Personality Theories

Only Study Guide for PYC2601

Dr. Val Rapmund

Prof. Cora Moore
Miss Patricia Oosthuizen
Dr. Teria Shantall
Prof. Alta van Dyk
Prof. Henning Viljoen

Department of Psychology
University of South Africa, Pretoria
# 2000 University of South Africa

Revised edition 2010

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa

Muckleneuk, Pretoria

PYC2601/1/2011

98638912

3B2

ARTWORK ON COVER: ``Love chase'' by LUCKY SIBIYA

PHOTOGRAPHY: Artwork photographed by IZELLE JACOBS

COVER DESIGN AND

DESIGN LAYOUT: SHALETTE KESTING & THEA VENTER

EDITING: SALLY TAPLIN

TRANSLATION: LYNN SLY

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: BUREAU FOR LEARNING DEVELOPMENT

PROJECT COORDINATOR: DR. HENRY VAN ZYL

Pyc style
 PYC2601/1/2011

Contents
Contents

Page

ORIENTATION Ð Prof. Cora Moore v

PART 1

INTRODUCTION

CHA`PTER 1: Personology and historical overview of psychological thinking Ð

Prof. Cora Moore 3

PART 2

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES

CHAPTER 2: The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud Ð Prof. Alta van Dyk 29

PART 3

BEHAVIOURAL AND LEARNING THEORY APPROACHES

CHAPTER 3: The social cognitive learning approach Ð Dr. Val Rapmund 73

PART 4

PERSON-ORIENTED APPROACHES

CHAPTER 4: The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow Ð Prof. Cora

Moore and Dr. Teria Shantall 119

CHAPTER 5: The self concept theory of Carl Rogers Ð Prof. Cora Moore and

Miss Patricia Oosthuizen 149

CHAPTER 6: The existential theory of Viktor Frankl Ð Prof. Alta van Dyk and

Dr. Teria Shantall 183

PART 5

ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 7: African perspectives Ð Prof. Henning Viljoen and Miss Patricia

Oosthuizen 217

iii Contents
 PYC2601/1

Orientation
Orientation

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY GUIDE

We hope that this study guide will be as good as a helpful facilitator at your side to help you

as you work through your prescribed book, Personology: From individual to ecosystem

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008). In this way we (the lecturers) hope that you will get to

know more about the developments in the field of personology and also about some of the

personality theories that represent different ways of thinking in this field. It is important that

you learn a general method of work to help you master any other theory that you may be

interested in.

We are well aware that students differ and not everyone benefits from the same type of

guidance. Things that some find helpful might even frustrate others! For this reason we have

tried to compile the guides in such a way that you can use the method that suits you best.

Some students will work through the guides step by step while others will skip certain

sections. You are free to follow your own study methods, depending on your personal

needs, as long as you achieve the general outcomes of this course.

The general outcomes of this course can be summarised as follows:

After you have completed this course, you should be able to

. explain the different schools of thought within the field of personology.

. describe the different perspectives on and interpretations of human functioning.

. discuss in depth the theories that are covered in this course.

. apply these theories to practical situations in everyday life.

FORMAT OF THE STUDY GUIDE

The study guide has been organised in the following format:

It consists of different CHAPTERS,

CHAPTERS each one covering a particular theory or group of

theories. For example, one chapter covers Freud's theory and another deals with the social

cognitive learning theories. Unfortunately, the number of a chapter in the study guide will

not be the same as the number of the chapter covering that same topic in the prescribed

book. For example, Freud's theory is covered in chapter 2 in the study guide, but in chapter

3 in the prescribed book. Unfortunately this is unavoidable because not all the theories that

appear in the prescribed book are discussed in the study guide. However, the sections that

v Orientation
 you must study in the prescribed book are clearly specified so there should not be any

confusion.

We use the abbreviation MMV to refer to the prescribed book Personology: From individual

to ecosystem by Meyer,
Meyer Moore and Viljoen.
Viljoen

Each chapter in the study guide begins with an ORIENTATION that serves as a general frame

of reference to be used when studying that chapter.

Each chapter is made up of different STUDY UNITS that divide the material in that chapter

into smaller units that are easier to work with.

The OUTCOMES that are set for each study unit indicate what we hope to achieve in that

study unit.

Different ACTIVITIES are specified in each study unit. These activities tell you which sections

of the prescribed book you need to study.

After studying those sections (or that section) in the prescribed book, you can then work

through the study material by answering the QUESTIONS that we have set to guide you

along. Write your answers to the questions in a separate notebook which you should keep

for this specific purpose, or in the spaces provided.

We have included questions of different kinds and different levels of difficulty to test your

knowledge and understanding of each section. You will therefore have to answer multiple-

choice questions, questions where you simply fill in the missing word (fill-in questions), as

well as short and long paragraph-type questions. We have also set a few ENRICHMENT

QUESTIONS.
QUESTIONS The reason for enrichment questions is to give you the opportunity to tackle

something more challenging, but you will not be given anything so difficult in the

examination.

The questions are numbered separately for each chapter. For example, the questions in the

chapter on Freud's theory are numbered from 1 to 42 and the questions in the chapter on

Rogers' theory are numbered from 1 to 30.

We also supply HINTS to help you answer the questions. Please read the hints before

answering the questions.

In addition, we also use sketches, diagrams and mind maps to make things easier for you

and to facilitate the learning process. We hope you find them useful.

After answering the questions, you can test the correctness and quality of your answers by

testing them against the FEEDBACK.

FEEDBACK Note that the answers that we provide are usually either

examples or suggest the framework for an answer and should never be seen as the only

possible correct answer.

Please note that the purpose of the questions in the study guide is to lead you through the

theories and to help you to understand the work. However, the exam questions will not

Orientation vi
 PYC2601/1

necessarily look like the questions in the guide. In Tutorial letter 101 we explain the type of

questions you can expect in the exam on each theory. Please study Tutorial letter 101 in

detail.

In some cases we provide additional study material under the heading ENRICHMENT.
ENRICHMENT This

sometimes contains explanations, views from other sources or quotations from the original

work of a particular theorist. This material is provided to expand and deepen your knowledge

and understanding of the theory because, very often, when we look at something from a

slightly different angle, it gives us new insight into the material. Sometimes we also bring a

POINT OF INTEREST to your attention.

You will see that in the study guide, lecturers sometimes quote from primary and secondary

sources. Primary sources refer to books that are written by the theorist personally, while

secondary sources, like the prescribed book, are texts written by other authors about that

theory. The quotations are only provided to help you get to know the theorists a little better,

or to introduce you to different points of view. However, you do not need to learn these

quotations.

Each study unit ends with a summary under the heading CLOSING COMMENTS and the

chapter ends with a section entitled IN CONCLUSION.

CONCLUSION

THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY THEORIES AND GENERAL HINTS

FOR STUDYING THEM

Personality theories have been developed in an attempt to explain all or most aspects of

human behaviour. They therefore cover an extremely wide field and it is obvious that they are

rather complex and contain a wide variety of concepts. Therefore, it is essential to study each

theory as a whole and to obtain a clear overview of the whole theory before you study

separate concepts in detail.

detail

The different personality theories have different points of departure and, in most cases,

completely different terminology. As a result it is important to study each theory separately

in order to avoid confusion. Try to gain a clear understanding of each theorist's basic points

of departure (assumptions) and view of the person and make sure you can automatically

associate these views with that theorist's name.

name

Of course, the different personality theories also share similar concepts and ideas.

Sometimes theorists use different terms (i.e. words) to speak about subjects that are closely

related, and unfortunately some of the same words are used to mean different things. For

this reason it is important to make careful note of such (confusing) similarities, apparent

similarities, differences and apparent differences. Use dictionaries, lists of terminology, as

well as the explanations that

that are
are provided in
in your
your prescribed book, and while you read

collect a set of clear definitions of terminology.

terminology

Although personality theories are both complex and abstract, it is important to remember

vii Orientation
 that they are about people Ð the theories represent attempts to explain the behaviour of

people like us. You therefore have your own basis of knowledge and experience that can

serve as a useful point of departure to help you understand personality theories: This basis

is your own knowledge of people that you have built up from your personal experience with

yourself and in interaction with other people. One obvious step that should help you to

understand the personality theories, is

is to
to try to see yourself
yourself and the people you know in the

light of the theory that

that you
you are studying at that moment. Ask yourself questions like this one:

If my friend X does something like

like that,
that, what
what type
type of
of behaviour is he
he displaying according to

this theory? What type of person is Miss Y? Does this theory help me to understand my own

and other people's feelings and behaviour and to make predictions about people's

behaviour? In this way the course can also help you to understand yourself and other people

better.
better

Although at first personality theories might look like dry, abstract and confusing collections

of words that are just there to make your life difficult, they will become more interesting if

you apply them to your own life and environment. They will gain a more personal meaning

for you when you realise how each one could be applied to your own life. Therefore you

should try to understand these implications and to think about them carefully. Ask yourself

questions like this:

this: If theory
theory Z is
is true, what does it mean for my own life? How could it affect

the way I think about myself and the decisions I make about my future? What impact could it

have on the world around me? In this way you will not only discover interesting differences

between the various theories, but also enrich your own life.
life

Orientation viii
 PART
PART 1
1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1: Personology and historical overview of psychological thinking

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
1
PERSONOLOGY AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL THINKING

Prof. Cora Moore

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

Personology and historical overview of

3 psychological thinking
 You stand before a door on which the word Personology is written. We invite you to

open this door and enter a fascinating world in which you will look at human

functioning from various angles. We hope that this will be an enriching experience for

you.

ORIENTATION

In personology you will encounter various approaches and look

at human functioning through the eyes of different theorists.

In this chapter we introduce you to certain reading and writing

skills by way of activities. These activities are based on basic

study methods and include ideas that may be applied to any

study material.

You will also encounter general terms that are used in the field of personology as well as

broad approaches within this field. You will be introduced to the format used to present

the content of chapters in MMV. This is followed by a historical overview of

psychological thought and you will have the opportunity to see how it has been

influenced by different philosophical approaches.

It is important that you first become familiar with the general terms that are used in this

field, because in this way you will learn a special ``language'' that will enable you to ``join

in the discussion''. In time you will also realise the importance of terminology in this

subject. Every theorist uses his or her own terms, which you should know in order to

communicate a specific viewpoint. In fact it is the need to move from one theoretical

context, where particular terms are used, to the next, which might have a different type of

terminology, that complicates the study of personology. So let us make sure that we

understand and use these terms correctly from the very start.

When you are familiar with the format of chapters in MMV, this will help you to organise

the material systematically. The fact that the same format is used for the different theories

also makes it easier to compare the different views.

We give a historical perspective because it is always helpful to see how particular views

fit into a larger context. When a particular view of human functioning can be linked with

the historical period where it developed and the streams of thought that gave rise to it, it

will make far more sense.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 4
 PYC2601/1

This chapter is based on Chapters 1 and 2 of MMV (2008).

STUDY UNIT 1.1

In study unit 1.1 you will first get an overview of chapter 1 in MMV by drawing a mind
1.1

map.
map The mind map serves as a one page summary that will come in handy when you

prepare for the examination.

You will then have to think about the question ``What is personology?''; you will

investigate the relationship between Personology and knowledge of people; find out why

there are so many personality theories and learn the definitions of crucial concepts such

as person, personality, character, temperament and self.

When you have worked through study unit 1.1, you should

be able to
SEMOCTUO

. summarise the content of chapter 1 in MMV by drawing a mind map.

. explain what Personology involves and how it relates to knowledge of people in

general.

. provide reasons for the existence of so many different personality theories.

. give explanations of concepts such as person, personality, character, temperament

and self.

OVERVIEW OF CHAPTER 1 Ð PERSONOLOGY

You are about to study chapter 1 of MMV. The title of the chapter tells you that the

section deals with personology, but what can you expect to find in this chapter? Page

through it and note the main headings (printed in bold type). They include the following:
YTIVITCA

1 Outcomes

2 Background

3 Personology and everyday knowledge of human nature.

4 The reasons why there

there are so many personality theories.

5 Definitions of key concepts.

6 A variety of opinions about the personality.

7 A closer look at personality theories.

Personology and historical overview of

5 psychological thinking
 YTIVITCA Look at the subheadings under each of the main headings in this chapter's table of

contents. You will now have an even better idea of what this chapter is all about.

Now answer Questions 1 to 5.

QUESTION 1

Now that you have read the main headings of chapter 1 in MMV Ð what do you expect to

find in this chapter? Choose the most correct answer from the following alternatives.

(1) This chapter explains a specific personality theory.

(2) This chapter serves as an introduction to the field of personology.

(3) This chapter provides a critical evaluation of different approaches in psychology.

(4) This chapter provides a list of all the important concepts that occur in psychology.

QUESTION 2

Focus on the main heading 7, ``A closer look at personality theories'' Ð and read the

subheadings below it. Which one of the following points will not be given specific attention

in the discussion of personality theories?

(1) The neurological elements of the personality.

(2) The views of the person underlying the personality.

(3) The dynamics of the personality.

(4) The optimal development of the personality.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 1 AND 2

Alternative 1 of Question 1 is wrong because this chapter does not deal with a specific

theory.
KCABDEEF

The chapter serves as an introduction to the field of personology and therefore Alternative 2

is the correct answer to Question 1. Alternative 3 is incorrect because although some

approaches are discussed briefly they are not critically evaluated.

Although some important concepts are discussed, not all concepts are covered. You will

encounter many more concepts later on. Therefore Alternative 4 is not correct.

Neurological elements do not enjoy much attention in the discussion of a specific

personality theory. Alternative 1 is therefore the correct answer to Question 2.

Attention is paid to the underlying view of the person, dynamics and optimal development.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 6
 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 3

You are asked to make a summary of chapter 1 by drawing a diagram of the contents on a

single page. Some students use flow charts while others prefer pictures or simply list the

main points. Imagine that you have decided to use the following diagram. What would you

write in the space next to A?

(1) Dimensionalism

(2) Interactionalism

(3) Behaviourism

(4) Mentalism

WHAT IS PERSONOLOGY AND WHY ARE THERE SO MANY

PERSONOLOGY? KNOWLEDGE OF PEOPLE PERSONALITY THEORIES?

Complexity of person

Practical and ethical problems

Complete knowledge possible?

Variety of assumptions

PERSONOLOGY

DEFINITIONS OF VARIETY OF VIEWS CLOSER LOOK AT

KEY CONCEPTS PERSONALITY THEORIES

± Person ± Personality, situation and ± View of humankind/

behaviour the person

± Personality Personism

Situationalism ± Structure

± Related concepts

Character A ............................................ ± Dynamics

Temperament

± Personality theories: a C ......................................

systematic overview:

Depth psychological ± Optimal development

approaches

± Psychopathology

B ............................................

± Implications and

Person-oriented approaches applications

Alternative perspectives

Personology and historical overview of

7 psychological thinking
 QUESTION 4

What should be written in space B in this diagram?

(1) Behavioural and learning theory approaches

(2) Freudian theories

(3) Personality theories

(4) Development theories

QUESTION 5

In the section on a closer look at personality theories, there is some indication of the

subjects that will often arise in the discussion of personality theories in MMV. Which one of

these aspects has been left out of the diagram and should appear in space C?

(1) Situation

(2) Behaviour

(3) Philosophy

(4) Development
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 3, 4 AND 5

The correct alternatives are:

Question 3: Alternative 2 Ð Interactionalism

Question 4: Alternative 1 Ð Behavioural and learning theory approaches

Question 5: Alternative 4 Ð Development

You must now study the different sections of chapter 1 in more detail to add ``meat'' to the

skeleton of the first diagram (summary). For example you could write the heading ``What is

personology?'' on a separate sheet of paper and under it, summarise the most important

ideas that emerge in that section or you could add the information to your original diagram.

WHAT IS PERSONOLOGY? Ð THE RELATION TO EVERYDAY

YTIVITCA

KNOWLEDGE OF HUMAN NATURE

Read the background and the sections on what personality is, and personology and

everyday knowledge of human nature, thoroughly (Sections 2 and 3 on pp. 3±6 in

MMV).

Answer Questions 6 to 8.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 8
 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 6

Which one of the following statements correctly reflects what personology is all about?

Personology is the field that

(1) provides different possible explanations of human behaviour.

(2) aims at developing a single theory to explain human behaviour.

(3) establishes different models for studying human functioning in groups.

(4) concentrates on individual differences between people rather than characteristics they

have in common.

QUESTION 7

Carefully reread Section 3 on page 4 in MMV (Personology and everyday knowledge of

human nature), up to ``subjective judgement and bias'' on p. 5 just above the personology

definition box. Which one of the following statements is a good summary of the ideas in this

section?

(1) Different sources of information contribute to general knowledge of people.

(2) Knowledge of human nature helps one understand human functioning but is often

limited and unreliable.

(3) Some people simply do not have the ability to work with people.

(4) Cultural material such as novels, plays, songs, proverbs and idioms are full of

information on human nature.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 6 AND 7

Do you agree that Alternative 1 is the correct answer to Question 6? Why?

The correct answer to Question 7 is Alternative 2. Although the other alternatives hold some

truth about knowledge of human nature, Alternative 2 best combines the ideas.

QUESTION 8

In class the students were asked to explain the difference between a general knowledge of

human nature and personality theories as a basis for explaining an understanding of human

functioning. The lecturer reminded the students that when comparing things with each other,

they should compare similar objects rather than apples and pears. Here are the responses

from four students. Three of the students managed to compare similar things but the fourth

student still compared unrelated issues. Indicate which response compared unrelated issues.

Personology and historical overview of

9 psychological thinking
 (1) General knowledge of people provides incomplete explanations for human functioning,

while personality theories present more adequate explanations.

(2) General knowledge of people provides random explanations for human behaviour,

while personality theories present logically related conceptual systems for explaining

behaviour.

(3) General knowledge of human nature provides incomplete explanations, while

personality theories are based on the behaviour of a large number of people.

(4) Knowledge of human nature depends on haphazard observations of human behaviour,

while personologists' observations of human behaviour are regulated.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 8
KCABDEEF

In Alternatives 1, 2 and 4 similar things are compared with each other. Alternative 1

concerns incomplete versus complete statements. In Alternative 2 random statements are

opposed to related conceptual systems and Alternative 4 concerns controlled and

uncontrolled observations.

In Alternative 3 two unrelated issues, namely incomplete statements and the number of

people who are involved, are compared with each other. The correct answer is therefore

Alternative 3.

MANY PERSONALITY THEORIES AND THE DEFINITIONS OF

YTIVITCA

KEY CONCEPTS

Study Section 4 on why there are so many personality theories and study the definitions

of key concepts (Section 5).

Answer Questions 9 to 13.

QUESTION 9

Students often ask why there are so many personality theories. A few reasons for this are

given below. Which one of the following is not an acceptable reason?

(1) It is difficult to integrate the many facets of human functioning that are involved in the

study of human behaviour, in a single model.

(2) Practical and ethical considerations place limitations on research, making it impossible

to clear up differences between theoretical standpoints.

(3) Psychic determinism and environmental determinism are opposed to each other in

such a way that it has not yet been possible to accommodate both in a single theory.

(4) The variety of assumptions on which theories are based make it particularly difficult to

have a single representative theory.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 10
 PYC2601/1

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9

We might also ask which of the Alternatives in Question 9 gives good reasons for the

existence of so many personality theories. Alternatives 1, 2 and 4 provide valid reasons and

are related to the complexity of the person; practical and ethical problems affecting research
KCABDEEF

and the various assumptions about the person and the science. Alternative 3 is simply not

true, because certain theorists do recognise the role of psychic and environmental

determinism in their theories. The correct answer is therefore Alternative 3.

A good reason why so many personality theories have been formulated on the idea of

psychic determinism versus environmental determinism appears below:

Since some theorists prefer to give exclusive recognition to psychic determinism and others

concentrate on environmental determinism only or are even prepared to accommodate both

forms of determinism in their views Ð this has given rise to a variety of personality

theories.

QUESTION 10

In psychology the term personality is used to refer to

(1) the social dimension of the individual Ð for example, someone has a strong or a weak

personality.

(2) the end product of the socialisation process in which education plays an important role

and values are organised in such a way that they appear to remain relatively stable

although still undergoing constant change.

(3) the person's emotions and feelings and the way in which he or she expresses them and

deals with them during interaction with the environment.

(4) the relatively stable organisation of all physical, psychic and spiritual characteristics

that determine the behaviour of the individual in interaction with the environment.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

This question was actually very easy Ð especially if you looked at MMV!

Yes, the answer is Alternative 4.

Personology and historical overview of

11 psychological thinking
 QUESTION 11

If you want to write a good answer it is important that your sentences follow one another

logically. The following paragraph is a general discussion of definitions of personality. How

could you rearrange the sentences so that they follow one another logically and the

discussion thus forms a related whole? (Rewrite the paragraph on a piece of paper first in

order to arrive at your answer.)

(a) First, a definition reflects the type of behaviour that the psychologist must look at, as

well as the methods that will be used in studying behaviour.

(b) Secondly, there is no right or wrong definition of personality.

(c) When choosing a good definition of personality, it is important to keep two things in

mind.

(d) Definitions of personality are not necessarily true or false, but are more or less usable

for psychologists in certain contexts.

The sequence should be as follows:

(1) (a), (b), (d), (c)

(2) (c), (a), (d), (b)

(3) (d), (a), (b), (c)

(4) (c), (a), (b), (d)

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11

The answer is Alternative 4. The paragraph begins with a general statement and then focuses

on the more specific. The sentences with the words first and second obviously follow one

another and the fourth Statement (d) qualifies or tells us more about the earlier Statement

(b).

QUESTION 12

Students are asked to compare the concepts of temperament and character in no more than

75 words.

Johanna writes as follows:

``The word `temperament' therefore has something to do with the way the person deals with

his or her feelings. `Character' indicates the person's ability to act according to his or her

values. `Character' indicates those elements that are determined by socialisation and

education and therefore it is concerned with values.''

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 12
 PYC2601/1

Nomsa writes as follows:

``Both the terms `temperament' and `character' have a more specific meaning than the term

`personality' because both indicate particular aspects of the personality. Where `temperament'

indicates the way in which the person exhibits and deals with emotions and feelings,

`character' deals with the person's ability to act consistently in agreement with particular

values. `Temperament' therefore indicates inherited, biological aspects of the person, while

`character' is determined by socialisation and education.''

Why does the lecturer give Nomsa's answer higher marks?

(1) Nomsa has used more words than Johanna.

(2) Nomsa indicates various similarities and differences in the comparison without

unnecessary repetition, while Johanna does not really compare the two concepts and

repeats the same ideas unnecessarily.

(3) Nomsa identified the correct section in the prescribed book and selected her facts from

it, while Johanna did not manage to do this.

(4) Nomsa refers to the word ``personality'' which is essential when answering this type of

question, while Johanna does not refer to the personality even though she does actually

indicate the most important difference between the terms.

QUESTION 13

When a lecturer marks an answer, he or she poses the following questions:

. Has the student answered the specific question?

. Has the student selected relevant information from the prescribed book/source?

. Is it clear that the student understands the study material?

. Has the material been logically, systematically organised to form an integrated whole?

. Is there unnecessary repetition in the answer?

. Has the student kept to the prescribed length?

Go back to Question 12 and reread Johanna's answer.

Which of the following alternatives describes how Johanna's answer fulfils the criteria for a

good answer?

(1) Johanna kept her answer to the prescribed length.

(2) Johanna has provided an adequate comparison of the two terms.

(3) Johanna has not repeated ideas unnecessarily.

(4) Johanna's answer forms a logical, integrated whole.

Personology and historical overview of

13 psychological thinking
 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 12 AND 13

The answer to Question 12 is Alternative 2 and the answer to Question 13 is Alternative 1.

Johanna has kept to the prescribed length and has identified the correct material in the

prescribed book, but has explained the two terms separately instead of comparing them with

each other. In addition, Johanna has repeated the same ideas unnecessarily and her answer

does not form a logical, integrated whole. In contrast to this, Nomsa has kept to the

prescribed length, chosen relevant material and presented it in a logical, integrated manner.

She has given several comparisons of the two terms and has therefore answered the actual

question that was asked.

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

In this study unit you have got to know some basic study methods that include certain

learning and writing skills. For example, you have learned the value of a mind map and have

found out what lecturers expect from a well written answer.

You have found out how personology relates to a knowledge of people and now know why

there are so many personality theories. You have learned the meaning of key concepts such

as person and personality and related concepts such as character and temperament.

STUDY UNIT 1.2

2.1

In this study unit you will encounter a number of opinions about the personality and take

a closer look at personality theories,

theories finding out more about the format used to present

personality theories in MMV.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 14
 PYC2601/1

SEMOCTUO After working through study unit 1.2, you should be able to

. tell the difference between personism, situationalism and interactionalism.

. list the most important characteristics of the various approaches in personology.

. indicate which points are highlighted when specific personality theories are

explained.

. explain what is meant by the structure, dynamics and development of personality and

by optimal development, psychopathology and the implications and applications of

the theory.
YTIVITCA

A VARIETY OF VIEWS

Study the sections in MMV on a variety of opinions on the personality and a closer look

at personality theories (Sections 6 and 7) on pp 12±21.

Answer Questions 14 to 16.

QUESTION 14

Situationism represents the view that

(1) a person who, for example, has a tendency to be depressed, will be depressed in any

situation.

(2) behaviour is determined by psychic factors.

(3) there are no individual differences between people.

(4) the environment determines the individual's behaviour.

QUESTION 15

While Philemon and Sandra are out walking, a snake suddenly slithers across the path.

Sandra screams and starts to run away, but Philemon recognises the snake as a harmless

type and tries to catch it and keep it as a pet. How would behaviourists explain Philemon

and Sandra's different reactions to the same situation?

(1) Their ability to choose their reaction freely.

(2) Genetic differences between men and women.

(3) Differences between their previous learning experiences.

(4) Their differing interests.

Personology and historical overview of

15 psychological thinking
 QUESTION 16

The dynamics of the personality could also be described as

(1) the ``working parts'' of the functioning person.

(2) the assumptions about the nature of the person underlying the theory.

(3) the explanation of the way in which the child's behaviour gradually becomes more

differentiated.

(4) the explanation of the motivating force that forms the basis of behaviour.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 14, 15 AND 16

The correct answers are as follows:

Question 14: Alternative 4

Question 15: Alternative 3

Question 16: Alternative 4

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

In study unit 1.2 you have learned about different views of the personality. For example, you

looked at the influence of personism, situationalism and interactionalism and the

characteristics of some broader approaches such as depth psychology and behaviourism.

You were also informed about the format in which personality theories are presented in

MMV and learned the meaning of concepts such as structure and dynamics.

STUDY UNIT 1.3

3.1

This study unit begins with an overview of chapter 2 in MMV.

MMV You then examine the

development of psychological thought in historical context. You will find that we focus on

the way in which philosophy and the natural sciences have influenced psychological

thought and the way in which psychology became an independent science in its own

right.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 16
 PYC2601/1

SEMOCTUO After working through study unit 1.3, you should be able to

. summarise the chapter in outline.

. explain how philosophy and the natural sciences influenced the origin of psychology.

. explain how psychology was established as an independent discipline.

THE ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY

YTIVITCA

Obtain an overview of chapter 2 in MMV using the same steps that were suggested for

chapter 1 in study unit 1.1. Then study the section on the genesis of psychology and

the subsections on psychology as part of philosophy (400BC±1600) and psychology

as part of philosophy and the natural sciences (1600±1879).

Then answer Questions 17 to 19.

QUESTION 17

Read the first paragraph of chapter 2 in MMV. Which one of the following statements reflects

the key idea that is expressed in this paragraph?

(1) A historical overview of psychological thought provides a framework in which

personality theories can be better understood.

(2) Personality theories are comprehensive and include structural, dynamic and

developmental aspects of the personality.

(3) Specific shortcomings, differences and similarities can be identified by comparing

personality theories.

(4) Personality theories incorporate all facets of human functioning, whether normal or

abnormal.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 17

Although all these statements are true to some extent, the key idea is found in Alternative 1.

Personology and historical overview of

17 psychological thinking
 Although it is not necessary for you to make a detailed study of the philosophical

assumptions and methodological approaches (on pp. 24±27 in MMV) at this stage, you

might find it useful to return to this section when some of these assumptions are mentioned

in later discussions.

You might find it interesting to note that the assumptions about the soul/spirit-body

relationship are closely linked with the philosophical views of the philosophers Plato,

Aristotle and St. Augustine which are referred to in the section on psychology as part of

philosophy (400±1600).

According to Plato (427±347 BC) the soul and the body are two separate entities and the
TNEMHCIRNE

evil body interferes with the functioning of the good soul. In addition, according to Plato, the

soul consists of three elements: the rational, the spiritual Ð and the yearning aspect, which

function independently of the body.

However, one of Plato's pupils, Aristotle (384±322 BC), proposed the idea of a unity of body

and soul. According to him the person is composed of material (body) and soul (form) and

the one does not make sense without the other. He sees the soul as the manifestation of the

body, just as a piece of furniture is a manifestation of the material we call wood.

During the Middle Ages the emphasis on human beings as the centre of God's creation was

such that no attention was paid to the nature of the person. However, the religious leader St

Augustine (354±430 BC) brought about a change by drawing a sharp distinction between

the immortal religious soul and the soul as consciousness. In this way emphasis was placed

on the discovery of self-consciousness which is unique to a particular individual.

In spite of the efforts to maintain Aristotle's theory of unity, Plato's idea of a division between

body and soul dominated thought during the Middle Ages. Later this was reinforced by the

dualistic view of the philosopher Descartes (1596±1650).

QUESTION 18

As an empiricist, Francis Bacon emphasised empirical observation as the basis of any

scientific investigation. This means that he believed that

(1) science should be based on a priori, intuitive assumptions about human nature.

(2) qualitative observation must be checked.

(3) generalisations should be supported by controlled sensory observations.

(4) the deductive method of logical thinking could help to establish an objective science of

the person.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 18
 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 19

Which one of the following statements best indicates the difference between Bacon's

empirical thought and Descartes's rationalism?

(1) Bacon believed that controlled observations of the world outside were the best basis for

knowledge, but Descartes believed that subjective self-knowledge should be the basis

of knowledge.

(2) Bacon's way of thinking led to the view of psychology as a natural science, but

Descartes said that ``I, the questioner'' was important.

(3) Bacon established the guidelines for psychology as an introspective humanities

subject, but Descartes established psychology as a subjective humanities subject.

(4) Bacon emphasised that the field of psychology was purely human processes, but

Descartes proposed the subjective-qualitative approach.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 18 AND 19

KCABDEEF

Alternative 3 is the correct answer to Question 18.

Alternative 1 is the correct answer to Question 19.

Do you agree? If not, refer to MMV to find out where you went wrong.

Did you simply look at the feedback right away without even trying to find the answer for

yourself? Remember that doing these exercises on your own is the best way of learning,

especially when you initially make mistakes and then have to find out where your argument

or understanding of the material was faulty.

PSYCHOLOGY AS INDEPENDENT SCIENCE

YTIVITCA

Study the sections in MMV on psychology as a science in its own right, and the

subsections on Wundt and the foundation within the academic context, and Freud and

the foundation within a practical medical context.

Answer Questions 20 to 24.

QUESTION 20

Which one of the following approaches is in line with Wilhelm Wundt's structuralist

approach?

Personology and historical overview of

19 psychological thinking
 (1) The phenomenological approach.

(2) The functionalist approach.

(3) The reductionist approach.

(4) The intentional approach.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

Alternative 3 is the correct answer.

QUESTION 21

Which two streams of thought developed in reaction to Wilhelm Wundt's structuralism?

WRITE YOUR ANSWER TO THIS QUESTION IN A SEPARATE NOTEBOOK

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

Firstly, functionalism developed in America in reaction to Wundt's German European

structuralism. The structuralists attempted to study the structural elements of consciousness

such as the perception or awareness of external stimuli, mental imagery and feelings or

emotions. In contrast, the functionalists focused on the association between the functions of

consciousness (observation, thought, emotions and the will) and behaviour aimed at

adapting to the environment. Behaviourism developed from this, focusing solely on

KCABDEEF

observable behaviour and treating human and animal behaviour merely as a function of

environmental influences (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1989).

While functionalism and, later, behaviourism originated in America, there was also a

reaction to structuralism in Germany. The Gestalt psychologists disagreed with the

structuralists' emphasis of independent elements of consciousness. They maintained that the

whole is always more than the sum of the contributing parts and this line of thought led to

psychology splitting away from the natural sciences to some extent and beginning to find a

place among the humanities.

Note that in the diagram at the beginning of this chapter in your study guide, Wundt is

positioned between the learning theory and person-oriented approaches. This indicates

Wundt's influence (as structuralist) on the development of behaviourism (a learning theory

approach) and gestalt psychology (which was a precursor or forerunner of the person-

oriented approach).

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 20
 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 22

Reread the section on Freud and the foundation within a practical medical context in MMV.

Now close MMV and fill in the missing words in the spaces below.

With his (a) .................... theory, as a result of his interest in (b) ............... Freud

established psychology within the practical medical context.

Freud's theory had great influence on the development of psychology as a discipline. Two

ways in which it influenced this process involved the addition of certain subjects to the field

of psychology. These two subjects were:

(c) ...........................................................................................................................................

(d) ...........................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 22
KCABDEEF

The answers are:

(a) psychoanalytical

(b) neurotic behavioural disturbances, particularly hysteria

(c) Unconscious psychic processes

(d) Psychopathology (abnormal functioning)

QUESTION 23 (ENRICHMENT)

Turn back to the diagram at the beginning of this chapter. Why is Plato shown as a

philosopher who had an influence on the later approaches of depth psychology and learning

theory; and why is Aristotle shown as a philosopher who ultimately influenced humanistic or

person-oriented approaches?

QUESTION 24 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you agree with the position of the religious leader St Augustine in the diagram? If you do

agree, explain why. If not, explain why not.

Personology and historical overview of

21 psychological thinking
 FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 23 AND 24

It would be interesting to know what your answers were.

When I compiled the diagram, I reasoned as follows: With his idea of the ``good soul'' and

the ``evil body'', Plato emphasised the idea of a split between spirit/soul and body. Neither

the depth psychologists nor the orthodox learning theorists emphasised the concept of

``wholeness'' in their explanations of human behaviour. In contrast, Aristotle regarded the

soul as the realisation of the body (material) and this ``idea of union'' is a basic premise that

was subscribed to by various person-oriented theorists.

Firstly, as far as Augustine is concerned, I wanted to show that he expanded on Plato's ideas
KCABDEEF

and therefore I placed him in line with Plato. On the other hand, Thomas Aquinas initially

tried to reconcile Aristotle's ideas with the religious doctrines of the day. However, as a

theologian Aquinas had to agree that the soul was immortal and therefore must be able to

separate from the body. For this reason, therefore, he too later abandoned Aristotle's idea of

unity (Jordaan & Jordaan, 1989).

As we have already indicated, Augustine saw the soul as separate from the body and

distinguished between the ``religious soul'' which is immortal, and the ``soul as concept of

consciousness'', that is, the soul as it affects our temporal existence as people. His

emphasis of ``self-consciousness'' and, therefore, the discovery of the ``I'', naturally also

emerge in the person-oriented approaches although this influence is not reflected in the

diagram. It is therefore correct that Augustine's ideas have influenced psychological thought

in general. In fact, this could also be said about the ideas of most of the philosophers,

natural scientists and academics who are mentioned in the diagram.

Descartes's position in the diagram is based on his dualistic viewpoint, but the emphasis he

placed on subjective experience can obviously also be seen in the person-oriented

approaches. The diagram was compiled to show the main influences so please do not

interpret it in absolute terms.

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

Study unit 1.3 began with an overview of chapter 2 in MMV. You then examined the

development of psychological thought in historical context. You noted the way in which

philosophy and the ideas of natural scientists have influenced psychological thought. You

have focused in particular on the influence of Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Bacon,

Descartes, Wundt, Brentano and Freud, respectively, on the origin and establishment of

psychology as a science in its own right.

In the following study unit we focus on psychology in the twentieth century.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 22
 PYC2601/1

4.1 STUDY UNIT 1.4

In this study unit you learn about the development

development that
that took
took place within the main

streams of thought in psychology Ð namely behaviorism, psychoanalysis and

humanism/existentialism. You will therefore learn about the state of affairs within the

discipline of psychology in the twentieth century.

After working through study unit 1.4, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. explain the difference between the main streams of thought in psychology in the

twentieth century.

. distinguish between what psychologists see as the essence of human functioning

which forms the object of their studies.

. discuss the shifts in emphasis that have occurred in the variables that are used to

explain or describe human functioning.

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Study the sections in MMV on psychology in the twentieth century and the subsections
YTIVITCA

that deal with

. the human being as an individual.

. the individual in relation to other people.

. the individual in relation to the physical environment.

. the individual in relation to a transcendent environment.

Then answer Questions 25 to 29.

QUESTION 25

You must now do some colouring-in to apply what you have read so far to the theories that

you will study in this course. Use coloured pencils or pens Ð red, blue, green and orange

(or whatever you have available).

Use the red pen to outline the theories that focus on the human being as an individual in the

Personology and historical overview of

23 psychological thinking
 diagram that follows. Use blue to outline the theorists who emphasise the individual in

relation to other people, green for theorists that emphasise the individual in relation to the

physical environment and orange for those that focus on the individual in relation to a

transcendent environment.

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

QUESTION 26

Now return to the theories you have outlined and use a pattern to indicate which variables

are used by each theorist to explain or describe human functioning.

If the theorist uses intrapsychic variables, for instance, fill the space with dots.

For those that use extrapsychic variables, you could use diagonal lines.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 24
 PYC2601/1

For interpersonal explanations use horizontal lines.

For interactional explanations, use crosses.

(You will probably not find an example for transactional

transactional explanations in your diagram

because we have not included Eric Berne.)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 25 AND 26

Have you outlined Freud, Skinner and Jung's theories in red (to indicate that they focus on

people as individuals)? And have you indicated that Freud and Jung emphasise intrapsychic

variables in their description and explanation of human functioning?

KCABDEEF

In some cases you had to draw outlines of more than one colour round a particular theorist.

Jung, for instance, had to have both a red and an orange outline and Frankl's would have

been blue and orange.

You probably also realised that many of the names that appear in the presentation are not

included in the diagram. Luckily you do not have to study the views of all the people that are

mentioned in the discussion for this course! It is nevertheless good to know about all the

well-known ones and to see where they fit into the origin and development of psychology.

For the purposes of the examination, however, you only need to concentrate on the theorists

who are included in your curriculum.

Later, after studying these theories, you will probably find it easier to understand why we

have classified certain theorists in a particular way here.

QUESTION 27

Erik Erikson's and Carl Rogers' theories focus on

(1) people as individuals.

(2) people in relation to each other.

(3) people in relation to the physical environment.

(4) people in relation to a transcendental environment.

QUESTION 28

Which one of the following variables did the orthodox psychoanalysts use to explain and

describe behaviour?

(1) Intrapsychic variables.

(2) Extrapsychic variables.

(3) Interpersonal variables.

(4) Interactional and transactional variables.

Personology and historical overview of

25 psychological thinking
 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 27 AND 28

The correct answers are:

Question 27: Alternative 2

Question 28: Alternative 1

QUESTION 29 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you now understand why the authors chose this particular title for this book, namely

Personology: From individual to ecosystem?

Do you think this is a suitable title or would you have suggested something else? We would

love to know.

Incidentally, the title of the first edition of the book was Personality theories: From Freud to

Frankl.

Would you agree that the new title is a better reflection of the current state of affairs in the

discipline of personology?
NOISULCNOC NI

You must now have a good idea of what you can expect from the field of personology. You

have also had the opportunity to see where psychology had its origins. We trust that this

background will provide a meaningful context within which you can study the personality

theories.

REFERENCE

Jordaan, W. J., & Jordaan, J. J. (1989). Man in context. (2nd ed.). Johannesburg: Lexicon.

Personology and historical overview of

psychological thinking 26
 PART
PART 2
2

DEPTH PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES

CHAPTER 2: The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
2
THE PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY OF SIGMUND FREUD

Prof. Alta van Dyk

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

29 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 Welcome to the world of Freud! In this chapter you learn about Freud's view that the

individual is caught in an ongoing conflict between unacceptable drives and the rules

and regulations of society. We explain how Freud expands this view in his theory and

how it may be implemented in child-rearing practices, education and therapy.

ORIENTATION

Each one of us has a particular worldview that to a large extent

determines our ideas, attitudes and behaviour. These

perceptions are by no means independent of the spirit of the

times in which we live, but have strong links with our unique

backgrounds, the political, moral, economic and social climate,

as well as the prevailing (popular) scientific outlook. For

example, if someone asked you what you think about today's

youth, you would soon realise that your ``theory'' about

teenagers is strongly influenced by factors such as your own teenage experiences, the

extent of your personal experience involving the youth of today, the current political and

social climate in the country and the influence it has on, for instance, education. Your

theory concerning youth might also have its origins in sharp criticism of today's laissez

faire child rearing techniques.

Just as your theory-in-miniature about today's youth cannot be separated from your own

life experience, so the theory of each personality theorist you will learn about this year

simply cannot be viewed in isolation from the spirit of the times in which they live or

lived. It is therefore always important to investigate the life of the individual behind each

theory.

