Color coding in data visualization

Data visualization achieves its significance today[1] due to information technology: big data processed in
computers with capable visualization software, combined with statistical techniques[2] and color coding on
electronic displays.

Origins
Origins of color coding include rubrics, the Four Color Theorem of cartography and Jacques Bertin's 1967
book, Sémiologie Graphique (Semiology of Graphics).[3] Contemporary color coding for data visualization
is enabled by four technologies: statistics, color technology, displays and computing. Visualization of
data[4] was proceduralized by statisticians John Tukey and Edward Tufte in their respective landmark
books Exploratory Data Analysis[5] in 1977 and The Visual Display of Quantitative Information[6] in 1982.
They did not emphasize the use of color. Others demonstrated the superiority[7] of color coding to speed
visual search of displayed information,[8] and to locate[9] and organize[10] information of interest. A third
prerequisite for color-coded data visualization is high-resolution, high-contrast, high-luminance color
electronic displays. Honeywell Corporation[11] and Boeing Corporation[12] assembled technical data that
are still germane to use of color displays. More recently, the US Federal Aviation Administration has
published technical guidance[13] for visualization of dynamic (air traffic) data on self-luminous color
displays.

Humans have an innate ability to perform color-coded visual search. Without training or practice, the search
time with color coding can be reduced by a factor of ten or more, compared to a search of the same
information display without color coding. For example, Figure 1a illustrates prolonged search without color
coding, while Figure 1b demonstrates color coding making data salient.

Figures 1a and b. Which category has the fewest stars: 32-, 24- or 16-pointed stars?

Fundamentals of color coding for data search and grouping

Color-coded visualization
Color coding has diverse applications to data visualization. A general principle is to align salience of colors
with relevance of displayed information.[14] The person searching might be given the color of the item to be
found, or they may know the color of the sought category based on their experience. Alternatively, their
task could require looking for an item that stands out as different, signified by color, with no target color
given.

Salient colors might be used, for example, to highlight patterns or to enable rapid search:

for a particular in scientific along flow charts within statistical

information-item or visualization of including visualizations
items on a geographic like
plot medical input flows,
images output flows, scatter plots
among friendly, mathematical reservoirs, pie diagrams
hostile and neutral images mixing
bar graphs
forces on a military chambers and
hyperspectral function plots
situation display[15] images
condensation
towers etc. in an exploratory
on a weather
industrial- data
map[16]
process flow analyses[20]
among
project flow
geographically-
charts
displayed geologic,
topographic, health, process flow
political, economic, charts
demographic, sales flow
technical or charts
aeronautical organization
data[17] charts
for financial flows,
cartography[18][19] to follow the
money
cause-and-
effect diagrams

Another application of color coding is to show symmetries in visualized data.[21] Color coding can connect
and untangle, e.g., trends on a plot, or the continuity of axons in the neural connectome. New applications
of the innate skill to search, or group, based on color are still being invented, e.g., for networks,[22] the
Road Coloring Theorem, heat maps,[23] the genome,[24] genomic structural variation,[25] genome
browsers,[26] and spatial data like molecules.[27] Color coding has utility to visualize outliers and errors in
unfamiliar data.

Color coding is used also for purposes other than visualization of displayed data. Data visualization
complements, and does not substitute for or contradict, those other uses. Where conflict is possible, for
example when there are established meanings of colors in other contexts such as signal lights, then those
meanings should be given deference when choosing colors for a data-visualization color code.

Time required to find visualized information

Visual search is accomplished[28] through rapid involuntary and subconscious eye movements called
saccades. The eye makes about three saccades per second during visual search. Such eye movements
constrain human cognitive performance.[29] Search involves a neural network in the brain for processing
motion and location, and controlling saccades.[30] This neural network is sensitive to color and to change;
color and flash-coding (temporally-varying brightness) can complement each other to enhance search
speed, without mutual interference.[31]

If there are N items to be searched in a display, N/2 saccades tend to be needed to locate a particular
item.[32] Given three saccades per second, N/(2*3) = N/6 seconds is an estimate of search time to find one
item among N. The estimate is improved by adding reaction time, perhaps a second; expected search time
equals 1 + N/6 seconds to find a target item among N displayed items.[32] This estimate accords with
empirical search times.[33][34] In such a situation, color-coded search time increases linearly with the
number of information items on a display that share the distinct target color.[35] Furthermore, search is
faster when the target-colored items are spatially organized, for instance in sinuous paths[34] or presentation
layout[36] or design of data figures.[37]

Search time has an exponential statistical distribution.[38] In an exponential distribution, the variability
(standard deviation) equals the expected value or average. As expected search time increases, so does the
variability of search time. Longer expected search time implies a few very-long searches. For example, with
30 different search items (N=30) randomly distributed on the display, the expected search time is 6 seconds,
but 5% of searches will last longer than 18 seconds. See Table 1 for similar results.

