the point is minimum. Substitute x into the given function to get the minimum
value. Y=22+5*2+6=20

Therefore, the minima is (2,20)

Solutionii. Given that y=2x3-5x2+4x-1

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=6x2-10x+4. At turning point, = 0. 6x2-10x+4=0 (x-1)(3x-2)=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

X=1 or X=2/3

d2y/dx2=12x-10, at x=1, d2y/dx2=12(1)-10=2 which is >0, the point is minimum at x=1(refer to

condition2). At x=2/3, d2y/dx2=12(2/3)-10=-2 which is <0, the point is maximum at x=2/3(refer to
condition3).

The values of y at x=1 is y=2x3-5x2+4x-1 y=2*13-5*12+4*1-1=0

At x=2/3, y=2*(2/3)3-5*(2/3)2+4*(2/3)-1=1/27

Therefore, the minima and maxima are (1, 0) and (2/3, 1/27) respectively.

iii given that y=12Inx+x2-10x

dy/dx=12/x+2x-10. At turning point, dy/dx=0. So, 12/x+2x-10=0

12+2x2-10x=0 2x2-10x+12=0 (x-2)(x-3)=0 x=2, x=3

d2y/dx2=-12/x2+2

at x=2, d2y/dx2=-12/22+2=-1 which is <0. So, the point is a maximum

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 BY Osaze O.

at x=3, d2y/dx2=-12/32+2=2/3 which is >0. So, the point is a minimum

the maximum value of the function y=12Inx+x2-10x= 12In2+22-10*2=-7.68

the minimum value of the function y=12In3+32-10*3=-7.82

therefore, the minima and maxima points are (3, -7.82) and (2, -7.68) respectively.

 Stationary points (Maixma, minima and saddle point)

for functions of two variables: given z as a function of x and y, .i.e. z=f(x,y), the stationary
points and their nature can be determine by the steps below
1. Determine 𝜕𝑧/ 𝜕𝑥 = 0 … … 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦 =0………..(ii) and solve the two equations
to get x and y, which are the co ordinates of the stationary points. NB: the symbol
𝜕 mean partial differential
2. Determine 𝜕2z/𝜕x2 , 𝜕2z/𝜕y2 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦
3. Substitute each of the co ordinates of the stationary points gotten in step into 𝜕2z/𝜕x2 ,
𝜕2z/𝜕y2 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 𝑔𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝2
4. Find ∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦) from the values gotten in step3
a. If ∆< 0, then the stationary point is a saddle point
b. If ∆> 0 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x2>0, then the stationary point is a minimum point
c. If ∆> 0 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x2<0, then the stationary point is a maximum point
d. If ∆=0, the point is indeterminate. In this case, further test is carried out.

Question1: determine the stationary points of the function f(x, y) =x3-6x2-8y2 and distinguish
between them.

Solution: using the above steps,

Step1:𝜕𝑧/ 𝜕𝑥 =3x2-12x=0 and 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦=-16y=0

3x(x-4)=0 and y=0/-16=0 x=0 or x=4 and y=0

So, the stationary points are (0, 0) and (4, 0)

Step2: 𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6x-12 ; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0 since y is not in the expression for 𝜕𝑧/ 𝜕𝑥
.i.e. 3x2-12x

Step3: for the point (0 ,0), 𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6x-12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0

𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6*0 – 12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0

𝜕2z/𝜕x2= -12 which is< 0;𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0

for the point (4, 0), 𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6*4-12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0

𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12 which is > 0; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=-16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=0

Step4 at the point (0, 0), ∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2= (-12)(-16)-0=192 which is > 0.
So, there is a maximum point at (0, 0). Refer to step4c

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 BY Osaze O.

At the point (4, 0), ∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2=(12)(-16) – 0= -192

Which is < 0. So, there is a saddle point at (4, 0). Refer to step4a

Question2: locate the stationary points on the surface f(x, y)=2x3+2y3-6x-24y+16 and determine
their nature.