Freud, who was a medical doctor, lived at a time when the natural sciences predominated.

This means that all behaviour was analysed to determine what elements it is made up of

and exactly how they function. In Freud's time, the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt and

the functionalism of William James dominated psychological thought. Both structuralism

and functionalism focused on conscious processes: Structuralists studied the structures,

the content of the components or parts of consciousness, while the functionalists

concentrated on the functions of conscious mental processes. Both theories focused on

the conscious processes only, while no attention was paid to unconscious processes.

Freud, however, believed that people's functioning is not determined by conscious

processes alone, but also by unconscious mental content. In contrast to the

psychological thought of his time, Freud therefore shifted the emphasis from a study

of conscious mental processes to focus on the deeper, unconscious, unobservable layers

of consciousness. This is the reason why today we refer to Freud as the father of depth

psychology.

As you progress with your studies in personality psychology, you will find that many

other theories that you will study, developed in reaction to Freud. For example, extreme

behaviourists oppose the idea that one's behaviour is determined by conscious and

unconscious intrapsychic processes (or internal factors) and have developed theories that

focus solely on the external factors that affect people's behaviour.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 30

 PYC2601/1

Before you begin with the activities it would be a good idea to orient yourself to this

theory, by reading through the introduction to the depth psychological approaches in

MMV, which provides the context for this theory.

This chapter is based on Chapter 3 in MMV (2008).

STUDY UNIT 2.1

1.2

In study unit 2.1 we introduce Freud, the man,

man and give you a quick tour through the

spirit of the times that dominated the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries where

Freud's theory has its foundations.

The idea is to provide a global overview of Freud's theory so that you will have some idea

of its full extent before working step by step through the study units that follow.

After working through study unit 2.1, you should be able to

. answer multiple-choice questions about the historical context in which Freud's

SEMOCTUO

theory was based.

. explain to a friend why even today it is still so important to take Freud's theory into

account.

. write a summary putting Freud's entire theory in a nutshell. (This summary should be

good enough to serve as an instant reminder of exactly what Freud's theory is all

about when you glance at it before the exams.)

The following activity should open your window onto Freud's world a little wider to give

you a better understanding of his way of thinking.

YTIVITCA

A WINDOW ON FREUD'S WORLD

Read the background on Freud's theory in MMV for a glimpse into Freud's world. Are

you beginning to understand where his theory came from?

Answer Questions 1 and 2.

QUESTION 1

In your opinion, how did Freud's experiences of life, the prevailing spirit of the Victorian age

and the current scientific outlook contribute to his psychoanalytical theory?

31 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 KCABDEEF
FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 1

The answer to this question is presented very clearly in MMV. You might have referred to

the possible influence of his childhood, his illness, his experiences during the First World

War and of anti-Semitism, his medical background, contact with neurotic patients, social

taboos, the rigid Victorian role that was ascribed for women, and the deterministic scientific

outlook of the times which tried to pinpoint causes for each and every event.

QUESTION 2

A friend who often jokes about the Oedipus complex says to you: ``I'm amazed to hear that

you have to study Freud this year! Are your lecturers Victorian relics? Nowadays, nobody

believes in what Freud had to say any more. Why on earth is it still in your syllabus?''

YOUR ANSWER IS

``Even though we might not always agree with everything that Freud had to say, it is vital to

study his theory because ...''

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 2
KCABDEEF

The two most important reasons that you could give your friend are the following:

. Many Freudian concepts have become part of our generally accepted psychological

terminology and unless we have a thorough knowledge of Freud's theory, we will not be

able to understand these terms properly.

. Freud's theory has led to various other theories which developed in reaction to Freud's

work. In order to understand where these other theories came from, it is important to

have a sound knowledge of Freud. One could say that others have climbed onto Freud's

shoulders in order to get a better view.

A GLOBAL OVERVIEW AND MIND MAP

YTIVITCA

Before we can study a theory step by step, it is important to get a view of the theory as a

whole. Skim through Freud's theory: Underline headings and subheadings, and read a

couple of sentences under each heading to get some idea of what it all involves.

Then answer Question 3.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 32

 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 3

Draw a mind map in your notebook illustrating Freud's theory. Keep it simple so that one

glance will give you the structure of the theory as a whole.

HINTS FOR MAKING A MIND MAP

A mind map is a table, sketch or figure that helps us to remember related facts.

Follow these guidelines when drawing your mind map:

STNIH

. You have already completed the first step by doing the activity just before Question 3. In

other words, you have read through the theory, underlining the main points.

. Now use the most important elements of the theory as your main points. You may use

the headings in MMV for this purpose.

. Feel free to use colour and drawings, but make sure that your mind map does not

contain too much information. Its basic structure should be evident at a glance.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 3

Obviously there is more than one way to draw a mind map. Each person's mind map must

suit his or her study method. I personally like to use a combination of words and pictures. I

also like to make a dominant framework on which I can ``hang'' the theory as a whole. For
KCABDEEF

this reason I chose to use a hat stand with eight hooks, each one representing an important

part of this theory (or, in fact, any theory) namely: view of the person, structure, dynamics,

development, optimal development, psychopathology, applications and evaluation. (For the

younger generation among us: A hat stand is a stand on which one hangs clothes such as

raincoats or hats.) Note that all eight hooks are related to each other. (If you like the colour

green, the jacket hanging on hook 1 might be green; a tie on hook 2 might have green spots;

your scarf on hook 3 might be a different shade of green; and the hat on hook four might

have a green ribbon.) In this way a common thread (e.g. the colour green) runs through

everything that is hanging on the hat stand, giving an indication of interrelatedness between

the different objects on the eight hooks.

Take a look at my hat stand mind map before I explain further.

33 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 KCABDEEF

F r e u d ' s

P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l t h e o r y

With my drawing of a hat stand I hoped to illustrate for you the golden connecting thread

that runs through a particular theory. The eight hooks on the hat stand indicate the

connection between the eight aspects of this particular theory (view of the person, structure,

dynamics, development, optimal development, psychopathology, application and evalua-

tion). If, for example, we understand the first hook of a theory Ð namely, the theorist's view

of the person Ð we already have a good idea of what the other hooks will look like. Let me

try to explain:

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 34

 PYC2601/1

Freud believed that people's behaviour is determined by the ongoing conflict between their

basic drives and society. This view of the person,

person which clearly indicates conflict,

necessarily means that the second hook of the hat stand (namely, structure)
structure will shed further

light on the conflict between basic drives and society. To explain what makes people ``tick'',

Freud uses the structures of the id, the ego and the superego. The golden thread linking

together the view of the person and the structure (one could call it the thread of conflict) also

runs through to the third hook of Freud's hat stand, namely the dynamics of the personality.
KCABDEEF

Here Freud indicates what motivates our behaviour, as a result of the ongoing conflict

between our id drives and the demands of the superego. Here it is explained that people

experience anxiety as a result of this conflict between the id and the superego, and then use

defence mechanisms in an attempt to reduce this anxiety. According to Freud's theory, how

the child will develop is closely related to Freud's view of the person and what he regards as

the structure and dynamics of the personality. The whole idea of conflict, drives, anxiety and

defence mechanisms emerges clearly from the different stages of development. And seen

from a conflict theory point of view, an optimally developed individual, according to Freud,

would be someone who has learned how to experience the highest possible satisfaction of

drives while reducing feelings of guilt to the minimum. Now complete the course of the

golden thread through the rest of Freud's hat stand, dealing with psychopathology,

application and evaluation. Once more, ideas on psychopathology and the implications of

applying Freud's theory lie closely linked with Freud's view of the person.

If you compile a well-thought-out mind map or summary for every theory, using the main

points as I have done in my hat stand mind map, you will never get confused and wonder

which information belongs to which theory.

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

You should now understand where Freud's theory, with its accent on psychosexual

development and the unconscious, fits in historically. It is not a theory that simply fell from

the sky; it stemmed from the needs of the particular spirit of the times.

By the time you have worked through study unit 2.1, you should have a good general

overview of Freud's theory. The objective of the next study unit is to guide you step by step

through this theory.

35 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 STUDY UNIT 2.2

In this study unit we introduce the view of the person underlying Freud's theory. You will
2.2

see that Freud's perspective on people cannot be seen in isolation from the basic

assumptions that existed about people and science during Freud's lifetime.

You will also study the structure of the personality.

personality This means that you will get to know

the different ``parts'' that Freud believed made up the personality: the id, the ego and the

superego.

After working through study unit 2.2 you should be able to

do the following:

.
SEMOCTUO

Answer multiple-choice questions to demonstrate that you understand Freud's view

of the person.

. Answer multiple-choice questions and fill-in questions on the different levels of

consciousness, the id, ego and superego.

. Answer a short paragraph question on the characteristics of the id, ego and

superego.

. Describe how the id, ego and superego function on three levels of consciousness.
YTIVITCA

THE VIEW OF THE PERSON UNDERLYING FREUD'S THEORY

Study the view of the person underlying Freud's theory in MMV.

Then answer Questions 4 and 5.

QUESTION 4

The way Freud sees people is based on certain assumptions about people and science. List

three assumptions and explain how they influence Freud's viewpoint.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 36

 PYC2601/1

KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

These assumptions (psychosocial conflict, biological and psychic determinism and the

mechanistic assumption) are very clearly set out in your prescribed book, so I am not

repeating that information here.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 5

Freud's view of the person is partly based on the assumption of psychosocial conflict. This

means that

(1) the person is constantly caught up in the physical conflict principles of energy

consumption, conservation and transformation.

(2) human drives are physiologically based and rooted within the body, and the conflict

which determines behaviour takes place within the psyche.

(3) the person is caught up in constant conflict between his or her sexual and aggressive

drives, and demands of society.

(4) human drives are constantly in conflict with the biological and psychic factors which

determine behaviour.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 5

The correct answer is Alternative 3. According to Freud, the person is caught up in a

constant conflict between drives within the psyche (such as sexual and aggressive drives)

and the norms of society.

37 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 I am sure that you will never forget Freud's view of the person after looking at this picture!
TNEMHCIRNE

The illustration represents the individual who, according to Freud, is in a state of constant

internal conflict. In this conflict the ego acts as mediator between the id and the superego,

and this takes considerable skill on the part of the ego. Metaphorically it means that the rider

(ego) will only remain in the saddle if he can keep the horse (id) under control and can make

the horse do what the instructor (superego) demands. The ego must therefore be strong

enough to cope with the conflict between the id and the superego and the accompanying

tension. Remember that the process of conflict occurs on an unconscious level.

Keeping this picture in mind, do you now understand why we often refer to Freud's theory as

a conflict theory?

STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

YTIVITCA

Study the section in MMV that deals with the structure of the personality and make sure

that you understand the different levels of consciousness, the id, the ego and the

superego.

Then answer Questions 6 to 9.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 38

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QUESTION 6

What follows is an extension of the hat stand mind map taking a more detailed look at

specific hooks on the hat stand, in this case the structure of the personality according to

Freud's theory. You can also see it as a brief summary of the most important characteristics

of the id, ego and the superego. Study the following summary (or mind map) and fill in the

missing words/phrases.

39 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 6

To complete the summary you had to fill in the following words/phrases. (The order of

sequence might be different in some cases.)

Levels of consciousness

(a) conscious

(b) unconscious

Id

(c) primitive

(d) energy from body

(e) drives

(f) primary process

(g) pleasure principle

(h) selfish
KCABDEEF

(i) unrealistic

(j) no contact with external reality

(k) wish-fulfilment

Ego

(l) contact with outside world

(m) reality principle

(n) cognitive processes

(o) reality testing

(p) object choice

(q) object cathexis

(r) rational methods

(s) ego dilemma

(t) energy from id/ego drives

Superego

(u) society's moral rules

(v) moral principle

(w) energy from id/death drive

(x) anticathexis

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 40

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POINT OF INTEREST

The picture of the horse, rider and instructor is an equally good representation of the

structure of the personality. Can you trace the golden thread that runs through the hat stand?

QUESTION 7

I now attempt to explain the structure of the personality as it is represented in Freud's theory,

by way of a metaphorical conversation between the id, ego and superego. Read the story,

adding the missing words and phrases. Please note that the id, ego and superego are not

really three separate ``people'', but that I have simply used this convention to make the idea

easier to understand.

John is extremely hungry after a hard day's work. He walks down the main street of the city

where he lives, and breathes in all the delicious aromas that drift out of the restaurants. His

id, ego and superego begin to chat:

Id: I am hungry. And I am the selfish, unrealistic id who follows the (a) ....................

principle and therefore I want to (b) ................................................. .

Ego: Id, have you thought about how you're going to get food? What are you going to do

about it?

Id: I want to eat NOW! Why are you asking me what I'm going to do? You know that I

function according to the (c) ....................... process and that means that I am not capable of

(d) .......................................................... . Something I can do is to dream and fantasise

about a delicious T-bone steak and chips.

Ego: Yes Id, that is the only form of drive satisfaction that you are capable of. Freud calls it

(e) .............................................................. you know. And that certainly will not keep you

alive. I shall have to do something about your hunger and ensure your survival by finding

(f) .......................................................................... and ........................................................ .

Id: But if you are not going to fantasise like I do about the food I want right now, how are

you going to meet my needs?

Ego: Let me tell you what the difference is between us. While you function according to the

(g) .................... process, I function according to the (h) .................. process. This means

that I (i) ............................................ before I carry out an action such as getting food for

you.

Id: There goes someone with a take-away meal. Grab it! Quickly!

Superego: (j) ........................................................................................................

41 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 Id: Grab it, Ego!

Ego: No, Id, I cannot. To function according to the secondary process means that I cannot

expect drives to be satisfied immediately, but that I (k) .................................... Luckily for

you I also function according to the reality principle which means that I am in contact with

(l) ............................................................................... . I also make use of cognitive

processes such as (m) ................................................ to decide how to find food for you.

You will have to wait until you get home where John's wife has prepared a nice plate of food.

Superego: And the idea of stealing food is not well thought through. I function according to

the (n) ......................................................... principle and I make sure that society's moral

rules are obeyed. I punish anyone who is guilty of immoral thoughts or behaviour with

(o) ...................................................................................... .

Ego (at the end of a very tiring day): I am exhausted. Serving three masters is not easy! If I

do not satisfy the id's demands, he threatens me with (p) ................................................ .

The superego threatens me with (q) . ........................................... and to crown everything,

physical reality does not always (r) .......................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................ .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 7

The words/phrases that you should have filled in are:

(a) pleasure

(b) satisfy my drives immediately by eating

(c) primary

(d) any deliberation or planning

KCABDEEF

(e) wish-fulfilment

(f) suitable objects for satisfying drives

(g) primary

(h) secondary

(i) judge matters, consider and plan

(j) ``Oh no! You must not steal!''

(k) am capable of postponing the satisfaction of a drive to a more suitable time and

situation

(l) the outside world Ð the physical and social reality

(m) observation, rational thought, memory and learning

(n) moral

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 42

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KCABDEEF
(o) feelings of guilt

(p) tension and anxiety

(q) punishment and feelings of guilt

(r) have adequate objects for me to satisfy my drives

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 8

According to Freud the ego is strong and effective when it

(a) stands up to the superego.

(b) opposes the id.

(c) opposes the death drive.

(d) forms compromises.

The correct answer is:

(1) All of the above

(2) (a), (b) & (d)

(3) (a) & (b)

(4) (d)
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 8

With the scenario of Question 7 still fresh in your mind, you probably did not have much

trouble with this multiple-choice question. The ego is naturally strong and effective if it can

form a compromise between the id's drives and the superego's rules, satisfying both in the

process. The correct answer is therefore 4, that is Statement (d). Do you understand why

Statements (a), (b) and (c) are incorrect?

43 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 9

Freud maintained that the id, ego and superego function at different levels of consciousness.

In terms of this viewpoint, which one of the following statements is correct?

(1) The id functions on the unconscious level, the ego on the preconscious level, and the

superego on the conscious level.

(2) The id functions on the unconscious and preconscious levels, and the ego and

superego on the conscious level.

(3) The id functions primarily on the unconscious level but also on the preconscious level,

and the ego and superego equally on all three levels of consciousness.

(4) The id functions primarily on the unconscious level but also on the preconscious level,

and the ego and superego on all three levels of consciousness, although not to the

same extent.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9

The correct answer is Alternative 4. The functioning of the id, ego and superego on the

different levels of consciousness is illustrated in Figure 3.1 of MMV.

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

By the time you have completed study unit 2.2 you should know exactly how Freud views

the individual. You should also know the components that make up the personality

according to Freud. In study unit 2.3 we proceed further with the theory and see how these

people function within his particular structure. What are the dynamics behind the person's

behaviour? What motivates people to do what they do, according to Freud?

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 44

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STUDY UNIT 2.3

In this study unit we look at the dynamics of the personality and learn what motivates a
3.2

person's behaviour according to Freud's theory. We see how Freud compares the way we

function with the way a steam engine operates, explaining behaviour in terms of energy

consumption. We also focus on Freud's theory of drives and his explanation that a

surplus of drive energy leads to tension and that the ego copes with its anxiety by way of

defence mechanisms, dreams and parapraxes.

After working through study unit 2.3 you should be able to

. answer multiple-choice or short questions on the four general characteristics of

SEMOCTUO

drives.

. define the different types of drives and clearly distinguish between ego drives and

sexual drives (which are both life drives).

. explain, in a short paragraph, why anxiety arises and how the ego reacts to it.

. define each defence mechanism and give examples.

. grasp the important role of anxiety and defence mechanisms in explaining human

behaviour.

. be capable of answering multiple-choice questions on dreams and parapraxes.

FREUD'S DRIVE THEORY

YTIVITCA

According to Freud, drives are the basic motivators of behaviour. In MMV, the

discussion of Freud's theory of drives is divided up into the functioning of drives, the

form this takes and the type of drives that can be distinguished. Study the whole section

up to the end of the death drive (p. 59±60 in MMV).

Then answer Questions 10 to 14.

QUESTION 10

Do you remember how in Freud's lifetime the natural sciences were regarded as the model

for all other sciences, including psychology? To be able to answer the following question on

psychic functioning, you should first orient yourself within a natural science framework.

Close your eyes and imagine that you are back at school in a science or chemistry class. Do

you still remember test tubes, experiments, clouds of vapour and perhaps the odd

45 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 explosion? Although I have obviously oversimplified it, Freud had a similar picture in mind

when he tried to explain how a person's psyche (or personality) works. Freud compared the

psyche with a steam engine and explained behaviour in terms of energy consumption.

Now explain the functioning of the psyche according to Freud's theory. Or, one could say:

Explain what motivates a person's behaviour.

The most important points to keep in mind when answering this question are:
STNIH

. Freud's mechanistic view of the person.

. The principle of energy transformation.

. The principle of energy conservation.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

Freud proposed a mechanistic view of the person. This means that he believed that the

human psyche can be explained in terms of the laws of mechanics, for example, in terms of
KCABDEEF

energy transformation. Therefore, according to Freud, the psyche Ð like any machine Ð

needs energy in order to function. This energy arises from drives that have their individual

sources of energy in the body, and is reduced by acts of a sexual or aggressive nature.

Energy reduction takes place when the ego finds an object to satisfy its drive and invests it

with psychic energy. Obviously, society places limitations on the acting out of such drives

(you may expand on this, give an example and refer to displacement) and this can lead to an

accumulation of energy. Excessive energy (that does not disappear on its own) leads to

greater pressure for its satisfaction and causes greater tension in the ego, which has to take

account of the rules and prescriptions of the superego. The anxiety that is generated by this

state of conflict can eventually cause psychic problems. Therefore, according to Freud, all

human behaviour is aimed at channelling this drive energy in order to reduce tension.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 11

A man, who is lost in the desert, is extremely thirsty. Which of the following statements

explain the four characteristics of the thirst drive?

(a) The thirst drive's source of energy is located in the body, namely the mouth, throat,

gullet or stomach.

(b) The impetus or energy of the thirst drive of someone who is lost in the desert will

obviously be very strong.

(c) The purpose of the thirst drive is to quench the person's thirst as quickly as possible, to

relieve the irritation and discomfort in the mouth and throat (physical source).

(d) The object of the thirst drive is water Ð this is the only object that will quench the

thirst of the man in the desert.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 46

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The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (c)

(2) All of the above

(3) (b) & (d)

(4) (a), (c) & (d)

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11

The correct answer is Alternative 2. All the statements given are correct, as they explain and

illustrate the source, impetus, purpose and object of the thirst drive very well.

QUESTION 12

Here is a sketch showing the types of drives that Freud discusses. If you make a similar

diagram for each theme that you study, you are unlikely to confuse the work. Study this

mind map and answer the questions that follow:

From this summary it appears that Freud divides drives into two main groups, namely,

(a) ....................................................................... and (b) ................................................... .

The life drive is concerned with (c) .......................................................... and includes the

(d) ...................... and the (e) ....................................... . The function of the ego drives is

to (f) ..................................................................................... and it includes such drives as

the (g) .................................................................. . The function of the sexual drives is to

(h) ............................................................ and they include drives such as (i) ................. .

In contrast to the life drive, the death drive refers to (j) ............................................... .

Examples of the death drive are (k) ................ .

47 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12

The answers you should have filled in are:

(a) life drives (eros)

(b) the death drive (thanatos)

KCABDEEF

(c) survival of the individual and the species

(d) ego drives

(e) sexual drives

(f) ensure the survival of the individual personally

(g) hunger drive, thirst drive, respiration drive

(h) ensure the survival of the species (e.g. humankind as a whole)

(i) sexual drives

(j) the individual's pursuit of self-destruction and death

(k) aggression, violence, war

QUESTION 13

Explain the meaning of the terms cathexis and anticathexis.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 13

When a drive demands satisfaction, the ego must look for a suitable object with which to

satisfy this drive. When the ego finds such an object, it invests the object with psychic

energy and drive energy is reduced by this investment. When the ego invests energy in an

object in this way it is known as cathexis. The moral prohibition that the superego places on

an object is known as anticathexis.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 14

According to Freud's theory of drives, psychic energy can be effectively reduced by

(1) choosing appropriate objects to use for the satisfaction of drives.

(2) displacing energy from one prohibited object to another prohibited object.

(3) obeying the superego's rules.

(4) fantasising.

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 14

Alternative 1 is the correct answer. Psychic energy is reduced by displacement, which

involves the choice of suitable objects for satisfying drives. To displace energy from one

prohibited object to another (Alternative 2) will cause a further accumulation of psychic

energy and increase tension still further. To obey the superego's rules and fantasise

(Alternatives 3 and 4) will also definitely not reduce drive energy.

YTIVITCA

ANXIETY AND DEFENCE MECHANISMS

Study the sections on anxiety, defence mechanisms, dreams and parapraxes in MMV.

Then look at the diagram below.

Answer Questions 15 to 20.

Dreams

Parapraxes

QUESTION 15

Explain the concept of anxiety in Freud's theory, keeping this schematic summary in mind.

In your explanation, concentrate on the causes of anxiety, the types of anxiety and the way

the ego copes with anxiety.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 15
KCABDEEF

The graphic representation (or summary of anxiety) should help you to answer the question.

Make sure that you include the following components in your answer:

. Anxiety is the ego's reaction to danger.

. The ego is threatened by reality or the environment, by the id's demands and by the

restrictions imposed by the superego.

. A surplus of drive energy arises which leads to discomfort and tension for the ego.

49 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 . Threats from outside, from actual dangers in the environment, cause reality anxiety or

fear.
KCABDEEF

. Threats from inside (or intrapsychic threats), from the id or superego, cause neuroses

and moral anxiety.

. Reality anxiety (which is experienced consciously) is coped with by fighting, fleeing or

negotiating.

. Neurotic and moral anxiety (which is only partially conscious or totally unconscious) is

coped with through defence mechanisms, dreams and parapraxes.

QUESTION 16

Make a summary of each type of defence mechanism that is described in MMV and provide

an example of each one. How many of these defence mechanisms have you used yourself?

Note them too! There is no better way to remember something than by relating it to yourself.

Compare your summary with the information in MMV.

QUESTION 17

Read the following paragraph about defence mechanisms. Fill in the missing words and

phrases and delete inappropriate words.

The function of defence mechanisms is to defend the (a) .................... against the conflict

between (b) ........................................... and (c) ............................................... . Defence

mechanisms are therefore the ego's way of coping with (d) .................... . To be successful,

the defence mechanisms should function on a (e) conscious/unconscious level [delete the

incorrect alternative]. Freud believes that a degree of appropriate defence is essential

because (f) .......................................................................................................................... .

Although defence mechanisms such as repression, projection and rationalisation deal with

anxiety, they are not effective enough because, in terms of Freud's theory of drives, they do

not succeed in (g) ............................................................................................................. . .

The most effective defence mechanism is a form of displacement and is known as

(h) ................................................ . When one uses this defence mechanism, one channels

energy (i) ......................................... . In terms of Freud's theory of drives, this form of

defence is successful because (j) .........................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................... .

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 50

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 17

The answers that I expected from you are:

(a) ego

(b) the id's prohibited drives

KCABDEEF

(c) the superego's moral codes

(d) anxiety

(e) unconscious

(f) the ego would not be able to cope with the anxiety and the psyche would collapse

(g) reducing energy that is linked to the prohibited drives in a meaningful way

(h) sublimation

(i) into socially acceptable channels

(j) the individual expresses unacceptable drives in an acceptable way, in this way using a

large amount of the energy from the repressed desires

Answer the following multiple-choice question:

QUESTION 18

Mr Bobbit has an unconscious desire to hit his wife and humiliate her emotionally. He

believes that other men have a desire to ill-treat their wives and he feels compelled to do

something about it. He launches an organisation called ``Free women from wife beaters'' and

demonstrates publicly against wife abuse. What defence mechanisms does Mr Bobbit use, in

Freud's opinion?

(1) Reaction formation and sublimation.

(2) Displacement and sublimation.

(3) Projection and reaction formation.

(4) Rationalisation and projection.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 19

From the time that Mary got out of bed she has been extremely irritable and has screamed at

her husband, kicked the poor dog and shouted at her children for not tidying their rooms.

Later she complains that everyone at home is rude and aggressive towards her and that she

cannot help being aggressive herself. In terms of Freud's theory, which defence mechanism

is Mary using?

51 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 (1) Displacement.

(2) Reaction formation.

(3) Rationalisation.

(4) Projection.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 18 AND 19

The correct answer to Question 18 is projection and reaction formation (Alternative 3). The

correct answer to Question 19 is rationalisation (Alternative 3). If you got these questions

wrong, revise your summary of defence mechanisms to find out where you went wrong.

QUESTION 20

Write a paragraph on fixation and regression and explain their implications for a person's

spontaneous recovery.

HINTS FOR AND FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

Fixation and regression are both adequately described in MMV so it is unnecessary for me

to give you a full answer. However, make sure that your answer follows these guidelines:
KCABDEEF DNA STNIH

. Define fixation and regression.

. Explain why and when fixation and regression occur and refer to the role of anxiety and

frustration.

. Remember that fixation always occurs first and that regression follows later in life. A

person fixates at a stage when he or she experiences problems (e.g. the oral stage if a

mother weans her baby too soon). When this person experiences problems later in life

(e.g. at age 20), he or she will regress (in behaviour) to that stage at which he or she

was fixated (the oral stage) and display behaviour (e.g. smoking and drinking) that

belongs to the oral stage (just like suckling at the mother's breast). Remember that a

person can also become fixated in a stage that he/she experienced as ``too'' pleasant.

. What happens to psychic energy during fixation and regression?

. As far as spontaneous recovery is concerned, you should ask yourself whether a child

who experiences a problem at a specific stage will be able to solve that problem at a

later stage. (Naturally, spontaneous recovery is not possible in the case of either fixation

or regression.)

Will you be able to answer multiple-choice questions on fixation and regression?

Remember, there are many ways to ask a question!

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 52

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Do you remember Freud's steam engine model which implied that a person is driven by

energy? In answering Question 18 you probably explained that fixation occurs when too

much psychic energy is invested in objects from one particular stage of development,

instead of that energy being transferred to the next stage. Rychlak (1973) illustrates how

energy can be dammed up in the different stages of development, something like the way

each tributary from a stream forms its own small catch-dam. Each little dam represents a

point of fixation and the more water (energy) escapes from the main stream along this

route, the greater the chance that, at a later stage, there will be regression to that point of

fixation.
TNEMHCIRNE

However, unlike stagnant water, the accumulated energy is still fed by repressed desires

and needs in the unconscious.

In this amended form of Rychlak's diagram, the energy flow is shown as a stream of water

running down a slope. You will note that even when the development stages are

successfully negotiated, a degree of fixation occurs (A). However, when considerable

energy (water) is channelled off to the side, there is a high possibility that regression will

occur when severe frustration or tension (which can be seen as obstacles that slow down

the flow of water) is experienced (B). Fixation at earlier stages therefore means that less

energy is available for dealing with later stages and this increases the possibility of

regression.

Freud's theory is highly deterministic in orientation. It implies that people are, as it were,

victims of their own drives and of their particular circumstances, and have no choice

regarding the course of their own lives. What happened in the past influences people's

future behaviour and there is nothing that they can do about it. In other words, according

to Freud's theory, spontaneous recovery is impossible.

53 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 YTIVITCA DREAMS AND PARAPRAXES

Study the section in MMV that explains why people dream dreams and why we

sometimes have slips of the tongue.

Then answer Questions 21 and 22.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 21

Complete the following paragraph:

Up to now you have learned that energy and repressed desires persist and that these desires

try to penetrate the consciousness and exert pressure on the ego in order to be satisfied.

These repressed desires are very ``resourceful'' and wait for a person to go to sleep so that

they can use dreams

(1) as a vehicle to drive embarrassing feelings and thoughts from the conscious mind to

the unconscious.

(2) to emerge in the consciousness in disguise in order to attain a different form of

fulfilment.

(3) to punish the person for unconscious wishes and desires.

(4) as the golden highway to the subconscious mind.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

The answer that I expected from you here is:

... to emerge in the consciousness in disguise in order to attain a different form of fulfilment.
KCABDEEF

Alternative 2 is therefore correct.

Freud's view of the personality structure and dynamics along with the different levels of

consciousness are clearly illustrated by his interpretation of dreams and parapraxes.

Someone who hates his father might therefore dream that he has shot a wild animal.

Unconsciously he has shot his father, but consciously he has only shot an animal. However,

a single interpretation cannot be given for all the latent content, since many wishes might be

present in the same dream. A dream often serves as a starting point in the process of free

association (a therapeutic technique that is discussed in study unit 2.5) and this paves the

way to the unconscious, or, as Freud expresses it himself: Dreams are the ``royal road to the

unconscious''.

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Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 22

Complete the following paragraph:

If you hit your finger with a hammer and instead of an ordinary exclamation, by a slip of the

tongue say a swear word that sounds very similar, Freud would say that it is not coincidental

at all but that

(a) it was caused by unconscious desires and fears.

(b) it was caused by defence mechanisms.

(c) hurting yourself ``accidentally'' may be the result of guilt feelings about prohibited

desires that threaten to enter consciousness.

(d) it is therefore a type of self-punishment because you really wanted to say the rude

word!

The correct answer is:

(1) (a), (c) & (d)

(2) (a) & (d)

(3) (b) & (c)

(4) All of the above

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 22
KCABDEEF

The correct answer is Alternative 1. The paragraph should read as follows:

If you hit your finger with a hammer and instead of an ordinary exclamation, by a slip

of the tongue say a swear word that sounds very similar, Freud would say that it is not

coincidental at all but that ... it was caused by unconscious desires and fears, and

defence mechanisms. Hurting yourself ``accidentally'' may be the result of guilt feelings

about prohibited desires that threaten to enter consciousness. It is therefore a type of

self-punishment because you really wanted to say the rude word!

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

After studying study unit 2.3 you should understand the dynamics of human behaviour

according to Freud's theory. You should know the principle of energy transformation; know

how drives operate; what role the id, ego and superego play in drive satisfaction; and how

the ego reduces its anxiety by using defence mechanisms. Make sure that you understand

the defence mechanisms before you proceed to study unit 2.4 where defence mechanisms

play a very important role in the development of the person.

55 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 4.2 STUDY UNIT 2.4

This study unit introduces Freud's developmental theory in which he divides human

development into five stages. You also find out exactly where the id, ego and superego fit

into this plan of development. We establish what a person would be like who functions

optimally,
optimally from Freud's perspective of development. Finally we see what Freud has to say

about psychopathology.
psychopathology

When you have worked through study unit 2.4, you should

. know the different stages of development well and be able to answer multiple-choice

questions on them.

. know how the id, ego and superego develop in the different stages.
SEMOCTUO

. be able to indicate what role the defence mechanisms of displacement, identification,

fixation and regression play in development.

. be able to describe the Oedipus complex and explain how it can be resolved.

. be able to describe how an optimally functioning person would appear in terms of

Freud's theory.

. be able to answer multiple-choice and short questions about the causes of

psychopathology.

. be able to answer practical application questions on any aspect of Freud's

development theory.
YTIVITCA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

Study the different stages of development that Freud distinguished as discussed in

MMV, namely, the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages.

Answer Questions 23 to 29 based on the development of the personality.

QUESTION 23

Read the following paragraphs/statements on Freud's views on development, and fill in the

correct words/phrases.

In his personality theory, Freud concentrates mainly on the development of the sex drive,

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 56

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and therefore Freud's theory is often also called a (a) .................... theory. Freud

distinguishes the following stages of development: (b) .................................................... .

Each stage is characterised by a different source of sexual drive energy in the foreground.

The source of a drive refers to the (c) ................................................................................... .

So the main source of sexual drive energy in the oral stage is the (d) ...................................,

in the anal stage the (e) ....................................................... , in the phallic stage the

(f) ........................................................................................ , and in the genital stage the

(g) ................................................................................. . We can also refer to the oral, anal

and phallic phases collectively as the (h) .................... stage, which means that the sexual

development in this stage (i) .............................................................................................. .

During the child's development, the death drive also undergoes some important changes.

Initially, just after birth, the death drive is aimed at (j) ..........................................................

from age one it is aimed at (k) ......................................................................... such as

(l) ...................................................... and at six years the death drive contributes to the

development of the (m) .................................. .

The structure of the personality also undergoes important changes as the child grows older.

The id is inborn, while the ego and superego begin to develop by the (n) .................... year

of life. The superego is fully developed by the (o) .................... year, while the ego

(p) ........................................................... . The basis of the ego's development is dependent

on (q) ......................................................, while the superego's moral code is formed by

(r) ............................................................................... . Freud believes that the development

of the child is determined by physiological maturation as well as by the social environment.

Here the social environment refers to the role of the (s) ....................................................... .

Two defence mechanisms that play an important role in the normal development of the child,

according to Freud's theory, are (t) .................... and (u) .................... . Two defence

mechanisms that emerge as the child experiences problems in his or her development are

(v) .................... and (w) .................... .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 23

(a) psychosexual

(b) oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital

KCABDEEF

(c) body parts that are associated with a particular drive

(d) lips and mouth area

(e) anus and anal area

(f) genitals, such as the penis for a boy

(g) mouth, anus, phallus and sexual glands

(h) pregenital

(i) is not yet oriented toward procreation (pre = before)

57 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 (j) the child's own body

(k) external objects

(l) biting the mother's breast

(m) superego

(n) first
KCABDEEF

(o) sixth

(p) develops throughout the life cycle

(q) experience, knowledge and learning

(r) punishment and reward, particularly by the parents

(s) parents and particularly the mother

(t) displacement

(u) identification

(v) fixation

(w) regression

QUESTION 24

Explain briefly the development of the superego during the first three stages of development

according to Freud's theory.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 24

If you reproduced the development of the superego chronologically according to the first

three stages (as we asked), your answer should be systematic and complete. However, make

sure you included the following important points:

.
KCABDEEF

Oral stage. The superego begins to develop during the first year of life. Children learn

what behaviour is acceptable from their parents' punishment and rewards, in this way

incorporating society's rules within the superego.

. Anal stage. Toilet training and the way this is done by the parents plays a most

important role in teaching children society's rules. Parents' punishment and rewards

during toilet training are important.

. Phallic stage. Note the very important role of sexual identification in the final formation of

the superego. The boy, who identifies with his father and copies his behaviour, not only

adopts his father's characteristics but also society's moral codes as they are represented

by his father. Also note the father's contribution to an over- or underdeveloped superego,

and in what respect the superego differs in boys and girls, according to Freud. The

superego undergoes its final development during the phallic stage.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 58

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QUESTION 25

What role does the social environment play in the development of the child during the oral

and anal stages of Freud's theory?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 25

Many students have no idea what we mean by terms such as ``social environment'' or ``social

factors''. Social factors naturally refer to factors in the child's social environment, in other

words, influences from outside, and not from inside (intrapsychic or physiological).
KCABDEEF

Naturally, in a child's social environment, parents have the most important influence on their

development. In the oral stage, the way the mother copes with breast feeding is very

important, as is toilet training during the anal stage. Your prescribed book has a very good

section on the influence of the different ways in which a mother interacts with her baby.

Study this carefully. Also make sure that you understand the influence of the social

environment (or parents) during the other stages Ð particularly the phallic stage. In your

answer, indicate the role of parents in representing society's codes, handing out punishment

(or what children interpret as punishment), providing for children's needs, and as agents

who promote or inhibit development into the following stage. Also explain the influence of

social factors on the development or functioning of the three components of the child's

personality.

QUESTION 26

``Psychosexual development can be described as the history of an individual's

displacements.'' Discuss this statement with reference to early childhood, from Freud's

point of view.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 26
KCABDEEF

As you saw earlier, Freud regarded displacement as a normal and essential part of

development. When an object is no longer available for the satisfaction of drives (such as

the mother's breast in the oral stage), the baby must find a substitute (like a dummy) to

which the drive energy can be channelled. When it is no longer acceptable to have a dummy

in the mouth, the baby displaces the energy once more to another more acceptable object,

such as his or her thumb, until that too is no longer acceptable for society. Development

therefore becomes a history of displacements! Your answer should also refer to

displacements that children use in other stages of development.

QUESTION 27

Explain what the Oedipus complex is and how it can be ``resolved''.

59 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 KCABDEEF
FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 27

Use the information in MMV to discuss the whirlpool of prohibited sexual desire

experienced by a young boy, and the intense anxiety that accompanies these feelings.

Explain how he can use the defence mechanisms of repression and identification to resolve

the Oedipus complex.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 28

According to Freud, the Oedipus complex is resolved by

(a) coping with castration anxiety.

(b) identifying with the parent of the same sex.

(c) developing a social conscience.

(d) identifying with the parent of the opposite sex.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (b)

(2) (a), (b) & (d)

(3) (b) & (c)

(4) (a), (b) & (c)

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 28

The correct answer is naturally Alternative 4 or Statements (a), (b) and (c). The boy copes

with the Oedipus complex by identifying with his father which also helps reduce his

castration anxiety. The Oedipus complex emerges in the phallic stage, which is also the

period when the superego is in its final stages of formation and therefore it is correct to say

that the Oedipus complex is also associated with the development of a social conscience.

QUESTION 29

During the phallic stage, for the first time, the psychosexual development of boys and girls

proceeds along different lines. Explain how development differs for boys and girls during the

phallic stage.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 60

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 29

The difference between the psychosexual development of boys (Oedipus complex) and girls

(Electra complex) is covered in your prescribed book. Please study it well. Take particular

note of the role of identification for boys and girls.

POINT OF INTEREST (PARTICULARLY FOR OUR FEMALE STUDENTS)

Have you seen what Freud has to say about the female superego, which he maintains is not

as well developed as the male superego? It would seem, therefore, that Freud views

masculinity as superior to femininity. (Freud must have had a very strong death drive to

dream up something like that!) Freud's view of women as inferior would definitely not be

acceptable today and even in the twenties, a female psychoanalyst Karen Horney, rejected

various statements that Freud made concerning women.

Freud's theory should naturally be seen against the background of the social conditions of

the times in which he lived. The role of women was very different from what it is today as

new perceptions have gradually developed and women's liberation movements have been

launched, bringing about social change.

YTIVITCA

OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Study the section on optimal development in MMV before attempting Questions 30 to

32.

QUESTION 30

Explain Freud's view or profile of the ``ideal'' person.

First, here are a few general remarks on optimal functioning. The purpose of each person's

existence is surely to become the best possible person that he or she can be, in brief, to
STNIH

function optimally. Most of the theorists included in your studies for this year, give clear

descriptions of what they envisage as an ideally functioning person. I must add that you

should note that a theorist's profile of the ideal person cannot be seen in isolation from the

rest of that theorist's theory. In fact, it is directly related to the theorist's view of the person,

the structure and dynamics of the personality and the development of the individual. (Take

another look at the hat stand mind map.)

61 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 To return to Freud: He did not have much to say about optimal functioning, since he was

STNIH mainly interested in psychological disturbances and because, for him, there was no real

difference between healthy and psychologically disturbed people. However, keeping in mind

Freud's view of the person and his view of the structure and dynamics of the personality

(remember the eternal conflict that he saw underlying all this), it is not difficult to deduce

how Freud would envisage an optimally functioning person.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 30

You should have included the following points from Freud's theory in your answer:

.
KCABDEEF

The optimally functioning person is free from fixations and regression during the

pregenital stage.