Table 1. Calculated effects of the exponential distribution on variability of search times,

illustrating that longer average search time is associated with some unacceptably long
searches.
Number of search items 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30

Expected time to find target (sec) 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.5 4.3 6.0

5% of searches longer than (sec) 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 10.5 13 18

Short expected search time prevents unacceptably long searches associated with longer average search
time. Based on the linear increase of search time with the number of potential targets, and the exponential
distribution of search times (see Table 1), limiting displayed items sharing the target’s color to fewer than
about 11 would keep search times to less than 10 seconds almost all of the time.[17] More items could share
the target color if the objective were to group subsets (different colors) of dispersed items for some purpose
other than search.[39]

Choosing salient colors for color coding

Color coding can make information salient[40] (see Figure 1b). Discriminable color codes reduce or
eliminate interference with search by all items not sharing the salient target color.[41] Qualitative, subjective
methods to choose distinct colors for coding are limited to a few colors.[42] Color engineering achieved 22
paint colors of maximum contrast,[43] before the advent of self-luminous color displays. Self-luminous
devices, such as computer screens, are capable of higher luminances (wider color gamut), higher resolution
(smaller symbols and image segments) and higher contrasts (more-salient distinctions from background)
than are usually achievable with reflective materials like paint. These characteristics of self-luminous
displays create color-coding opportunities and problems as discussed below.

An objective method of choosing distinctive colors for color-coded visualization of electronically-displayed

data is to consider the color coordinates[44] of the colors available within the display's gamut. Typically, a
color is represented by three coordinates (R, G, B), each in the range 0 to 255 in the case of 8-bit
representation. The most widely used color representation is a variant of RGB known as sRGB, while
device-dependent RGB color representations are also used. An advantage of a device-dependent RGB
representation is that if the device uses RGB light emitters, it can specify every color that can be produced
by that particular device. Most displays use RGB light emitters, although multi-primary color display
alternatives do exist, such as the Quattron displays produced by Sharp Corporation.

Figure 2. Some salient colors suitable for color coding are located on the outer
boundary of the display's color gamut. The (R,G,B) coordinates of each color are
shown in the corresponding colored hexagon.

Optical measurements can be used to calculate the color difference

between each pair of colors in the color code. This involves
spectro-radiometrically measuring[44] the tristimulus values of
colors available from the display. Tristimulus values (X, Y, Z) are
device-independent color coordinates used to calculate color
difference. Luminance, a correlate of grayscale, is the Y tristimulus
value, for instance.[45] The CIEDE2000, or CIECAM02 color
difference formulas are statistically superior as metrics of large- Figure 3. Schematic summary of the
color-difference discriminability.[46] Generally, color difference relation between apparent color
calculations give more weight to red-green differences, and less to similarity and calculated color
blue-yellow differences and luminance (i.e., gray scale) differences, difference. The red line is most
in that order of efficacy.[44] relevant here. Other lines in Figure 3
will be discussed below.
Code colors having small color differences from the target color
make distractor items look similar to the target color, as measured in
terms of search time[34] or in terms of eye movements.[46] Displayed items with large color differences
from the target do not interfere with target salience.[34] Figure 3 summarizes this relationship between color
similarity or salience during visualization and calculated color difference.[46] The discipline of identifying
(and separating, in color difference) the most similar colors in the color code will be useful, whatever
method is used to choose code colors.

In a code with n colors, there are n(n-1)/2 pairs of colors (see Figure 4), each pair having a color
difference.[47] The proliferation of color differences, as the number of colors increases, necessitates a
systematic, algorithmic and automated method of color selection. For instance, aeronautical charts[17] might
be color coded with 28 colors, implying 378 pairwise color differences.
 Figure 4. The number of color pairs, and hence color differences, in a color code
increases rapidly as the number of colors increases.