Solution: step1: 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑥 =6x2-6 and 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦=6y2-24

𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑥 =6x2-6=0; 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦=6y2-24=0

6(x2- 1)=0 ; 6(y2-4)=0 x=±1 and y=±2

So, the stationary points are (x,y)= (1,2), (-1,-2), (1, -2) and (-1, 2)

Step2: 𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12x ; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=12y and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 = 0

Step3: for point (1,2),𝜕2z/𝜕x2= 12*1=12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2= 12*2=24 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 = 0

∆=(𝜕2z/𝜕x2)(𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - (𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2= 12*24-0=288

Since ∆>0 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x2>0, the point is minimum. Refer to step4b

For point (-1, -2),𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12*(-1)= -12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=12*(-2)= -24 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 =0

∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2=(-12)(-24) – 0=288 which is >0.

Since ∆>0 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x2< 0 i.e. -12, the point is a maximum. Refer to step4c

For point (1, -2),𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12*1=12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=12*(-2)=-24 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 =0

∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2=12*(-24)= -288 which is < 0

The is a saddle point at (1, -2). Refer to step4a

For point (-1, 2),𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12*(-1)= -12; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2= 12*2=24 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 =0

∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2=(-12)*24=-288 which is < 0

There is also a saddle point at (-1, 2).

Question3: find the stationary points of the function z=(x2+y2)2 – 8(x2- y2)

And distinguish between them.

Solution: 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑥 =2(2x)(x2+y2) – 16x ; 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦= 2(2y)(x2+y2)+16y

4x(x2+y2) - 16x =0 ; 4y(x2+y2)+16y=0

4x(x2+y2-4)=0 ; 4y(x2+y2+4)=0

4x=0, x2+y2-4=0 ; 4y=0, x2+y2+4=0

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 BY Osaze O.

X=0, y2=4 – x2 or x2=4 – y2 ;

At x=0, y2=4 - 02 y= ±2 ; at y=0, x2=4 – 02 x=±2

So, the stationary points are (0, 0), (0, ±2) and (±2, 0).

𝜕2z/𝜕x2=12x2+4y2 – 16 ; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=4x2+12y2+16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 =8xy

For the point (0, 0),𝜕2z/𝜕x2=-16; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=16 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦=8*0*0=0

∆=(𝜕2z/𝜕x2)(𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - (𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2 = (-16)*16 – 0 = -256

So, there is a saddle point at (0, 0). Try for points (2,0) and (-2,0)

Answer: there is a minimum point at the points (2,0) and (-2,0)

Question4: find the stationary points of the function z=x(x2-3)+3y(x-1)2+18y2(2y-3)

And determinetheir nature.

Solution: 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑥 =3x2-3+6y(x-1) ; 𝜕𝑧/𝜕𝑦=3(x-1)2+108y2-108y

3x2+6y(x-1)-3=0…….i ; 3(x-1)2-108y+108y2=0……….ii

From (i), y=(1-x2)/2(x-1)…………..iii.

substitute eq(iii) into eq (ii)

This gives 3(x-1)2-108 ((1-x2)/2(x-1)) +108 ((1-x2)/2(x-1))2 =0

3(x-1)2*4(x-1)2 – 108(1-x2)*2(x-1)+108(1-x2)2=0

12(x-1)4 - -216(x2-1)(x-1) + 108(-(x2-1))2=0

12(x-1)4 + 216(x+1)(x-1)2 108(x-1)2(x+1)2=0

(x-1)2(12(x-1)2 + 216(x+1)+108(x+1)2)=0

(x-1)2(120x2+408x+336)=0

(x-1)2=0 or (120x2+408x+336)=0

X=1 or x=-7/5, -2

From eq(iii), y=(1-x2)/2(x-1). When x=1, y will be indeterminate. In such case, get x at y=0. This
gives 0= (1-x2)/2(x-1) 0=(1-x)2x=1.so, at x=1, y=0 When x=-7/5,

y=(1-(-7/5)2)/2(-7/5-1)=1/5

When x=-2, y=(1-(-2)2)/2(-2-1)=1/2

The stationary points are (1,0), (-7/5, 1/5) and (-2, 1/2)

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𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6x+6y ; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2=216y-108 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 = 6x-6

For the point (1,0), 𝜕2z/𝜕x2=6; 𝜕2z/𝜕y2= -108 and 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦 =0

∆=( 𝜕2z/𝜕x2)( 𝜕2z/𝜕y2) - ( 𝜕2z/𝜕x𝜕𝑦)2 = 6*(-108) – 0 = -648 which is < 0

There is a saddle point at (1,0). Try points (-7/5, 1/5) and (-2, 1/2)

Answer: there is a saddle point at (-2,1/2) and a maximum point at (-7/5,1/5).