. This person is successful in satisfying drives and ignoring feelings of guilt.

. The ego has certain strengths and skills such as being able to gauge reality effectively

and satisfy drives in socially acceptable ways.

. This means that the ego is successful in its use of defence mechanisms.

. This makes healthy interpersonal relationships possible and enables the person to fulfil

himself or herself at work.

. The superego is not unreasonably strict (overdeveloped).

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 31

In terms of Freud's theory, which one of the following persons has a ``genital character''?

(1) Jenny who is happily involved with Henry and enjoys her work as a film editor.

(2) Harold who is in the phallic phase and derives pleasure from playing with his genitals.

(3) Susan who loves dressing in sexy clothes and frequenting night clubs.

(4) Peter who has become fixated in the genital phase because his sexual drive energy was

not satisfied by sublimation.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 31

The correct answer is Jenny (Alternative 1). In terms of Freud's theory, the genital character

can be regarded as functioning optimally.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 62

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QUESTION 32

The ideally functioning person has a strong ego. What does this mean?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 32

You have already found all this information to answer Question 30. Always read our

questions very carefully. You can often reuse the same information, simply arranging it

differently, to answer a question that has a slightly different slant or emphasis.

YTIVITCA

PERSPECTIVE ON PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Study this section in MMV, keeping in mind Freud's basic points of departure (by now

you should be reasonably familiar with them).

Answer Question 33 which is a multiple-choice question and Question 34.

QUESTION 33

According to Freud, psychological disorders are

(a) caused by an imbalance in the structure of the personality.

(b) but an extreme, exaggerated form of normal behaviour.

(c) the result of societal practices not conducive to the actualisation of a person's

organismic potential.

(d) the result of an ego that cannot constructively deal with the conflict between the id and

the superego.

The correct answer is:

(1) All of the above

(2) (a), (b) & (d)

(3) (a), (c) & (d)

(4) (a) & (d)

63 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 33

The correct answer is Alternative 2. Statement (c) is wrong, because it clearly refers to

Rogers' theory.

QUESTION 34 (ENRICHMENT)

This is a question for your own enrichment. That means that we will not ask this type of

question in the examination. It simply provides some extra stimulation for students who are

particularly interested in the subject.

`'With reference to Freud's theory, one could say that symptoms are the means by which the

unconscious communicates with the environment.'' Discuss this statement critically.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 34

The functions of symptoms are so well covered in MMV that you should not have any

problems answering this question. (Do you remember Dora and her sore throat on p. 80 in

the prescribed book?)

Note that, according to Freud, when the ego is not strong enough to deal with conflict, this
KCABDEEF

causes an imbalance in the personality structure that can lead to malfunctioning (list the

three types of psychological disturbance that Freud distinguishes).

If we take into account that Freud's theory developed mainly from his work with neurotic

patients, it is obvious that he would place most emphasis on neurosis. Note Freud's

definition of a symptom and the definitive role that he ascribes to each component of the

personality (ego's inability to cope effectively with conflict situations, the superego that

punishes the ego and the id's drives that are satisfied symbolically). Also note the secondary

gain (satisfaction of drives) that is achieved through symptoms.

As far as psychosis is concerned, Freud believes that when the ego cannot cope with the

anxiety (defence mechanisms are ineffective) the person withdraws from reality. As regards

personality disturbances, Freud believes that fixation and regression lead to disturbed forms

of behaviour.
STNEMMOC
GNISOLC

By the time you have studied study unit 2.4 you should have mastered Freud's stages of

development. You should also be able to describe an optimally functioning person as well

as a person with psychopathology, according to Freud's theory.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 64

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5.2 STUDY UNIT 2.5

Study unit 2.5 explains the effect of Freud's theory on child rearing, education of children,

psychotherapy, measurement and research, and on interpreting and dealing with

aggression.
SEMOCTUO

After working through study unit 2.5, you should

. have an understanding of the applications of Freud's theory for child rearing and

psychotherapy.

. be able to explain the implications of Freud's theory for understanding and dealing

with aggression.

. be able to describe the role of Freud's theory in projective techniques.

FREUD'S THEORY IMPLICATIONS, APPLICATIONS AND

YTIVITCA

EVALUATION

Study the effect of Freud's theory on education, psychotherapy and research. Also study

the evaluation of the theory as presented in MMV.

Answer Questions 35 to 42.

QUESTION 35 (ENRICHMENT)

Is the following statement about the application of Freud's theory to child rearing true or

false? Substantiate your answer.

``Freud believes that the child's personality has already been formed by six years of age and,

therefore, his theory gives us clear guidelines for rearing the preschool child.''

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 35
KCABDEEF

Although it is true that Freud believed that the child's personality development is complete

by age six, the second part of the statement is not true. Therefore, the statement as a whole

cannot be accepted as true. Although it is clear from Freud's theory that upbringing should

focus on the development of a strong ego, but not an overly strong superego, there is still

ambiguity in the application of this theory to child rearing. Please study this argument in

your prescribed book where it is clearly set out.

65 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 QUESTION 36 (ENRICHMENT)

Freud once said the following about psychotherapy: ``Where id was, there shall ego be. It is

reclamation work, like the draining of the Zuider Zee.'' What exactly did Freud mean by this?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 36

According to Freud, psychotherapy can be compared to what the Netherlands managed to

accomplish with the Zuider Zee. What once was sea is now reclaimed land thanks to a

process of drainage. By analogy, within a psychoanalytical framework we can say that what

is hidden in the unconscious (what was the id) should be brought to consciousness or
KCABDEEF

exposed (become the ego). Psychotherapy therefore involves making the patient conscious

of the unconscious or, as MMV puts it, of the conflict between drives, moral demands and

the demands of external reality. This means that the causes of the patient's problems are

identified to enable him or her to cope better with conflicts and in this way to overcome his

or her problems.

According to this model of psychotherapy, the therapist has access to what is inaccessible to

the patient personally. Ultimately the objective of psychotherapy is therefore to bring into

existence (make conscious) something that does not exist for the patient (because it is

unconscious). Therefore, if a symptom (e.g. a phobia) is regarded as an expression of the

unconscious, the therapist will be able to contribute to the relief or removal of symptoms by

bringing what is unconscious to consciousness.

QUESTION 37

If psychotherapy is successful for a patient and certain unconscious content is made

conscious, does it mean that this patient no longer needs defence mechanisms?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 37

No, according to Freud, the psychologically healthy person is not without a need for defence

mechanisms. In fact, according to Freud, defence mechanisms are essential and the degree

to which defence mechanisms distort reality determines how successfully that person adapts

to a situation.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 66

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Maddi (1980) has the following to say about the objective of psychotherapy: Instead of

saying that the unconscious must be made conscious, it is more accurate to say that the

objective of psychotherapy is to replace functioning based on to the pleasure principle with

functioning based on the reality principle (compare the functions of the id and the ego and

think about our metaphor of the rider and the horse). Maddi (1980, p. 42) expresses this as

follows:
TNEMHCIRNE

The more successful psychosexual development has been, the more the person's

functioning is characterized by defenses that minimally distort instinctual reality, such

as sublimation. Developmental failing, produced by fixations (or haltings of growth)

are partially defined by the existence of grossly distortional defenses, such as

projection. But even the highest form of functioning ... is characterized by

defensiveness ...

The aim of psychotherapy would then be to replace defence mechanisms that severely distort

reality with other less defensive mechanisms.

When you study Rogers' theory later, you will find it useful to compare Freud's view of

defence mechanisms with Rogers' view.

QUESTION 38

Read through the following sketch of a hypothetical psychoanalytical therapy session

between Freud and his imaginary patient Karen. As you go along, fill in the missing words

or phrases.

In the first place, Freud wants to find out what is causing Karen's problem and he begins by

having her lie down on a sofa while he sits next to her. The reason for this is that Karen

(a) ........................................................................................................................................ .

In search for the causes of Karen's problem, Freud mainly makes use of

(b) ........................................................... and (c) ..................................................... . Using

free association Freud encourages Karen to (d) ...................................................................

with the aim of (e) ........................................................... . When Freud feels that Karen is

ready, (f) ............................................................... . However, it is not enough for Karen to

know where her problems originated. For therapy to be successful she must

(g) ........................................................ and (h) ...................................................... to deal

with her repressed memories.

One day Karen misses an appointment and when Freud confronts her she says that she

forgot. Freud knows that she is using the defence mechanism of (i) .................... which

means that this is a breakthrough because (j) .................................................................. .

One day Karen also begins to look prettier and flirts a little with Freud. He realises that he is

67 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 dealing with the therapeutic process of (k) .................... which means that (l) ....................

..................................................................................................................................................

This does not worry Freud at all because (m) .................................................................. .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 38

The answers you should have filled in are:

(a) can relax and concentrate on her subjective experiences without looking into Freud's eyes

(b) dream analysis

(c) free association

(d) tell everything that comes into her mind

KCABDEEF

(e) arriving at the unconscious factors that are causing the problems

(f) he explains and interprets her dreams or free associations

(g) emotionally work through

(h) learn more effective coping or defence mechanisms

(i) resistance

(j) unconscious elements are approaching consciousness while the ego offers strong

resistance

(k) transfer

(l) Karen transfers repressed feelings from her childhood onto Freud

(m) Karen is a very pretty girl. (Did I catch you out?) No, naturally the answer is that it does

not disturb Freud because Karen now relives the causes of her problems and can use

this opportunity to learn new, improved coping mechanisms.

QUESTION 39 (ENRICHMENT)

Freud's theory has given rise to the development of projective techniques that can be used in

measurement psychology. Do you think that projective techniques have any value? (In

particular, think of aspects such as validity and reliability which you encounter in

psychological measurement.)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 39
KCABDEEF

Not all psychologists prefer a psychoanalytical approach to therapy, but it is still generally

accepted that unconscious fears and conflicts affect behaviour. Therefore, projective

techniques may still have their place if one accepts that, in a projective test, people's

responses do give some indication of their personality profile and worldview. Aspects such

as reliability and construct validity are debatable, but projective tests remain a useful

diagnostic aid together with other instruments and evaluation techniques.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 68

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ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS FOR SOUTH AFRICA TODAY

Questions 40 to 42 are interesting questions on the application of Freud's theory to today's

world, which should make you think. Nevertheless, you will not be getting this type of

question in your examinations so I am leaving you to check the answers for yourself. You

may consult MMV to see what the authors have to say on this subject.

QUESTION 40 (ENRICHMENT)

Study the section in MMV on interpreting and dealing with aggression, and answer the

following question.

If Freud were alive today, to what do you think he would attribute the violence in South

Africa? Do you think Freud would have been able to find a solution for the violence?

QUESTION 41 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you think that Freud's theory and psychoanalytical therapy have any relevance for South

Africa today? Why do you think that?

QUESTION 42 (ENRICHMENT)

What points of criticism can you list against Freud's psychoanalytical theory?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 42
KCABDEEF

. Freud's theory does not stand up to proper testing because most of his concepts are too

broad and undefined.

. The theory is vague and does not give clear criteria that can be used to interpret

behaviour. Instead this is left to the subjective assessment of the psychoanalyist.

. This theory originated in the cultural and scientific climate of Europe between 1890 and

1930 and one wonders if it is still relevant in South Africa today.

69 The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud

 After you have worked through this chapter, you should understand Freud's psychoanalytical

theory. Do you understand why there are references to Freud's theory as a conflict theory?

Please make sure that you understand the following points before studying the next chapter.
NOISULCNOC NI

. Freud's theory in historical context.

. Freud's view of humankind/the person as well as the structural elements of the

personality.

. Freud's drive theory as well as the ego's reaction to anxiety.

. Defence mechanisms, dreams and parapraxes.

. The developmental stages as well as the related defence mechanisms such as

displacement, identification, fixation and regression.

. The optimally functioning person according to Freud's theory, as well as his views on

psychopathology.

REFERENCES

Engler, B. 1985. Personality theories: An introduction. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Hjelle, L. A., & Ziegler, D. J. (1987). Personality theories: Basic assumptions, research and

applications. London: McGraw-Hill.

Maddi, S. R. (1980). Personality theories: A comparative analysis. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Plug, C., Meyer, W. F., Louw, D. A., & Gouws L. A. (1986). Psigologiewoordeboek.

Johannesburg: Lexicon.

Rychlak, J. F. (1973). Introduction to personality and psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin.

The psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud 70

 PART
PART 3
3

BEHAVIOURAL AND LEARNING THEORY APPROACHES

CHAPTER 3: The social cognitive learning approach

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
3
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING APPROACH

Dr. Val Rapmund

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

73 The social cognitive learning approach

 Welcome to the social cognitive learning approach! Julian Rotter, Albert Bandura and

Walter Mischel are regarded as the three main contributors to the development of the

social cognitive learning approach. Social cognitive learning theory is an interactional

theory which focuses on the interaction between the person and the environment in

determining behaviour. The interactional perspective forms the cornerstone of social

cognitive learning theory Ð you will become acquainted with this perspective, and

more particularly Bandura's contribution, as you work your way through this chapter.

ORIENTATION

Have you ever had the disconcerting experience of being

praised for something that you did not deserve? Perhaps you

were praised by your lecturer for an excellent essay that you

had copied from your sister and which was therefore not a

reflection of your own work. You probably felt quite ashamed

of yourself and embarrassed about the incident, and vowed

never to do it again. This experience would have made you

question the radical behaviourist Skinner's assumption that behaviour will be repeated if

it is rewarded. It would certainly give you some basis for understanding a bit about the

social cognitive learning approach. This approach highlights the importance of a person's

cognitions and the fact that reinforcement is not an essential aspect of learning.

While Freud focused exclusively on factors within the person, Skinner focused on the

influence of the external environment and ignored what happens inside the person. Thus,

Skinner's theory stands in opposition to Freud's theory. Although Rotter,

Rotter Bandura and

Mischel also acknowledge the influence of the environment, they believe that what goes

on inside the person, in terms of this person's cognitions, is also very important for

human functioning. The social cognitive learning approach, which includes the

contributions of Rotter, Bandura and Mischel, focuses on the interaction between the

person and the environment in determining behaviour.

Before you begin with the activities, it would be a good idea to orient yourself to this

theory by reading through the introduction to the behavioural and learning theory

approaches in MMV, which provides the context for this theory.

The social cognitive learning approach 74

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This Chapter is based on Chapter 10 in MMV (2003).

STUDY UNIT 3.1

1.3

In this study unit you will become acquainted with Rotter,

Rotter Bandura and Mischel.
Mischel You will

find out why their theories are classified as behaviouristically oriented theories and how

they differ from behaviouristic theories. You will also become familiar with the

interactional point of view, and more specifically with reciprocal determinism, a concept

developed by Bandura.

After you have worked through study unit 3.1 you should
SEMOCTUO

be able to

. point out the similarities and differences between social cognitive learning theory and

the behaviouristically oriented theories.

. highlight the different aspects of personality functioning in terms of Rotter's,

Bandura's and Mischel's theories.

. answer questions on the interactional standpoint.

INTRODUCTION TO THE BEHAVIOURAL AND LEARNING

YTIVITCA

THEORY APPROACHES

In MMV, study the background in this chapter, as well as the view of the person

underlying the theory.

Answer Questions 1 to 6.

QUESTION 1

List the similarities and differences between social cognitive learning theory and the

behaviouristically oriented theories.

75 The social cognitive learning approach

 In this question we aim at pointing out which behaviourist premises social cognitive

learning theorists accepted and which they rejected. Important points with respect to

similarities are

(a) the origin of behaviour.

(b) the role of observable behaviour.

STNIH

(c) the role of environmental influences.

(d) research methodology.

Important points with respect to differences are

(a) the explanation of behaviour (2 points).

(b) the way in which behaviour is learned (2 points).

If you are not sure how to answer, please re-read the relevant sections in MMV.

As you progress and your understanding of this approach broadens, you may wish to add to

your list at a later stage.

Remember that many theorists contributed to the social cognitive learning approach,

but we are concentrating on the works of Julian Rotter, Walter Mischel and especially

Albert Bandura.

QUESTION 2

Sum up the approach of these theorists by writing a sentence or two about the main ideas of

each theorist.
STNIH

When answering this question you must take note of the areas of similarity and difference.

When you think of similarity you must look at the aspects that unite these theorists, whereas

difference requires you to look at which aspects each theorist has highlighted in the context

of the social cognitive learning approach.

The social cognitive learning approach 76

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 2

In agreement with the other social cognitive learning theorists, Rotter believes that behaviour

is primarily learned in interaction with other individuals, and that learners' expectations

regarding the outcome of their behaviour and the value they attach to the outcomes are more

important than the reward itself. He is regarded as the first exponent of the social cognitive

learning approach and his definition of and research on internal and external locus of control

make up his chief contribution to psychology.

KCABDEEF

Like Rotter, Bandura too believes that behaviour is learned and that individuals' expectations

regarding the outcome of their behaviour is important. However, he puts special emphasis

on observational learning, whereby behaviour is learned through imitation, and on self-

regulation. Furthermore, he believes that behaviour is the result of the interaction between

the person, the environment, and the person's behaviour. He expanded on this viewpoint,

calling it reciprocal determinism. He is regarded as having made the most important

contribution to social cognitive learning theory.

Mischel propagated the interactional approach. He believes that a person's characteristics

differ from situation to situation and therefore cannot predict behaviour. He also believes that

the situational characteristics cannot predict behaviour because people behave differently in

the same situation. It was on these grounds that he rejected the personistic and

situationalistic standpoints and proposed interactionalism. In his research he focused on the

role of expectations, similarly to Rotter and Bandura, and he emphasised the notion of self-

control in human behaviour Ð which is similar to Bandura's notion of self-regulation.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 3

According to the social cognitive learning approach, behaviour is the result of

(1) recognisable causes in the environment.

(2) a person's freedom to behave as he or she chooses.

(3) personal determinants.

(4) a person's freedom to determine his or her behaviour in interaction with the

environment.

77 The social cognitive learning approach

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 3
KCABDEEF

The correct answer to Question 3 is Alternative 4. Remember that the social cognitive

learning approach acknowledges the influence of both the person and the environment in

interaction, in determining behaviour. Alternatives 1, 2, and 3 are incorrect because each

one deals with only one aspect of what influences behaviour, and does not take their

interaction into account. Alternative 1 focuses on environmental determinants, whereas

Alternative 3 focuses on personal determinants of behaviour. Alternative 2 implies that a

person has unrestricted freedom to behave as he or she chooses, which is not strictly

correct, because the environment restricts individual behaviour to an extent.

QUESTION 4

Explain the interactional standpoint and provide an example to illustrate this view.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

The interactional standpoint is the essence of the view of the person held by the social

cognitive learning theorists. It maintains that behaviour is influenced by the interaction

between the person (including cognitive and other personal factors), the situation and the
KCABDEEF

person's behaviour which occurs within the context of that situation. For example Glen (the

person), who behaves in a docile, reserved manner in certain situations, loves soccer. He

attends a soccer match at the local stadium (the situation) and enjoys himself thoroughly,

cheering his home team loudly throughout the match (his behaviour occurs within a specific

situation). Glen is not a passive individual whose behaviour is simply determined by drives,

genetic determinants and the environment. He is an active participant in life and makes

choices regarding his leisure-time activities. Attending a soccer match in a big stadium

gives him the freedom to shout and cheer, something he would probably not be able to do in

the office environment. From the many alternative leisure-time activities available, he

selected soccer. He does not want to play soccer and the situation does not allow it. It is his

preference to be a spectator. As you can see from this explanation, Glen's behaviour is

influenced by the interaction of what he brings into the situation in terms of who he is, the

situation itself and the behaviour occurring in the context of that situation.

QUESTION 5

What contribution did Mischel make to the interactional standpoint?

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QUESTION 6

Discuss reciprocal determinism. Do you think it differs from the interactional standpoint? If

so, in what way(s) does it differ?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 5 AND 6

Mischel highlights specific points of the interactional viewpoint: he specifically highlights

the interaction of the contributions made by the characteristics of the person and the

environment in determining a person's behaviour in a specific situation. Bandura builds on

this view and extends it. Therefore Bandura's view does not differ as such from the

interactional standpoint.
STNEMMOC
GNISOLC

At this stage, you will know something about Rotter, Bandura and Mischel. You will also

understand why this theory is classified in a behaviouristic context and also how it differs

from behaviouristic theories. You will also be familiar with the interactional point of view,

and more specifically with reciprocal determinism.

STUDY UNIT 3.2

2.3

The structure and dynamics

dynamics of personality are the focus of this study unit. However, as

you will become aware, social cognitive learning theorists do not identify structural

concepts as such. They emphasise the dynamics of personality instead. You will gain an

understanding of what motivates people to behave in specific ways, and the person

variables used by each theorist to explain behaviour.

79 The social cognitive learning approach

 SEMOCTUO After you have worked through study unit 4.2 you should

be able to

. recognise the link between motivation and reciprocal determinism.

. understand locus of control (Rotter) and self-efficacy (Bandura).

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY: THE

SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING VIEW OF MOTIVATION

Page back to chapter 1 in MMV and read the sections which discuss the structure and
YTIVITCA

the dynamics of personality. Because the structural and dynamic elements of social

cognitive learning theory are interwoven, it is important that you familiarise yourself with

the meaning of structure and of dynamics.

Now study the section in MMV which discusses the structure of personality in social

cognitive learning theory.

Then read the whole of the section on the dynamics of personality; when you have

completed that, study the section which deals with the motivation of behaviour.

Answer Questions 7 and 8.

It is not really possible to delineate structural personality components in social cognitive

learning theory. The reason is that the personality is not conceptualised as being comprised

of parts; the emphasis is rather on the dynamics of personality.

Social cognitive learning theorists state that behaviour is the result of interaction between

the person, the situation and the behaviour. The person interacts with his or her

environment Ð which elicits certain behaviours, which then, in turn, influence further

interaction.

Although the person is the most important element in the reciprocal interaction ``triangle'',

even then social cognitive learning theory does not talk about structural personality

concepts, but rather about person variables (what the person brings into the situation) or

personality functions. These refer to processes and functions such as observation, planning,

control and evaluation. These person variables are themselves products of the history of

interaction between the person (including genetic make-up) and the environment.

The picture on page 81 is intended as a metaphor about behaviour which is the result of the

interaction between the person, the situation and the behaviour.

These people are running (the behaviour) the Comrades Marathon and have just entered the

stadium (the situation). They are confident that they have the ability to take part in such a

strenuous marathon. Furthermore they expect to receive a medal on completion of the race.

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81 The social cognitive learning approach

 Their self-efficacy (confidence in their ability to run the Comrades Marathon) and their

expectations refer to person variables. Each runner is a product of the history of interaction

between the person (including genetic make-up) and the environment. These runners have

probably trained extensively over the past six months and have completed numerous

marathons, giving them the confidence and expectation to succeed in the Comrades

Marathon.

HINTS FOR ANSWERING QUESTIONS 7 AND 8

STNIH

When answering Questions 7 and 8 which are multiple-choice questions, it is important to

go back and re-read the section in MMV which explains reciprocal determinism. Make sure

you understand how the ideas of motivation of behaviour correspond with the concept of

reciprocal determinism. Question 7 deals with motivation in general, whereas Question 8

deals with the specific aspects of motivation especially in terms of Bandura's theory.

QUESTION 7

According to social cognitive learning theorists, behaviour in general is motivated by

(1) sexual and aggressive drives.

(2) external stimuli.

(3) the interaction between the person and the environment.

(4) the striving for identity.

QUESTION 8

According to Bandura, behaviour is more specifically motivated by

(1) a person's expectations regarding the consequences of his or her behaviour and self-

evaluation.

(2) external rewards which are received directly following acceptable behaviour.

(3) intrapersonal drives which the person brings into the situation.

(4) the person's objective of transcending biological and environmental constraints.

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 7 AND 8

The correct answer to Question 7 is Alternative 3. Social cognitive learning theorists are of

the opinion that behaviour is the result of a continuous interaction between personal,

environmental and behavioural determinants.

KCABDEEF

In his discussion on the motivation of behaviour, Bandura again applies this principle. He

rejects the arguments that behaviour is caused only by internal needs, drives or unconscious

impulses. Bandura also finds attempts at explaining behaviour on the basis of environmental

influences too restricting. Behaviour is influenced by a complex interaction of cognitive

processes and the situation in which individuals find themselves. Behaviour is more

specifically influenced by individuals' expectations concerning the consequences of their

behaviour. These consequences do not include only the external consequences from the

environment, but also individuals' evaluations of their own behaviour. This ability of

individuals to regulate their own behaviour is also discussed by Mischel, who sees it in

terms of giving individuals control over their own behaviour. As in reciprocal determinism,

the motivation of behaviour is coupled with personal, environmental and behavioural factors.

The correct answer to Question 8 is therefore Alternative 1.

PERSON VARIABLES: THE FUNCTIONING OF THE PERSON

YTIVITCA

ACCORDING TO SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Read the section on person variables (the functioning of the person according to social

cognitive learning theory) in MMV. Study locus of control (Rotter) and self-efficacy

(Bandura).

Answer Questions 9 to 14.

QUESTION 9

Anne, a depressed women, believes that her life is controlled by circumstances beyond her

control and that she is powerless to bring about change. Anne evidences .............................

locus of control.

QUESTION 10

Thabo believes that he is able to make a difference in his life. Thabo has ......................

locus of control.

83 The social cognitive learning approach

 QUESTION 11

It is Miriam's belief that she has failed the Personology exam because the lecturers are

prejudiced towards her. Pamela, on the other hand, has also failed the examination, but feels

that she did not spend enough time preparing for the examination and that her answers were

too vague and not specific enough.

Miriam has .................. locus of control, whereas Pamela has ................... locus of control.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 9, 10 AND 11

One of Rotter's most important contributions to Psychology is the concept of locus of

KCABDEEF

control which is a generalised expectancy style. External locus of control refers to

individuals' expectations that their lives are controlled by circumstances beyond their control

and that they are powerless to bring about change. Internal locus of control refers to

individuals' expectations that they are able to influence their own lives Ð they believe that

they are able to control their own lives. The following are the correct answers:

Question 9 Ð an external locus of control

Question 10 Ð an internal locus of control

Question 11 Ð an external locus of control (Miriam); an internal locus of control (Pamela)

You may be wondering how a person develops a locus of control. An interesting explanation

that has been proposed by Sarason, Sarason and Pierce (1990) focuses on the importance

of the attachment experiences in childhood (see Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980, 1988). When

the early attachment experiences are favourable (i.e. when childhood is characterised by

secure attachment), the child feels safe to explore the environment, secure in the knowledge

of being able to return to the safety of the mother when there is a need to do so. This leads

to the development of cognitive and social coping skills, which in turn lead to feelings of
TNEMHCIRNE

personal effectiveness (self-efficacy), self-worth, and the capacity to develop relationships

because the person is now less anxious about being rejected. These perceptions lead to

feelings of control because the person believes that he or she is effective in influencing

events in his or her life. This then leads to task-focused rather than emotion-focused coping.

Such experiences also teach the child that people in his or her environment can be trusted to

provide support in times of need. The combination of these two factors (learning the

necessary skills and being able to trust others to meet your needs) teaches the child that he

or she is able to influence his or her environment and contributes to the development of an

internal locus of control which refers to ``an interrelated set of beliefs and expectancies about

(1) the individual's ability to perform behaviors leading to desired outcomes and (2) the

responsiveness of the environment to the individual's behavior and the need to maintain his

or her well-being'' (Sarason, Sarason & Pierce, 1990, p. 142). Those who have positive

early attachment experiences, will, as adults, be more proactive in seeking help, for example.

This is a direct result of their internal locus of control because it is their perception that help

will be forthcoming from those around them.

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QUESTION 12 (ENRICHMENT)

As children, young girls witness how their mothers relate to men, and how such behaviour is

socially rewarded. As adults, and especially within a heterosexual context, they perpetuate

this pattern of relating to men.

Using this example explain the symbolising, forethought, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-

reflective capabilities discussed by Bandura.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12

Your answer would probably look something like this:

The ability to symbolise reflects the capacity of these women to form cognitive

representations of how to behave towards men, especially in heterosexual relationships. It

therefore becomes possible for mothers to pass on to their daughters these culturally

prescribed roles.
KCABDEEF

The forethought capability refers to these women's capacity to be proactive in choosing how

to behave in their heterosexual relationships. They might also have the goal of pleasing their

partners by behaving in these socially sanctioned ways.

The vicarious capability refers to these women's ability to learn from their mothers (whose

behaviour was socially rewarded), how to behave in heterosexual relationships. It is highly

unlikely that these women would have learned this behaviour through trial and error.

The self-regulatory capability is seen in these women's desire to abide by their own

standards (which have been influenced by their culture) of what they regard as acceptable

heterosexual behaviour.

The self-reflective capability refers to these women's awareness of their ability to carry out

this pattern of behaviour effectively in their heterosexual relationships. They feel confident

that they will be able to reproduce their mothers' heterosexual behaviour.

QUESTION 13

Provide your own example to illustrate self-efficacy.

QUESTION 14

Provide your own example to illustrate low self-efficacy.

85 The social cognitive learning approach

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 13 AND 14

Bandura's concept of self-efficacy is a very important concept and it is essential that you

understand what it means. Many of our students incorrectly think that self-efficacy refers to a

person's ability to carry out a behaviour. However, self-efficacy is a perception and not an

ability. It refers to your confidence in yourself to carry out or elicit a behaviour. Bandura

(cited in DiClemente, 1992, p. 90) says the following about perceived self-efficacy:

Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with people's beliefs that they can exert control

over their motivation, behavior, and social environment. People's beliefs about their

capabilities affect what they choose to do, how much effort they mobilize, how long

they will persevere in the face of difficulties, and whether they engage in self-

debilitating or self-encouraging thought patterns. When lacking a sense of self-

KCABDEEF

efficacy, individuals do not manage situations effectively even though they know what

to do and possess the requisite skills. Self-inefficacious thinking creates discrepancies

between knowledge and self-protective action.

Here is an example of high self-efficacy:

Lerato is a classical ballerina and she is asked to dance the leading role in ``Sleeping

Beauty'', which she does very successfully. Lerato has the confidence in her skill as a

ballerina to perform at the State Theatre before huge crowds of ballet lovers. She chooses a

situation in which she can be successful. After her season at the State Theatre, she is invited

to join the Bolshoi ballet in Moscow. She has high self-efficacy. Her successful experience

at the State Theatre will probably lead to more successful experiences in Moscow.

Here is an example of low self-efficacy:

Sipho grew up in a family which made him feel unworthy of his family's love. He developed

low self-efficacy as a consequence of his experience (he had little confidence in himself as a

person worthy of love from others). When faced with stressful life circumstances, he has

little confidence (low self-efficacy) that those close to him will provide the support that he

needs. He therefore does not request help from others. His self-efficacy decreases, which

leads to more unsuccessful experiences.

STNEMMOC
GNISOLC

By now it should be clear to you that the social cognitive learning theorists believe human

functioning is the result of the interaction between the individual and the environment. You

should therefore understand their views on motivation. You should also know Rotter's

concept of locus of control and Bandura's concept of self-efficacy. You should be able to

identify these concepts in stories, or to provide your own examples.

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3.3 STUDY UNIT 3.3

In this study unit you will be introduced to three

hree different types of learning associated

with the social cognitive learning approach and the reinforcements that correspond with

each of the three types of learning. Bandura made the most important contribution in this

area and it is on his work that we concentrate.

After you have worked through study unit 3.3 you should

be able to
SEMOCTUO

. answer questions about the difference between the social cognitive learning approach

and the behaviouristically oriented views on learning.

. discuss the similarities and differences between learning through direct experience

and operant conditioning.

. explain observational learning.

. explain the factors influencing observational learning.

. discuss the role of self-regulation in learning.

LEARNING FROM THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING

APPROACH
YTIVITCA

Study the section on learning from the social cognitive learning approach in MMV. Note

the differences between the social cognitive learning approach and the behaviouristically

oriented views on learning. Thereafter study the diagrammatic representation of the

learning process.

Answer Question 15.

QUESTION 15

Fill in the missing word or words on the differences between the social cognitive learning

approach and the behaviouristically oriented views on learning.

While Skinner ascribes (a) ....................................................... role to the individual in the

learning process, the social cognitive learning theorists ascribe (b) ...................................

87 The social cognitive learning approach

 role. Skinner and the behaviourists acknowledge (c) ...........................................................

as the only form of learning, while the social cognitive learning theorists acknowledge three

forms of learning:

(d) ..........................................................................................................................................

(e) ..........................................................................................................................................

(f) ..........................................................................................................................................

Skinner acknowledges only one form of reinforcement/punishment, that is reinforcement/

punishment by (g) ................................................................ , whereas the social cognitive

learning theorists acknowledge three forms of reinforcement/punishment:

(h) ..........................................................................................................................................

(i) ..........................................................................................................................................

(j) ..........................................................................................................................................

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 15

Compare your answers to the answers below:

(a) a passive

(b) an active
KCABDEEF

(c) conditioning

(d) learning through direct experience

(e) observational learning

(f) self-regulation

(g) an external agent

(h) direct reinforcement/punishment

(i) vicarious reinforcement/punishment

(j) self-reinforcement/self-punishment (internal or external)

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The following diagram provides a summary of the three forms of learning, namely direct

learning, observational learning, and self-regulation. As you will notice from the diagram,

each form of learning has a corresponding form of reinforcement and punishment. Although

self-reinforcement and self-punishment are represented as peculiar to self-regulation, you

should note that self-reinforcement and self-punishment occur in all forms of learning.

During direct learning, for instance, we need to feel that we deserve the reward or

punishment administered from outside (therefore to reward or punish ourselves) before the

behaviour will be learned.

TNEMHCIRNE

89 The social cognitive learning approach

 YTIVITCA LEARNING THROUGH DIRECT EXPERIENCE

Study the section in MMV on learning through direct experience.

Answer Question 16.

QUESTION 16

Read the following story:

A teacher is handing out essays she has marked which were part of a homework assignment.

She is absolutely thrilled that Palesa received 85 percemt for her essay, because Palesa

rarely gets a mark above 70 percent.

Teacher: ``Palesa, this is an excellent essay. Well done! I am really proud of you!''

Palesa: ``Thank you, Mrs. Radebe.''

Palesa feels so ashamed on hearing Mrs. Radebe's praise because she copied this essay

from her sister who did the course last year.

In terms of Bandura's theory, learning through direct experience shows certain similarities

with, but also differs from, operant conditioning. What does the above story tell you about

these similarities and differences?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 16

You should mention the following points in your answer.

Similarities:

. In direct learning, behaviour is directly rewarded or punished by the environment Ð

KCABDEEF

this also occurs in operant conditioning. In our story, Heidi is directly rewarded for her

essay by her teacher, the reinforcing agent.

Differences:

. Unlike the behaviourists, the social cognitive learning theorists do not regard direct

learning as the only form of learning. They acknowledge three forms of learning (see

diagram). In our story, two of the three forms of learning are clearly discernable Ð

direct learning and self-regulation.

. As opposed to Skinner who describes learning as the outcome of a reinforcement

process, the social cognitive learning theorists place far greater emphasis on cognitive

processes in learning. Rewards and punishments are evaluated by the person who

receives them, and the reward or punishment can therefore be accepted or rejected. This

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. aspect is not included in operant conditioning. In our story, it is doubtful whether Heidi

KCABDEEF would have accepted Mrs. Bean's praise since Heidi knew she had cheated by copying

her sister's essay.

. According to the social cognitive learning theorists, even in direct learning individuals

will evaluate their own behaviour and apply internal or external self-reinforcement and

internal or external self-punishment, independently of the reinforcement received from

the environment. Skinner does not recognise self-reinforcement and self-punishment in

operant conditioning. In our story, Heidi punished herself internally because she felt

ashamed of what she had done.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
YTIVITCA

Study the section in MMV on observational learning Ð make sure you understand the

various concepts and terms.

Answer Questions 17 to 20.

HINTS FOR STUDYING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

The following terms are used in this section and can be confusing:

. observational learning

. modelling

. models

. observers

. reinforcing agents
STNIH

. vicarious reinforcement

. vicarious punishment

. imitation

. counter-imitation

Explanations of these terms, based on an example, will now be given:

Pupils in Miss Prince's class see Bert being punished for not doing his homework. For

punishment Miss Prince decides that he should stay behind during break time and

clean the classroom. Rudy, however, has completed his homework and receives a

sweet from Miss Prince. As a result the other pupils decide rather to do their

homework because they like sweets more than spending break time cleaning the

classroom.

91 The social cognitive learning approach

 Here are the explanations:

observational learning This takes place when the behaviour of a person (called a learner

or an observer) changes as a result of this person observing the

behaviour of another person (called the model). In the example,

the other children (learners or observers) decide to do their

homework because they observe how Bert (the model) is

punished for not doing his homework, and Rudy (the model) is

rewarded for doing his homework.

modelling This is the behaviour of models. In this case the behaviour of

Rudy is his completing the homework and the behaviour of Bert is

his failing to do the homework.

models Here the models are Bert and Rudy. They are the individuals who

model the behaviour.

observers These are the persons who observe the models. In this instance

they are the other pupils who observe Rudy's and Bert's behaviour

and the consequences of their behaviour.

STNIH

reinforcing agent This is the person who rewards or punishes the model's

behaviour; in this case it is Miss Prince.

vicarious reinforcement In the example this is illustrated by the observers (pupils), who

observe how a model (Rudy) is rewarded for his behaviour.

vicarious punishment In the example this is illustrated by the observers (pupils)

observing how a model (Bert) is punished for his behaviour.

imitation This occurs when observers repeat the behaviour of the model Ð

the pupils have decided to imitate Rudy's behaviour. The

behaviour of the observer is called imitation.

counter-imitation This takes place when observers display behaviour that differs

from that of the model. The pupils have decided rather to do their

homework (contrary to Bert's behaviour).

So you can see from the example that observational learning is not a one-way process Ð it

is a complex process which actively involves the individual. Look at the following schematic

representation of the steps of observational learning which explains clearly how

observational learning functions. You should note here that motivation is essential in all

steps.

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Attention Retention Reproduction

The observer is exposed to Imitation:

"
a model The observer copies the model's

behaviour spontaneously

If he attends The model's behaviour Counter-imitation:

" "
STNIH

well is acquired or The observer produces behaviour

retained different to that of the model

"
If he does not give The model's behaviour No imitation:

attention " is not acquired The observer does not imitate

the behaviour spontaneously

but is able to reproduce

it on request

The three steps of observational learning (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 1989, p. 229)

Now answer the following multiple-choice questions.

QUESTION 17

Zinzi attends a beauty contest in which her friend Bantle wins many prizes. Zinzi decides she

will also enter beauty contests in future. According to Bandura, which form of reinforcement

plays a role in Zinzi's case?

(1) Direct reinforcement.

(2) Self-reinforcement.

(3) Positive reinforcement.

(4) Vicarious reinforcement.

QUESTION 18

Counter-imitation occurs when the observer displays

(1) behaviour that differs from the observed model's behaviour.

(2) the same behaviour as the observed model's behaviour.

(3) no behaviour.

(4) behaviour that differs from the observed reinforcing agent's behaviour.

93 The social cognitive learning approach

 QUESTION 19

David sees Walter crying after Walter has been hit by Jerry. The teacher punishes Jerry and

David decides never to hit anybody. David's decision is an example of

(1) imitation.

(2) counter-imitation.

(3) modelling.

(4) reproduction.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 17 TO 19

In Question 17 Alternative 4 is correct. This is a typical example of vicarious reinforcement

in observational learning.
KCABDEEF

In Question 18 Alternative 1 is correct. In counter-imitation, the observer decides to display

different (sometimes opposite) behaviour to that of the model. Alternatives 2, 3 and 4 are

therefore incorrect. The observer imitates or counter-imitates the behaviour of the model Ð

not the behaviour of the reinforcing agent (Alternative 4), who is the person administering

the punishment or rewarding the model.

In Question 19 a practical example of counter-imitation is given, and Alternative 2 is

therefore correct. David observed Jerry being punished for hitting Walter. David is

vicariously punished and decides on the opposite behaviour of what he has observed. He

therefore does not imitate, or reproduce Jerry's behaviour.

QUESTION 20

Walter and Tom are watching the film ``Rambo''. They observe how Rambo, the hero of the

film and a karate expert, always achieves his objectives by means of violent actions. At the

end of the film, Rambo is presented as a hero and he receives a medal. Tom is very

impressed and Rambo becomes his hero. Tom decides to take up karate and learns to

defend himself. Walter, on the other hand, does not like either Rambo or his behaviour.

Walter decides not to be aggressive towards other people who do not agree with him,

because in his opinion it is better to talk to them about their disagreement.

Now fill in the spaces below:

According to Bandura, the type of learning illustrated in the beginning of the story is

(a) ................................................ . Bandura would call Rambo the (b) ................................,

Walter and Tom the (c) ..................., and the people who presented the medal to Rambo the

(d) ................................................. . Walter's decision to talk to his opponents rather than

use violence can be called (e) ............................................... of Rambo's behaviour, while

Tom (f) ..................... Rambo's behaviour. When people in the film present Rambo with a

edal, according to Bandura this would be (g) ..................................................... for Walter

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and Tom. According to Bandura, Walter and Tom will have to undergo three subprocesses

before learning can take place, namely (h) ............................., (i) ................................... and

(j) .................... .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

With this type of question, it is important to read the whole paragraph very carefully before

filling in the spaces. Check your answers against the following:

(a) observational learning

KCABDEEF

(b) model

(c) observers

(d) reinforcing agents

(e) counter-imitation

(f) imitates

(g) vicarious reinforcement

(h) attention

(i) retention

(j) reproduction

FACTORS INFLUENCING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

YTIVITCA

Study the section in MMV on the factors influencing observational learning.