Salience of many colors, seen in the context of each other, can be optimized. Because the smallest color
differences interfere with search while large-enough color differences do not interfere (see Figure 3), the
optimization objective[48] is to maximize the minimum calculated color-difference, among the n(n-1)/2
color differences in an n-color code, in order to derive a large number (n) of distinct colors for a color code
custom-fit to a particular display’s gamut. This basic method was elaborated for industrial use.[49] The
method has been applied to account for ambient illumination reflected from a display.[50] The optimization
method has been extended to alternative objective functions.[51] It has been applied to complex display
situations[52][53] and to small symbols.[54] Technical color measurement[44] and optimized color difference
can generate several alternative equally-effective codes that exploit the full gamut of the display and human
color discrimination capability. This availability of alternative coding choices enables use of apropos colors
with pre-established meanings or avoidance of inappropriate colors.

Practical problems of color coding for information salience

Symbol size affects color salience

Apparent color difference between objects depends upon the visual angle of the objects that are viewed.
Smaller symbols cause reduced color differences.[54] Calculated color difference assumes a 2-degree visual
subtense. The thumb-nail joint (from thumb-tip to joint-by-the-nail) appears about two degrees of visual
subtense at arm’s length for example. Typical display symbols might subtend only 7 minutes, or less than
1/16 of two degrees.[55] Consider this in the context of these facts[56]

1. there are virtually no short-wavelength (blue) sensing cells on the retina within a 20-minute-
diameter disk around the line of sight (LOS),
2. they comprise only about 7% of all daylight receptors and
3. the blue-sensing cells are about 4 minutes apart at their closest (within a degree of the LOS),
increasing to about 8 minutes apart with greater eccentricity.

For these reasons, blue distinctions (involving colors on any tritan line,[56]) are lost for small symbols. This
is called small-field tritanopia, which is a color deficiency for blueness-differences among small visual
fields, to which everyone is subject. Hence, blueness differences should be discounted (or even eliminated
from consideration) when selecting coding colors for small symbols, less than about 30 minutes of (i.e., the
sun’s and moon’s) angular subtense.[57] Even color-differences not involving blueness appear to fade
(however less than blue fades) when symbols diminish in size. For example, objects appear darker (less
light) as they trend to a smaller visual subtense; larger areas with the same luminance appear lighter than
smaller areas.[54] It is possible to estimate the effect of visual subtense on apparent color difference,
including grayscale difference.[58] Smaller visual subtense of symbols implies fewer salient, or even
discriminable, colors in the same display gamut.[54] Code colors will be salient if their color differences are
at least 14 CIEDE2000 units for symbols having a two-degree visual subtense, or the equivalent color
difference as estimated for smaller subtense.[58] For instance, salience of the 1.5-degree-by-0.75-degree
visual-search targets used by Williams[32] improved for increases of their color differences to at least 21
CIEDE2000 units; beyond about 21 their salience did not improve further.[46] (The minimum color-
difference values of salient colors given here correspond to the lower bound of the 95% confidence interval
in the cited scientific literature.) The blue line and arrow in Figure 3 summarize the effect of small visual
subtense (< 2 degrees of visual angle) on apparent color similarity, as a function of calculated color
difference.[55] The visual angle subtended by a displayed symbol or other image segment can be precisely
measured or calculated.

Deficiency of color vision can affect symbol salience

The most common forms of inherited color deficiency involve red-green confusions.[59] These color-
perception confusions are due to a deficiency in retinal cells to sense long (e.g., red) or medium (e.g.,
green) wavelengths.[56] Red or green would look darker for people deficient in the corresponding cells.
Small visual subtense of symbols, or a rarer form of color deficiency (tritanopia), deplete blueness
differences (due to sparse sampling by short-wavelength-sensing cells in the retina). A color code for
general use, where neither color deficiency nor small visual subtense (e.g., distant viewing) can be
avoided, is white, black, orange, and grays discriminable in luminance from the other code colors and
from the background luminance.[42] This assumes distant viewing by a person who retains the ability to
sense either long or medium-wavelengths. Blue (but discriminably lighter than black) could be added, due
to the rarity of deficient short-wavelength sensing cells, if viewing distances ensure visual subtense of
color-coded symbols greater than 30 minutes. (See Figure 1b.)

Even grayscale perception can be affected by color deficiencies.[60] Red-green-color-deficient observers

who retain long-wavelength-sensing cells (deuteranopes) are accurate judges of color differences near
red.[60] Hence, the best color code for color-deficient observers would depend upon the type of color
deficiency.

Images can be enhanced for viewing by color-deficient observers.[61] The recommended methods are edge
enhancement, recoloring and pattern superposition to complement color. Three kinds of images are
envisioned: natural scene, scientific visualization or an office document. No technique satisfies the
requirements of all applications.