TAKE AWAY

Determine the stationary points of the following functions and state their nature

i. Z= x3+y3-2x2-2y2+3xy ii. z=x3-6x2-y2iii. Z=x3-3x2-4y2+2 iii. Z=4x2+10xy+4y2-x2y2

ANSWERS TO TAKE AWAY

Quadric surfaces

1. (i) ellipsoid with centre at origin

(ii) hyperboloid of one sheet with axis parallel to y axis

(iii) elliptic paraboloid with vertex (0, 0, 0)

(iv) hyperbolic paraboloid with vertex (0, 0, 4)

(v) hyperboloid of two sheets with axis parallel to x-axis

2. Center(1,1,-4); semi-axis (3, 6,3 2)

(ii) center(2,-2,0); semi-axis(√6,√2,√6)

(iii) center(-1, 3/4, -1); semi-axis(√10,√15,√6)

3. (x-3)2/20 + (y-1)2/20 +z2/36=1

4. 144x2+144y2108z2-108z=945
5. 3x2+4y2+4z2-16x+8y-8z+24=0
6. 4x2+3y2+4z2-16x+4y+8z+20=0. See the examples on ellipsoid
7. (i) (1,2,-3) (ii) (2,-1,0)
8. Y2/5+Z2/5=X which is Elliptic paraboloid. See key points on paraboloids
9. (i) y2-4z2-4x2=1 hyperboloid of two sheets. (ii) x2/2+y2/3+z2/3=1 Ellipsoid

GENERAL EXERCISE
1. See the key points on sphere
2. (i)elliptic cylinder. since the coefficient of y2 and z2 are the same, we can also call it
cylinder of revolution.

(ii) cone of revolution (iii) cone of revolution

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(iv) sphere with center(5,2,-1) and radius 5

3. (i) center(4,-1,-1); radius 4 (ii) center(-1,1/4,1/4); radius 1

(iii) center(-2,1,-3/2); radius √161/6
4. (i) x2+y2+z2-4x+2y-6z-2=0 (ii) x2+y2+z2-4=0 (iii) x2+y2+z2-4x+6y-4z-39=0
(iv) x2+y2+z2-2x-2y-2z-9=0 (v) x2+y2+z2-12x-6y+8z+9=0
(vi) x2+y2+z2+6x+4y-2z+13=0
5. 3x2+3y2+3z2-5x-7y-7z+6=0
6. Y2/16+Z2/9=1
7. (a) y2/25+z2/16=1 or z2/16+ y2/25=1 since the transverse and the conjugate axes were not
specified
(b) ) x2/25+z2/16=1 or z2/16+ x2/25=1 same reason as in 7a
(c) ) x2/25+y2/16=1 or x2/16+ y2/25=1

8. 2x2-3y=0 or y2-12x=0 see key point on cylinder

9. (i) x2+z2=(y-5)2 or x2+z2=(5-y)2 (ii) 4y2+4z2=16(x-2)2 (iii) 4x2+4y2=9(z-2)2

VECTOR/ MATRIX ALGEBRA

1. (a) linearly independent (b) linearly independent (c) linearly dependent

(d) linearlyindependent
2. (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 2 (e) 2
1 1 1
3. (a) λ1=-1, X= 0 ; λ2=1, X= −1 ,λ3=5, 1
−1 1 1

1 2 1
(b) λ1=1, X= 0 ; λ2=2, X= 1 ; λ3=3, X= 2
−1 0 1

CLASSIFICATION OPTIMIZATION
i. Maximum at (0,0)
1 1
Saddle point at (3, 3)

ii. Maximum at (0,0)

Saddle point at (2,0)
iii. Maximum at (0,0)
Saddle point at (2,0)
iv. All saddle at (0,0), (-3, -3) and (3,3)

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ALLRIGHT RESERVED. PHOTOCOPY OF THIS

BOOK OR PART OF THIS BOOK WITHOUT THE
PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR IS HIGHLY
PROHIBITED.

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