Answer Question 21.

QUESTION 21

Read the following story carefully:

Simon and Sarah, who are both keen and enthusiastic tennis players, enjoy watching

the Wimbledon tennis championships on television. When the championships are

over, Simon's tennis coach notices that Simon, who is a very talented tennis player,

has changed his style of serving and is now trying to serve like Pete, the winner of the

championships. Pete's unique and powerful service impressed Wimbledon tennis fans,

especially Simon, and tennis critics attributed his success at Wimbledon to his style of

serving. When Simon actually manages to serve like Pete, he feels very pleased with

himself and treats himself to a milk shake after his tennis practice. Sarah, however,

95 The social cognitive learning approach

 does not seem to have been influenced by watching Pete's performance at Wimbledon

on television, and continues to serve the way she always has.

Now consider the following question:

Although Simon and Sarah both watch the tennis, they react differently afterwards. Only

Simon's behaviour changes. Which factors influencing observational learning could have

played a role in Simon's learning process? Discuss each of these factors separately.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

Your answer should read something like the following:

(1) The modelled behaviour. This refers to Pete's unique and powerful service which

attracts Simon's attention. It is a new, unknown, active and successful behaviour,

occurring in the context of Wimbledon, a prestigious tennis championship, and is a

behaviour that Simon feels he can imitate.

(2) The characteristics of the model. This refers to Pete's characteristics. Pete has high

status in Simon's eyes. He is someone Simon admires, someone he would like to

imitate. Simon identifies with Pete because they are of the same sex, they are both
KCABDEEF

interested in tennis and both have tennis talent.

(3) The characteristics of the observer. This refers to Simon's characteristics. He is

interested in tennis, talented and motivated to achieve. His interest in tennis guides

what behaviour he pays attention to, whether or not he will remember it; and, in

addition to his self-efficacy, his interest guides whether or not he will imitate the

behaviour. He feels confident that he too will benefit and be rewarded for imitating

Pete's service.

(4) The results of the model's behaviour. This refers to Pete's reward (winning the

Wimbledon tennis championship) which is observed by Simon, and to the impression

Pete made on the Wimbledon tennis fans and critics. Simon is more likely to imitate

behaviour that is rewarded than behaviour that is punished.

(5) Self-efficacy. This refers to Simon's confidence in his ability to reproduce Pete's

behaviour. Simon probably has high self-efficacy which makes him more motivated

and persistent in practising to master Pete's service. High self-efficacy therefore leads

to more successful experiences, which further increase Simon's self-efficacy.

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YTIVITCA SELF-REGULATION

Study the section in MMV on learning through self-regulation.

Answer Questions 22 and 23.

QUESTION 22

Discuss what Bandura (cited in Hjelle & Ziegler, 1986, p. 249) means by the following

statement, in terms of self-regulation:

Human actions are not at the mercy of external influences. Instead people possess

self-reactive capacities that allow them to exercise control over their own feelings,

thoughts, and actions Ð behavior is therefore regulated by the interplay of self-

generated and external sources of influence.

QUESTION 23

Give your own examples to distinguish between internal and external self-regulation.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 22 AND 23

In Question 22 you should make sure that you understand the quotation, and also

understand how this relates to self-regulation. You can start by briefly referring to reciprocal

determinism, which is the basis of the argument. You should then incorporate your

knowledge of self-regulation in the argument. Use your insight to answer this question.
KCABDEEF

In Question 23 you have to create your own examples to distinguish between internal and

external self-regulation. Here are my examples:

Mandla decides that he may go to the cinema once he has finished studying for a

coming test.

This is an example of external positive self-regulation (more particularly external self-

reinforcement) Ð Mandla provides himself with a concrete reward for his behaviour.

Mandla is unable to complete his studies before supper; he feels guilty and ashamed

about having wasted his time during the afternoon.

This is an example of internal negative self-regulation (more particularly internal self-

punishment) Ð Mandla provides a subjective evaluation of his own behaviour.

97 The social cognitive learning approach

 YTIVITCA OVERVIEW OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

Questions 24 to 32 are general questions to test your understanding of the learning

process. Revise the section on the learning process in MMV.

Then read the following story and answer Questions 24 to 32, which are multiple-choice

questions.

Mary, who is 12 years old, has always been interested in preparing meals. Every

Saturday she watches Henri, a renowned chef from France, give a cooking

demonstration on television. South African cooking enthusiasts are thrilled to watch

him demonstrate his cooking skills and after each programme he receives rave

reviews.

One day Henri cooks a delicious-looking chicken dish, and Mary, who is confident

about her cooking skills, decides to surprise her parents and make this dish. When

she is finished, it looks as delicious as the dish Henri prepared. She feels proud of her

efforts and rewards herself by being the first one to sample the fare. Her parents are

impressed and eagerly tuck into the meal which they enjoy immensely. They rave

about her cooking talent. Thereafter, Mary frequently cooks the chicken dish for special

occasions.

QUESTION 24

Mary's learning that took place before she actually prepared the dish herself can be

described as

(1) direct learning.

(2) observational learning.

(3) self-regulation.

(4) operant conditioning.

QUESTION 25

According to Bandura, the type of reinforcement underlying Mary's learning at this stage is

(a) .............................................., which refers to (b) .............................................. .

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(1) (a) direct reinforcement

(b) the rave reviews that Henri receives for his cooking

(2) (a) vicarious reinforcement

(b) Mary's observation of the way that Henri is rewarded for his cooking

(3) (a) internal self-reinforcement

(b) the way that Henri inspires Mary by his demonstration of his cooking skills

(4) (a) external self-reinforcement

(b) her interest in preparing meals

QUESTION 26

According to Bandura, what characteristic(s) of the model could have played a role in the

learning process in this story?

(1) Mary's interest and talent in cooking.

(2) Henri's celebrity status and cooking expertise.

(3) The South African cooking enthusiasts' appreciation of Henri's cooking skills.

(4) Mary's parents' appreciation of the delicious-looking chicken dish.

QUESTION 27

According to Bandura, what characteristic(s) of the observer could have played a role in the

learning process in this story?

(1) Mary's interest and talent in cooking.

(2) Henri's celebrity status and cooking expertise.

(3) The South African cooking enthusiasts' appreciation of Henri's cooking skills.

(4) Mary's parents' appreciation of the delicious-looking chicken dish.

QUESTION 28

According to Bandura, which person or persons in this story, has/have a high self-efficacy?

(a) Mary who reproduces Henri's delicious-looking chicken dish.

(b) Henri who appears on TV to demonstrate his cooking skills.

(c) The South African cooking enthusiasts who watch Henri's show every Saturday.

(d) Mary's parents who eagerly tuck into the delicious-looking chicken dish.

99 The social cognitive learning approach

 The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (c)

(2) (a) & (b)

(3) (b), (c) & (d)

(4) All of the above.

QUESTION 29

According to Bandura, what type of learning took place when Mary decided to make the

delicious-looking chicken dish and she was rewarded by her parents' approval and by the

way the dish looked good to her?

(1) Direct learning.

(2) Observational learning.

(3) Self-regulation.

(4) Operant conditioning.

QUESTION 30

According to Bandura, the type of reinforcement underlying Mary's learning at this stage is

(a) ............................, which refers to (b) ................................. .

(1) (a) direct reinforcement

(b) her parents' approval and her experience of the appearance of the dish as

rewards

(2) (a) vicarious reinforcement

(b) Mary's observation of the way that Henri is rewarded for his cooking

(3) (a) internal self-reinforcement

(b) the way that Henri inspires Mary by his demonstration of his cooking skills

(4) (a) direct reinforcement

(b) the rave reviews that Henri receives for his cooking

QUESTION 31

According to Bandura's theory, when Mary feels proud of her efforts at producing the

delicious-looking chicken dish, and when she is the first one to sample the dish, she is

demonstrating ...................................... .

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(1) direct learning

(2) observational learning

(3) self-regulation

(4) operant conditioning

QUESTION 32

According to Bandura's theory, the type of reinforcement that takes place when Mary feels

proud of her efforts at producing the delicious-looking chicken dish, is (a) ..................., and

when she is the first one to sample the dish, it is (b) ........................................... .

(1) (a) direct reinforcement

(b) vicarious reinforcement

(2) (a) vicarious reinforcement

(b) direct reinforcement

(3) (a) internal self-reinforcement

(b) external self-reinforcement

(4) (a) external self-reinforcement

(b) internal self-reinforcement

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 24 TO 32

Check your answers against the following:

In Question 24, Alternative 2 is correct. The learning that took place before she actually

prepared the delicious-looking chicken dish is observational learning.

KCABDEEF

In Question 25, Alternative 2 is correct. Mary is vicariously rewarded. Mary (observer)

observes Henri (model) who is rewarded (rave reviews) for his behaviour (cooking).

In Question 26, Alternative 2 is correct. Henri is the model. He is admired by Mary as he is

someone she would be happy to imitate. He has high status as a chef. He is a celebrity and

highly competent, and both Henri and Mary share the same interest in cooking.

In Question 27, Alternative 1 is correct. Mary is the observer. She is interested in cooking,

talented and motivated to imitate Henri. Her interest in cooking guides what behaviour she

pays attention to, whether or not she will remember it; and, in addition to her self-efficacy,

her interest guides whether or not she will imitate the behaviour. She feels confident that she

too will benefit and be rewarded for imitating Henri.

101 The social cognitive learning approach

 In Question 28, Alternative 2 is correct. Both Henri and Mary demonstrate high self-efficacy.

Henri has chosen a situation in which he expects to succeed. He appears on TV to

demonstrate his cooking skills. Mary is confident of her ability to reproduce Henri's

delicious-looking chicken dish, which she does.

In Question 29, Alternative 1 is correct. The type of learning that took place when Mary

decided to make the delicious-looking chicken dish, and was rewarded by her parents'

approval and by the way the dish looked good to her, is direct learning. Mary prepared the

dish. Her parents reinforce her behaviour (cooking), and thereafter she frequently cooks the
KCABDEEF

dish. Mary is also rewarded by the dish which looks/tastes good to Mary.

In Question 30, Alternative 1 is correct. The type of reinforcement that corresponds to direct

learning is direct reinforcement. Mary's cooking is rewarded by her parents' (external agents)

approval which she accepts or interprets as a reward for her behaviour. Mary also

experiences the appearance of the dish as a reward.

In Question 31, Alternative 3 is correct. The learning that takes place when Mary feels proud

of her efforts at producing the delicious-looking chicken dish, and when she is the first one

to sample the dish, is self-regulation.

In Question 32, Alternative 3 is correct. The type of reinforcement that is taking place when

Mary feels proud of her efforts at producing the delicious-looking chicken dish is internal

self-reinforcement. The type of reinforcement that is taking place when she is the first one to

sample the dish, is external self-reinforcement.

STNEMMOC GNISOLC

At this stage you probably have a good understanding of the differences between the social

cognitive learning approach and the behaviouristically oriented views on learning, and also

understand the similarities and differences between learning through direct experience and

operant conditioning.

Direct learning, observational learning and self-regulation are probably also a lot clearer to

you and you are probably now able to understand them in the interactional context.

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4.3 STUDY UNIT 3.4

This study unit introduces you to the social cognitive learning approach on the

development of personality,
personality optimal development,
development and psychopathology.
psychopathology It also

discusses the implications and applications of the social cognitive learning approach

with reference to psychotherapy,

psychotherapy and looks at the interpretation and handling of

aggression.
aggression

After you have worked through study unit 3.4 you should
SEMOCTUO

be able to

. answer questions on the development of personality.

. comment on how ideal and psychopathological behaviour would be viewed from a

social cognitive learning perspective.

. understand the implications and applications of social cognitive learning theory for

psychotherapy, and the interpretation and handling of aggression.

YTIVITCA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Study the section in MMV on the development of personality.

Answer Questions 33 and 34.

QUESTION 33

Explain in one sentence how Bandura views the development of personality.

QUESTION 34 (ENRICHMENT)

How does Bandura's view of the development of personality differ from Freud's view?

103 The social cognitive learning approach

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 33 AND 34

This is the kind of explanation you may have given for Question 33:

Bandura regards development as a life-long process of change in the individual, which is the

result of continuous interaction between genetic and environmental factors and which
KCABDEEF

continuously produces new forms of behaviour.

If you want to evaluate your answer to Question 34, the enrichment question, you should

first consult MMV and the study guide to refresh your memory on Freud's view of the

development of personality. Then you should compare Bandura's view with Freud's view.

You should mention the following points:

(1) Freud identifies particular developmental stages, while Bandura does not.

(2) Freud does not regard development as a life-long process, while Bandura does.

(3) Bandura regards development as the continuous learning of new forms of behaviour,

while Freud focuses on the psychosexual crises in the developmental stages.

Can you think of other differences or similarities?

YTIVITCA

OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Study the section in MMV on optimal development.

Answer Questions 35 and 36.

QUESTION 35

Describe the optimally functioning person from the social cognitive learning perspective.

Unlike some of the other theorists discussed in this book, such as Maslow, Rogers and
TNIH

Frankl Ð to name but a few Ð social cognitive learning theory does not provide a list of

characteristics describing the optimally functioning person. The social cognitive learning

view on optimal functioning has to be deduced.

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Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 36

Which person functions optimally according to the social cognitive learning approach?

(a) Lebo has learned most of her behaviour through observational learning and she makes

a worthwhile contribution to life.

(b) Joe has a realistic self-efficacy perception and neither overestimates nor

underestimates his own abilities.

(c) Mapule lives a very satisfactory and happy life that involves tension reduction, drive

satisfaction, and homeostasis.

(d) Mary has an internal locus of control, a feature which is highly regarded as desirable in

her culture.

The correct answer is:

(1) Lebo.

(2) Joe.

(3) Joe, Mapule and Mary.

(4) Joe and Mary.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 35 AND 36

Your answer to Question 35 would probably read as follows:

Optimally functioning people, in a specific cultural context, are able to recognise not only
KCABDEEF

what behaviour is required for them to cope successfully in a situation but also whether it

meets their own standards. Optimally functioning people also have a realistic self-efficacy

perception.

In Question 36, Alternative 4 is correct. Both Joe (Statement (b)) and Mary (Statement (d))

function optimally according to the social cognitive learning perspective. (See feedback on

Question 35.) The information in Statement (a) is not correct in terms of the social cognitive

learning approach. Bandura spoke about three types of learning, not only observational

learning. The information contained in Statement (c) contains terminology that belongs to

Freud's theory and is therefore also incorrect in terms of the social cognitive learning

approach.

105 The social cognitive learning approach

 YTIVITCA VIEWS ON PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Study the section in MMV on the social cognitive learning theory's views of

psychopathology.

Answer Questions 37 to 39.

QUESTION 37

According to social cognitive learning theorists, pathological behaviour is the result

of .......................... .
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 37

According to social cognitive learning theorists, pathological behaviour is the result of

learning, and more specifically of observational learning whereby behaviour is learned

through the presence and influence of models.

QUESTION 38

Busi has been feeling very depressed since her divorce and feels completely responsible for

the failure of her marriage and for everything that has gone wrong in her life. She feels that

her situation is completely hopeless and that she can do nothing to improve things.

Consequently she just lies on her bed all day and makes no effort to get up.

Busi has developed the cognitive style of (a) ............................................................. . She

therefore has (b) .................................................. locus of control. She makes no effort to

change the situation which is an indication of her (c) ................................................ , and

she does not see that by self-regulating her behaviour by getting out of bed, she will feel

better because she will feel more in (d) ........................... of her life. Busi has an internal

(e) ........................................................................ style, she sees her situation as relatively

(f) ........................., and views her situation in a (g) .......................... way.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 38

Depression affects cognitions which lead to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.

Depressed people see themselves as ineffective in affecting outcomes (i.e. they have an

external locus of control), which confirms their belief that external forces control their lives.

They paradoxically accept responsibility for their ineffectiveness (i.e. they make internal

attributions for their ineffectiveness) and this has the result of immobilising them.

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Here are the answers to Question 38:

(a) helplessness
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(b) an external

(c) reduced motivation

(d) control

(e) attributional

(f) stable

(g) global

QUESTION 39

Patients in institutions sometimes experience serious distress. Such distress is the result of

patients having little personal control and freedom in their daily lives within the institution.

Some therapeutic programmes fail simply for this reason.

Use what you know about learned helplessness to

(a) define the behavioural style of the patients.

(b) discuss how this behavioural style can be changed.

To answer this question you should study the section on learned helplessness in MMV very

thoroughly. You should also think of what happens inside institutions. Patients' activities and

time are sometimes structured to such a degree that they have very little personal freedom to

pursue the activities of their choice at their own pace. Strict rules are often applied to make
STNIH

things easier for the staff Ð the result is that patients lose the will to make decisions about

their own lives. With this knowledge, you should think up ideas on how certain choices or

decisions can be left to the patients, and then prepare a programme based on these ideas. In

this way, the patients will again experience the feeling of being in control. You can start, for

instance, by allowing them to make minor choices or decisions, and as their self-efficacy

develops, so their freedom to make choices and take responsibility can be increased.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 39
KCABDEEF

(a) The behavioural style that characterises these patients is that of learned helplessness

and it occurs most frequently when people have little personal control over their

circumstances and environment.

(b) If the patients therefore regain a degree of personal control, the feelings of

helplessness can be reduced and eventually, when they have regained even more

personal control, the feelings may disappear. Try to think of ways in which patients

can be given more control Ð for instance letting them decide how to decorate their

rooms, or decide what activities to pursue.

107 The social cognitive learning approach

 YTIVITCA IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Study the section in MMV on implications and applications of the social cognitive

learning approach.

Answer Questions 40 to 49.

TNIH

According to the social cognitive learning approach, although the environment may be

manipulated, a person manipulating or regulating the environment does not have complete

control because individuals can regulate their own behaviour.

TEACHING AND EDUCATION

QUESTION 40 (ENRICHMENT)

Provide an example of how your child, or you yourself, has learnt through observational

learning.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 40

Listening to one's children as they play is often a sobering experience for a parent. You may

hear yourself repeated as your children talk to one another in their own way. They have

observed your way of speaking to others in some or other situation, and because they

perceived that the outcome of your behaviour achieved its goals, they repeat your

behaviour Ð often at great embarrassment to you as a parent!

POINT OF INTEREST

Bandura (1982) discusses research undertaken by Hackett and Betz regarding the way

females make career choices. Female career choice is restricted by females' beliefs that

females lack the ability to master the necessary skills which are required in male-dominated

occupations. Females believe that they will not do as well as males, whereas they express

greater self-efficacy for female-dominated occupations. However, according to Betz who

tested a group of males and females, there was actually no difference in the verbal and

quantitative abilities of the two groups. It seems that the lower the person's self-efficacy, the

narrower the range of career alternatives and the lower the degree of interest shown in them.

Furthermore, Hackett found that mathematical self-efficacy was influenced by sex, sex role

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socialisation and high school preparation. Bandura (1982, p. 136) says the following:

``Societal practices require of women a robust sense of self-efficacy not only to enter careers

dominated by men, but to fulfil the heavy demands arising from dual workloads of career

and household.''

Do you believe that Bandura's comment is relevant in today's world?

PSYCHOTHERAPY

QUESTION 41

What is the aim of social cognitive learning therapy?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 41

The basic aim of social cognitive learning therapy is to improve the client's functioning in

the type of situation that the client finds problematic. This could involve teaching the client

more effective cognitive styles, and improving the client's self-efficacy.

QUESTION 42

What are the advantages of the therapeutic techniques associated with this approach?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 42

These techniques are relatively brief: they do not take up much time and are therefore

economical. They are suitable for individuals as well as groups. They have the further

advantage that they can be used in conjunction with other techniques. Furthermore, lay

people can be trained to use them so that they can cope without the help of a therapist.

QUESTION 43

Discuss the different types of modelling and illustrate by providing examples.

109 The social cognitive learning approach

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 43

Modelling is the obvious form of therapy for social cognitive learning theorists, in which a

model demonstrates the desired behaviour to the client. For example a model could be

taught how to bath and care for her baby. In this example the model is playing the role of

someone who is learning the behaviour. This form of modelling is more effective than

normal modelling because the learner is able to identify with the model who is also a learner

and is able to gain information about the different steps required to learn the behaviour.

Modelling can also be used in conjunction with systematic desensitisation. Take the

example of say John, who has a fear of snakes. John will (hopefully!) lose his fear by

observing a model, say Ann, gradually lose her fear of snakes through systematic
KCABDEEF

desensitisation (by being exposed gradually to snakes). First Ann looks at a snake in a

vivarium through the glass, then later Ð when she no longer fears looking at the snake Ð

she handles a rubber snake, and eventually she touches the skin of a live snake when a

snake handler takes it out of its vivarium. Later she is able to hold the snake on her own for

a short while, and so on until she no longer fears snakes. We hope that in this way the

anxiety-provoking situation will lose its hold on John, the observer.

A third form of modelling is participant modelling. This occurs when the client observes a

model performing the desired behavior and is encouraged to reproduce the behaviour for

which the client is rewarded. For example Jane suffers from an eating disorder and observes

Penny, who also suffers from an eating disorder, eating small portions of healthy food. Jane

is encouraged to imitate Penny's behaviour and when she does she is rewarded. She is then

allowed to watch her favourite movie.

A fourth form of modelling is covert modelling. This occurs when the client imagines

someone else performing the desired behaviour. For example, a young business executive

who has to travel a lot suffers from a fear of flying. She is encouraged to imagine someone

else boarding an aircraft, sitting down without experiencing any anxiety and then flying to

her destination.

QUESTION 44

Describe stress inoculation.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 44

Stress inoculation is a technique in which clients are taught various ways of how to deal

with stress by a psychologist, which they can then practise on their own. This would involve

the cognitive restructuring of situations and the practice of correct breathing and relaxation

techniques.

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QUESTION 45

How is a person, say Betty, able to change her behaviour according to a ``contract''?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 45

Betty is able to change her behaviour according to the principles of self-regulation. She

draws up a ``contract'' (an agreement) with herself or with a friend whereby she will reward

herself or receive a reward from her friend for successful attempts at changed behaviour and

will punish herself or receive punishment from a friend for unsuccessful attempts.

QUESTION 46

Describe the cognitive therapy developed by Beck.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 46

This therapy was developed by Beck for the treatment of depression. It rests on the belief

that depression is caused by negative thinking and assumptions. The aim of this therapy is

to help clients recognise the relationship between their negative cognitions and their

depressed feelings, and to replace their distorted thinking with more realistic thinking.

See the point of interest below.

POINT OF INTEREST

On 23 June 1995 a seminar entitled ``Mood disorders: The depressive spectrum'' was

presented at Tara Hospital in Johannesburg. At Tara, a multifaceted approach is used in the

treatment of depression. The talk on the cognitive aspects of depression was presented by

Ms. Jackie Hull. The cognitive approach recognises the role that cognitive functioning plays

in depression and the maintenance of depression. Depression seems to affect cognitive

functioning negatively. Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, guilt, and low self-

esteem and self-criticism are frequently targeted by cognitive therapists. Some of the

cognitive processing distortions of depressed people are the following:

. Seeing things in black or white categories.

. Overgeneralising.

. Having a knack of picking out the negative and dwelling on it.

. Tending to discount positive experiences.

. Jumping to conclusions.

. Magnifying their weaknesses and downplaying their strengths.

111 The social cognitive learning approach

 . Drawing conclusions that their feelings reflect the way things really are.

. Thinking in terms of what they ``ought'' to do.

. Labelling and mislabelling.

. Blaming themselves for events for which they are not responsible.

Cognitive therapy is problem-oriented rather than emotion-focused, which seems to

exacerbate the condition of depression. Some of the interventions quoted are

(a) Scheduling activities. Being active allows patients to see themselves as more effective.

(b) Graded task assignment. This allows patients to experience success in whatever they

are doing.

(c) Mastery and pleasure therapy. Patients are required to mark activities that allow them

mastery with an ``M'' and to mark activities that give them pleasure with a ``P''. This

helps to remind them of the activities in which they are successful and those that give

them pleasure.

(d) Cognitive reappraisal. Here patients are taught to be aware of what they are thinking, to

recognise distorted thoughts, to substitute accurate for inaccurate cognitions, and to

obtain feedback to check whether these changes are in fact valid.

MEASUREMENT AND RESEARCH

QUESTION 47 (ENRICHMENT)

Discuss the differences between the traditional approach and the interactional approach to

psychological measurement.

QUESTION 48 (ENRICHMENT)

What is the result of this conflict in psychological measurement?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 47 AND 48

KCABDEEF

Question 47: The traditional psychometric approach rests on the assumptions that the

characteristics measured in a test are relatively consistent and are not situation-bound, and

that a person's score in a test can be used to predict behaviour across different situations.

On the other hand, according to the interactional approach, a person's score reflects the

interaction between the person's characteristics and the test situation, and therefore cannot

be used to predict behaviour across situations.

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Question 48: The result was that some psychologists completely rejected psychological tests

and instead used biographical information to predict behaviour. This conflict also led to the

development of a type of test called a situational test, which attempts to predict behaviour in
KCABDEEF

real or simulated situations. Researchers also preferred to use trained observers rather than

conventional tests in their research efforts. A further development was the development of

tests known as S-R inventories, in which the person-situation interaction is measured. The

result of this change in focus was researchers' awareness of the complexity of the problem

being researched. They have come to recognise that there is a multiplicity of internal and

external factors that can influence behaviour, and that these factors can influence one

another in virtually infinite ways. This has made it difficult to draw conclusions and make

definitive statements because behaviour can be explained in different ways.

POINT OF INTEREST

In his article in DiClemente (1992) Bandura provides a social cognitive approach on how to

prevent infection with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). This requires sexually active

people to self-regulate their own motivation and behaviour. They need to believe that they

can control their own sexual behaviour (high self-efficacy). Efforts merely to inform the

public about how HIV is transmitted (high-risk sexual and drug practices), and therefore

what precautions should be taken to avoid its spread, have largely proved ineffective.

Bandura believes that in order to alter sexual behaviour, people require not only reasons but

also ``the means, resources and social supports'' to manage their sexual relationships

effectively and consistently in the face of counteracting influences. People need skills as well

as self-efficacy ``to exercise personal control'' over sexual situations (Bandura in DiClemente,

1992, p. 90). Bandura concludes by bemoaning the fact that despite the benefits of

psychosocial approaches to behaviour change, negative attitudes impede the development of

psychosocial models. Psychosocial preventative programmes could be combined with

medical treatments. Because people do not always wish to give up their habits, whether

sexual or drug-related, their unhealthy behaviours could be replaced with safer behaviours.

INTERPRETATION AND HANDLING OF AGGRESSION

QUESTION 49

``The bombardment of violence on the television news has contributed to a rising crime rate

in our country.'' Discuss this statement in terms of social cognitive learning theory.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 49

When answering this question you should mention the following factors:

. The role of observational learning with regard to the presence and influence of models.

113 The social cognitive learning approach

 . Perceived rewards of violent behaviour.

KCABDEEF
. Increased status of models with a corresponding decrease in the status of reinforcing

agents (e.g. the police).

. Person variables, situational factors, and their interaction.

Can you think of any other relevant factors?

YTIVITCA

EVALUATION OF THE THEORY

Study the section in MMV on the evaluation of the theory.

Answer Question 50.

QUESTION 50 (ENRICHMENT)

Evaluate social cognitive learning theory.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 50

When answering this question you could mention, on the ``plus side'', the following

advantages: its important links with the behaviourist tradition, stating its basic assumptions;
KCABDEEF

its success in integrating behaviourism, Gestalt psychology, and cognitive psychology; the

voluminous research and its generally positive results; and its potential to be developed into

a conceptual system.

On the ``downside'', you could mention the following disadvantages: the difficulty of gaining

an overview because of the way social cognitive learning theorists use new terms for matters

that are well known, leading to overlapping concepts and confusion (e.g. the person

variables used by Rotter, Bandura and Mischel); the fact that this has had the effect of

masking the simple structures that underlie this approach; and finally, that all the related

points of view and supporting research have not been systematically summarised.

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Now that you have studied the chapter on social cognitive learning theory in MMV you

should be able to
NOISULCNOC NI

. describe social cognitive learning theory in a holistic way.

. discuss the context of social cognitive learning theory.

. explain how social cognitive learning theory differs from behaviourism.

. point out the contributions that Rotter, Bandura and Mischel have made to the social

cognitive learning approach.

. discuss the view of the person, the structure, dynamics, development of personality,

optimal functioning, views on psychopathology, and finally, the implications and

applications of the social cognitive learning approach.

. evaluate social cognitive learning theory.

REFERENCES

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist,

37(2), 122±147.

Bandura, A. (1992). A social cognitive approach to the exercise of control over AIDS

infection. In R. J. DiClemente (Ed.), Adolescents and Aids: A generation in jeopardy.

Newbury Park: Sage.

Hjelle, L. A., & Ziegler, D. J. (1986). Personality theories: Basic assumptions, research and

applications. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Hull, J. (1995). Addressing the cognitive aspects of depression. Paper presented at a one-

day seminar on ``Mood disorders: The depressive spectrum'', Tara Hospital,

Johannesburg.

Meyer, W. F., Moore, C., & Viljoen, H. G. (1989). Personality theories Ð from Freud to

Frankl. Johannesburg: Lexicon.

Meyer, W. F., Moore, C., & Viljoen, H. G. (2003.) Personology: From individual to

ecosystem. (3rd ed.). Johannesburg: Heinemann.

Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., & Pierce, G. R. (1990). Social support: The search for theory.

Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 133±147.

115 The social cognitive learning approach

 PART
PART 4
4

PERSON-ORIENTED APPROACHES

CHAPTER 4: The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

CHAPTER 5: The self concept theory of Carl Rogers theory

CHAPTER 6: The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
4
THE SELF-ACTUALISATION THEORY OF ABRAHAM MASLOW

Prof. Cora Moore and Dr. Teria Shantall

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

119 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 You will now take a look at human functioning through Maslow's eyes. He sees that

people have certain needs and that human functioning is aimed at fulfilling those

needs. According to Maslow, when a person's basic physiological needs and needs

for security, affiliation, love and self-esteem are fulfilled, that person can function on

the level of self-actualisation and realise his or her potential.

ORIENTATION

Maslow is regarded as the spiritual father and founder of the

``Third Force'' of the humanistic movement that originated in

America in 1955. Through this movement Maslow hoped to

contribute something to the mechanistic, urge driven individual

presented by behaviourists and psychoanalysts respectively. He

wanted to acknowledge the positive nature of the individual and

to restore the person as a worthy being.

Maslow's theory emphasises the satisfaction of needs and particularly the need for self-

actualisation according to which people strive to fulfil their potential. He also paid

specific attention to healthy functioning and provided detailed descriptions of the

characteristics he observed in a group of optimally functioning self-actualisers.

You will study Maslow's theory in four study units. In the first one you will focus on the

historical context of Maslow's theory and get to know him as a person. It also provides a

global overview of the theory. The second study unit concentrates on the view of the

person that forms the foundation of Maslow's theory and his presentation of the structure

and dynamics of human functioning. In the third study unit the emphasis is on the

development of the personality and that which is regarded as optimal or pathological

development respectively. The fourth study unit brings into focus the implications and

applications of Maslow's theory for business, education, psychotherapy, the practice of

religion, measurement and research, and understanding and dealing with aggression.

Finally we look at the evaluation of his theory.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 120

 PYC2601/1

This chapter is based on Chapter 11 in MMV (2008).

STUDY UNIT 4.1

In this study unit you will have the opportunity to place Maslow's perspectives in
1.4

historical context and to examine his theory in the light of the name he earned as

``spiritual father of humanism''. You will get to know Maslow as a person.

person You will also

have the opportunity to draw a mind map to help you form a picture of Maslow's theory

as a whole. A mind map also serves as a single-page summary that will come in handy

when you are preparing for the examination. Your mind map will provide stimuli to help

you recall the theory as a whole.

After working through study unit 4.1, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. place Maslow's theory in historical context.

. explain why Maslow's perspective may be described as a person-oriented approach

and, more specifically, as a humanistic approach.

. indicate how Abraham Maslow's personal experiences influenced his theory.

. summarise Maslow's theory in a single page in order to get a global impression of

the theory.
YTIVITCA

THE NATURE OF MASLOW'S THEORY IN HISTORICAL

CONTEXT

Read the introduction to the person-oriented approaches in MMV.

Answer Questions 1 to 3 which are multiple-choice questions.

QUESTION 1

Maslow's theory is classified as a person-oriented theory. In fact, it is just one of a variety of

views grouped within this movement. Which one of the following statements is correct

because it indicates an agreement between Maslow and one of the other person-oriented

theorists' viewpoints?

121 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 (1) Both Maslow's and Skinner's theories represent a holistic view because they study the

individual as a whole.

(2) Both Maslow's and Rogers' theories are holistic because they study the individual as an

integrated whole.

(3) Maslow's and Rogers' theories are of a phenomenological nature and therefore

emphasise the individual's subjective experience.

(4) Both Maslow's and Frankl's theories emphasise the existential approach which

maintains that one can overcome genetic and environmental limitations.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 1

Alternative 1 is incorrect because although Maslow has a holistic perspective, Skinner

focuses on environmental determinism only and therefore does not study the individual as a

whole.
KCABDEEF

Alternative 2 is correct because both Maslow and Rogers reject a dualistic view of the

person and do in fact study the individual as an integrated whole or a totality.

Alternative 3 is incorrect since Maslow does not emphasise subjective observation as such

in his theory. One could probably argue that the idea of an individual who observes reality in

a unique, subjective manner is implicit in Maslow's theory, but this idea is not emphasised

and therefore, since one always has to choose the most correct answer to multiple-choice

questions, Alternative 2 is the obvious choice. Rogers' theory clearly does have a strong

phenomenological character.

Alternative 4 is incorrect because the existential view, which emerges strongly in Frankl's

theory, is not the focus of Maslow's theory. Maslow actually emphasises the important role

played by the environment in the satisfaction of needs.

QUESTION 2

Which of the following philosophers' ideas are strongly represented in Maslow's theory?

(1) Francis Bacon.

(2) Â Descartes.
Rene

(3) È ren Kierkegaard.

So

(4) Jan Smuts.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 122

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 2

Of the three views, namely existentialism, phenomenology and holism, holistic ideas are

most strongly represented in Maslow's theory. Holism actually originated in reaction to

 Descartes, so
dualistic views such as those of the philosophers Francis Bacon and Rene

Alternatives 1 and 2 are therefore obviously wrong. The name È ren

So Kierkegaard is

associated with existentialism and does not feature very strongly in Maslow's theory Ð

therefore Alternative 3 is also wrong. Yes, Alternative 4 is correct because the South African

statesman General Jan Smuts was also a philosopher and was the first to use the term

``holism'' in the human sciences.

QUESTION 3

Maslow is a representative of the humanistic approach. Which one of the following

statements would he therefore not ascribe to?

In human functioning recognition should be given to

(1) reductionist principles according to which the individual as integrated whole is

explained on the basis of underlying elements.

(2) higher spiritual dimensions of the person, including creativity and emotions.

(3) the person as active participant in the realisation of potential and determining

behaviour.

(4) psychological health as a criterion for measuring functioning.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 3
KCABDEEF

Alternative 1 is the correct answer because it does not represent one of the characteristics of

the humanistic approach. The humanistic approach does study the individual as an

integrated whole, but conduct is not explained on the basis of particular underlying

elements. It is the psychoanalysts who explain behaviour in terms of underlying elements by

attributing behaviour to unconscious drives. All the other alternatives represent

characteristics that are associated with the humanistic approach.

Always make sure that you understand the meaning of difficult terms or words that you do

not understand before deciding whether an answer is correct or incorrect.

123 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 YTIVITCA ABRAHAM MASLOW AS PERSON

You now have sufficient knowledge to place Maslow's theory within its historical context

and you may therefore go on to study the background to Abraham Maslow's self-

actualisation theory in MMV. In this section you will get to know the person behind the

theory and will also see how his own life experiences influenced his view.

Now answer Questions 4 and 5 without taking another look at MMV.

QUESTION 4

Explain how

(a) the birth of Maslow's first child and

(b) the Second World War

influenced Maslow's view of the person.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

With regard to (a) the influence of the birth of his first child, you probably referred to the

following:

. Maslow departed from the behaviourist way of thinking.

. Maslow claimed that the baby itself had a mysterious potential and was not formed by

environmental factors alone.

KCABDEEF

The following quotation from Maslow (1965, pp. 90±91) further illustrates this idea:

Will is obvious; any baby absolutely insists on some things and absolutely refuses

other things, and even the most doctrinaire parent must yield and accept defeat.

Regarding (b) the influence of World War II on Maslow's thought, you could have referred to

the following:

. This demonstration of hate and aggression awoke in him the desire to expose all that is

constructive Ð the good Ð in people.

. It led him to study the healthy functioning of self-actualisers and to use this as a basis

for his theory.

. Maslow therefore believed that people's inherent goodness played an important role in

their functioning; that people are therefore not victim to environmental factors, but that

the person's own values and objectives play an important role. ``Good'' societies can

therefore only help to realise people's ``good'' potential.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 124

 PYC2601/1

KCABDEEF
By attributing only a minor role to environmental influences, Maslow therefore moved

away from behaviourism, and by emphasising the constructive or good nature of the

person rather than destructive drives, he departed from the psychoanalytical way of

thinking.

QUESTION 5 (ENRICHMENT)

This is a question for those of you who would like to do a little more thinking and test your

therapeutic insight.

Do you agree with the following statement? Substantiate your answer.

Maslow regained his own lost childhood in the joyful discovery of the person of his

own child (Shantall, 1996, p. 57).

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER AND A MIND MAP

YTIVITCA

It is important to get an overview of Maslow's theory before proceeding to study

specific sections. Explore the chapter on Abraham Maslow's self-actualisation theory

in MMV by reading the headings and one or two sentences below each one.

Then do Question 6.

QUESTION 6

Draw a mind map to provide an overview of the theory at a glance.

125 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 6

Have you really made your own one-page summary of the theory? Did you perhaps use

sketches or diagrams to help you?

The sketch or mind map provides a theoretical framework and as you continue to study the

theory, you should be able to add more detail to your original summary.

Below is an example of a mind map representing Maslow's theory. Some blank spaces have

been left so that later Ð when you study specific aspects of the theory Ð you can return

and fill in the missing information. Perhaps you would prefer to return to your own mind

map and add to that instead, when appropriate.

MIND MAP OF MASLOW'S THEORY

KCABDEEF

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 126

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STNEMMOC GNISOLC

Working through study unit 4.1 you must have formed some idea of how Maslow's theory

fits into the broad historical picture and how he has been influenced by certain philosophical

ideas. You have seen that Maslow's theory can be classified as a person-oriented theory and

that his theory is of a more specifically humanistic nature. You now also know a little more

about Maslow's life story and the way in which his experiences and conception of certain

experiences influenced his view of the person and ultimately also his theory as such. The

mind map should give you a global overview of the theory. In the next study unit, you will

study different aspects of this theory in more detail.

STUDY UNIT 4.2

In this study unit you will learn about the view of the person that forms the basis of
2.4

Maslow's theory. You will see how the humanistic principles on which his view of the

person is based, necessarily influenced his theory.

You will also learn about the structure and the dynamics
dynamics of
of the personality which Maslow

uses to explain human functioning. The important role that is attributed to the satisfaction

of needs will be explained under both structure and dynamics.

After working through study unit 4.2, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. explain the view of the person underlying the theory.

. discuss the hierarchy of needs and the way in which this influences human

functioning.

. distinguish between deficiency motives and growth motives.

. identify and define needs on different levels of the hierarchy of needs.

YTIVITCA

THE VIEW OF THE PERSON UNDERLYING THE THEORY

Study the section on the view of the person underlying the theory in MMV.

Answer Questions 7 and 8.

127 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 QUESTION 7

Turn to the illustration of the hierarchy of needs in MMV. Now think back to the description

of Maslow's view of the person that you have just read. Imagine that the person Maslow

described is busy climbing the ladder. What does he look like? Describe this person in the

space provided below.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 7
KCABDEEF

Your description is probably positive Ð a good looking man or woman full of potential and

keen to climb that ladder right to the very top. This person climbs purposefully upwards,

even when it requires effort and uses all the potential at his or her command. Sometimes the

person rests for a while on a rung before progressing to the next one. The whole person is

involved in the climb, not just his or her limbs or head.

If you are artistic, you might want to draw a picture of the person. Naturally, this would help

you to keep Maslow's view of the person in mind.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 8

Which one of the following aspects is not emphasised in Maslow's view of the person?

(1) The positive nature of the person.

(2) The desire for need satisfaction.

(3) The pursuit of self-actualisation.

(4) The search for relief of tension.