Legibility in the context of color coding

Legibility is different from salience, discussed above. Legibility is related to clearly and distinctly seeing
edges, shapes and spatial details, and therefore to reading. Legibility of a symbol depends upon luminance
difference (not color difference) between the symbol and the background upon which the symbol is
presented. Figure 5, the concept of which was presented by Australian architect Paul Green-Armytage,[62]
demonstrates this effect of luminance difference upon legibility. For this reason, yellow (a high-luminance
color) is less legible on a bright white background, and conversely so are white symbols less legible on a
yellow background. Dark blue (a low-luminance color) symbols are less legible on a black background,
and conversely black
letters are less legible
on a dark blue
background. This is
despite yellow being
salient on a white
background and blue
being conspicuous on a
black background.
Having adequate color
difference among
visualized items is
complementary to, and
compatible with,
enabling legibility with
adequate luminance
difference between the
items and their
background. There are
resources for Figure 5. A demonstration of how the luminance difference between a symbol and its
quantifying the background affects symbol legibility. The horizontal stripes and the vertical message-
required luminance columns are each a constant color.
difference to enable
legibility.

Grayscale, an important tool for visualization of data

In addition to its effect of on legibility, luminance also affects grayscale. Lightness and brightness
differences are grayscale attributes of color difference, so they can affect conspicuousness of symbols.
Grayscale is accessible to people with color-vision deficiencies,[60] and it is less susceptible (than chromatic
differences) to fading due to small visual subtense.[58] Grayscale (rather than chromatic color difference)
has been shown to be particularly apt for coding ordinal data such as temperature on a weather
map.[16][63]

Changing the background luminance makes salient the difference between the (possibly color-coded)
symbols having luminances just greater than, and just less than, each background luminance selected. The
dotted gray line in Figure 3 summarizes this effect. Leon Williams,[64] observed this and suggested a data-
visualization technique he called data slicing, as exemplified in Figure 6.

Figures 6a-d. Data slicing, or changing the background luminance of an image, can render
different data more salient. There are four copies of the same data, each copy with a different
background luminance.
The Whittle logarithmic grayscale calculation[65] for self-luminous devices quantifies visual effects of
luminance differences among displayed symbols. It enables calculation of any number of equal perceptible
differences[66] (nEPD) as small as the threshold of visibility, or of any suprathreshold magnitude. The unit
size of nEPD is three or four times the absolute threshold of visibility for luminance change. This nEPD
unit is “just noticeable at a glance” with free viewing of an electronic display.[65]

The Whittle calculation is unusual (among grayscale formulae) in four ways.

1. It includes the background luminance.[65]

2. It applies to all photopic (i.e., daylight) luminances, based on data for thresholds[66] and
matching.[67]
3. Its derivatives are meaningful.[68]
4. It can account for the spatial scale of the contrast.[65]

The derivative (slope) of nEPD with respect to background luminance implies an optimum background
luminance.[69] White backgrounds are used for historical reasons related to legibility of small symbols.
However, there is no symbol size or symbol-luminance range for which a white background is optimum, in
the sense of maximizing the number of visibly-different gray shades that symbols can have in this
luminance range. The optimum background can double the number of gray shades visible among larger
symbols. The optimum background luminance is always less than 46% of the maximum of the symbol
luminance range, for ranges including zero.[70]

Contrasts (e.g., displayed symbols) have a luminance difference from their background.[65] The contrast
luminance would be less than the background luminance for negative contrasts and the contrast luminance
exceeds the background luminance for positive contrasts. The derivative of nEPD with respect to contrast
luminance predicts the threshold of contrast visibility (e.g., to prevent banding in a digital image) for any
daylight combination of symbol and background luminance.[66][71] The Whittle calculation’s derivative
with respect to contrast luminance also quantifies human suprathreshold sensitivity to luminance
differences, or changes, for all combinations of daylight target and background luminance.[68] This
derivative is germane to digital image processing, and particularly histogram specification,[72] suggesting
applicability to medical-image windowing. The Whittle calculation shows the magnitude of positive
contrast beyond which contrast brightness increases (with increasing contrast luminance) as fast against any
background as against an unilluminated (black) background.[68] At lesser positive contrasts, and for
negative contrasts, symbol lightness depends upon the background luminance of the symbol (in ways
described by the Whittle calculation, and known as lightness constancy). Display luminance-contrast
calibration[73] would be necessary in mission-critical applications.