(5) The holistic nature of the person.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 8
KCABDEEF

Alternative 4 is the correct answer. Although Maslow admitted the role of tension reduction

in the satisfaction of needs, he did not emphasise the pursuit of relief of tension. Although

tension is reduced, for example, when the hunger drive is satisfied, the satisfaction of this

biological need really serves the ultimate pursuit of self-actualisation which, in fact, could

cause an increase in tension. You will understand this better when you have studied the

dynamics of the personality, but as a student you are probably well aware that the realisation

of one's potential (self-actualisation) is often accompanied by tension! According to Maslow

the self-actualisation tendency is the basic motive underlying all functioning and therefore,

the increase of tension is an integral part of our functioning.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 128

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KCABDEEF
The section on the view of the person in MMV should make it quite clear that Alternatives 1,

2, 3 and 5 all reflect aspects of Maslow's view of the person and therefore could not possibly

be correct answers.

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

YTIVITCA

Now that you have a good idea of the view of the person that forms the basis of the

theory, we can conduct a more detailed investigation of the structure and dynamics of the

personality as presented by Maslow.

Study the section on the structure and dynamics of the personality in MMV.

Answer Questions 9 to 12.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 9

Which one of the following statements is correct in the light of Maslow's view of the

hierarchy of needs?

(1) According to Maslow the need for self-actualisation is far more important than lower

level needs such as physiological needs.

(2) If needs on lower levels of the hierarchy are not fully satisfied, needs that are higher up

in the hierarchy will not make themselves felt.

(3) The need for affiliation and love demands satisfaction when physiological and security

needs have been satisfied.

(4) The need for self-actualisation is so dominant that it is satisfied to the detriment of the

satisfaction of other needs.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9

Alternative 1 is not correct because the satisfaction of needs that are lower in the hierarchy is

more vital than the satisfaction of self-actualisation needs. However, it is important to

remember that the lower level needs, although more urgent, ultimately serve the need for

self-actualisation. The satisfaction of the more urgent lower level needs ultimately makes it

possible for the person to arrive at self-actualisation.

129 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 Alternative 2 is not correct because lower level needs do not necessarily need complete

satisfaction before needs on higher levels of the hierarchy demand satisfaction. The person

simply needs the assurance that the lower level needs will be satisfied regularly.

Alternative 3 is correct. The need for affiliation and love is third in the need hierarchy, while
KCABDEEF

physiological and security needs respectively come first and second. The lower

physiological and security needs must therefore be fulfilled on a regular basis before

affiliation and love needs can demand satisfaction.

Alternative 4 is not correct. Maslow did not believe that people would pursue self-

actualisation at the expense of lower level needs. Allport was the one who supported this

view. For Maslow, martyrs who are prepared to die for an ideal or an ideology and artists

who create masterpieces in spite of great poverty are the exception rather than the rule. He

would probably have thought that they could have functioned even better still if their lower

level needs had been satisfied.

QUESTION 10

Explain the differences between deficiency motives and growth motives according to

Maslow's theory.

Always remember to read the question very carefully and make sure you know exactly what

is asked. In this case you should concentrate on the differences between deficiency motives

and growth motives. You are not asked to explain the similarities. Therefore, you should not

simply explain what deficiency motives and growth motives are, but you need to indicate

how they differ. Therefore, you could include sentences such as: ``While deficiency

motives ...................., growth motives are ....................'' or ``On one hand, deficiency
STNIH

motives are ...................., while growth motives (on the other hand) ....................'' or

``Deficiency motives refer to .................... However, growth motives refer to ....................''

You should read the whole section on the hierarchy of needs and not just the first paragraph.

The first paragraph indicates the essential differences between deficiency and growth

motives, but you will acquire deeper insight by reading the rest of the section and your

answer will reflect this increased understanding. For instance, you will be able to quote

specific examples to illustrate generalisations.

Try to answer the question without referring to MMV.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 130

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

You should have highlighted the following differences:

(1) Deficiency motives refer to the needs on the first four levels of the need hierarchy,

namely the physiological, security, affiliation and love needs as well as self-esteem
KCABDEEF

needs. In contrast to this, growth motives refer to the needs for self-actualisation that

are found on the highest level of the need hierarchy.

(2) Deficiency motives relate to the fulfilment of basic survival needs such as hunger,

thirst and the need for security, while growth motives are concerned with the

realisation of potential.

(3) Deficiency motives are directed toward the reduction of tension, while the fulfilment of

self-actualisation needs may even create tension.

(4) Deficiency motives involve the avoidance of unpleasant circumstances, while growth

motives, which are also known as metaneeds or B-values, focus on maximal growth and

are concerned with, for instance, needs for truth, justice, beauty, order and perfection.

QUESTION 11 (ENRICHMENT)

When you have studied Rogers' theory, think about the following: What similarities do you

notice between the ``need for self-esteem'' that Maslow talks about and Rogers' ideas about

``the need for positive regard''? How do these two views differ?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11
KCABDEEF

Yes, the similarity is remarkable. Both regard the need to be accepted by others and by the

self as basic human needs. Rogers actually puts most emphasis on the role this plays in

forming the person's self-concept, while Maslow sees it as one of the basic needs that

should be satisfied before the person can reach the self-actualisation level. This view of

Maslow does agree with Rogers' view since, according to Rogers, the person who is

unconditionally accepted and whose need for positive regard is therefore fulfilled, will have a

realistic self-concept and be able to realise his or her potential fully. In both cases, both the

environment and the person's subjective view of the self play important roles in the

fulfilment of the need for self-esteem.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 12

What type of needs does the following quotation from Maslow (1970, p. 37) refer to?

It is quite true that humans live by bread alone Ð when there is no bread.

131 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 (1) Physiological needs.

(2) Security needs.

(3) Needs for affiliation and love.

(4) Need for self-esteem.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12
KCABDEEF

A really interesting statement, not so? Yes, obviously Alternative 1 is correct because this

concerns unfulfilled physiological needs that are so dominant that, according to Maslow,

higher needs in the hierarchy cannot emerge.

Can you also give examples of needs on the other levels of this hierarchy?
STNEMMOC GNISOLC

In working through study unit 4.2 you have learned about the view of humankind on which

Maslow's theory is based. You probably imagined a picture of someone climbing a

ladder Ð on the way to the highest rung of self-actualisation. In studying the structure and

dynamics of the personality you made close contact with the hierarchy of needs. You have

learned about the deficiency motives that occur on the first four levels of this hierarchy and

the growth motives that are found at the self-actualisation level. You also became aware that

lower level needs must be satisfied first, before needs on the next level of the hierarchy make

themselves felt. In addition, specific examples of needs are discussed (physiological needs,

needs for security, affiliation and love as well as self-esteem and self-actualisation needs)

and you have seen how the satisfaction of these needs can influence human functioning.

STUDY UNIT 4.3

3.4

This study unit focuses on the development of the personality.

personality Maslow's definition of

optimal development is given special attention because Maslow was particularly

interested in characteristics that he identified in ``self-actualisers''. Finally, we look at

Maslow's perspective on psychopathology.

psychopathology

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 132

 PYC2601/1

When you have worked through study unit 4.3, you should

be able to
SEMOCTUO

. explain Maslow's view of development.

. give reasons why few people attain the ideal of self-actualisation according to

Maslow.

. explain Maslow's view of optimal development.

. describe the characteristics of self-actualisers.

. present Maslow's perspective on psychopathology.

YTIVITCA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

Study the section on the development of the personality in MMV.

Answer Questions 13 to 16.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 13

Which one of the following statements is true in the light of Maslow's view of development?

(1) People whose basic needs are regularly satisfied have developed in such a way that

their behaviour necessarily leads to the satisfaction of B-motives (``Being''-motives).

(2) The healthier a person's functioning is, the higher his or her level of development will

be and the more his or her behaviour is directed by growth motives.

(3) When a person has reached the developmental level of self-actualisation, it is unlikely

that he or she will also be motivated by deficiency motives.

(4) People who have advanced to a higher level of development and then regressed to a

lower level, will get stuck on that lower level.

133 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 13

Alternative 1 is incorrect because the satisfaction of lower level needs does not assure that

metaneeds will be satisfied automatically.

Alternative 2 is correct.
KCABDEEF

Alternative 3 is incorrect since even the most developed person is still motivated by lower

level needs. A self-actualiser still has to eat!

Alternative 4 is incorrect. According to Maslow, a self-actualiser can revert to a lower level of

functioning temporarily, but unlike Freud, Maslow maintains that it is always possible to

return to the higher level.

È ller, 1995, p. 207) puts it like this:

De Vos (cited in Mo

The different groups of needs constantly shift between the background and the

foreground. Thus a hungry, self-actualizing person's physiological needs will shift into

the foreground, and similarly, a person who has experienced physiological deprivation

for some time might be satisfied to such an extent that his higher order needs become

evident.

QUESTION 14

Which aspect of Maslow's theory draws most criticism? Explain why.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 14

Maslow's idea that lower-level needs must be satisfied first before higher level needs can
KCABDEEF

emerge, has attracted much criticism.

It implies that people whose basic needs are not satisfied cannot be motivated by growth

motives Ð an idea that is contradicted by numerous examples that we encounter in

everyday life. You could have mentioned these examples.

In addition, you could have referred to Maslow's own ideas which are mentioned in MMV

and which also serve as criticism of his own theory. It would appear that by making

exceptions he brought the general rules that he proposed in his theory under suspicion.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 134

 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 15

Walter, a child of a poor family, loved to draw and used whatever he could find to make little

works of art. When he was old enough to work, he did not try and get a well-paying job like

his brothers did but decided to do what he felt he was destined to be, namely, an artist.

Doing odd jobs, he spent most of his money to buy the paints and art materials he needed.

Even though he often went hungry, he took great delight in doing what he loved doing,

namely, to make works of art. According to Maslow's theory, this scenario

(1) is impossible since self-actualisation only becomes possible when deficiency needs

have been met.

(2) is very likely since self-actualisation is a stronger and more dominant need than the

deficiency needs.

(3) demonstrates the fact that higher needs may sometimes motivate behaviour even when

lower needs have not been gratified.

(4) is foreign to the humanistic school of thought.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 15

Alternative 3 is correct. Although as a general rule deficiency needs must be met before

higher needs will emerge, Maslow did concede that there can be exceptions to this rule,

another most important point for you to realise. Higher needs, like Walter's need to actualise

his potential to be an artist, do occasionally emerge, not after gratification, but rather after

forced or voluntary deprivation, as our story illustrates: Walter grew up in poverty, a

KCABDEEF

situation not of his own making but one which he was forced to endure. Yet, in his poverty

he gave expression to his artistic inclinations. When he was old enough to get a well-paying

job, he voluntarily chose to only do odd jobs so as to have enough time to spend on his art.

He spent most of his meagre income on art material, often going hungry, but did not mind

this as he loved to create works of art. The story illustrates that self-actualisation is

sometimes possible even if deficiency needs are not met. Alternative l is thus incorrect.

Alternative 2 is incorrect since it is not Maslow's contention that self-actualisation is

stronger and more dominant than the deficiency needs, despite the fact that it is sometimes

possible to forfeit the gratification of deficiency needs in order to realise the need for self-

actualisation. In other words, it takes supreme effort, a real sacrifice in going against nature

(against our urges to still our hunger, be safe, have love and esteem) in order to realise

some higher goal in our lives. That is why self-actualisation under difficult or depriving

circumstances is such an achievement! The recognition of this fact is not foreign to the

humanistic school of thought, making Alternative 4 incorrect.

QUESTION 16

Mention and briefly discuss the five reasons that Maslow gives for a lack of self-

actualisation.

135 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 16
KCABDEEF

I hope you answered this question without referring to your copy of MMV, because that

would prove whether you have truly assimilated this material. By not copying the answer

directly from the book you also force yourself to express the answer in your own words.

Would you agree that Maslow has given us quite a lot to think about? Do you also

sometimes suffer from the Jonah complex? But then, Maslow does also warn us that the

arrogance that is required for creativity should also be balanced with humility!
YTIVITCA

OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Study the section on optimal development in MMV, and read the section under the

heading ``Enrichment'' that appears below.

Answer Questions 17 to 19.

As you have already seen, depth psychologists often focus on malfunctioning persons in an

attempt to find out more about human nature, as opposed to behaviourists who study animal
TNEMHCIRNE

behaviour and then extend their findings to human behaviour. In contrast, Maslow held the

view that true human nature is revealed by optimally functioning self-actualisers and that

their behaviour should therefore serve as a basis for the study of human functioning.

Maslow's own words (cited in Shantall, 1996, p. 93) illustrate the strong standpoint he took

up on this issue as follows:

Ought a biological species be judged by its crippled, warped, only partly developed

specimens, or by examples that have been overdomesticated, caged and trained?

Surely the healthy or optimally developed person should be the target of psychological

study since only these people provide us with a picture of fully developed humanity!

QUESTION 17

Which of the 15 characteristics of the self-actualiser as described by Maslow (1970, p. 137),

does the following quotation relate to?

... feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being

simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before, the

feeling of ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with,

finally the conviction that something extremely important and valuable had happened,

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 136

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so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by

such experiences.

QUESTION 18

Which one (or more) of the 15 characteristics of the self-actualiser described by Maslow

(Shantall, 1996, p. 104) does the following quotation relate to?

To retain the uniqueness of their persons, they have to be autonomous, that is, ruled

by their own character rather than the rules of society. Prizing their freedom, they resist

yielding to type.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 17 AND 18

The quotation in Question 17 clearly relates to peak experiences. Have you ever had such
KCABDEEF

experiences?

The quotation in Question 18 is primarily concerned with resistance to enculturisation. For

self-actualisers, their own rules are more important than those of society. They put high

premium on their own uniqueness and autonomy although they might not deliberately rebel

against society's demands.

This quotation can in fact be related to the sixth characteristic that is mentioned in MMV,

namely autonomy: independence of culture and environment. These two characteristics

actually overlap to some extent.

QUESTION 19

In approximately 500 words, discuss the 15 characteristics that Maslow identified in self-

actualisers.

How on earth can one remember all 15 characteristics of self-actualisers? Some students
STNIH

write rhymes or invent stories; others use visual images; still others draw pictures or use

diagrams. I have made up a story for myself, filled with visual imagery. Perhaps you will find

it useful, although it might be better for you to think up your own memory aid for

remembering the information since we do not all learn in the same way. (The numbers in the

story are the same as those used for the characteristics where they are explained in MMV.)

137 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 Visualise a woman in a simple, full-length, white linen shift, walking across sand dunes

to the sea. Her long hair blows gently in the wind. (We sometimes see this type of image

in television advertisements.)

The simplicity and naturalness of the girl's appearance and the spontaneity (3) of her step

is clearly apparent. Her arms are folded across her chest as if she is hugging herself,

indicating that she accepts herself, others and her own human nature (2).

She suddenly bends to examine a small flower that is growing in the sand, accurately

observing (1) every detail. Then she begins to fill a bag with plant material and shells that

she collects, becoming totally absorbed in the task (4), because she wants to take what

she has found to a centre where the handicapped can use it to make various articles. She

sees a small group of people she knows sitting on the beach. They beckon her to

approach, but she walks quietly past Ð as if aloof and wanting to protect her privacy (5).

The people call out and indicate that they have a cooldrink for her, but she simply

smiles Ð as if she functions autonomously (6) and is not dependent on what they have

to offer. Suddenly she stops and watches with renewed appreciation (7) how the setting

sun lights up the clouds and sea in a festival of colour. For her this is a peak experience

(5) that takes on an almost mystic quality and fills her with excitement but also,

simultaneously, with a deep calm. She takes another look at the group of people on the

beach and wonders whether they also see this beauty Ð she therefore shows concern for

the community (9). Then her face lights up as she recognises a very good friend who has

an appointment with her. This woman is clearly quite a bit older than the girl and is from

a different culture (11 Ð democratic character structure). They greet each other with an

inner joy that indicates an exceptional interpersonal relationship (10). The girl is clearly

pleased to have achieved her goal, but also tells her friend how she enjoyed the walk

(12 Ð discrimination between means and ends). The two friends watch happily how a

small child entertains her mother with her antics in the shallows. They also laugh at

themselves when they are surprised by a wave (13 Ð philosophical, benevolent sense of

humour). The girl notices a plastic bottle wash up on the shore. She picks it up and looks

at it for a moment. Then she calls the child, plants the bottle in the sand and together they

begin to cover the bottle with wet sand. The girl exploits all her creativity (14) and to the

delight of the child, transforms the sandcastle into a wonderful doll. The child's mother

calls her to say they have to go because it is getting dark. The two friends stay quite a bit

longer. When they finally leave the girl takes the bottle with her and throws it into a

rubbish bin labelled ``Please keep the beach clean'' (15 Ð resistance to enculturalisa-

tion). She therefore does what she wants, but is also willing to obey certain rules of the

community.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 138

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 19

Did you manage to summarise the 15 points Ð to select the most relevant ideas for each

characteristic and express this in the specified number of words?

Here is a brief example of the way you might have illustrated the characteristic of creativity:

Self-actualisers show a particular type of creativity. This is not the type of creativity that

produced the masterpieces of Mozart and Rembrandt, but it represents an open type of

naivety that makes it possible for a shoemaker too to see the world accurately and to act

spontaneously, naturally and humanely.

VIEWS ON PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

We have now given particular attention to Maslow's view of optimal functioning,

YTIVITCA

particularly because he uses it as basic premise for his theory. Does Maslow have

anything to say about malfunctioning (psychopathology)? Let us take a look.

Read the section in MMV on views on psychopathology and the subsection on need

gratification and pathology. Also read the section that appears next in this study guide

under the heading ``Enrichment''.

Answer Questions 20 and 21.

È ller, 1995, p. 210) indicates the important role that the specific nature of
De Vos (cited in Mo

the actualisation tendency plays in the emergence of psychopathology. We quote:

TNEMHCIRNE

This inner, natural growth tendency of man is, according to Maslow (1965), not as

strong and overwhelming as the instincts of animals, but weak, delicate, subtle and

good. As a result of the fragility of the self-actualizing tendency, it is easily blocked

and suppressed by people's habits, environmental influences and incorrect attitudes. In

this respect Maslow (1965, p. 341) answered the question of psychopathology as

follows: ``What is bad or abnormal? Anything that frustrates or blocks or denies the

essential nature of man. What is psychopathological? Anything that disturbs or

frustrates or twists the course of self-actualization.''

QUESTION 20

Do you think that Maslow would have liked the heading ``Views on psychopathology'', which

is used in MMV? Substantiate your answer.

139 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

It is obviously just speculation, but Maslow would probably have preferred a heading such

as ``Limited functioning''.

QUESTION 21

Answer the question without looking at MMV again.

``According to Maslow, the satisfaction of basic needs plays a special role in determining the

level of development reached by the individual. If, therefore, both basic and metaneeds are

oversatiated, it is unlikely that the individual would then function in a pathological or stunted

manner.''

Is the above statement correct, incorrect, partly correct or partly incorrect? Provide reasons

for your answer.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

In the light of Maslow's theory the statement is partly correct and partly incorrect.

The reason for this is that the first part of the statement is correct in the sense that Maslow
KCABDEEF

did place a high premium on the fulfilment of basic needs by the environment and that this

influences the developmental level of the individual. However, the idea is incomplete

because it is important that not only basic needs are satisfied, but also metaneeds.

Otherwise, metapathology, such as feelings of worthlessness and lack of meaning, may be

encountered in the individual.

The second sentence is completely wrong since, according to Maslow, excessive fulfilment

of both basic and metaneeds is an unhealthy state of affairs. He believed that oversatiation

meant that people no longer appreciate the satisfaction of basic and/or metaneeds and it

becomes necessary for them to experience deprivation and even tragedy in order to

appreciate their blessings.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 140

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STNEMMOC GNISOLC

Working through study unit 4.3 you have learned all about Maslow's ideas on development.

Here, once again, the satisfaction of needs was central and the accent fell on optimal

development in particular and specifically on the characteristics of the self-actualiser. You

also learned about Maslow's view that ``limited functioning'' results from either deprivation or

oversaturation of basic and metaneeds.

STUDY UNIT 4.4

4.4

In this study unit we look at the implications and applications of Maslow's theory.

Specific attention is given to the practical implications of the theory for industry,

education, psychotherapy, the practice of religion, measurement and research, and in

interpreting and dealing with aggression. This is followed by a critical evaluation of the

theory.
theory

After working through study unit 4.4, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. identify and discuss the practical implications of Maslow's theory for industry,

education, psychotherapy, the practice of religion, measurement and research as well

as the interpretation and handling of aggression.

. apply the theory to practical, everyday functioning.

. critically evaluate the theory.

YTIVITCA

IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Study the section on implications and applications in MMV and also read the additional

material under the ``Enrichment'' heading in the study guide.

Then answer Questions 22 to 27.

141 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 With regard to psychotherapy it is important to remember that Maslow did not practise as a

therapist himself. Therefore he did not propose a unique therapeutic approach or specific

therapeutic techniques, but, as you saw in MMV, he did comment on the atmosphere that

should be created in the therapeutic context and on the role played by the therapist in this

process. According to Maslow (1970) it is important that the therapist acts as facilitator in

creating a therapeutic relationship in which the clients' basic needs for security, love and

regard will be met so that they can discover and realise their true potential.
TNEMHCIRNE

È ller, 1993) emphasises the fact that Maslow (1970) makes a distinction
De Vos (cited in Mo

between basic need therapy and insight therapy. Basic need therapy is aimed at meeting the

basic needs for security, affiliation, love and respect in the relatively healthy person. The

appropriate relationship for need therapy is similar to any good, healthy relationship, for

example those encountered in marriage, between parent and child and between friends.

Basic need therapy can therefore occur within the context of everyday relationships.

Insight therapy, however, concerns more deep-seated problems and requires specific input

from the therapist. Clients who need insight therapy are people whose basic needs have

been left unsatisfied to such an extent that they no longer believe that the environment can

or will meet their needs Ð that they are, consequently, too worthless to be cared about or

loved. The person is therefore caught up in low level needs that cannot be satisfied through

need therapy. This type of person must be helped to gain insight into their shortcomings and

guided toward the rediscovery of their value and potential within a professional therapeutic

relationship. They must, therefore, be put back on the road to self-actualisation.

QUESTION 22

Fill in the missing word/words.

According to Maslow's theory, when managing business enterprises it is not only necessary

to satisfy employees' basic needs, but also to take into account the ................................. of

the workers, such as ............................................................................................................ .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 22
KCABDEEF

You could have given any one of the following for your first answer:

. higher values/needs/motives

. metaneeds

. growth motives

. higher level needs

. B-values/-motives/-needs

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 142

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KCABDEEF
You could have given any of the following as your second answer:

. the pursuit of self-realisation/self-actualisation

. the need for affiliation/affection/regard/esteem

. the pursuit of truth/beauty/effectiveness/excellence/justice/perfection/order/harmony

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 23

Ben has been in the same job for the same company for most of his working life. He works

late hours, saves every possible cent of his income, and keeps telling his wife that she

should be grateful for the security he is providing for his family. She feels that his many

savings accounts and insurance policies do not make up for the little time he spends with

his family, his restlessness, impatience and constant complaints about the children's

``untidiness'' and about the ``lack of order'' in the home. According to Maslow's theory, which

of the following statements may be applicable to Ben's life?

(a) Ben has achieved the level of self-actualisation at the expense of the happiness of his

family.

(b) Ben has not successfully progressed to the level where he can express and receive

love, and bond in an intimate way.

(c) As a child, Ben's safety needs may have remained acutely unfulfilled, resulting in him

directing all his energies towards achieving security and stability in life.

(d) Ben has most probably never realised his true talents or become the kind of person he

could have been had he not been so excessively concerned with achieving security and

stability in his life.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a), (b) & (c)

(2) (b), (c) & (d)

(3) (a) & (b)

(4) (a) & (c)

143 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 23

Alternative 2 is correct. This question aims to illustrate what is so often a tragedy in our

lives, namely that the deprivation of basic needs can have devastating effects upon the later
KCABDEEF

course of our lives. In this story, Ben's pursuit of security and stability in his life is excessive

because his safety needs have not been fulfilled (Statement (c)). Still functioning on the level

where safety needs predominate, he would question the validity of love. Why was he not

given the security he needed? Can he fully trust people? These questions will prevent him

from fully progressing to the next level in the hierarchy, the level where affiliation and love

needs begin to predominate (Statement (b)). It follows, therefore, that Ben is not able to

realise his true talents or become the kind of person he otherwise could have been had his

safety needs been met (Statement (d)). Ben certainly has not reached the level of self-

actualisation, despite being successful at generating a good income, as the unhappiness he

causes his family testifies. Statement (a) is therefore incorrect, making Alternatives 1, 3 and

4 wrong.

QUESTION 24 (ENRICHMENT)

When you study implications and possibilities for the application of Maslow's theory for

education, you will probably realise that he saw many of the characteristics that he identified

in self-actualisers as the ideal characteristics that should be developed in learners.

Do you think that the course in Personology has made any contribution to your development

as a self-actualising, self-transcending person? If so, why? If not, why not?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 24

At this point it is appropriate for us to make some personal input: We wish to support

Maslow's idea that students need to be motivated by their own needs or, in other words, you

need to be intrinsically motivated because ultimately you are personally responsible for your

own learning process.

KCABDEEF

As far as the idea of self-evaluation is concerned: We fully support its value in the learning

process and for this reason this study guide provides ample opportunity for self-assessment.

However, we cannot completely agree with Maslow on the choice of criteria. If it were left

completely up to the learner to decide on the criteria, this would mean that we could not

provide any formal feedback on the answers and there could be no testing (such as

examinations). Up to now, unfortunately, people (and that includes students!) have not

proved themselves reliable enough for this type of external assessment to be dropped. We

still put high premium on academic standards Ð something that needs no apology. Not all

people develop into self-actualisers and not all people acquire academic degrees. Self-

actualisers are exceptional people and so are our graduandi!

We still hope that your study of Personology will prove to be a peak experience for you!

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 144

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QUESTION 25 (ENRICHMENT)

You might find this question thought-provoking if you have studied Frankl's theory. (I admit

that this is a really knotty problem and is, in fact, postgraduate material, but some of you

might already be interested in these complicated questions!)

Regarding the implications and application of Maslow's theory for the practice of religion:

Do you think that Maslow's reference to the trans-human dimension of functioning is related

to the existentialist view that meaning is ultimately found in something or someone greater

than the self?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 25

Here are a few quotations from Maslow's work that might help to direct your thoughts.

What we are witnessing is an expression of psychology, not a new ``ism'' that could

turn into an antipsychology or an antiscience. Existentialism is a push towards the

KCABDEEF

psychology of the fully evolved and authentic self and its ways of being (Maslow,

1965, p. 16).

When you open the door to value and to value experiences and peak or transcendent

experiences, a whole new level of possibilities is open to investigation (Maslow, 1972,

p. 5).

Self-actualizing people are, without one single exception, involved in a cause outside

their own skin, in something outside of themselves. All, in one way or another, devote

their lives to the search for what I have called the ``Being'' values, the ultimate values

which are intrinsic ... . In fact I would go so far as to claim that these B-Values are the

meaning of life for most people, but many people don't even recognize that they have

these metaneeds (Maslow, 1972, pp. 43±44).

Answer the following multiple-choice question on the implications and application of

Maslow's theory for measurement and research.

145 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 QUESTION 26 (ENRICHMENT)

Which one of the following statements best reflects Maslow's view on research?

(1) Maslow proposes a research approach in which a balance can be found between

objective evaluation methods and a subjective openness through which the researcher

becomes part of human experience.

(2) Maslow believes that mechanistic research techniques are the most appropriate method

of studying human functioning Ð just as the hammer is the right tool to knock in

nails.

(3) Maslow represents a research approach within which the ``Personal Orientation

Inventory (POI)'' is used to study the entire person.

(4) Maslow believes that elegant ``polished'' research techniques and apparatus lead to

meaningful, creative research.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 26

You probably did not find it difficult to identify Alternative 1 as the correct answer.

The following enrichment question is on the implications of Maslow's theory for interpreting

and dealing with aggression.

QUESTION 27 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you think that Maslow's theory has a contribution to make in finding ways to reduce

violence in South Africa? If so, how? If not, why not?

YTIVITCA

EVALUATION OF THE THEORY

Study the evaluation of Maslow's theory in MMV.

Answer the following enrichment questions, Questions 28 to 30.

The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow 146

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QUESTION 28 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you agree with this evaluation of Maslow's theory?

(Remember, you need not agree, as long as you can substantiate your viewpoint.)

Now that you have mastered Maslow's theory, you might like to think about its relevance for

your own functioning. These questions come from Hergenhahn (1990, p. 490).

QUESTION 29 (ENRICHMENT)

On which level of Maslow's need hierarchy are you functioning at present? Give reasons for

your answer.

QUESTION 30 (ENRICHMENT)

Evaluate your personality with reference to the 15 characteristics of a self-actualising person.

Indicate which of the characteristics you yourself possess (to whatever extent) and which

ones you do not possess. If you do not have all 15 characteristics, would you like to have

them? Explain your answer.

NOISULCNOC NI

After working through all four study units, you should have a good understanding of

Maslow's theory. You should also have some idea of its implications for functioning in

general and of its possibilities for application in different contexts. You should also have

some idea of the contribution that the theory makes to an understanding of human

functioning and be aware of its shortcomings.

REFERENCES

Hergenhahn, B. R. (1990). An introduction to theories of personality. (3rd ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Maslow, A. H. (1965). Towards a psychology of being. Princeton: N. J. Van Nostrand.

Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. (2nd ed.). New York: Harper.

Maslow, A. H. (1972). The farthest reaches of human nature. New York: Viking Press.

È ller, A. T. (1995). Perspectives on personality. Durban: Butterworths.

Mo

Shantall, H. M. (1996). A heuristic study of the meaning of suffering among holocaust

survivors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Africa, Pretoria.

147 The self-actualisation theory of Abraham Maslow

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
5
THE SELF CONCEPT THEORY OF CARL ROGERS

Prof. Cora Moore and Miss Patricia Oosthuizen

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

149 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE

Stand in front of a mirror and look at yourself. What do you see? How do you feel

about that person in the mirror Ð about yourself? Do you think that this view of

yourself will influence the way you function? If you do think so, you are in good

company, because you agree with one of the world's most respected psychologists:

Carl Rogers! If you feel that people's views of themselves will not influence their

behaviour, I am sure that Rogers would like to convince you of his theory.

Remember Ð whether you go overseas or decide to live on an island Ð the first

person you will meet is you, yourself, and together with you arrives your opinion of

yourself. Rogers emphasises the role that the self concept plays in human functioning

and therefore we refer to his theory as a self concept theory.

ORIENTATION

Take a look at the graphic at the beginning of this chapter in

the study guide. When did Carl Rogers live?

Yes, you are right, he died fairly recently. Which of his con-

temporaries also followed a person-oriented approach and

which followed other approaches?

Incidentally, Rogers was an American Ð perhaps it would interest you to discover which

theorists were working in America and which in Europe at that time.

In the introduction to the person-oriented approach, Rogers is described as one of the

followers of third force psychology or the humanistic approach.

The self concept theory of Carl Rogers 150

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This approach began to emerge in America from 1955, as a reaction to psychoanalysis

and behaviourism. Rogers had high regard for the person and for the person's

potential to develop constructively if shown regard and complete acceptance. He

therefore has absolutely nothing in common with the pessimistic psychoanalytical

perspectives that emphasise our destructive drives. Although Rogers respects

Skinner's radical behaviourist viewpoint which looks at the person from the outside,

Rogers prefers to view the person from the inside.

Like Maslow, Rogers emphasises the actualisation of the person's potential. However,

the idea that a person can pursue ideals that are, in a certain sense, ``bigger'' than the

self and that a person can surmount or rise above his or her circumstances, which is

evident in Frankl's person-oriented theory, is not accommodated by Rogers' theory.

This chapter is based on Chapter 12 in MMV (2008).

STUDY UNIT 5.1

In this study unit you have the opportunity to place Rogers' views in historical context Ð
1.5

particularly to see how his view of human functioning differs from the behaviourist and

psychoanalytical viewpoints. You will also learn about the school of thought that his

theory is associated with, and how episodes in his own life have impacted on his theory.

This study unit provides a global view of the theory as a whole, which you can then use

as a broad framework when studying specific parts of it.

By the time you have worked through study unit 5.1, you
SEMOCTUO

should be able to

. place Rogers' theory in historical context.

. explain why Rogers' viewpoint is classified as a person-oriented approach.

. explain the humanistic-phenomenological nature of Rogers' theory.

. discuss how Rogers' own life experiences influenced his theory.

151 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 YTIVITCA THE NATURE OF ROGERS' THEORY

Read the Introduction to Part 4 Ð Person-oriented approaches in MMV.

Answer Question 1.

QUESTION 1

In the light of the introduction, write a few sentences about what you expect from Rogers'

theory in general. How do you expect him to approach the functioning of the person?

Read the guidelines we have provided below before answering this question.

(1) In order to answer this question you must decide which broad approach Rogers' theory

belongs to.

(2) The next step is to find out which principles form the foundation of this approach. On
STNIH

the basis of these principles you will then be able to formulate certain expectations

about Rogers' theory.

(3) Remember that the golden rule is not to look for answers under specific headings, but

to read the whole section first in order to see how specific information fits into a

broader framework.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 1

You probably came to the conclusion that Rogers' theory is of a humanistic nature and that it

deals with phenomenological ideas. (Make quite sure that you understand the terms

humanistic and phenomenological.)

KCABDEEF

You can therefore expect Rogers to concentrate on the following in his theory:

(1) The role of the person's personal or subjective view of events.

(2) The person as a whole.

(3) The person as possessing human dignity.

(4) The inherent goodness of the person.

(5) The person as an active being.

(6) The psychologically healthy side of human functioning.

A sketch might show Rogers' view of the person as follows:

The self concept theory of Carl Rogers 152

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KCABDEEF

(You may prefer to make your own drawing. We all have different ways of learning and find

different aids helpful. Never underestimate the role of humour in helping us to remember

material!)

POINT OF INTEREST

In the photograph of Rogers at the beginning of the Background section in MMV (p. 363),

Rogers is wearing beads around his neck that were given to him by a sangoma when he

visited South Africa.

CARL ROGERS' SELF CONCEPT THEORY

YTIVITCA

You now have enough information to proceed with your reading of the background

section on Carl Rogers' self concept theory in MMV. Thereafter read the quotation below

and let Rogers himself explain why he continued to write even in his old age. Hopefully

this will introduce you to the man behind the theory.

Answer Questions 2 and 3.

Yet there is, I believe, a much more important reason for my writing. It seems that I am

still Ð inside Ð the shy boy who found communication very difficult in interpersonal

situations ...

Writing is the message I seal in the bottle and cast into the sea. My astonishment is that

people on an enormous number of beaches Ð psychological and geographical Ð have

153 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 found the bottles and discovered that the messages speak to them. So I continue to write

(Kirschenbaum & Henderson, 1990, p. 44).

Now answer the following questions without consulting MMV.

QUESTION 2

What forms the crux of Rogers' theory? Write it down in point form.

QUESTION 3

In what way did Rogers' own life experience influence his theory?

(Incidentally, do you think that the life experiences of other theorists also had some

influence on their theories?)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 2 AND 3

After answering the questions, use MMV to assess your answers. Use this opportunity to

add anything you may have left out.

Note that Questions 2 and 3 are merely content questions that you can answer by looking up
KCABDEEF

the facts in your prescribed book. It is extremely important to select relevant facts that are

directly related to the question.

For example, for Question 3 it would be relevant to refer to the way that Rogers' theory was

influenced by his life on the farm, the norms in his childhood home and his studies at

different tertiary institutions.

If it had been an examination question, the marker would have tried to establish whether you

really had answered what was asked. And also whether your presentation showed that you

truly understood the theory and could express your ideas clearly. While you will only get

multiple-choice questions in the exam, working out longer answers here will enhance your

understanding of the theory and prepare you for the depth and breadth of understanding that

multiple-choice questions require.

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER AND A MIND MAP

YTIVITCA

It is important to acquire some idea of Rogers' theory as a whole before you begin to

study specific parts of it. Therefore, skim through the chapter on Carl Rogers' theory in

MMV, reading the headings and only a couple of sentences under each one.

Answer Questions 4 and 5.

The self concept theory of Carl Rogers 154

 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 4

Draw a mind map that will summarise Rogers' theory for you at a glance.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

Have you actually drawn your own diagram? Remember that active involvement will enhance

your memorisation! Did you also use colour?

This diagram or mind map forms a framework for the theory and as you progress with your

studies, you will be able to add ``flesh'' to this skeleton as different aspects of the theory gain

richer meaning for you.

An example of a mind map representing Rogers' theory appears below.

KCABDEEF

155 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 QUESTION 5

What would you fill in for (a) and (b) on the mind map?
STNEMMOC GNISOLC

After working through study unit 7.1 you should have some idea of where Rogers' theory fits

into the general picture historically. You have seen that Rogers' theory can be classified as a

person-oriented theory and that the theory has a specific humanistic-phenomenological

nature. You have also learned a little more about Rogers as a person and learned how his

experiences influenced his theory. The mind map should have given you a more global

overview of the theory. In the following study unit, you will study different aspects of the

theory in more detail.

STUDY UNIT 5.2

In this study unit you will learn what forms the basis of Rogers' theory. You will see how
2.5

Rogers' positive view of the person necessarily influences his theory.

You will also learn about the ``components'' of the structure of personality that Rogers

proposes, as well as the ``operation'' or dynamics of the personality.

personality We place particular

emphasis on the important position that the self concept holds in both the structure and

the dynamics of the personality.

After working through study unit 5.2, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. explain the view of the person underlying the theory.

. explain Rogers' view of the self concept.

. describe how a condition of congruence or incongruence influences the actualisation

of potential.

. describe the important role Rogers ascribes to the self concept in determining human

functioning.

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YTIVITCA THE VIEW OF THE PERSON UNDERLYING THE THEORY

Study the section on the view of the person underlying the theory as presented in MMV.

Answer Questions 6 to 9.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 6

According to Rogers' view of the person

(a) people, just like plants, have a tendency to develop to the best that their potential

allows them to be.

(b) people's development, just like that of plants, is facilitated or hampered by the

environment in which they find themselves.

(c) people, unlike animals, can become aware of the world around them and assess their

experiences.

(d) people, unlike animals, have a particular opinion of themselves and act accordingly.

(1) (b) & (d)

(2) (a) & (b)

(3) (a), (b) & (d)

(4) (b), (c) & (d)

(5) All of the above.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 6

Statement (a) is correct because Rogers believes that people, like all living organisms, try to

develop their full potential. However, people are also limited by their potential, because they
KCABDEEF

cannot become more than their potential allows them to be. Rogers does not provide

information on the nature of this potential.

Statement (b) is correct if we understand ``environment'' in the full sense of the word. Note

that, according to Rogers, for people, it is mainly their social environment (the people in

their environment who matter to them) that facilitates or inhibits growth or, in other words,

promotes or handicaps their development. Whereas for plants, it is their physical

environment that affects growth. Note that synonyms are used for the words in MMV. You

must be able to understand what is meant by facilitate and hamper in order to answer the

question. Do not hesitate to use a dictionary!

157 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 Statement (c) is correct because this tendency for awareness of one's own world of

KCABDEEF experience and also specifically the evaluation of the self, is a dimension of functioning that

is uniquely human and is not found in plants and animals. Our ability to form an image or

concept of ourselves and to act in accordance with it represents a higher level of functioning

and plays a central role in Rogers' view of human functioning.

In the light of this, Statement (d) is obviously correct.

Statements (a), (b), (c) and (d) are therefore correct and therefore you should have chosen

Alternative 5.

QUESTION 7

Complete the following sentence:

As a proponent of the humanistic stream of thought, Rogers emphasises the active role that

the individual personally plays in ........................................................................................ .

QUESTION 8

According to Rogers, which tendency (apart from the tendency for actualisation of potential)

forms the basis of human functioning?

HINTS FOR ANSWERING QUESTIONS 7 AND 8

There were two approaches you could have used to answer Questions 7 and 8.

(1) You could have looked up the relevant sentences in MMV.

or

(2) You could have tried to answer the questions on the basis of your understanding of the
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subject after studying that section and then consulted MMV afterwards to see if your

answers were correct and comprehensive.

If you followed the first approach, you assumed that the examiner used the exact same words

as MMV. Therefore you might have done well in Question 7 but not so well in Question 8. You

should also always keep in mind that you will not have an open book exam for this subject and

therefore it is far better to answer questions using your own background knowledge first and

then to compare your answer with the information in MMV afterwards. Never forget that if you

become actively involved in the learning process and try to understand what it is all about for

yourself rather than simply memorising facts, this can only benefit your long-term memory and

afterwards you will find it far easier to express what you have learned in your own words.

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 7 AND 8

If you answered Question 7 from MMV, the only correct answer is

``actualising his or her own inherent potential''.

If you did in fact rely on your own knowledge of the material, you might have used different

words, for example

``fulfilling or actualising his or her potential''

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or you might have said something quite different such as

``determining his own behaviour''.

ALL THESE ALTERNATIVES ARE CORRECT .

You could have answered Question 8 in the following ways:

According to Rogers, apart from the tendency to actualise potential, the tendency to act in

accordance with the self concept forms the basis of human functioning.

or

According to Rogers, besides the tendency for the actualisation of potential, the tendency to

act according to the picture or image that the person has of himself or herself is central to

human functioning.

QUESTION 9

In a paragraph of no more than 200 words, explain the view of the person underlying Rogers'

theory.

159 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 To answer Question 9 you will need to use all the knowledge you have acquired so far on the

view of the person underlying Rogers' theory. However, you should carefully select only the

most relevant material and express it clearly and logically in no more than 200 words, as

specified in the question.

You can approach this in various ways. Some students like to make a list of the most
STNIH

important points. Others prefer to write down the main ideas in the form of a mind map.

Some find it easier to explain Rogers' view of the person to a friend or colleague (perhaps in

the form of a letter). Others find it more useful to use a diagram.

Whatever method you prefer, one thing appears to be true of all good writers and that is that

they never produce their final product at first attempt! If you took a look at an original

manuscript of any famous author, you would find that he or she had made numerous

changes before it was regarded as complete. Therefore you will have to produce a number of

rough drafts before you come up with your final answer.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9

If you used a diagram, you might have highlighted the following points:

Humanistic

person as a whole

active involvement
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environment merely facilitates or inhibits

Phenomenological

subjective evaluation

self concept

Tendency to be whatever you can be

Tendency to act in
in accordance with the self concept

Each of these points is then discussed in more detail and the answer could therefore be as

follows:

The view of the person underlying Rogers' theory can be described as humanistic-

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phenomenological. A humanistic viewpoint focuses on the person as a whole, maintaining

that he or she participates actively in his or her own functioning, while the environment

merely facilitates or inhibits this process.

According to Rogers, human functioning therefore depends on two tendencies, namely

(1) the tendency to realise all potential and therefore become the best that a person can

be. (This tendency is unique to all living beings and can therefore be seen in plants

which, just like people, still continue to grow even under adverse or difficult

circumstances.)

(2) the tendency to act in accordance with the self concept. (Unlike plants and animals,

people can become aware of their experiential world and therefore also form opinions

of themselves. This is known as the self concept.)

KCABDEEF

Rogers regards the ideal situation as one in which the person's true potential coincides with

his or her self concept. The person can then realise his or her true potential. If the potential

and self concept do not coincide, the person tends to act according to the self concept and

his or her true potential is not realised. In this way, someone who has the potential to be a

good sportsman but regards himself or herself as clumsy and passive, will not participate in

sport and therefore will not realise his or her talent.

Note the following in the answer:

(1) The relevant main points have been selected and the material has been logically

organised under each one.

(2) There is usually a movement from the more general to the more specific. Therefore, the

first sentence refers to the general humanistic-phenomenological nature of the view of

humankind which is followed by an explanation of what this really means.

(3) The sentences follow each other in logical succession.

(4) The material is not presented exactly as it appears in MMV.

(5) The student has used a correct, original example, which indicates that he or she

understands the work.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

YTIVITCA

Now that you have a good idea of the view of humankind underlying this theory, you may

take a look at what Rogers believes to be the elements that make up the personality.

Study the section on the structure of the personality in MMV.

Answer Questions 10 to 12.

161 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 QUESTION 10 (ENRICHMENT)

Which of Rogers' 19 statements/propositions are related to the structure of the personality?

Note that Rogers' 19 statements provide a general theoretical framework for his theory. It

could actually be quite overwhelming to try to memorise or even fully understand these
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statements right at the start. Therefore, at this stage it would be better simply to read through

the statements. As we discuss aspects of the theory you will find that we repeatedly return to

the relevant statements, even posing questions on them. This will help you to broaden your

understanding of each proposition. Note that your ability to apply your understanding of

these propositions will be examined at the end of this course, and not whether you can recall

the exact wording and number of a proposition.

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FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

Would you agree that the first five statements apparently indicate the structure of the

personality? Note that the statements present only an outline of the main ideas. We expand

on them considerably as we discuss the theory.

QUESTION 11

According to Rogers, what are the two main elements of the phenomenal field?
TNIH

Use the section in MMV on the phenomenal field, including the illustration, to formulate

your answer.
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FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11

Note that the phenomenal field includes the observation of objects and events external to the

person as well as internal experiences that are associated with the individual personally.

However, it is specifically the subjective meaning that the person attributes to objects, events

and experiences that is important. In contrast to this, the self concept only refers to those

experiences and meanings that relate to the individual personally.

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Answer the following multiple-choice question.

QUESTION 12

According to Rogers the self concept is

(1) unconscious and inaccessible to consciousness.

(2) fluid and changes constantly as a result of new experiences.

(3) relatively static by the time adolescence is reached.

(4) the individual's phenomenal field.

(5) basically the same as the Freudian concept of the superego.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12

Alternative 1 is obviously wrong, since the self concept represents the person's conscious

experiences regarding himself or herself.

Alternative 2 is correct and is confirmed by the example provided in MMV under the heading
KCABDEEF

``The self concept''.

Alternative 3 is wrong. It is actually important to note that changes in the self concept can

occur throughout life and that the self concept is therefore not formed at a particular time.

Alternative 4 is wrong. The self concept forms part of the phenomenal field but is not the

phenomenal field itself.

Alternative 5 is wrong. This alternative requires a higher level of argument from you,

because it involves comparison. Although there is considerable overlap between the super-

ego and the self concept Ð for instance, society's demands might be represented in

both Ð the idea of the self concept as the picture that a person has of himself or herself

cannot be associated with the superego.

163 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 YTIVITCA THE DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

You have now become familiar with the ``components'' (structure) of the personality and

can now go on to learn about the ``operation'' (dynamics) of the personality according to

Rogers' theory.

Study the section on the dynamics of personality in MMV.

Answer Questions 13 to 17.

QUESTION 13

What does Rogers (Kirschenbaum & Henderson, 1990, p. 350) illustrate with the following

metaphor?

I remember in my boyhood the potato bin in which we stored our winter supply of

potatoes was in the basement, several feet below a small basement window. The

conditions were unfavourable, but the potatoes would begin to sprout Ð pale white

sprouts, so unlike the healthy green shoots they sent up when planted in the soil in the

spring. But these sad, spindly sprouts would grow two or three feet in length as they

reached toward the distant light of the window. They were, in the bizarre, futile growth,

a sort of desperate expression of the directional tendency I have been describing.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 13

This quotation naturally concerns the tendency toward actualisation which, according to

Rogers, forms the basis of all functioning. (Incidentally, note that Statement 6 refers to this

basic tendency.)
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This metaphor illustrates how this tendency causes people (just like the potatoes) to

persevere in their attempts to become the best that they can be Ð to realise their potential.

It also illustrates that under favourable conditions, people stand a far better chance of

developing to their full potential, while unfavourable conditions lead to the development of a

distorted reflection of their true potential.

(After studying the following section on the development of the personality, you will be able

to add that Rogers regards unconditional acceptance as the favourable circumstances and

sees conditional acceptance as the unfavourable condition.)

Now try a multiple-choice question using the same material!

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QUESTION 14

Read the following metaphor from Rogers, quoted in Kirschenbaum and Henderson (1990,

p. 350) and then answer the following question.

I remember in my boyhood the potato bin in which we stored our winter supply of

potatoes was in the basement, several feet below a small basement window. The

conditions were unfavourable, but the potatoes would begin to sprout Ð pale white

sprouts, so unlike the healthy green shoots they sent up when planted in the soil in the

spring. But these sad, spindly sprouts would grow two or three feet in length as they

reached toward the distant light of the window. They were, in the bizarre, futile growth,

a sort of desperate expression of the directional tendency I have been describing.

Which of the following interpretations of this metaphor, in relation to Rogers' theory on the

dynamics of personality, are correct?

(a) This metaphor may be interpreted as illustrating the tendency towards actualisation,

which, according to Rogers, forms the basis of all functioning.

(b) This metaphor illustrates how people, just like the potatoes, will not strive for utmost

development of their potential when setbacks, like the unfavourable environmental

conditions in this quotation, befall them.

(c) This metaphor portrays the self-actualising tendency, as the potatoes demonstrate the

human tendency to expand or grow in order to become what they can be.

(d) This metaphor demonstrates that under favourable conditions, people stand a far better

chance of developing to their full potential, while unfavourable conditions may lead to

the development of a distorted reflection of their true potential.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a), (b) & (c)

(2) (b), (c) & (d)

(3) (a) & (d)

(4) (b) & (c)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 14
KCABDEEF

From this question you can see how it is possible to convert a paragraph question into a

multiple-choice question. From the feedback on Question 13 you will see that Statements (a)

and (d) are correct. Statement (b), however, is incorrect, as according to Rogers we all have

a natural tendency to grow, regardless of the setbacks that befall us. Statement (c) is also

incorrect, as it uses the explanation for the actualising tendency (i.e. the human tendency to

expand and grow in order to become what we can be) to explain the self-actualising

tendency. Make sure that you understand the difference between these two within the context

of Rogers' theory. Alternative 3 is therefore the correct answer to this question.

165 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 QUESTION 15

A particular child regards herself as someone who can make a success of anything that she

attempts. However, she has coordination problems and as a result her tennis coach

expresses doubts about her talent. However, when she enters a tennis tournament and does

badly, she attributes her poor performance to poor organisation during the tournament.

Would you say that this girl's functioning is congruent or incongruent? Substantiate your

argument by referring to Rogers' theory.

Please note that incongruence arises when the self concept does not coincide with the

person's true potential. It does not necessarily concern an incongruence between what the

person thinks of herself and what others think of her. What others think of her and expect of

her influences the development of her self concept and thus forms part of it. If someone

should for instance find that others only accept him if he appears emotionally strong, he will

assimilate that condition into his self concept. He will now see himself as emotionally strong

and will act accordingly. It is quite possible that one day he might start to cry, letting others

glimpse his true emotional nature. He will then try to distort the experience by saying that he

is not really an emotional type of person and that this only happened because he was not

feeling well. In such a case, what others think of him might not correspond with his view of

himself. However, it is also possible that the person might always appear convincingly
STNIH

strong and others might therefore never get to see his true emotional nature. In your

explanations of congruence and incongruence, therefore, you should concentrate on the

agreement or otherwise, between the self concept and true potential and not on the degree of

agreement between that which others think of the person and that which he thinks of himself.

Also note that a positive self concept does not necessarily indicate a congruent self concept

and that a negative self concept does not necessarily indicate an incongruent self concept. A

congruent self concept refers to a realistic self concept where the image that a person has of

himself or herself coincides with his or her true potential. A girl who does not regard herself

as musical and does not, in fact, have musical talent, has a realistic self concept and is thus

congruent Ð even though we could describe her view of herself as not being musical as a

negative view. On the other hand, a person may have a positive self-image that does not

match his or her true potential. Such a positive self concept is therefore unrealistic and

incongruent.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 15

Although the self concept of the person in the example could be regarded as positive (she

regards herself as someone who can make a success of everything), her functioning is

incongruent because the image she has of herself does not correspond to her true potential.

The girl will therefore have to defend herself against any experiences that might indicate

weakness, because they conflict with her self concept. She must therefore deny the

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experience or admit it to her consciousness in a distorted form. In this way, the girl in the

example, who simply has not got any talent for sport, can ascribe her poor tennis

performance to anything from the tennis racquet to the weather and still believe that she can

become a great tennis star.

A diagram representing the example in Question 15 appears below.

Diagram A indicates that the child grows

up in an atmosphere of conditional

acceptance. She feels that she will only

be accepted if she meets the conditions set

for her by significant others. In the example

she feels that she will only be accepted if

she is successful at everything she does. In

reality she experiences coordination prob-

lems. According to Rogers, this child, like

all people, has a tendency to actualise her

potential, but she also has a basic need for

positive regard or acceptance.

KCABDEEF

Diagram B shows how the child has

assimilated the conditions for acceptance

into her self concept. At present she sees

herself as someone who can make a

success of everything she does. This self

concept is incongruent with her true

organismic potential which indicates that

she has coordination problems.

167 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 Diagram C indicates that the child tends

to act according to her self concept and

therefore takes part in the tennis

tournament. Note that the action does

not coincide with her true potential

because her self concept and the

organismic potential are incongruent.

The basic need to be accepted is

therefore pursued at the expense of the

tendency for actualisation.

The child does badly in the tennis

tournament. This experience does not

correspond to her self concept.

Diagram D illustrates the use of defence

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mechanisms. The fact that the child

does badly in the tennis tournament

conflicts with her self concept that she

can be successful in everything she

does. She therefore distorts the expe-

rience so that she can maintain her self

concept. She now places blame for her

poor performance on the fact that the

tournament was badly organised so that

she can continue to believe that she can

succeed in everything she does.

As a result she might invest a great deal of her energy in sport and as a result will not realise

her true potential, whether that may be intellectual ability or musical talent.

It is important to note that, if the child had grown up in an atmosphere of unconditional

positive regard, she would not experience conditions for acceptance (conditions of worth).

She would therefore be able to admit that she had coordination problems, and would also

realise that she had academic skills and could sing well. She would therefore have a realistic

view of herself and therefore her self concept and organismic potential would be congruent.

The more congruent people are, the better they know themselves and the better they can

actualise their true potential.

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QUESTION 16

Write your own multiple-choice question on the story in Question 15. Make sure it includes

the story, a question on the story that is linked to Rogers' theory and four alternatives from

which to select the correct answer.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 16

There are no right or wrong answers to this question. Rather the aim is for you to begin to

think about the logic and structure of multiple-choice questions, as part of your preparation

for the examination. We could have formulated many different questions from the story and

what follows is only one possible example.

Thandi regards herself as someone who can make a success of anything that she attempts.

However, she has coordination problems and as a result her tennis coach expresses doubts

about her talent. However, when she enters a tennis tournament and does badly, she

attributes her poor performance to poor organisation during the tournament.

According to Rogers' theory, which one of the following statements about Thandi's

functioning is correct?

(1) Thandi is functioning incongruently, because her concept of herself as a successful

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tennis player does not coincide with her coach's opinion of her ability.

(2) Thandi is functioning congruently, because she holds a positive view of her abilities.

This belief in herself ensures that she always strives to fulfil her potential.

(3) Thandi is functioning incongruently, because her concept of herself as being

successful at anything she attempts does not fit with her true organismic potential,

which indicates that she has coordination problems.

(4) Thandi is functioning congruently; the incongruence exists between her experience of

a poorly organised tennis tournament and her belief that she can make a success of

anything she attempts, regardless of poor environmental circumstances.

Try to explain to yourself why the other alternatives are incorrect before reading further. The

hints and feedback on Question 15 will provide you with the answers. Read through the hints

section to Question 15 again. It will help you to understand why Alternatives 1 and 2 are

incorrect. Alternative 4 requires more explanation. To know that Alternative 4 is incorrect you

would have to apply the understanding that the states of congruence and incongruence refer

primarily to the relationship between the self concept and the organismic potential. There is

more to understand in this regard however. If a person's self concept and organismic

potential are congruent, the person will be realistic about his or her capabilities, and will as

a result be open to all of his or her experiences. In this way we could say that a state of

169 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 congruence will exist between the experience, the self concept and organismic potential of

KCABDEEF that person. However, if a person's self concept and organismic potential are incongruent, it

is possible that there may be congruence between the experience and the self concept, but

incongruence between either of these two and the person's organismic potential. It is

important therefore that in the exam you read the question carefully to ensure that you

understand exactly what we are referring to. At times we may test your knowledge by making

incorrect associations between things.

QUESTION 17

Below is an example of an examination question with a student's answer. What percentage

mark would you give that student and how would you comment on the answer?

(Alphabetical letters have been added to the text to help you follow the discussion.)

The examination question was as follows:

Use examples to explain the concepts of ``denial'' and ``distortion'' according to Rogers'

theory.

The student's answer (for you to mark) appears below:

(a) A person constantly tries to realise his potential, that is, he wants to become the

best that he possibly can be.

(b) Therefore, he will do things to fulfil this promise and promote his self concept.

(c) According to one's need for positive regard one sometimes denies or distorts

one's tendency toward actualisation in order to obtain approval from meaningful

others.

(d) If Mpho's community rejects him because he plays cricket Ð a game that he is

very fond of Ð because it is a white man's sport, he will feel the pressure and

as a result of his need for positive appreciation, change to soccer or boxing Ð

sports that are well received in his neighbourhood.

(e) It is now clear that Mpho has done something that is incongruent with his self

concept. Soccer and boxing are not sports that he particularly likes, but his need

for positive acceptance is stronger than his tendency toward actualisation and he

becomes incongruent.

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Together with information that is provided under the dynamics of the personality, material

from the section on psychopathology in MMV can also be used.

Remember in assessing the answer you should not merely consider whether the student has
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provided the correct information. An evaluator also needs to consider the following:

. Does the student really understand the theory?

. Has the student actually answered the question as it stands?

. Is the information that the student has provided relevant to the question?

. Has the information been expressed clearly?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 17

PLEASE WRITE DOWN THE MARK YOU HAVE ALLOCATED ALONG WITH YOUR

COMMENTS BEFORE READING THE FEEDBACK.

The lecturer gave a mark of 30 percent. Why such a low mark?

Although certain ideas that have been presented are correct, others are unclear or incorrect

and it is therefore not clear whether the student truly understands the theory.

In addition, the student has not focused on the specific question that was asked.

Statement (a) is correct, but there is a problem with Statement (b): Apart from using the

word ``promise'' out of context, the word ``therefore'' is actually incorrectly used since it
KCABDEEF

implies that the second sentence can be logically deduced from the first. This is not the case

here because Rogers' theory does not claim that in striving to become the best that one can

be, one will do things that enhance one's self concept. The tendency for actualisation has to

do with the realisation of potential. Only when potential and self concept are congruent will

the realisation of potential also enhance the self concept. In fact, the topic that the answer

really deals with is the functioning of the incongruent person who uses denial and distortion

to ``enhance'' the self concept at the expense of the actualisation of true potential.

One might therefore also say that the student has not concentrated on the actual question.

The idea underlying Statement (c) is correct and relevant to the question, but obviously it is

not the actualisation tendency but, rather, experiences that do not fit in with the self concept

that are distorted or denied.

The example that is provided in Statement (d) is valid, but it indicates how the person acts

according to his or her self concept and it does not really illustrate the process of denial or

distortion that is at issue here. To illustrate defence, the student should have said something

like this: Mpho would like to keep the approval of his community and he therefore

assimilates the condition of worth ``I do not like cricket because it is a white man's sport'' in

his self concept. He will therefore either deny or negate his love for cricket with remarks

171 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 such as: ``I find cricket boring, and only play because my employer makes me''. (His true

experience is distorted to fit his self concept.) As a result he prefers to practise soccer and

boxing. He therefore acts according to his self concept and does not realise his true

potential.

You have therefore seen that although the student has understood something of the theory

and one can appreciate the fact that he could apply it to his everyday life, for this specific

question the presentation was neither adequately clear nor comprehensive.

The first sentence under Statement (e) is confusing. Does the ``something that he does'' refer

to cricket or soccer? Remember that people are inclined to act according to their self

concept. In the example, Mpho lived out his love for cricket for a while, but he then

assimilated his community's conditions of worth into his self concept. His self concept

therefore changed together with his actions. He now no longer plays cricket but boxes and

plays soccer Ð something that does not clash with his (new) self concept.

Hopefully you now have some idea of the standards required at second-year university level.

An example of a good answer for which the student was given a distinction, is also provided.

Please note that this is not the only good answer that could have been given. Someone else
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might have written from a completely different perspective and done equally well.

A GOOD ANSWER TO QUESTION 17 (STUDENT'S ANSWER)

According to Carl Rogers the individual deals with experiences that are incongruent

with the self concept by denying or distorting them.

Denial is a form of defence that amounts to the individual refusing to allow

experiences that are in conflict with the self concept access to consciousness. The

experience is therefore excluded so that it is not necessary to reassess the self

concept. For example, take David who sees himself as irresistible to females but one

day experiences rejection by a particular woman. He will then deny the experience and

proceed as if the incident had never happened.

However, individuals can also deal with experiences of incongruence by using

distortion. In such a case the experience is distorted to such an extent that it fits the

self concept. An example of this would be a scholar who has such a negative view of

herself that she regards herself as incompetent. If she does well in one of her subjects

and is praised for it, she might distort this achievement because it does not coincide

with her self concept. She might argue that she was just lucky to guess right or even

that the teacher is crazy. In this way she distorts her experiences to bring them into

line with her self concept Ð and she continues to believe that she is incompetent.

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Now answer the examination question yourself.

Using examples, explain the concepts ``denial'' and ``distortion'' according to Rogers' theory.
STNEMMOC GNISOLC

In study unit 5.2 you learned about the view of humankind underlying Rogers' theory. You

also encountered the structure of the personality, focusing on the phenomenal field and, in

particular, the self concept. In studying the dynamics of the personality the emphasis is on

the basic tendency for actualisation that compels a person to realise his or her potential.

However, apart from this, a person also tends to act according to his or her self concept and

it should now be clear to you what an important role the self concept and, specifically, the

condition of congruence and incongruence play in determining conduct. The defence

mechanisms of denial and distortion also came under the spotlight.

STUDY UNIT 5.3

You have already discovered what an important role the self concept plays in human
3.5

functioning according to Rogers. In this study unit the focus is on the development of the

self concept.
concept There is also discussion of what Rogers calls the ``fully functioning person'',

which deals with ideal or optimal functioning.

functioning Attention will also be paid to the role of

defence mechanisms and, specifically, to the relation between these mechanisms and

unhealthy functioning or psychopathology.

psychopathology

When you have worked through study unit 5.3 you should

be able to

. explain how the development of the personality (with specific reference to the self

concept) can be enhanced (improved) or hampered (limited) by unconditional or

SEMOCTUO

conditional positive regard.

. discuss the origin of conditions of worth.

. clearly distinguish between Rogers' view on optimal and pathological functioning by:

Ð explaining what Rogers means by optimal functioning and listing the

characteristics he would ascribe to an optimally functioning person.

Ð listing the role of defence mechanisms in human functioning according to

Rogers' theory.

Ð describing Rogers' view of psychopathology.

173 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 YTIVITCA THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

Study the section on the development of the personality in MMV.

Then answer Questions 18 to 20.

QUESTION 18 (ENRICHMENT)

Which of Rogers' 19 statements relate to the development of the personality?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 18

You will obviously realise that the dynamics and development of the personality are so

closely interwoven that it is impossible to attribute particular statements to one or the other.

In any case, it should be clear that the way the theory is presented is in fact based on and

represents an extension of these statements. Hopefully these statements will now also make

more sense to you and not seem quite so overwhelming.

QUESTION 19

It is said of people who are unconditionally accepted that they can acknowledge all their

needs and feelings, that their organismic potential and self concept are congruent and that

therefore they will realise their full potential. Does this mean that, according to Rogers,

people should be aware of their aggressive needs and be able to ``live them out'' or express

them, irrespective of how this could affect others?

Use the arguments that appear in the sections on unconditional positive regard and the

evaluation of the theory in MMV. The following quotation provides further background on

Rogers' view of the functioning of a congruent person:

STNIH

The only control of impulses which would exist or would prove necessary is the

natural and internal balancing of one need against the other and the discovery of

behaviours which follow the vectors most closely approximating the satisfaction of all

needs. The experience of extreme satisfaction of one need (for aggression, or sex, etc.)

in such a way as to do violence to the satisfaction of other needs (for companionship,

tender relationships, etc.) Ð an experience very common in the defensively organized

person Ð would be greatly reduced (Kirschenbaum & Henderson, 1990, p. 406).

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 19

Rogers apparently believes that people should be aware of all their needs and that they can

be trusted to weigh them up against one another and ultimately make constructive choices.

Read the following story and then answer the multiple-choice question which follows.

Richard has the talent and desire to be a ballet dancer. His father is an excellent sportsman and

believes that Richard should channel the same skills that he could develop to become a ballet

dancer into perfecting his golf game. Richard feels good when he experiences his father as

approving of him and therefore chooses to develop his talent in golf instead of in ballet.

QUESTION 20

According to Rogers' theory, which one of the following statements is correct?

(1) Richard receives unconditional positive regard from his father, as his father accepts his

son's talent and encourages him to develop it. Whether this talent is expressed in the

game of golf or in ballet is irrelevant.

(2) Richard experiences conditional positive regard, as he believes that he will only be

accepted by his father if he pursues golf instead of ballet. Rogers would say that

Richard has incorporated a condition of worth into his self concept.

(3) Richard's father provides him with unconditional positive regard, as he loves his son and

wants to protect him from experiencing the bullying that he knows may come from a

ballet career. His intention is therefore not to limit Richard but to help him choose wisely.

(4) Richard experiences conditional positive regard from his father, as he experiences his

father as loving and accepting of him for who he is. He knows that he does not need to

fulfil specific requirements in order to gain his father's approval.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

Alternative 2 is correct. In the story, Richard's father does not accept Richard's unique expression

of his own talent and skill. Instead he encourages Richard to pursue the game of golf, thereby
KCABDEEF

placing a condition of worth on his acceptance of his son.

Rogers does not regard parents or significant others as ``bad'' people. Rather his position is that

each parent may also have experienced conditional positive regard from their parents and

significant others, and may as a result unconsciously impose conditions of worth on their own

children. Hence, even though a parent may be motivated to act in the best interests of his or her

child, it is possible that this parent may be providing the child with conditional, as opposed to

unconditional, positive regard. For this reason Alternative 3 is incorrect. Alternative 1 is also

incorrect, because unconditional positive regard will only operate when Richard is allowed to

remain open to choosing his own expression of self. In Alternative 4 note that the explanation

given is for unconditional positive regard and not for conditional positive regard. Alternative 4 is

therefore incorrect.

175 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 YTIVITCA
OPTIMAL FUNCTIONING

Study the section on optimal functioning in MMV.

Answer Question 21.

QUESTION 21

What characteristics of the fully functioning person does the following quotation refer to?

Substantiate your answer.

An analogy which might come close to a description would be to compare this

person to a giant electronic computing machine. Since he is open to his

experience, all of the data from his sense impressions, from his memory, from

previous learning, from his visceral and internal states, is fed into the machine. The

machine takes all of these multitudinous pulls and forces which are fed in as data,

and quickly computes the course of action which would be the most economical

vector of need satisfaction in this existential situation (Kirschenbaum & Henderson,

1990, p. 415).

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

It is very difficult to relate this quotation to one specific characteristic of the fully functioning

person, since the characteristics are closely interwoven. Also note that in his original

description of the fully functioning person Rogers puts his main emphasis on the first three

characteristics, namely an openness to experience, an existential lifestyle and organismic

trust. The other characteristics, namely freedom of choice, creativity, basic reliability and
KCABDEEF

constructiveness, and a rich full life, are regarded as implications of the three basic

characteristics.

The analogy quoted reveals an increased openness to experience as well as an organismic

trust and a basic reliability to act constructively. There is also mention of freedom of choice

and creativity.

Rogers actually used this analogy to illustrate organismic trust in his original work. It

illustrates the person's ability to rely on his organism (the machine) in the light of all the

experience at his disposal in order to choose an action that ``feels right'' and through which

the best possible answer for the available data can be found. As previously mentioned,

however, some other characteristics of the fully functioning person are also included in the

analogy.

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YTIVITCA VIEWS ON PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Study the section on views on psychopathology in MMV.

Answer Questions 22 to 24.

QUESTION 22

How would Rogers describe the malfunctioning person?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 22
KCABDEEF

An explanation of the functioning of the incongruent, defensive person is what was expected

here. The information provided in the sections on views on psychopathology, the defence

mechanisms and malfunctioning in MMV, together with the explanations that have been

given of the subject up to now, should have enabled you to provide a good answer.

Note that the essence of malfunctioning lies in the fact that someone has undervalued parts

of her true organismic self and then needs to be helped to rediscover these misjudged

aspects and assimilate them in her self concept within the therapeutic situation.

QUESTION 23

How does the congruent person who does not make use of defence mechanisms differ from

the incongruent person who lapses into a defenceless condition?

TNIH

Use the information provided in the section on malfunctioning to formulate your answer, as

well as all knowledge and insight that you might have acquired on the process of defence

elsewhere.

At this point it is interesting to recall Freud's theory which also ascribed an important role to

defence mechanisms. Turn back to his theory and attempt the following multiple-choice

question, which focuses on similarities and differences between Freud's and Rogers' views

on defence mechanisms.

177 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 QUESTION 24

Which statement(s) is/are true regarding Freud's and Rogers' views on defence

mechanisms?

(a) Both Freud and Rogers believe that a degree of appropriate defence is essential for the

optimal functioning of the person.

(b) According to Freud, defence mechanisms always function on the unconscious level,

while Rogers believes that defence can be conscious in some instances.

(c) According to Freud the total absence of defence mechanisms will necessarily lead to

the collapse of the person's psyche. According to Rogers the complete absence of

defence mechanisms in the congruent person is in fact an indication that the person is

psychologically healthy.

(d) For both Freud and Rogers the function of defence mechanisms is linked with

preservation. In Freud's case it concerns the protection of the ego and in Rogers' case,

the protection of the self concept.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a)

(2) (b)

(3) (a) & (d)

(4) (b), (c) & (d)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 24

Statement (a) is wrong because Freud did in fact hold the view that defence mechanisms are

indispensable for optimal functioning, but Rogers actually maintained that the fully

functioning person is congruent and does not need defence mechanisms. According to

Freud the optimally functioning person will make particular use of sublimation, but

according to Rogers the congruent person has a realistic self concept and can accommodate

his or her positive and negative experiences in a realistic way in the self concept without
KCABDEEF

defending himself or herself against them.

Statement (b) is correct because Freud believes that all defence takes place on the

unconscious level. Rogers, in contrast to this, maintains that incongruent experiences are

picked up on the unconscious level through subception, and that defence mechanisms are

created on the same level, but also that a person sometimes becomes aware of incongruent

experiences or behaviour and consciously defends himself or herself against it, using the

defence to bring it in line with his or her self concept.

Statement (c) is correct because Freud is, in fact, of the opinion that the person is consigned

to self-destruction in the absence of defence mechanisms. As already indicated in the

discussion of Statement (a), Rogers sees the congruent person, who does not need defence

mechanisms, as the ideal. It is actually true that in the case of the psychically unhealthy,

incongruent person, Rogers would say that although defence mechanisms handicap the

actualisation of potential and thus are not ideal, this is preferable to a collapse from lack of

defence which could lead to severe psychopathology.

The self concept theory of Carl Rogers 178

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Statement (d) is correct. In the case of Freud's theory, the ego uses defence mechanisms to

KCABDEEF comply with the demands of the id, the super ego and reality and to protect itself from

anxiety. In Rogers' theory, anxiety is caused by incongruent experiences that do not fit the

self concept. The self concept is then protected from this anxiety by denial and distortion of

the incongruent experiences.

Statements (b), (c) and (d) are therefore correct and you should have chosen Alternative 4.
STNEMMOC GNISOLC

In working through study unit 5.3 you have become acquainted with Rogers' view of the

development of the personality and specific attention is paid to the development of the

self concept. You have seen how atmospheres of conditional or unconditional positive

regard, which are created by significant others, influence the development of the self

concept. You have also learned about Rogers' view of optimal functioning and the

characteristics that he ascribes to the fully functioning person. In addition, attention

was paid to Rogers' view of psychopathology and the role that defence mechanisms

play in it.

STUDY UNIT 5.4

4.5

Up to now you have focused on different aspects of Rogers' theory. In this study unit you

now learn about the implications and applications of this theory. We give specific

attention to the practical implications of his theory for psychotherapy, education,

measurement and research, and for coping with aggression. This is followed by a critical

evaluation of the theory.

After working through study unit 5.4, you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. discuss the practical implications and applications of Rogers' theory for

psychotherapy, education, measurement and research, as well as for dealing with

aggression.

. apply the theory to practical everyday functioning.

. critically evaluate Rogers' theory.

179 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 YTIVITCA IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Study the section on implications and applications in MMV and read the enrichment

section that follows.

Answer Questions 25 to 27.

Experts sometimes claim that Rogers' theory might be of value in therapeutic and negotiation

contexts but that problems are experienced in applying it within the everyday situation. For
TNEMHCIRNE

instance, some claim that Rogers' view of the teaching situation is too idealistic to be of

practical value, while others question his view of the creative person.

Whatever the case, the value of the basic principles on which Rogers' theory is based cannot

be denied. These basic principles were founded on his experiences in the therapeutic

situation and, primarily, represent the criteria that he sets for the one-on-one relationship

between therapist and client. Specialists from other subject areas often saw the possibilities

of applying these principles in other fields and asked Rogers for his opinion. In this way, the

value of his ideas for politics, for example, was brought to Rogers' attention and during the

last years of his life he became involved as a facilitator in situations of international conflict.

QUESTION 25

To what extent do the atmospheres that Rogers regards as ideal for therapeutic and teaching

situations respectively coincide?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 25

Here are a few ideas you might have highlighted:

. Both the client and the pupil are regarded as valued people and accepted

unconditionally.
KCABDEEF

. There is respect for the potential of both client and pupil to grow and learn.

. The client and pupil are trusted to make constructive choices.

. The therapist and teacher are seen as facilitating rather than prescribing behaviour.

. The therapist and teacher enter the relationship in an open and honest manner and put

their entire repertoire of experience at the disposal of the client or pupil Ð with no

pressure to conform.

. The therapist and teacher interact with the client and pupil in a warm, empathic

manner.

. The client and pupil are allowed to decide for themselves on the value that the

interaction has for them.

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QUESTION 26 (ENRICHMENT)

What was Rogers' contribution in the field of measurement and research?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 26

The following appear to be his most relevant contributions:

KCABDEEF

(1) By making recorded therapy sessions available on audio tape, he opened the

therapeutic process to research.

(2) Although he emphasised subjective observation, he also used objective methods such

as the Q-technique and questionnaires to measure subjective processes. Rogers'

research approach is therefore regarded as a method that reconciles the humanistic

phenomenological and the scientific empirically experimental approaches.

(3) He encouraged researchers who use qualitative research methods to publish their

findings.

QUESTION 27

According to Rogers, what approach should be used to control aggression?

YTIVITCA

EVALUATION OF THE THEORY

Read the commentary on this theory in MMV.

Answer Questions 28 to 30 which are enrichment questions.

QUESTION 28 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you agree with the assessment of Rogers' theory in MMV?

(Remember you need not always agree, as long as you can substantiate your viewpoint.)

QUESTION 29 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you think that Rogers' theory could be useful for your own functioning? Give reasons for

your answer.

181 The self concept theory of Carl Rogers

 One last question for the deep thinkers. You will probably not find the exact answer in MMV

and will be better equipped to answer it once you have studied the theory as a whole.

QUESTION 30 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you think Carl Rogers' approach might have been useful to deal with people's

relationships in South Africa? If so, in what way? If not, why not?

REFERENCE

Kirschenbaum, H., & Henderson, V. (Eds.). (1990). The Carl Rogers reader. London:

Constable

The self concept theory of Carl Rogers 182

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RETPAHC
6
THE EXISTENTIAL THEORY OF VIKTOR FRANKL

Prof. Alta van Dyk and Dr. Teria Shantall

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

183 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 No one can remain unmoved by Viktor Frankl's theory. He addresses the heart of what

it means to be human, namely the search for the meaning of life. Written by a man

who experienced suffering in all its facets during his internment in Nazi concentration

camps, this theory holds a particularly restorative message for all those South Africans

who suffered during the apartheid years and must now work together to build a healthy

future for the country as a whole.

ORIENTATION

As you have found in your study of personology, each theory

must be seen against the background of a particular theorist's

view of the world, people and life in general. From his school

days, Viktor Frankl believed that the person is not simply a

mechanistic, physiological being but, rather, a sentient (feeling)

being who searches for a purpose in life to give meaning to

existence.

As a student of Freud and Adler, Frankl was well versed in psychoanalysis. But he was

actually disappointed in both teachers' narrow view of the person. He believed that life is

more than a pursuit of pleasure (Freud's view) and a pursuit of superiority and power (Adler's

view). According to Frankl, people strive to discover the purpose and meaning of their

existence and to capitalise on this. Frankl's theory was subjected to its most stringent test in

the Nazi concentration camps where he became convinced that the will to exist for something

or someone, the realisation that there is still meaning in life in the midst of extreme suffering,

was an important factor of survival for the prisoners. Even though these camps could strip

people of all dignity, what they could never destroy was the freedom of prisoners to choose

to act humanely and to continue to act on their decisions.

Frankl's ideas about human functioning had the effect of a breath of fresh air in a world of

Psychology that was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviourism.

This chapter is based on Chapter 14 in MMV (2008)

STUDY UNIT 6.1

In this study unit we introduce you to Viktor Frankl.

Frankl You will find that he had thought very

deeply about the meaning and purpose of human existence from his youth. You will also
1.6

learn about the deplorable conditions in which he was imprisoned in the Nazi concentration

camps of Auschwitz and Dachau and how these experiences helped enrich his theory.

You will also gain a global overview of Frankl's theory and encounter new concepts such as

logotherapy. A global overview will make it easier for you to understand the theory when you

study it step-by-step in the following study unit.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 184

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SEMOCTUO After working through study unit 6.1, you should be able to

. briefly sketch Viktor Frankl's life for a friend. (Who was he and what special

experiences did he have during his life?)

. make a list of all the concepts that you first encountered in Frankl's theory.

. explain very briefly how Frankl's theory differs from the psychoanalytical and

behaviourist theories.

THE BACKGROUND TO FRANKL'S THEORY

YTIVITCA

Read the background section on Frankl's theory in MMV to acquire more information on

Frankl's existential theory and to put it into context with the theories that you have already

studied.

Then answer Questions 1 and 2.

QUESTION 1

Read the background section of the chapter on Frankl in MMV and underline all the words/

phrases that begin to give some indication of Frankl's ideas about being human. Write these

words/phrases in the open space below. Some of the words will be quite new to you. Do not

worry about that now. In the activities that follow you will have the opportunity to get to

know these new concepts.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 1
KCABDEEF

The following words/phrases that appear in the background section give one a good idea of

the direction Frankl's theory is taking: existential psychology; logotherapy; ``Man's search for

meaning''; meaning and purpose of the human existence; disenchantment with Freud and

Adler's ideas; life has reason and a purpose; values play an important role in one's life;

freedom to choose your attitude to your circumstances even under the most difficult of

conditions; freedom to choose your own behaviour; people can even find meaning in their

suffering; people's ability to transcend; indestructible meaningfulness of life. Your list will

probably include other words/sentences that are characteristic of Frankl's theory.

QUESTION 2

Read the following paragraph and fill in the missing words/phrases.

185 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 Frankl was a student of the personality theorists (a) ................................... and

(b) .................................. who both belonged to the (c) ................................... school of

thought. However, Frankl did not agree with his teachers because he (Frankl) believed that

one's behaviour is motivated by (d) .................................. In contrast to this, his

teacher (e) ................................... believed that people's behaviour is determined by

(f) ................................... and his other teacher (g) ................................... believed that

behaviour is determined by (h) ................................... Frankl did not agree with the

behaviourists either because (i) ................................... .

Although Frankl himself can be regarded as a humanist (or person-oriented theorist), he

also criticised humanism. For example, commenting on Maslow's emphasis of self-

actualisation he said that (j) ................................... .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 2

The answers are:

(a) Freud

(b) Adler
KCABDEEF

(c) psychoanalytical

(d) the person's will to meaning

(e) Freud

(f) the will to pleasure

(g) Adler

(h) the will to power

(i) the behaviourists believe that all behaviour is determined by factors external to the

person, and that internal factors such as free will have nothing to do with this

(j) being human involves much more than actualising yourself. According to Frankl the

person can rise above himself and become more than (transcend) what he is

AN OVERVIEW OF FRANKL'S THEORY

YTIVITCA

You will understand Frankl's theory better if you read through the chapter in the

prescribed book before studying the theory step-by-step with the help of the guide. You

have already read the background section. Now quickly read the rest of the chapter,

underlining all the new concepts or words that are unfamiliar to you or that you might

have forgotten.

Then answer Question 3.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 186

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QUESTION 3

Keep the following diagram handy when you read Frankl's theory. All concepts or words that

are new to you or that you might have forgotten, should be filled in on the diagram under the

section where they were first mentioned. Under ``view of the person underlying the theory''

for instance, you could write the terms existential psychology and self-transcendence. After

quickly reading through the chapter, you might now have some idea of what these new

concepts mean. While working through the next study unit, the meaning of new concepts

will become increasingly clear to you. You are welcome to use your Psychology dictionary

to look up words.

DIAGRAM WITH NEW CONCEPTS FROM FRANKL'S THEORY

VIEW OF
OF THE PERSON ...............................................................................................

UNDERLYING THE THEORY: ...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

STRUCTURE OF THE ...............................................................................................

PERSONALITY: ...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

DYNAMICS OF THE ...............................................................................................

PERSONALITY: ...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

DEVELOPMENT, OPTIMAL ...............................................................................................

DEVELOPMENT, ...............................................................................................

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: ...............................................................................................

IMPLICATIONS AND ...............................................................................................

APPLICATION: ...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

CRITICISM OF THEORY: ...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

...............................................................................................

187 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 3

The following concepts have probably been included in your diagram as concepts that are

unfamiliar to you:

View of humankind: existential psychology, self-transcendence.