In Figure 7, there is a different nEPD curve for each background

luminance. The steepest part of each curve (most change of
grayscale per unit change of symbol luminance) is for symbol
luminances almost equal to their background luminance. Another
relatively steep part of each curve is at the extreme left, where
symbol luminance is near zero.[68] Negative nEPD corresponds to
negative contrasts and positive nEPD corresponds to positive
contrasts. Symbols with equal nEPD from their respective
Figure 7. Plot of the Whittle
backgrounds will appear the same shade of gray,[75] despite being grayscale calculation (adopted by
on different backgrounds. (See Figure 8, which illustrates this CIE[74]) for self-luminous devices,
matching of grays seen on different backgrounds.) The logarithmic as applied to an optotype E
curvature of the Whittle calculation has a rational basis.[76] An subtending 10 arc minutes (1/3 the
intermediate background luminance for Figure 7 itself increases the diameter of the sun or full moon).
number of grayscale steps visible among the curves, making See text for details about this plot.
plausible an optimum background luminance.

The Whittle calculation for self-luminous devices has a parameter, k, relating to the spatial scale of the
symbol.[68] It (k) is the proportion (between 0 and 100%) of image contrast (target luminance minus
background luminance) lost to intraocular scattering on the way to becoming a retinal image.[65] Reducing
the angular subtense of a symbol always reduces the physical luminance difference between the symbol
and its background (due to intraocular scattering), hence reducing legibility and conspicuousness and
increasing k.[65] This parameter, k, can be calculated from optical principles,[70] as it was for the gray scale
of the 10-arc-minute (k=0.2) optotype E represented in Figure 7. When symbol angular subtense
(represented by k) is reduced, the optimum background luminance also is reduced.[70] The Whittle
calculation is unaffected by highlights remote from the contrast, as verified experimentally.[77] The effect of
remote highlights on grayscale appearance is due to intraocular scattering.[68]

A grayscale phenomenon
calculable with the Whittle
calculation for self-luminous
devices is matching grays
having different background
luminances.[67] Conversely,
the calculation can be used
Figure 8. This figure illustrates the to find the background Figure 9. Identical wreaths of six
concept of matching grays with luminances that will make grayscale hexagons having different
different background luminances. specified contrast background luminances. A more-
Each hexagon has a different luminances match. luminous background darkens the
luminance. According to the calculation grayscale.
(as can be seen in Figure 7),
it is impossible to match
negative contrasts with positive contrasts; negative contrasts always look darker than positive contrasts.
Three positive-contrast clouds in Figure 8 have greater luminance than their respective background
hexagons; the three negative-contrast clouds have less luminance than their background.

According to the Whittle calculation, darker grays are achievable with a more-luminous background.[65]
The effect is more pronounced for larger subtenses, but can be seen in the lower left of Figure 7 where
more-negative nEPD is achieved when the background luminance is greater. Figure 9 exemplifies the
effect; the same hexagonal visual target is seen as a darker gray (including black) when its background is
more luminous, according to the Whittle calculation.

Ongoing research and development

Research and development continues on data visualization technologies. For instance, there is ongoing
research and development to improve color difference calculations.[78] The primary motivation for this
R&D is determination of minimum detectable thresholds of color difference, for quality control over
industrial color processes (e.g., food, paint, textiles, plastics, print and self-luminous displays). As color
difference calculations have been improved for threshold determination, they fortuitously have become
better for the suprathreshold applications related to data visualization.[46] Ever since the relationship in
Figure 3 was first shown,[41] there has been practical interest in more-precise determination of the
(calculated color-difference) location of the knee of the curve for two-degree visual subtense and for
smaller subtenses.[58] A general societal concern for inclusiveness, and particularly for accommodating
disabilities, has stimulated research on color applications for people with color deficient vision.[61] A
vibrant area of research (for instance by Brian Wandell and David Brainard,[79] and CIE[78]) is
computational modelling to predict (e.g., color) appearance, including all factors such as intraocular optics,
retinal cone-cell responses, effects of visual subtense, eccentricity from the line of sight,[80] atmospheric
optics, the illuminating light spectrum, context and color adaptation. There is research of methods to
calibrate displays,[81] for example to make colors salient on a display located remote from the person
programming the data visualization, and to more-accurately render color on displays.[82] High dynamic
range (HDR) displays enable the most-salient colors for visualization; HDR is an active area of
research.[83] Research continues on visual pathways and circuits in the brain;[30] some of this is relevant to
data visualization and comprehension. Proprietary developments of color-display technology, computers
and software improve data visualization, too. There is research to apply artistic color-coding techniques to
visualization "to enable nonscientists to work with actual data to communicate issues that are critical to
humanity."[84]

See also
False color
Impossible color

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