KCABDEEF

Structure of the personality: dimensional ontology, subhuman, open structure.

Dynamics of the personality: È dynamics,

noo È genic
noo neurosis or depression, existential

emptiness.

Development, optimal development and psychopathology: È genic neurosis.

collective noo

Implications and application: logotherapy, paradoxical intention, dereflection, self-detachment,

self-transcendence.

Criticism of theory: positivistic scientific view, phenomenological research perspective.

STUDY UNIT 6.2

2.6

In this study unit you encounter Viktor Frankl's view of the person.
person You will see that Frankl's

view of the person is based on existential psychological principles and that therefore he

regards the person as a spiritual being with both freedom and responsibility.
SEMOCTUO

After working through study unit 6.2 you should be able to

. explain what an existential view of the person involves.

. explain the concept of self-transcendence.

. set out Frankl's view of the person (as someone with free will directed to finding

meaning in life) in more detail.

YTIVITCA

THE VIEW OF THE PERSON UNDERLYING FRANKL'S THEORY

Study the view of the person underlying Frankl's theory.

Answer Questions 4 to 7.

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QUESTION 4

Frankl's personality theory is based on the existential view of the person. What does an

existential view of the person entail? Use your Psychology dictionary to find out how the

concept is defined.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

An existential view of the person is based on the idea that the person is primarily a spiritual

being with freedom, but also with responsibility.

QUESTION 5

Frankl regards the person as a special being, and not simply a highly developed animal.

How do you differ from your favourite pet, according to Frankl's view of the person?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 5

According to Frankl, the most important difference between the person and an animal is that

the person is a spiritual being with freedom of choice. As a person you decide for yourself

whether you will say ``yes'' or ``no'' to life's demands, and because you have free will, you

naturally bear responsibility for your choices and their effects. Your pet is not, in Frankl's
KCABDEEF

opinion, a spiritual being with free will. It cannot make deliberate choices and is, to a large

extent, driven by its instincts and environment. As a person you are capable of self-

transcendence (see the feedback on Question 6 for the meaning of this term) and are

primarily capable of finding meaning in your life, while this is not one of your pet's

characteristics.

(If, like mine, your favourite pet is a dog, you might also, jokingly, point out the following

differences: Your dog always wags her tail and is friendly; she shares her love

unconditionally, is always ready to jump up and give you a lick when you arrive home

wearied after a hard day. Even though people are special beings, we can still learn

something from animals! And, of course, we should never forget the therapeutic value of a

pet!)

QUESTION 6

According to Frankl's view of humankind, self-transcendence is one of the most distinctive

features of humanity. What does self-transcendence mean?

189 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 6

By self-transcendence Frankl means that people have the ability to rise above themselves

and their circumstances; to become more than they are. Self-transcendence can only be

attained if people forget about themselves and reach out to the world around them, to

someone else or to something greater than or superior to themselves.

Frankl (1954, p. 133) has the following to say on self-transcendence and self-actualisation:
TNEMHCIRNE

Self-transcendence denotes the fact that being human always points, and is directed,

to something, or someone, other than oneself Ð be it meaning to fulfil or another

human being to encounter. The more one forgets himself Ð by giving himself to a

cause to serve or another person to love Ð the more human he is and the more he

actualizes himself. What is called self-actualization is not an attainable aim for all, for

the simple reason that the more one would strive for it, the more he would miss it. In

other words, self-actualization is possible only as a side-effect of self-transcendence.

QUESTION 7

What are the two main features of Frankl's view of the person?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 7

The two main features of Frankl's view of the person are the following:

(a) People have free will. The person has freedom of choice (which is naturally associated

with responsibility).

(b) People have a will to meaning. The person is primarily directed to find meaning in life.

STUDY UNIT 6.3

3.6

In this study unit you will study the structure of the personality according to Frankl's theory.

This structure forms the building blocks of a theory, in other words, the question answered

here is: ``What does the personality consist of, according to Frankl?''

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 190

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SEMOCTUO When you have worked through study unit 6.3, you should

be able to do the following:

. Explain the meaning of the term dimensional ontology.

. Name the three levels on which the person functions, according to Frankl.

. Explain the difference between the three levels of functioning, namely the physical

dimension, the psychic dimension and the spiritual dimension.

. List the characteristics of a person as an open system.

STRUCTURE OF THE PERSONALITY

YTIVITCA

Study the section in MMV that deals with the structure of the personality according to

Frankl's theory. Make sure that you know exactly what Frankl means by ``dimensional

ontology''.

Answer Questions 8 to 10.

QUESTION 8

What does the term dimensional ontology mean?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 8

The word ontology means the study of existence or being, with the aim of understanding the

basic nature of everything that is. In psychology, ontology refers specifically to the study of

human existence. A dimensional ontology implies that a person lives on more than one level

or that there is more than one dimension to existence.

QUESTION 9

Frankl addresses the structure of the personality through his dimensional ontology. Discuss

Frankl's view of the ``building blocks of our existence'' by filling in the missing words and

phrases in the following paragraphs.

According to Frankl, people exist on three levels, namely a (a) ........................................,

(b) ........................................ and (c) ........................................ level.

On the physical level the person can be regarded as (d) ........................................ .

191 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 Theorists that you learned about last year who emphasise this level of functioning are the

(e) ........................................ [give the type of school of thought] such as

(f) ......................................... [give the name of a theorist]. They regard the person as

(g) ........................................

On the psychic level, according to Frankl, the person consists of (h) .................................. .

This reminds one strongly of the (i) .............................. give the school of thought] such as

(j) .............................. [give the name of a theorist], who regards the person as

(k) .............................. .

By the third dimension of existence, the spiritual level, Frankl means (l) ............................. .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9

(a) physical

(b) psychic

(c) spiritual

(d) a complex mechanism consisting of physiological and biological characteristics

(e) behaviourists
KCABDEEF

(f) Skinner or Watson

(g) a biological/physiological mechanism that has no free will or choice but simply reacts

to stimuli from outside and passively adapts to the demands of the environment

(h) a being with survival instincts and needs, drives, intelligence, memory and other

abilities that coincide with those of the animal

(i) psychoanalysts

(j) Freud

(k) a being without free will that is driven by its urges

(l) that the person is an open system with free will and therefore also the freedom to make

choices; is not a victim of physical characteristics and potential, psychic ability or

social circumstances; can rise above itself and its circumstances and become more

than it is (transcend itself); has self-consciousness and a conscience, is receptive to

external obligations and whose personality is mainly formed by his or her choices and

decisions

QUESTION 10

What does Frankl mean by saying that the person is an open system?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

The person is open to himself or herself and also to life because he or she has the ability to

rise above the self. The characteristics of the person as an open system were given in the

feedback on Question 9(l).

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 192

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IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER: Frankl does not regard a person as a purely spiritual being,

but as someone who functions on all three levels, namely, the physical, psychic and spiritual

levels. Whereas the physical and psychic levels are shared in common with animals,

spiritual functioning is unique to people. It is this spiritual dimension which, according to

Frankl, plays an important role in developing the individual's personality.

STUDY UNIT 6.4

4.6

This study unit discusses the dynamics of the personality according to Frankl's theory. In

other words, you will see what motivates our behaviour according to Frankl. The main

question that can be posed here is: ``Why am I alive?''

SEMOCTUO

After working through study unit 6.4, you should be able to

. explain which three factors motivate human behaviour.

. discuss the concept of free will.

. list three types of values that give meaning to one's life.

THE DYNAMICS OF THE PERSONALITY

YTIVITCA

The question ``What motivates human behaviour?'' or ``What makes people do the things

they do?'' is answered by a discussion of the dynamics of the personality. Study the

dynamics of the personality according to Frankl's theory in your prescribed book.

Answer Questions 11 to 19.

QUESTION 11

Which three things motivate human behaviour according to Frankl? Which motive does he

regard as the most important and on which ontological dimension is this motive found?
TNIH

Note that there are three questions in Question 11! So make sure that you answer all three.

193 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11

Human behaviour is motivated by (a) the freedom of the will, (b) the will to meaning and

(c) the meaning of life.

The most important motive is the will to meaning, or the will to find meaning in life. The will

to meaning is located on the spiritual level (as are the other two motives).

QUESTION 12

Èdynamics rather than psychodynamics?

Why does Frankl speak of noo
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12

According to Frankl, psychodynamics are found on the second dimensional level (see

feedback on Question 9(h)) and this does not give a complete description of the person.

Èdynamics actually refers to the unique dynamics of the person as spiritual being (see
Noo

feedback on Question 9(l)), which is encountered on the third level or in a spiritual dimension.

QUESTION 13

What does Frankl mean by the freedom of the will?

Do you experience your own will as free? Are you often faced with choices? What do you do

with those choices? Has anything ever happened to you that caused you to say: ``I cannot

help it. It is not my fault. It is beyond my control''?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 13

By freedom of will Frankl meant that people are continually faced with choices that they have

to make decisions about. Even to do nothing about a situation is a choice that you exercise!
KCABDEEF

For example, a person who for years remains caught in a destructive relationship exercises a

choice to remain in that relationship Ð perhaps because the alternative of being alone is

unthinkable. Frankl does in fact admit that people do not have unlimited freedom and that

they are restricted by their bodies or by their environment. But there is freedom in the sense

that people can choose how to deal with their circumstances. For instance, suffering and

struggle are an unavoidable part of life, but we are still free to decide how we shall endure

them. The person still has the freedom to change his or her attitude toward the situation. The

person in our example above, who is caught up in a destructive relationship can also

exercise certain choices within his or her limitations and adopt particular attitudes to

circumstances in order to improve them.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 194

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TNEMHCIRNE
Frankl says that freedom is only part of the story and half the truth. Without responsibility

freedom is meaningless. ``That is why I recommend that the Statue of Liberty on the East

Coast (of America) be supplemented by the Statue of Responsibility on the West Coast''

(Frankl, 1954, pp. 156±157).

QUESTION 14

Which three basic questions do you ask yourself when you are questioning the meaning of

life?
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 14

The questions that one asks oneself about the meaning of life are: ``Why am I alive? Who am

I living for? What am I living for?''

QUESTION 15 (ENRICHMENT)

Do you think there is meaning in life in South Africa today? Why do you say so? What gives

a personal sense of meaning to your life?

TNEMHCIRNE

Nietzsche (cited in Frankl, 1954, p. 97) said: ``He who has a why to live for can bear with

almost any how''. In the concentration camps Frankl found that prisoners who had a

purpose, like something or someone to live for (a ``why''), had the spiritual strength to

endure the terrible ``how'' of their existence. Interested students are welcome to read

Viktor Frankl's book Man's search for meaning. It deals with Frankl's own experiences in

concentration camps as well as his logotherapy (see source list at the end of this

chapter).

QUESTION 16

Frankl believes that people's will to meaning is the basic and most important motivation for

their behaviour and he mentions four aspects that serve as proof. List and discuss these four

aspects.

195 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 16

The four aspects indicating that the will to meaning is the basic motivator of behaviour are

the following:
KCABDEEF

(a) A person does not only search for meaning in life if he or she has experienced

hardship, but also when all his or her needs are satisfied.

(b) The satisfaction of needs is not an aim in itself, but a means in the pursuit of spiritual

goals.

(c) Happiness is a by-product of finding meaning; when happiness is pursued it

continually eludes one.

(d) The pursuit of happiness and power leads to existential emptiness.

These four elements are discussed in full in your prescribed book. Compare your answer

with the discussion in the book.

If someone should ask you what is the meaning of your life, what would you answer? Would
TNEMHCIRNE

you look for an elevated, abstract, esoteric meaning or would you simply say ``to do my work

today as well as possible''? According to Frankl (1954, p.131) the meaning of life differs

from person to person, from day to day and from hour to hour. Nor is the meaning of life

necessarily to be found in general, abstract terms, but in the specific meaning of a person's

life at a given moment and in a given situation. The concrete task with which one is busy at

a given moment is part of what gives meaning to your life. And, Frankl continues, true

meaning and sense in life must be found in the world outside, rather than in the self and the

psyche.

QUESTION 17 (ENRICHMENT)

What is Frankl's comment on Maslow's view that lower needs must be satisfied before

attention can be given to higher needs such as self-actualisation?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 17

According to Frankl, the satisfaction of lower physical and psychic needs is not an aim in

itself as claimed by Maslow. The satisfaction of lower needs contributes toward or is a

means in the pursuit of spiritual or higher needs. It is so much easier to pursue meaning in

life on a full stomach. Hunger, poverty and sickness do not actually suppress the pursuit of

higher spiritual values in life, but they frustrate us in our search for meaning.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 196

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QUESTION 18 (ENRICHMENT)

Would you agree with Frankl that happiness eludes one if it is deliberately pursued and that

some of one's happiest moments are experienced when least expected while one is busy

with a meaningful task?

QUESTION 19

Frankl believes that meaning can be found in life through three types of experiences or

values. List and discuss these three types of values.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 19

The three values that give meaning to one's life are: (a) creative values; (b) experiential

values (of which love is the greatest and most pervasive experience); and (c) attitudinal

values. See if your discussion of the experience of values agrees with the discussion in

MMV.

STUDY UNIT 6.5

This study unit deals with the development of the personality as well as Frankl's theory on

optimal development.
development We also look at Frankl's views on psychopathology and what he has to
5.6

say about people who cannot become optimally human.

Note that Frankl, unlike Freud and Erikson, did not establish a complete theory of

development. However, from Frankl's theory we can deduce very clearly what the development

of the personality involves, and what the optimally functioning or mature person would be

like.

After working through study unit 6.5 you should be able to

SEMOCTUO

. explain Frankl's views on the development of the personality.

. list and discuss the characteristics of the mature person according to Frankl's theory.

. explain what Frankl means by self-transcendence.

. Ègenic neurosis of our modern times,

explain what Frankl meant by the collective noo

and describe the characteristics of people who suffer from this neurosis.

. discuss Frankl's psychiatric credo.

197 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 YTIVITCA
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY AND OPTIMAL

DEVELOPMENT

Study the development of the personality as well as optimal development in MMV.

Answer Questions 20 to 23.

QUESTION 20

The following paragraph deals with the development of the personality and optimal

functioning. Complete the paragraph by filling in the missing words or deleting words that

are not applicable.

Frankl regards the (a) .............................. dimension as the core of the personality. The

ontological dimension(s) which is(are) present in the child at birth, is(are)

(b) ........................................ . According to Frankl the personality develops (c) during

childhood/after adolescence/throughout life [delete those that are not applicable].

Development is determined by (d) inborn potential/environment/other people/own efforts

[delete those that are not applicable]. The dimension that reaches full development during

adulthood is the (e) .......................... . According to Frankl, the young child pursues mainly

(f) ...................... , the adolescent pursues mainly (g) ...................... and the adult pursues

(h) ...................... . A person reaches optimal development when he or she functions on the

(i) ....................... level. In a nutshell this means that the person (j) ....................... and

(k) ....................... .

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 20

The answers are as follows:

(a) spiritual

(b) the physical dimension, the psychic dimension and the spiritual dimension
KCABDEEF

(c) throughout life

(d) inborn potential, environment, other people (as part of the environment) and the

person's own efforts (In other words, all these answers are correct.)

(e) spiritual dimension

(f) pleasure

(g) power

(h) meaning in life

(i) spiritual

(j) possesses free will

(k) searches for meaning in life

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 198

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QUESTION 21

List the characteristics of the mature personality according to Frankl, and explain each one

in a single sentence.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 21

Compare your answer with the following and make sure that you have given the main points

of each characteristic.

(a) Self-determining behaviour. They make their own decisions and make personal

choices independent of external influences.

(b) Realistic observation. Can observe both themselves and their circumstances

realistically and critically.

KCABDEEF

(c) Humour. They can laugh at themselves but never make fun of others.

(d) Self-transcendence. They live for something more than themselves; pursue high

values, ideals and goals; and reach out to others.

(e) Future-directed. Enjoy life to the full and are actively future oriented.

(f) Work as a vocation. Their work is part of their life task and is carried out with great

responsibility.

(g) Aesthetic sense. They show appreciation for the good, beautiful and true in life as it is

found in music, art and nature.

(h) Respect and appreciation for the uniqueness of others. They find meaning in their

relationships with others and will never abuse or discriminate against others.

(i) Meaning in suffering. Suffering deepens their belief in the meaning of life and does not

quell or dampen their enjoyment of living.

According to Frankl, one of the characteristics of the mature personality is the ability to find
TNEMHCIRNE

meaning in suffering. When we can no longer change our situation (as with an untreatable

disease), suffering challenges us to change ourselves and to turn our pain into a triumph.

However, Frankl states very clearly that it is not essential to endure suffering in order to find

sense and meaning in life. ``I only insist that meaning is possible even in spite of

suffering Ð provided, certainly, that the suffering is unavoidable. If it were avoidable,

however, the meaningful thing to do would be to remove its cause, be it psychological,

biological or political. To suffer unnecessarily is masochistic rather than heroic'' (Frankl,

1954, p. 136).

QUESTION 22 (ENRICHMENT)

What is the difference between self-transcendence as used by Frankl, and self-actualisation

as used by Maslow?

199 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 22

According to Maslow, the need for self-actualisation (to discover and realise the best in

yourself) can only be satisfied if the basic needs (such as needs for food, security and love)

have been satisfied first. Frankl believes in the ability of people to rise above themselves and

their needs, to live for things (people, ideals and values) outside themselves, regardless of

whether their physical needs have been satisfied or not. Hunger, cold, pain, loneliness, lack

of security and the absence of loved ones cannot, according to Frankl, keep people from

pursuing their ideals and living for something outside themselves. According to Frankl, the

person cannot actualise himself or herself until self-transcendence has occurred.

Also think about the differences/similarities between Frankl's use of the term self-

transcendence and Rogers' use of the term actualisation.

QUESTION 23 (ENRICHMENT)

(a) Are there any characteristics of the fully functioning or mature person that you would

like to add to Frankl's list Ð perhaps characteristics that were mentioned by other

theorists?

(b) Think about your own personality. Which characteristics of the mature person have you

developed? Which characteristics of your own personality would you still like to

develop and how would you go about doing so?

YTIVITCA

VIEWS ON PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Read the section on Frankl's views on psychopathology in MMV to see what happens

when people ignore or neglect the spiritual dimension in their busy lives.

Then answer Questions 24 to 28.

QUESTION 24

What were Frankl's two most important contributions to psychopathology?

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 200

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 24

(a) È genic neurosis as something people suffer from when they can no
Frankl described noo

longer find meaning in life.

(b) Frankl emphasised the humanity of the psychiatric patient.

QUESTION 25

Ègenic neurosis of our modern times? Describe a

What did Frankl mean by the collective noo

È genic neurosis.
situation from your own everyday world that indicates collective noo

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 25

Collective neurosis refers to a neurosis that is generally found among people in a

Ègenic neurosis of our modern times Frankl meant that as

community. By collective noo
KCABDEEF

modern people we live such busy lives that we can no longer give attention to the spiritual

dimension of being human. We rush along at such a pace to win the ``rat race'' that our free

will, our creativity, our conscience, our capacity to care for others and our ability to rise

above ourselves and our circumstances are lost in the process. As a result we end up in an

existential vacuum which means that life becomes empty and meaningless and this spiritual

È genic neurosis.
emptiness can lead to noo

Frankl (1954, p. 165) believes that our young people's problems with depression,

aggression and drug addiction can, to a large extent, be ascribed to the existential vacuum,

or the feeling of emptiness and meaninglessness that they experience.

QUESTION 26

È genic neurosis of
What are the characteristics of people who suffer from the collective noo

our time? Make sure you know what each of these characteristics means.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 26
KCABDEEF

È genic neurosis are

The characteristics of people who suffer from collective noo

. an unplanned day-to-day existence.

. a fatalistic outlook on life.

. conformism.

. totalitarianism.

201 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 QUESTION 27 (ENRICHMENT)

Read news reports and true stories in newspapers and magazines, watch television or look at

the people around you, and give an example from our modern society of each of the

È genic neurosis that you mentioned in Question 26.

characteristics of noo

QUESTION 28

What is Viktor Frankl's psychiatric credo?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 28

Frankl's psychiatric credo is that the psychiatric patient, irrespective of whether he or she is

mentally disturbed or retarded, is still human and still, in the depths of his or her being, a

spiritual person with freedom. For Frankl, it would not be worthwhile being a psychiatrist if

one could not believe in the humanity of psychiatric patients. To him the patient is more

than a damaged thinking machine that needs to be repaired.

STUDY UNIT 6.6

6.6

This study unit deals with the implications and applications of Frankl's theory regarding

psychotherapy, education and research. Frankl made a particularly important contribution to

psychotherapy with his logotherapy. You will also learn how Frankl's theory can be used to

interpret and cope with aggression,

aggression something that is extremely important in South Africa.

Finally, we do a critical evaluation of Frankl's existential theory.

SEMOCTUO

After working through study unit 6.6, you should be able to

. define the terms logotherapy, paradoxical intention, dereflection, self-detachment and

self-transcendence.

. explain the different views of aggression held by Freud, the behaviourists and Frankl.

. cite points of criticism of Frankl's theory and try to refute or disprove them.

. explain a phenomenological research perspective to a friend.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 202

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IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF FRANKL'S THEORY

YTIVITCA

Study the implications and applications of Frankl's theory in MMV. You should

immediately be able to see the important implications of Frankl's theory for our current

times when life has become meaningless for so many people.

When you have finished reading that section, answer Questions 29 to 31.

QUESTION 29

The following paragraph deals with Frankl's specific contribution to psychotherapy. Read it

through and complete the paragraph by filling in the correct words and sentences.

Frankl called his specific contribution to psychotherapy (a) ................................. . The word

``logotherapy'' means (b) .............................................................................. . Logotherapy is

particularly appropriate for people who suffer from (c) ......................................................,

and the purpose of logotherapy is to (d) ............................................................... .

To convince the client that life still has meaning, the therapist uses interpersonal interaction

by (e) ......................................., (f) .................................... and (g) .................................. .

When he is concerned with phobias or the obsessive-compulsive behaviour associated with

anxiety, Frankl often uses two techniques in logotherapy, namely (h) ....................................

and (i) ........................................ . Mr. X once consulted a therapist about a problem that

caused him great embarrassment. When he walked into a room full of people, Mr. X began

to perspire profusely from anxiety. The logotherapist gave him the following advice: ``When

you next walk into a room full of people, try to perspire more than ever before: in cupfuls.''

Mr. X followed this advice and to his amazement found that he could not perspire at all.

Later he even began to laugh at himself. This technique that the therapist used is called

(j) ........................................ . It literally means that the patient (k) .......................................

In this technique Frankl makes specific use of the spiritual ability (l) ....................................,

which means (m) ........................................................... .

On another occasion Mrs. Z approached the logotherapist with the following problem: The

moment she got into bed at night Mrs. Z could think of nothing else but her breathing. She

concentrated so hard on her breathing that she began to hyperventilate (to breath too fast

and take in too much oxygen) and became dizzy. Her logotherapist recommended that when

she got into bed at night she should imagine that she lay on a beautiful beach on an exotic

island, enjoying the sun and listening to the gentle breeze whispering through the palm

trees. Mrs. Z's therapist used the logotherapeutic technique of (n) .........................................

to enable his patient to forget her problem. He utilised the spiritual ability of

(o) ................................................ which means that (p) .................................................... .

203 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 29

The answers are as follows:

(a) logotherapy

(b) therapy through sense of meaning

(c) È genic neurosis

collective noo

(d) help people who have lost their sense of meaning in life to rediscover meaning in life

(e) ordinary conversation

KCABDEEF

(f) logical reasoning

(g) acceptance of the client

(h) paradoxical intention

(i) dereflection

(j) paradoxical intention

(k) deliberately tries (intention) to do the opposite (paradox) of what he really wanted to do

(to perspire a great deal instead of a little)

(l) self-detachment

(m) that the person detaches himself from his problem and in doing so increases the

distance between himself and his problem (perspiring too much), therefore helping

him to laugh at his problem

(n) dereflection

(o) self-transcendence

(p) he encouraged the person to focus on something outside herself

TNEMHCIRNE

The value of humour should never be underestimated. Frankl believes that humour is very

important for the process of becoming healthy. Allport, (cited in Frankl 1984, p. 148), said

``The neurotic who learns to laugh at himself may be on the way to self-management,

perhaps to cure''. Frankl believes that his technique of paradoxical intention is the empirical

proof and clinical application of this statement of Allport's. By paradoxical intention (which

can be described as a counter-wish) the client can detach himself and look at himself from a

distance and this enables him to laugh at his phobias.

QUESTION 30

Define the following concepts and give an example of each:

(a) Logotherapy

(b) Paradoxical intention

(c) Dereflection

(d) Self-detachment

(e) Self-transcendence

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 204

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 30

The definitions of these concepts were to a large extent given to you in Question 29. Consult

Question 29 as well as MMV if you still experience problems with the definitions. Also try to

think up your own examples.

Frankl (1984, p. 120) relates this anecdote:

I am reminded of the American doctor who once turned up in my clinic in Vienna

and asked me ... ``Can you tell me in one sentence what is meant by logotherapy? ...

At least, what is the difference between psychoanalysis and logotherapy?'' ``Yes,'' I

TNEMHCIRNE

said, ``but in the first place, can you tell me in one sentence what you think the

essence of psychoanalysis is?'' This was his answer: ``During psychoanalysis, the

patient must lie down on a couch and tell you things which sometimes are very

disagreeable to tell.'' Whereupon I immediately retorted with the following

improvisation: ``Now, in logotherapy the patient may remain sitting erect but he

must hear things which sometimes are very disagreeable to hear.''

Of course, Frankl was speaking facetiously and this was not meant to be a serious

explanation of logotherapy, but there is a degree of truth in his definition.

Logotherapy is less retrospective and less introspective than psychoanalysis. It

concentrates on the future and the fulfilment of future goals, rather than on the past,

and it encourages transcendence of the self rather than obsession with self.

QUESTION 31 (ENRICHMENT)

What advice does Frankl have for bringing up children?

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 31

Frankl's advice on bringing up children is basically that children must be taught to take

responsibility and initiative and become involved in their life's tasks.

205 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 In 1933, shortly before the Second World War, Frankl made a study of the unemployment

crisis of that time and found that many young people suffered from a syndrome that he

called the ``unemployment neurosis'' (Frankl, 1984, p. 165). Frankl attributed this neurosis
TNEMHCIRNE

and the severe depression that accompanied it to the phenomenon that people incorrectly

associated unemployment with a feeling of worthlessness and a sense that their lives were

meaningless. In order to give them a sense of meaning, Frankl encouraged these young

people to become involved in voluntary organisations and to offer their help and expertise at

various levels. Although their economic situation did not improve and they were still hungry,

Frankl found that his young patients' depression disappeared.

In South Africa, with its equally bad unemployment problem, one can also give meaning to

one's life by becoming involved in voluntary organisations that provide assistance to the

aged, homeless children, people with cancer or Aids, needy families and others.
YTIVITCA

INTERPRETING AND HANDLING AGGRESSION

Read MMV on what Frankl had to say on aggression.

Then answer Question 32.

QUESTION 32 (ENRICHMENT)

Freud, Skinner and Frankl are asked to appear together on an imaginary television

programme to discuss aggression and violence in South Africa. Mr. Thambo conducts the

interview and poses questions to the three theorists. Take part in the debate by playing the

roles of Freud, Skinner and Frankl respectively.

Thambo: ``Welcome to South Africa, gentlemen! As you must have heard on the news and

read in the newspapers, our country is currently ravaged by aggression and violence. I

would love to hear your views on this. Dr. Freud, may we begin with you? To what would

you ascribe aggression and violence?''

Freud: ``I believe that all people have a tendency toward aggression or, to put it even more

strongly: All people are subject to aggression and there is nothing they can do about it. I

believe that aggression is the result of (a) ..................................... .''

Thambo: ``Wow, that is an extremely deterministic view. Are you saying, in other words, that

there is not much one can do about aggression and violence?''

Freud: ``(b) ..................................... .''

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 206

 PYC2601/1

Thambo: ``Dr. Skinner, do you agree with Dr. Freud about the origin of aggression? How

would you explain it?''

Skinner: ``(c) ...................................................................................... .''

Thambo: ``But what about freedom of choice? Is it impossible for people to choose not to be

violent?''

Skinner: ``(d) ...................................................................................... .''

Thambo: ``Dr. Frankl, do you agree with your colleagues?''

Frankl: ``As far as people's freedom of choice is concerned (e) ............................................ .

I agree with my colleagues to some extent that (f) ..................................................................

However, I believe that (g) ................................................................................................... .''

Thambo: ``Dr. Frankl, do you believe that there is any hope of relief from aggression and

violence in our land? And what can we as the people of this land do to help?''

Frankl: ``(h) .......................................................................................................................... .''

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 32

If you were Freud, Skinner or Frankl, your answers would have been something like this:

(a) the death drive that is inherent in every person. Aggression and violence are examples

of a death drive that is externalised, turned away from the self toward others.

(b) I am afraid that, from my psychoanalytical viewpoint, one cannot do much to reduce

violence. Aggression is part of being human. However, I do believe that one can make
KCABDEEF

use of the defence mechanism of sublimation where aggressive drive energy is

channelled into productive, socially acceptable activities.

(c) No! I definitely do not agree with Dr. Freud. I cannot accept that unavoidable factors

such as drives inside the person could be responsible for aggression and violence. As

a behaviourist I believe that the environment has an all-powerful effect on the person.

The person merely reacts to stimuli in the environment and if the environment is

aggressive, as it is in your country, the person will behave reactively, in other words

aggressively and violently. If a person is also `rewarded' for this violence, the

possibility that the aggression will be repeated is far greater.

(d) No, I do not believe that the person has freedom of choice. One is subject to one's

environment and conditioned to respond to the demands of the environment in

particular ways.

(e) I definitely do not agree. This is, in fact, one of the unique characteristics that make us

human: our freedom of choice.

207 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 (f) the person has a tendency toward aggression (this was repeatedly proved to us by the

torture in concentration camps) and that a violent environment can leave its mark on

people.

(g) the person has freedom of choice and possesses an ability to detach himself or herself

from these aggressive tendencies and environment. People have a wonderful ability to

rise above themselves, their violent circumstances and aggressive environment and to

choose how to deal with the aggression and violence that is directed towards them. One

might not always be able to choose one's circumstances or control outside forces, but

one can choose one's attitude toward these circumstances and suffering.
KCABDEEF

(h) I definitely do have hope for South Africa. However, there are conditions attached and

they are that everyone must believe that there is meaning in life in South Africa and that

everyone must make the right choice for peace.

I close with a quote from my book Man's search for meaning (1984, p. 157). `Man is

ultimately self-determining. What he becomes Ð within the limits of endowment and

environment Ð he has made out of himself. In the concentration camps we watched and

witnessed some of our comrades behave like swine while others behaved like saints. Man

has both potentialities within himself; which one is actualized depends on decisions but not

on conditions.' We cannot continue to use aggressive conditions as an excuse to continue

living in aggression; we can choose to change this and to reach out to fellow South Africans

in making the choice for peace.

You answer is probably quite different from mine. However, as long as it fits the theoretical

frameworks of Freud, Skinner and Frankl, it will be correct.

EVALUATION OF FRANKL'S THEORY

YTIVITCA

When you began your study of Frankl's theory in this chapter, you had already

encountered many other theories and schools of thought. You have therefore probably

noticed some differences between the various schools of thought. Think critically about

Frankl's theory and read the section on its evaluation in MMV. Do you agree with Frankl

or differ from him? How would you criticise Frankl's theory from other theoretical

frameworks?

Now answer Questions 33 to 36.

QUESTION 33 (ENRICHMENT)

What would be the main point of criticism of Frankl's theory from a positivistic scientific

viewpoint? (Do you know what is implied by a positivistic scientific viewpoint?)

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 208

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 33

People who hold a positivistic scientific view (only believing something is true if it can be

proved empirically) criticise Frankl's theory because it is not based on scientific research,

and because it cannot be tested empirically. Since one cannot measure a sense of suffering

or the will to meaning by way of a questionnaire, the positivists see Frankl's theory as

unscientific.

QUESTION 34 (ENRICHMENT)

Why do some critics believe that Frankl's theory is not a complete personality theory and

therefore does not belong in a book on personology? Do you agree with these critics?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 34
KCABDEEF

Some critics believe that Frankl's theory is not a true personality theory because it focuses

mainly on motivation of behaviour to the exclusion of other aspects that are also

characteristic of a personality theory.

However, it was not Frankl's intention to write a complete personality theory, but rather to fill

certain gaps that existed in other theories. These mainly concerned motivational aspects

such as the person's free will, will to meaning, and search for meaning in life that were

neglected by other theorists. I think we would be much poorer without Frankl's theory in

personology!

QUESTION 35 (ENRICHMENT)

``Frankl's theory should be studied from the phenomenological research perspective.'' Do

you agree with this statement? Substantiate your answer.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 35

Yes, I agree with the statement. Frankl works with spiritual aspects (or phenomena) such as

``the will to meaning'' which cannot be measured using traditional empirical methods,

because it is unmeasurable and unquantifiable. The phenomenological research perspective

was specially developed to study spiritual phenomena (or features).

209 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 QUESTION 36

Turn back to Question 3 in this study guide. When you wrote down these concepts, they

seemed very strange to you. Do you now know what each one means?

OVERVIEW OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FRANKL'S

THEORY
YTIVITCA

The following real-life story illustrates the fundamental principles of Frankl's theory. Test

whether you fully understand these principles by answering Questions 37 to 41, which

are multiple-choice questions.

The Helen Martins' story

Helen Martins is the famous artist who created the ``Owl House'' in the little village of Nieu

Bethesda in the Karoo. In the book This is my life, Sue Ross recorded Helen's story.

Helen experienced her past as a time of darkness. Her father was a tyrannical man who

abused his wife and had little time for Helen. The youngest of 10 children, of whom four

died, Helen's birth caused her mother to become an invalid, incapable of giving her the love

and attention she needed. Her mother's eventual death caused Helen great grief. The ugly

duckling of the family, Helen was very shy of people in a vulnerable kind of way. When both

her marriages ended in divorce, Helen became branded as an outcast in the strictly religious

and Calvinist community of Nieu Bethesda, yet Helen continued to stay in the little family

home with her father. When he died, she began renovating the home. Helen loved anything

that could be used to create light. She plastered her walls with many pieces of brightly

coloured glass and hung mirrors everywhere, painted figures of the sun on her windows and

ceilings, placed candles and lamps in every room. Her home became a cascade of light,

reflecting every colour of the rainbow. Helen started sculpturing in cement. Big-eyed owls

were her favourite subjects. Eventually her little garden was filled to capacity with all sorts of

sculptures arranged in a fascinating manner. All her figures pointed to the East Ð they were

going to Mecca, a destiny of beauty, Helen explained. Her biographer, Sue Ross, wrote this

about the world Helen created: ``It is intended to provoke a sense of sight and meaning on a

metaphysical level.'' After her death her home became a museum which put the little village

of Bethesda on the map of famous places. The museum, known as the ``Owl House'',

continues to delight and inspire a steady flow of visitors from all over the world.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 210

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QUESTION 37

According to Frankl, Helen's story is a vivid portrayal of

(1) the will to power.

(2) the will to pleasure or happiness.

(3) the will to meaning.

(4) the will to self-actualisation.

QUESTION 38

Despite her unhappy childhood, Helen made something beautiful out of her life. According

to Frankl's theory, this illustrates human capacities such as

(a) freedom of will.

(b) self-transcendence.

(c) sublimation.

(d) the realisation of spiritual values.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a), (b) & (d)

(2) All of the above

(3) (c) & (d)

(4) (c)

QUESTION 39

In terms of Frankl's theory, Helen's love of sculpting big-eyed owls can be linked to

(1) a need to look into her past to find the reasons for her inability to escape the

debilitating effects of her unhappy childhood.

(2) an existential vacuum or the spiritual emptiness of her life.

(3) the losses and rejections which she suffered in her life and which continued to haunt

her.

(4) her will to provoke a sense of sight and meaning despite the darkness of her unhappy

past.

211 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 QUESTION 40

Helen's story illustrates the following principles of Frankl's theory:

(a) Happiness must first be attained before meaning can be found.

(b) As humans we have the potential to transform tragedy into a personal triumph.

(c) We find fulfilment through the creative contributions we make.

(d) Suffering does not deprive us of our freedom to decide how we will deal with it.

The correct answer is:

(1) All of the above

(2) (a), (c) & (d)

(3) (b), (c) & (d)

(4) (a) & (c)

QUESTION 41

The fact that Helen made all the figures in her garden face east towards Mecca represents the

following characteristic of human functioning according to the theory of Frankl:

(1) A future directedness: We are continually reaching out beyond a mere day-to-day

existence.

(2) A power orientation: We try to overcome feelings of inadequacy or inferiority by striving

for superiority.

(3) A striving after happiness: We will sacrifice all or do anything only to be happy.

(4) A tendency towards self-actualisation: We want to realise all our potentials to the full.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTIONS 37 TO 41

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 37

Alternative 3 is correct. The Helen Martins story is a powerful illustration of the will to

meaning. When her tyrannical father died, it was as if the last of the unhappy influences in

her life ended. Helen started her new life. Out of the darkness of her past, she created light.
KCABDEEF

Her whole orientation was to have sight (understanding) on a higher level of being, which is

the level of meaning. She wanted to make something special of her life and she did. She left

an art heritage unique in the world, a heritage that the hundreds of visitors who flock to her

Owl House every year experience as a blessing and an enrichment. Despite her miserable

past life, Helen succeeded in achieving a most meaningful life. It is Frankl's contention that a

fundamental striving in all of us is our need to have a life of purpose and meaning, to

achieve something worthwhile and to have some impact of lasting value on the world around

us. This fundamental will to meaning is set in clear contradiction against what other

personality theorists have postulated as a core motivation in human nature. It opposes a will

to power (the view of Alfred Adler) (Alternative 1); a will to pleasure and happiness (Freud's

view of homeostasis) (Alternative 2); as well as the will to self-actualisation (Maslow's view)

(Alternative 4). Frankl contended that power is only a means to an end, not an end in itself.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 212

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Pleasure and happiness, Frankl asserted, are the by-products or results of having achieved

something worthwhile, or of having experienced love or beauty, or after having understood

some great truth, or of experiencing our lives as filled with meaning and purpose. Happiness

cannot be pursued, Frankl contended, since it ensues. The more we try to be happy, the

more it will escape us! This is also true of self-actualisation. We cannot set this as a goal but

rather, as we fulfil our life tasks, responsibilities and life's mission, we will be actualising

ourselves and attaining our full human stature. Alternatives 1, 2 and 4 are therefore

incorrect.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 38

Alternative 1 is correct. In realising her will to meaning (her will to rise above the misery of

her past into a life of creativity, purpose and meaning), Helen exercised her freedom of will

(Statement (a)), and transcended herself and her circumstances, up to the death of her father,

by becoming a new person who now created the kind of circumstances conducive to her full

development as a person (Statement (b)). She was realising spiritual values, values of

beauty, meaning and purpose (Statement (d)). Helen's story is a powerful demonstration of

the fact that, as human beings, we have the spiritual power to change, to free ourselves from

our own hurts, emotional hang-ups and dark forebodings. This is an altogether different
KCABDEEF

concept to sublimation Ð Freud's contention that artistic endeavours are ways in which we

give legitimate expression to forbidden wishes. Sublimation is a defensive manoeuvre, and

has none of the freedom of a self-transcendent act. Statement (c) is therefore an incorrect

answer, making Alternatives 2, 3 and 4 which contain it incorrect.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 39

Alternative 4 is correct. Helen's owl sculptures have big eyes, as if full of vision. Owls can

see in the darkness. This symbolism points to Helen's will to bring light and meaning into

her life, to banish the darkness of her past and to grow beyond it. She turned her face to the

future and did not turn back to delve into her past (contrary to what is stated in Alternative

1). She was filling the vacuum left by her unhappy past, and her life consequently became

brimful with meaning (in clear contrast to Alternative 2). She overcame the losses and

rejections of her past. They no longer haunted her (contrary to the statement in Alternative

3). Alternatives 1, 2 and 3 are therefore incorrect.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 40

Alternative 3 is correct. Helen's story vividly illustrates that as humans, we have the potential

to transform tragedy into a personal triumph (Statement (b)). Helen changed her setting,

which was one of misery, into a setting filled with joy. She illustrated the fact that suffering

does not deprive us of our freedom to decide how we will deal with it (Statement (d)). Helen

turned her life (and suffering) around by finding great fulfilment through her creative work

213 The existential theory of Viktor Frankl

 (Statement (c)), work that is inspiring the hundreds of visitors flocking to her home, now a

historical monument. All three of these facts prove that the popular statement in Statement

(a) is wrong, namely that we must first attain happiness before we can find meaning in life.

Happiness is the result of having found meaning in life! Alternatives 1, 2 and 4 include

Statement (a) and are therefore incorrect.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 41
KCABDEEF

Alternative 1 is correct. The fact that Helen made all the figures in her garden face east

towards Mecca is evidence of the fact that she directed her vision towards the future, away

from the misery of her past life. We all have plans and hopes and dreams. We have life goals

and a vision of what we want to achieve. Opportunities come to us from the future. They

open doors to what stretches ahead of us as a possibility. Frankl stated these ideas in clear

contradiction to what he believed are manifestations of a meaningless life, a life in which our

will to meaning has been thwarted, or suppressed, namely, a power orientation as a

compensation for lack (Alternative 2); a striving after happiness that makes us blind to what

is really meaningful in life as we seek the reassurance of pleasure (Alternative 3); and self-

actualisation as a goal in itself Ð an orientation that can misplace our focus on ourselves,

rather than on what life requires of us (Alternative 4). Alternatives 2, 3 and 4 are therefore

incorrect.
NOISULCNOC NI

Frankl regards the person as a spiritual being who has both freedom and responsibility: A

being who can transcend the self; who can reach out to other people or to things higher than

the self to become, ultimately, more than the self. People are primarily directed to find

meaning in life. Frankl's logotherapy has made an enormous contribution to psychotherapy,

helping people who have lost a sense of meaning in life to rediscover meaning in their lives.

REFERENCES

Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man's search for meaning. New York: Washington Square.

Shantall, H. M. (2002). Life's meaning in the face of suffering: The testimony of Holocaust

surviviors. Jerusalem: Magnes.

The existential theory of Viktor Frankl 214

 PART
PART 5
5

ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 7: African perspectives

 PYC2601/1

RETPAHC
7
AFRICAN PERSPECTIVES

Prof. Henning Viljoen and Miss Patricia Oosthuizen

(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008, p. x)

217 African perspectives

 This chapter should make you realise that apart from different theoretical perspectives

in personology (i.e. theories like those of Freud, Jung, Skinner, Rogers and others that

you have studied), there are also views of human functioning that cannot be

accommodated within the theoretical frameworks, and that the greater cultural contexts

of specific traditions of civilisation are also important for an understanding of human

functioning.

ORIENTATION

The theories you have learned about up to now belong to the

Euro-American tradition of civilisation and they are aimed at

understanding the behaviour of people who live within that

tradition. However, there is also an Eastern or Oriental tradition

of civilisation and an African tradition of civilisation, and each of

these traditions exercises some influence on human functioning

with Kluckhohn and Murray's (see Murray in MMV) famous

words, in mind,

Every man is in certain respects

(a) like all other men.

(b) like some other men.

(c) like no other man.

the African perspective is therefore concerned with the idea that human functioning within

one particular cultural context (``like some other men'') may differ from the functioning of

people in another cultural context. This is actually a very controversial problem in

psychology and for this reason the personologist needs to be aware of it, but strictly

speaking, culture-related functioning (``like some other men'') as opposed to universal

human functioning (``like all other men'') is specifically addressed in the subdiscipline of

cross-cultural psychology.

There has been tremendous change in the new South Africa with its rainbow nation Ð

these changes are coupled with new demands that are now being made of established

institutions and traditions. As a result, a subject like psychology, and in particular a

course of study like personology, is confronted by the reality that our knowledge and

understanding of the behaviour and functioning of a large percentage of our population is

still very limited and inadequate. The knowledge base of psychology, that is, its methods

and theories, is mainly Eurocentric. In purely scientific subjects such as chemistry and

physics, the origin of the knowledge base is irrelevant, but when we are concerned with a

subject that deals with human behaviour and functioning that cannot be dissociated from

the context in which it takes place, the origin of the knowledge base is important. (To

understand just how important this context is for an understanding of behaviour, please

read the chapter on the ecosystemic approach in MMV.)

African perspectives 218

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If we want to understand human functioning, we must keep the context (including the

cultural context) of behaviour in mind. For this reason it is essential for us as

personologists to learn about the contexts of African and Oriental civilisation in order to

complement our Eurocentric knowledge base. Without this knowledge we cannot hope to

understand and explain the behaviour of the people who function in these contexts.

This chapter is based on Chapter 17 in MMV (2008).

STUDY UNIT 7.1

1.7

In this study unit you will begin to ask questions about the general validity of the theories that

you have studied up to now and you will think of reasons why up to
to now
now no personality

theories have been

been developed
developed from an African perspective.
perspective We also discuss the need for an

African perspective in personology and the possible contribution that such a perspective could

make to an understanding of human functioning.

After you have worked through study unit 7.1, you should

be able to
SEMOCTUO

. explain to a friend why you think that the theories that you have studied up to now

are or are not applicable to people from different cultures and why an African

perspective is or is not essential.

. write a paragraph about the reasons why no one has as yet developed a personality

theory from a specifically African perspective.

. briefly discuss the important contribution that an African perspective could make to

personology, and the need for an indigenous psychology.

YTIVITCA

INTRODUCTION TO AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE

Study the introduction and background section on an African perspective in MMV and

the orientation at the beginning of this chapter.

Then answer Questions 1 and 2.

219 African perspectives

 QUESTION 1

Using the knowledge of psychology that you have gained up to now, answer the following

questions. We do not expect you to give final (definitive) answers at this stage.

(a) What sort of human functioning can we see in all people irrespective of their different

cultures?

(b) What sort of human functioning can we identify in some groups of people but not in

other groups?

(c) What sort of human functioning can you identify in yourself and in no-one else?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 1

If, for example, we think about the biological level of being human, we can say that
KCABDEEF

(a) all people are the same because we all have the same basic physiological functions

involving blood circulation, organs for respiration or breathing, feet, hands, and so on,

but

(b) some groups of people share biological characteristics that distinguish them from

other groups (think, for example, about the shape and colour of eyes, type and colour

of hair, skin colour) and

(c) every individual is also biologically unique (e.g. fingerprints).

In the same way we can also point out the universality, similarity and uniqueness of other

human functions.

QUESTION 2

If you managed to identify a few points for each of these categories, ask yourself which of

the theories that you have studied up to now gave you answers for all three categories. In

other words, do you think that the theories of Freud, Skinner and Rogers (or any others that

you have studied) are applicable to all people from any period in time or from any culture?

Do you think, for example, that Freud's pansexual view Ð that is, that the origin of the

source of the largest part of human behaviour can be ascribed to the sexual impulse Ð is

applicable to people in our modern world? Do you think that Freud's Oedipus complex offers

an explanation of sexual role identification that could be applied to all cultures? For

example, could it be compared to the initiation rites that are practised in some traditional

black African cultures? Would you say that Skinner's S±R principle is a universal principle

of learning that applies to all people in all cultures? Would you say that Rogers' emphasis

on self-actualisation can be reconciled with or compared to the idea of self-sacrifice and

self-denial within the Christian tradition or to the Hindu and Buddhist concept of self-

transcendence?

African perspectives 220

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KCABDEEF FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 2

At this stage we do not expect you to give detailed answers. Nevertheless we hope that by

asking these questions and trying to find the answers, you have discovered that some

theories provide universal answers about certain features of human functioning. In other

words, these theories offer theoretical explanations for behaviour that is applicable to all

people irrespective of their cultural differences. Hopefully you have also noticed that some

aspects of certain theories are applicable to Western people only, and that they do not

necessarily take account of the Oriental or African traditions of civilisation.

LACK OF A PERSONALITY THEORY FROM AN AFRICAN

PERSPECTIVE
YTIVITCA

If we now accept that culture does have an influence on human functioning, it is essential

that in South Africa, where we form part of the African tradition of civilisation, we must

take note of the possible influence that this tradition has on human behaviour. Study the

introduction and background in MMV and then read the following extract from an article

by Nsamenang (1995), while you think about this question: Why has no one yet

developed a personality theory from an African perspective?

Answer Question 3.

In an overview of the position of psychology in Africa south of the Sahara, Nsamenang

(1995, pp 730±732) suggests the following possible explanation of why it lags so far

behind psychology in Europe and America.

Scientific psychology arrived in Africa during colonization in the context of

anthropological research ... Its theories and methods are still Eurocentric and its

primary focus is on topics that reflect this externalized orientation, thereby neglecting

or excluding folk knowledge and local issues.

Most Africans have neither heard nor know the meaning of the term psychology. This

may be due to its marginal status in academia and the rudimentary but fragmented

nature of psychological services. In Cameroon, for example, psychology has not been

recognized as a full-fledged academic discipline, nor as a service domain. Not only the

African people are unaware of the importance of the discipline; this is also true of

governments, institutions, and universities. For instance, after psychologists

discovered that Malawians were tolerant of different health care systems, their plea

for integrating traditional healers into the health care system was ignored. The

Malawian Ministry of Health is developing a Western-style health system in which

indigenous healers at best occupy only a marginal role ...

The historical development of psychology clearly reveals its nascent state in Sub-

Saharan Africa. Except for universities in South Africa, no university in Afrique Noire

(Black Africa) had a department of psychology in 1962 ... Even by the mid-1950s not

221 African perspectives

 more than 20 African universities had a psychology department, and less than 10 had

a history of research that extended beyond 10 years ... In British West Africa,

psychology was first taught as a course in 1949. A department of psychology was first

established in that region in 1964; the first undergraduate degree in the subject was

awarded in 1967; a Master's degree in 1975; and a Doctorate in 1982 ... The first

laboratory of experimental psychology in the sub-continent was set up in Zambia in

1965. Whereas post-graduate studies in psychology began in Zambia in 1984, while

the University of Yyaounde, Cameroon, still offers psychology as a minor under

philosophy ... The psychologist:population ratio may commensurate to the low interest

accorded the discipline, but 58 academic psychologists in Nigeria appears a rather

small number for its estimated population of 116 million. However, the ratio still

exceeds that of many sub-Saharan African countries, (except South Africa) ...

The scientific ethos was imported into Africa as a ready-made intellectual package.

Psychology also lacks indigenous concepts and tools to capture local knowledge and

points of view adequately. Related to this is the issue of scientific acculturation, which is

not simply an imperialist academic domination of Africans but also a self-imposed

emulation of Euro-American models ... many African psychologists are largely unaware of

the Eurocentric nature of the discipline. They inadvertently promote Euro-American values

and epistemologies to the neglect of their own. As a result, the psychology that is

developing on the continent is Eurocentric in cognitive and value orientation.

QUESTION 3

Briefly discuss possible reasons why no personality theories have been developed from an

African perspective up to now.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 3

After reading Nsamenang's explanation, as well as studying the introduction and background

to the African perspective in MMV, you should now be able to explain in your own words

why you think a personality theory has not yet been developed from an African perspective.

WHAT IS THE VALUE OF AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE?

YTIVITCA

We have already established that culture plays an important role in human functioning and

that the theories that come from a Euro-American tradition probably cannot explain the

behaviour variations of people outside that cultural tradition. The question that now arises is:

What contribution can an African perspective make to an understanding of human

functioning in general? Once again, it is Nsamenang (1995) who offers possible reasons for

why an African perspective is of value. Study the introduction and background to the African

perspective in MMV and read the following extract before answering Questions 4 and 5.

African perspectives 222

 PYC2601/1

Nsamenang (1995, pp 735±737) writes as follows:

African social thought and folk psychology are structured by ethnotheories and

epistemologies that differ in remarkable ways from those that drive Western thought

and psychology. As a result, when scholars apply Western concepts and categories to

African systems, they discover that they do not fit. Psychologists have rarely asked

what African epistemology portends for the universalistic range of psychological

knowledge. It is as if Africa has nothing to offer psychology. The implication is that an

exclusive use of Western models and methods may exclude some African precepts and

phenomena, perhaps the most significant ones, from the corpus of the discipline's

knowledge base.

Although folk psychology functions within its own context, academic psychology has

been and continues to be used as a standard against which the adequacy of folk

psychology is measured. In culture and human experience there may be ``truths'' that

are inaccessible to science. That is, folk psychology may contain rich sources of

insight that are hard to verify by current scientific methods. A great deal of wisdom, for

instance, is embedded in African folklore, idioms, spatial use of cues, and touch, but

the extent which extant research methods can sensitively extract or access it is as best

doubtful ...

The search for relevance and progress in psychology in sub-Saharan Africa

concentrate on the emergence and evolution of indigenous psychology. The process is

best undertaken within a contextualist framework, which is suitable for African

cultures. The case for its suitability has three major premises: (1) the hybrid nature of

Africa's politico-economic systems; (2) African world views that sanction harmony

with nature; and (3) a territorial imperative, or psychological attachment of identity with

place: Many traditional settings in Africa prescribe distinctive patterns of behaviour.

Given the peculiar nature of African social thought and modes of survival and life,

contextualist approaches to psychological research in African societies are likely to

provide data to fill gaps or complement our knowledge of psychological functioning.

Such approaches can furnish insights that can induce reconsideration of theories that

assume Euro-American ways of life ...

Not only will indigenous psychology enhance understanding of local phenomena, but

it will also expand our vision of what forms psychological functioning may take in

diverse cultures. This may call to question models derived primarily from studies of

Western populations.

QUESTION 4 (ENRICHMENT)

You can return to this question after you have read Nsamenang's guidelines and worked

through the whole chapter. Why is an African perspective important and how can it

contribute to a better understanding of human functioning?

223 African perspectives

 FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 4

Here are a few points that you could have mentioned:

KCABDEEF

. The one-sidedness of the existing Euro-American perspectives and how unsuitable

they sometimes are for understanding and explaining the behaviour of people from

other cultures.

. The way that scientific knowledge can be enriched by studying the wealth of

indigenous or local folk psychology. (Explain what indigenous folk psychology

means.)

. The importance of a contextual approach which means that an African perspective is

indispensable to developing an understanding of human functioning.

QUESTION 5

All this time we have been speaking of an African perspective as if there was only one

uniform perspective in Africa. Is there one uniform perspective, or what exactly do we have

in mind when we refer to an African perspective?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 5
KCABDEEF

You should have said that on one hand there are things that indicate that we cannot talk

about one uniform black African perspective because at present, many black Africans find

themselves in a transitional stage between different traditions of civilisation and, in addition,

the population of black Africa is not a homogeneous group of people and African countries

display a wide diversity at different levels, such as in education, health services and

infrastructure. But you should also have mentioned that, on the other hand, there are

nevertheless important factors that distinguish the African perspective from a Euro-American

or Oriental perspective.

STUDY UNIT 7.2

2.7

In this study unit you will learn about the worldview

worldview traditionally
traditionally held
held by
by black
black Africans,
Africans in

other words, not the view of Africans who have already undergone a process of

westernisation, but a view that has been built on the foundation of a traditional view of life

before colonialisation.

African perspectives 224

 PYC2601/1

SEMOCTUO After working through study unit 7.2, you should be able to

. typify the worldview traditionally held by Africans in a brief definition.

. distinguish clearly between the three cosmic orders (namely, the macro-, meso- and

microcosmos) underlying the African view of the person and worldview.

. indicate in what respects this order of the African perspective differs from a Euro-

American worldview.

. point out the possible implications of this different worldview for personology.

VIEW OF THE PERSON AND WORLDVIEW UNDERLYING THE

YTIVITCA

AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE

Study the section in MMV that deals with the view of the person and worldview underlying

the perspective.

Then answer Question 6 which is a multiple-choice question and Question 7.

QUESTION 6

The worldview of the traditional African is based on

(1) a holistic and theocentric view (which places God at the focal point or centre).

(2) a holistic and person-oriented view.

(3) a view that people form an indivisible whole with God and nature, with man as the focal

point.

(4) a person-oriented and pantheistic view. (God is in nature and everything revolves

around nature)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 6
KCABDEEF

The correct answer is Alternative 3. Although the African view can in fact be typified as

holistic, neither God (theocentric view), nor the individual (person-oriented view) nor nature

(pantheistic view) form the focal point. Instead, the African view focuses on people as

individuals and social beings (anthropocentric view). Because traditional Africans attribute

godlike characteristics to stones, rocks, tree trunks, rivers and various animals, their

worldview has a pantheistic basis, but people as social beings (and not as individuals) form

the general focus of this traditional view.

225 African perspectives

 QUESTION 7

Briefly describe your own personal view of God and show how it differs from or agrees with

the traditional black African view of the macrocosmos.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 7

Depending on whether you have an atheistic view of God (i.e. do not believe in any god/s at

all) or hold a Judaic-Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Hindu or traditional African viewpoint,

KCABDEEF

your own view will form the point of departure for your answer. After presenting your own

ideas, you should have indicated the differences and/or similarities between your own view

of God and that of the traditional black African. What is most important is the God-person

relationship that is defined by points such as the following:

. The characteristics of the specific God/gods.

. The nature of the God-person relationship(s) and God's position relative to the person

in this(these) relationship(s).

. To what extent the person is believed to be personally responsible or accountable for

his/her own behaviour in this(these) relationship(s).

THE AFRICAN WORLDVIEW (COSMIC ORDERS)

Attie van Niekerk is a missionary and Rector of the Stofberg Theology College at the
YTIVITCA

University of the North. In his work as missionary and lecturer he is confronted daily with the

differences and similarities between a Western worldview and the worldview of black Africans

who find themselves in transition between a Western and a traditional African life style. Read

the following section from his book Saam in Afrika (1992, pp 102±104) where he describes

some of his experiences. Also study the section on the African worldview in MMV (Section

3).

Then answer Questions 8 and 9.

I have come to realise that between the modern world and the traditional world there

lies a completely different world, a half-formed world of confusion and maladjustment

at all levels of people's daily existence.

The case of a (black) evangelist's widow from an area close to the Theology College

illustrates how few of (black) people's deepest problems are addressed by Western

institutions.

The widow's son was one of our theology students. During one vacation he asked

permission to make photostats of a funeral programme. He said that his sister had

African perspectives 226

 PYC2601/1

been struck by lightning, that people said that there was still some of the smoke and

heat from the bolt of lightning in her body and that is why she had died.

Over two years later I heard the rest of the story ... one of our final year students who

was doing fieldwork for our research project happened to meet the widow. Mrs. B.,

says his report, is the widow of an evangelist (from a Christian church). Before the

evangelist died, he had built a house for his family. After his death, the widow moved

in with her four sons and four daughters. Two years later she still felt insecure and like

a stranger in the new house and environment.

During her whole life she had worked with her husband to spread the Word of God.

She also helped to bring in money by knitting and selling jerseys. She now lived in a

strange area, threatened by many dangers.

To begin with, there was her ``taboo'' Ð the thlantlhagane, a certain little bird. When

she was young, she was told that her eyes would never recover if she killed or ate this

little bird. This was not a serious problem because she knew how to cope with it.

But there was a deeper fear. It all began when she first moved into the new house. Her

daughter, who was pregnant, was struck by lightning. Mrs. B. said that the same bolt

of lightning that had struck her daughter, had also chased her into the house like a

snake on the ground. From then on, her feet burned and the heat moved gradually up

her legs. It was eating away at her.

When they took the girl to hospital, the doctor said that there was nothing wrong with

her: she was fine. However, the family insisted that she go to a traditional doctor so

that he could extract the smoke and heat of the lightning from her body; this was

something that the Western doctor did not understand.

The girl agreed, but she was afraid that the treatment might harm her unborn child and

she postponed it to a few months after the birth Ð but by then it was too late. She had

died from the heat of the lightning that had remained in her body over the months. It

was at that stage that her brother had come to us to make photostats for the funeral.

After the lightning struck Mrs. B.'s daughter, the people of the village got together, caught

an old woman and burned her alive, because they blamed her for the lightning. The police

then arrested some people and four of them were sentenced to jail for five to eight years.

Now Mrs. B. lived in fear of both the family of the old woman who had been burned to

death and the families of the four who had been sentenced to jail. The people might

blame her and her family for everything that had happened ... (The researcher) asked her

if the old woman really was responsible for the lightning. She replied: ``I do not know. I

was still a stranger here, but people say they know it was that old woman. Many people

have lost cattle and property because of her. In actual fact, she was trapped.''

A colleague spoke to the children who had helped to burn the old woman. They

willingly showed him the place where it had happened. He asked them why they had

227 African perspectives

 done it. They said she was a witch. How did they know that? They knew it because

when they had tried to catch her she ran so fast that they could hardly catch her. If a

woman of 70 could run so fast she had to be a witch. The colleague said that what he

found so upsetting was that the children were members of the (Christian) church Ð

children of the church, Sunday School children.

There is a widespread way of thinking in Africa that we have often come up against in

the past. If something goes wrong there is always someone who can be held

responsible. There are forces at work, very strong forces, that cannot be grasped by

scientific investigations. Science only examines the visible, the empirically verifiable,

and that is only a very small part of reality.

[Our translation]

QUESTION 8

What cosmic order of the African worldview could explain the widow's fear, the death of her

daughter and the murder of the old woman? How would this differ from a Western explanation?

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 8
KCABDEEF

Make sure that you fully understand what is meant by the cosmic orders before you finally

decide which order or even orders could account for the widow's fear, the girl's death and

the murder of the old woman.

In the second part of the question it was mainly up to you to show the differences between

the traditional and the Western explanations.

QUESTION 9

Discuss the differences between the European and the African view of the individual-

community relationship and indicate its implications for personology from a Western

perspective. Illustrate your answer with examples from specific personality theories that you

have studied.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 9
KCABDEEF

Take a look at the differences that are pointed out by Nobles in the section on the

microcosmos in MMV. Then indicate the implications of these differences by asking yourself

to what extent a theory like that of Rogers with its emphasis of self-actualisation, and other

theories that emphasise the ego/self, individual functioning and personal responsibility

could possibly have relevance for an African perspective. Also indicate which theories/views

that use a Western perspective can provide a better understanding of traditional black

Africans, and substantiate your answer.

African perspectives 228

 PYC2601/1

THE AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON DISEASE AND HEALTH

YTIVITCA

The traditional black African worldview has important implications for the general view of

disease and health. After studying about the African worldview in MMV you must please also

read the following two extracts, from the works of Sindiwe Magona and Godwin Sogolo.

Then answer Questions 10 and 11.

Sindiwe Magona (1990, pp 56±59, 71) described her book To my children's children as ``a

letter from a Xhosa Grandmother'' that she had written to her grandchildren because she did

not want them to lose contact with their own history. In this book one can learn a lot about

the traditional way of life. Read the following extract from the book after you have studied the

section on the view of the person and worldview underlying the perspective in MMV.

The birth of a baby was another of those things that held tremendous fascination for

me ...

Just as babies born into western societies get their BCG before they even leave the

hospital, so also were we ``fortified'' so that we would not fall easy prey to evil intents

of those who wished us ill. Powdery medicine would be mixed with mother's milk and

forced down the throat. Other medicine, mixed with oils, would be rubbed on our

bodies especially between the eyebrows, on the chest, under the soles of the feet; and

then those old enough would be asked, individually, to dip a finger into the can or

bottle and rub ``down there''. This ritual is repeated each time a new baby comes into

the family.

Most traditional medicine is nondescript as far as taste and smell. However, those

medicines that do have taste or smell or both, more than make up for any such

deficiency on the part of the others.

Vile! Vile and sickening and so terrible I often felt I was in danger of being knocked off

just by the foulness of the stench of some of the medicine we had to suffer for our

protection ...

Between such medicine and what it was supposed to protect us from, in my opinion

we are exceedingly lucky to be here to tell the tale. I also figured if it took such

repulsive measures to fight witchcraft, the latter had to be, at least, worse. And that was

bad enough for me.

And then there was incision! That certainly beat all other evil, even the corporal

punishment that often befell us. Incision was said to be the most potent weapon

against witchcraft. Igqirha, a witchdoctor, or ixhwele, a medicine man, having been

invited by father, would appear at our doorstep, unexpectedly for us children. After that

chit-chat, during which we vainly hoped he was just passing through, he would begin.

We would be asked to take off all our clothes saving the panties for the girls who were

229 African perspectives

 already pubescent. Then he would attack. Razor in hand, he would take the victim, and

place him or her facing him. Starting at the top and working his way swiftly

downwards, he displays precision many a butcher would envy: again and again the

blade slashes. He goes to the fontanelle, two-three little lines each cut into deeply

enough not only to open the skin but to draw blood. Often this called for each incision

to be repeated: cut-cut, that meant one incision; cut-cut, another. Witchdoctors would

make these incision in patterns of two or three ... the top and front done, there was the

whole wide-open defenceless back also to be done ... Between forty and sixty

incisions, each cut into at least twice.

The purpose of this whole exercise was not, however, to cut and bleed. Getting the

medicine into the bloodstream, the objective was then achieved by the direct method:

into the raw, open bleeding incisions, the witchdoctor would rub the jet-black burning

powder. His instructions, terse and gruff: ``Do not wash for two days'' Ð were given

simultaneously to both parents and children. Having been paid, he would depart

knowing we would not wash for two days. Our parents would see to that. They were not

made of money and were not about to risk calling him back to re-do the job because

we had been careless enough to wash the precious medicine off before it had truly

taken and penetrated thoroughly into our bloodstream. We, on the other hand, would

have stayed unwashed for a year to avoid a repeat demonstration of our parents'

concern for our well-being.

In case I have mislead you into thinking that this was painful, I apologize. The real

ordeal, the ridicule and humiliation, was yet to come. Our special purgatory was the

knowing snickers and the jeers, Baqatshulwe! baqatshulwe! (They have been given

incisions!) Belonging as we believed we did, in the group of westernized and

Christianized people, we were supposed to have left behind all things of darkness:

nudity, imibhaco (the traditional skirt), red ochre used for cosmetic purposes, and the

practice of and belief in witchcraft, to name a few ... The practice of ancestral worship

was a different matter. The missionaries realized that, if they continued to condemn it,

they would empty the Christian Church of its African adherents. We are not easily

divorced from our ancestors.

This straddling of two worlds, the world of school and ``civilization'' and the world of

ancestor worship, witchdoctors, and traditional rites, often created disagreements in

our home. Following, for example, particularly convincing lessons about fresh air

during hygiene classes, one of us would become enthusiastic about ``open windows''.

Well, my mother would rather have died than give witches the opportunity, nay the

invitation to peer into her house while she slumbered defenceless. The benefits of

fresh air not withstanding, she was not a fool, proclaimed my mother, unmoved by our

entreaties. ``What do teachers know?''

Even when resourceful Jongi (the younger brother) would resort to: ``But we are safe.

We have been fortified, remember? Remember the witchdoctor?'', it was to no avail.

``He didn't fortify you against suicide'', Mother would retort, adding, ``and I didn't send

you to school to find out you have a mouth!''

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Who could argue against such wisdom? ...

I had come to accept the existence of two far from compatible worlds, the one world of

traditions, rites, and ancestor worship and the other, the world of ``civilization'' that

included school.

Godwin Sogolo is a philosopher who is concerned with traditional African philosophy. This

extract from his work Foundations of African Philosophy (1993, pp 108±110, 113) deals

specifically with the difference between Western and African views of disease and health.

The history of science is replete with instances of phenomena that were at one time

explained in supernatural terms but which at the dawn of experimental science had

their scientific principles fully uncovered by scientists. In such instances one could

say that their scientific explanations either mutually exclude their supernatural

interpretations or that the former render the latter superfluous ...

Generally, health and illness are concerned in terms of the ability or inability of the

human body to function in normal activities. In modern orthodox medicine, the

emphasis is on the functioning of parts of the body such that a person is considered ill

if there are structural changes in the cells of parts of the body resulting in the failure of

those parts to function, in some cases leading to the incapacitation of the whole body.

With recent developments in medical technology and its high level of specializations,

more and more attention is now directed to the impaired parts of the body and

treatment has risen to the level of transplant/implant of human organs such as the

heart, pancreas, liver, kidney, etc. In contrast, traditional African cultures hold a

holistic conception of disease or illness. A man is considered ill if he experiences

some measure of unusual feeling, pain or incapacity and may be in danger of death or

mutilation. Once his day-to-day life activities (the ability to work or to perform social

duties) are affected by this usual general feeling, such a man is said to be ill whether

or not the causes are traceable to specific structural changes in the cells of the body.

This holistic conception of health and illness, which may be considered unorthodox in

modern medical practice, is firmly held among (most African cultures) ... there is even

a wider conception of health and illness which incorporates both the physical state of

the person and his socio-psychological dispositions. In this conception, to be healthy

is to be in total harmony with all the forces that assail man's well-being. Some of it

may sound metaphorical but in Africa a person is said to be ill when he is afflicted by

forces such as hunger, unemployment, laziness, strained human relationships, lack of

money, infertility, domestic problems, etc. He is considered ill in so far as these

factors impair his productive abilities and, therefore, his overall capacity to fulfill his

aspirations in life ...

An important aspect of the African conception of health and illness is that it is the

whole human body that is considered either well or in a diseased state, not merely

some part of the body. In the West, a patient consulting the physician often throws

some hint as to in what part of the body he thinks there is affliction. The traditional

231 African perspectives

 African is generally non-specific as to the part of the body afflicted by disease. Even

the healer whom he consults does not press for specific information ... traditional

healers do not start their diagnosis of illness by a physical examination of the body.

Their primary concern is with the patient's background in socio-cultural and in divine/

supernatural relations ...

In traditional African culture, a given illness or disease is generally explained by

reference to several causes, some of which in modern scientific thought, appear to be

logically incompatible. An African healer may attribute a disease to a scientific/natural

cause not too dissimilar to the germ theory of modern medicine. Yet, he may also

believe that the same disease is ``caused'' by supernatural forces. He would then

proceed to cure the disease in these two seemingly incompatible directions ...

It is perhaps significant to distinguish the African conception of stress from the way it is

conceived in the West. A business executive in the West could suffer from stress if his

business is at the verge of collapsing; a heavy day's work without rest could lead him into

a state or his anxiety over possible contingencies could make him suffer from stress. In

traditional Africa, stress is mainly due to strained relationships either with one's spiritual

agents or with the other persons within one's community. It could also be due to a feeling

of guilt arising from a breach of communal norms. For example, if an African is involved

in an adulterous act with his brother's wife, whether or not this act is detected, he

undergoes stress, having disturbed his social harmony. If he cheats his neighbour, has

been cruel to his family or has offended his community, the anxiety that follows may take

the form of phobias, either of bewitchment or the affliction of disease.

QUESTION 10

Discuss the Western and African views of illness/health as based on the different cosmic

realities or orders. Substantiate your answers and illustrate them with examples from both

quotations that appear above.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 10

In a longish question like this one, you have considerable freedom to write your answer in
KCABDEEF

your own personal style and using your own creative insights. However, the structure and

content of your answer should have included the following points:

A longish essay-type question always has an introduction which gives a brief description of

the subject or problem that is to be discussed. For example, for question 10 you should

have mentioned the difference between the cosmic orders that are involved in the Western

and African views of health and disease; thus focusing on the nature of the specific orders

that are relevant here.

The introduction is followed by the body of the essay in which the subject or problem is

African perspectives 232

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discussed and argued in detail. Therefore, here you should have covered all possible

KCABDEEF differences (the holistic as opposed to the structuralist/elementalist approach; the mystic/

supernatural as opposed to the organismic/natural explanation as well as differences

regarding the cosmic orders in which the prevention of disease is founded).

After the body, the essay closes with a comprehensive conclusion in which, for example,

you should have referred to the dilemma of black Africans who find themselves caught

between two traditions of civilisation and the implication that this has for their view of

disease and health. Alternatively, there are also disenchanted Westerners who are now

looking to other cultures for ``new'' ways of treating their ailments.

QUESTION 11

According to Sogolo, what is the most important difference between the Western and the

traditional black African view of stress? Indicate which specific cosmic orders are behind the

traditional black African idea of stress. Give reasons for your answer.

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 11
KCABDEEF

According to Sogolo, the Westerner's main cause of stress is related to the material world, whereas

for the African it usually stems from interpersonal relationships. (Do you agree with this view?)

This view of black Africans is entrenched in the important role that the group directedness and

community-orientation of the microcosmos plays in their lives, along with black Africans' fear that

they will be punished by the forces and powers that direct human behaviour in the mesocosmos.

STUDY UNIT 7.3

3.7

This study unit is largely concerned with two aspects that influence black Africans' behaviour,

namely cognitive functioning and the concept

concept of time.
time In respect of both these aspects,

Africans' behaviour is fundamentally different from that of their Western contemporaries.

When you have worked through study unit 7.3 you should
SEMOCTUO

be able to write a paragraph or answer a multiple-choice

question on

. the differences between the cognitive functioning of Westerners and traditional black

Africans.

. the difference in conceptualisation of time between Westerners and traditional black

Africans.

233 African perspectives

 COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING
YTIVITCA

Study the section on cognitive functioning in MMV, as well as the respective extracts in

which Godwin Sogolo (1993) discusses the principles of Western logic and Attie van

Niekerk (1992) explains how he experiences logic within an African perspective.

Then answer Question 12.

Sogolo (1993, pp. 68±69) describes the principles of formal logic on which Western

cognitive functioning is based as follows:

There are three interrelated fundamental laws in formal logic. The first and most

important is the law of identity which simply states that a thing is always equal to or

identical with itself (A equals A). The second law is the law of contradiction which strictly

speaking is a negative formulation of the first. The law of contradiction states that a thing

cannot be unequal to or different from itself (A is not non-A). The third law referred to as

the law of the excluded middle combines the first and the second. The law of the

excluded middle states that if a thing is equal to itself it cannot be unequal to or different

from itself (if A equals A it cannot equal non-A). By their formulations these laws imply

absolute difference and absolute identity in which things are mutually exclusive. A thing

cannot be two different and mutually exclusive things at one and the same time.

Attie van Niekerk (1992, pp. 34±35) writes as follows on the traditional way of thinking as

he has experienced it.

For us it was important to realise that there are patterns of thought and reaction that

differ from the Western ...

It is well known that Westerners think analytically. Logic tells us that A and non-A

cannot be equally true. But in the African tradition the one does not exclude the

other ...

There is no contradiction in this for the African. In one sense the ``I'' who is saying one

thing now is not the ``I'' who tells another story later on. This is what the missionary

John V. Taylor means when he speaks of the ``scattered self'': as circumstances

change, the person must ``negotiate'' his identify afresh. Psychologist Johan Schoeman

talks of a ``contextualised identity''.

This phenomenon is associated with a ``magic'' worldview, where the individual is not

personally responsible, but is controlled by invisible forces beyond the rational ...

This creates problems in the process of negotiation: People who enthusiastically

support one point of view or strategy on one committee or at one meeting, might do

precisely the opposite when part of another group ... The one does not exclude the

other as the Westerner would tend to believe. [Own translation]

African perspectives 234

 PYC2601/1

QUESTION 12

What are the most important differences between the cognitive functioning of traditional

black Africans and Westerners? Provide support for your arguments.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 12

You should have showed that Westerners' cognitive functioning is anchored in pure

rationality, while black Africans make allowance for intuition and irrationality. Provide

reasons why the traditional black African is more willing to rely on intuition and/or

irrationality than the Westerner.

YTIVITCA

CONCEPT OF TIME

Study the section on the concept of time in MMV and then answer Question 13.

QUESTION 13

List the most important differences between the Westerner and the traditional black African

regarding the conceptualisation of time and mention the implications of these differences.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 13

The most important differences are given in MMV, but you must be able to express them in your

own words, to to be sure that you understand.

STUDY UNIT 7.4

In this study unit you will learn about optimal development and mental health as viewed
4.7

from a traditional African perspective.

perspective The specific problem of pathology will also be

explored here as well as African healing practices.

practices For your own enrichment you should

decide for yourself on the special contribution that an African perspective makes to

personology in particular, and generally to your personal understanding of human

functioning.

235 African perspectives

 After working through study unit 7.4 you should be able to

. briefly describe or identify in a multiple-choice question, the traditional black African

SEMOCTUO

view of optimal functioning.

. distinguish between optimal functioning in an African and Western context.

. explain the role of the underlying cosmic orders in the African view of pathological

behaviour and physical illness.

. distinguish between Western-style psychotherapy and African healing practices.

. discuss (in an enrichment question) the contribution that an African perspective can

make to personology and to your personal understanding of human functioning.

YTIVITCA

OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT AND MENTAL HEALTH

Study the section in MMV on optimal development and mental health.

Answer Question 14.

QUESTION 14

Critically discuss the opinion of Pasteur and Toldson, as discussed in MMV, that the black

African is better equipped to achieve optimal mental health than the Westerner.
KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 14

The points that you should have paid most attention to here are the way that optimal mental

health is influenced by traditional black Africans' use of both brain hemispheres, their

holistic worldview and their collective way of life.

YTIVITCA

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Study the section in MMV on psychopathology.

Answer Question 15.

QUESTION 15

Which statement(s) about the traditional African view on illness and psychopathology is/are

correct?

African perspectives 236

 PYC2601/1

(a) From an African perspective, mental illness is viewed as being devoid of physical

symptoms, because the emphasis is placed on the importance of harmony between the

person's mind and the universe.

(b) In the African view, the cause of pathology is understood as stemming from the

disharmony that results when some power of the universe is disrupted. For this reason

within the African context patients need to tell the traditional healer what they did to

create this disharmony between themselves and their ancestors.

(c) Because the ancestors play an important role in the causation of mental illness, they

also play an important role in the healing process. A patient therefore can only recover

by listening to the voices of the ancestors. This however has led many Africans to be

misdiagnosed as ``schizophrenic'' by Western-oriented psychologists and psychiatrists,

who ignore the cultural context and belief systems of their African patients.

The correct answer is:

(1) All of the above

(2) (a)

(3) (b) & (c)

(4) (c)

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 15

This question tests how well you have understood and are able to remember the detail in
KCABDEEF

this section. For example in Statement (a), a premise that is incorrect (i.e. that mental illness

is devoid of physical symptoms) has been placed with an idea that is more accurate, namely

the importance of harmony. Statement (a) therefore is incorrect, but can appear misleading if

you have not studied and understood the facts in sufficient detail and depth. The same

approach was used to construct Statement (b), where again the first half of the statement is

correct, while the second half is incorrect. If you believed the whole statement to be correct,

see if you can detect the faulty assumption being made, by restudying the relevant section in

MMV. Statement (c) is correct, but note how it has been compiled using information from

different parts within this section. The correct answer is therefore Alternative 4.
YTIVITCA

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Study the section on psychotherapy in MMV.

Answer Question 16.

237 African perspectives

 QUESTION 16

List the differences between Western psychotherapy and traditional healing.

KCABDEEF

FEEDBACK ON QUESTION 16

The most important differences are given in MMV. See how many you can recall without

looking at your prescribed book, and be sure to restudy those you cannot remember.

AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE AND PERSONOLOGY (ENRICHMENT)

There are three important questions that you must be able to answer when you have studied

the African perspective very well:

(1) To what extent can a Western theory of personality contribute to a better understanding
YTIVITCA

of black Africans' functioning?

(2) Can Westerners learn anything from an African perspective?

(3) Are the Western and African perspectives compatible? Or do they contradict each

other?

Read Attie van Niekerk's insights as well as the ideas of well-known South African Laurens

van der Post. Also read Jung's theory, the postmodernist approach and the ecosystemic

perspective in MMV.

Then answer Questions 17 and 18.

In his book Saam in Afrika (1992, pp. 80±81 Ð own translation) Van Niekerk and Dutch

psychiatrist George van der Hooft, who worked at a mission hospital for many years, discuss

to what extent Jung's views can possibly help Westerners to understand the African as

portrayed in the poems of the black writers of Soweto and Alexandra.

We sat on the stoep, George smoking his pipe. He said that he had never read the

poems I was talking about; he knew nothing about them. I showed him a few and he

got quite carried away by his enthusiasm: He had found exactly the same symbols and

longings in his patients!

``It is the unconscious that comes strongly to the fore Ð the longing for the earth,

unity with the mother, death and birth that is taken up in the cycle, the mystical,

primeval experience of the wholeness of everything that exists.''

``The protest we find in these poems is much more than political protest!'' he said

excitedly ``It is a protest against the whole Western culture, which analyses and

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dissects everything coldly and rationally. The Western approach is a violation of the

primeval experience of unity.''

All at once I understood what the black writers keep on about: That they are searching

for their African identity, and they experience problems with the Western world. I

realised that there is such a thing as an African view or experience of reality, and it

cannot simply be dropped just because we Westerners are offering our views.

For me at that time this came as a totally new insight. It is more than a phasing out of

apartheid and an establishing of a fairer dispensation. It is something far wider and

more complex Ð the search for a kinship between two spiritual worlds. I realised that

we need to take Africa more seriously and respect her as a world in her own right

rather than judging her by Western standards and despising her.

``One now realises that in many ways Africa coincides with Jung's ideas'', said George.

``And why not? Jung actually used Africa as a source! They are just reviewing Jung and

Freud's theories. One can check Freud and Jung's theories and see whether they

understood Africa properly. Where they did, they can help us to understand Africa

better. In turn, Africa helped them to understand the West better.''

``All those things that the West has buried deep in the unconscious, that the

psychoanalysts have to dig up from Westerners' unconscious, are alive, pulsing, close

to the surface in Africa.''

In his book The dark eye of Africa (1955, pp. 19±20, 40±42, 48, 54±55) Laurens van der

Post discusses the tension in Africa that is unleashed by the rise of black nationalism. Van

der Post's ideas are strongly influenced by Jung and in the first extract he discusses his

view of what the Westerner can learn from Africa.

I would like to explain my use of the words ``primitive'' and ``civilised'' man. I use these

words only because I know no others to denote the general difference of being which

undeniably exists between indigenous and European man in Africa. I am, however,

fully conscious of their limitations and relativity. I do not think of the European as a

being superior to the black one. I think of both as being different and of the difference

as honourable differences equal before God. The more I know of primitive man in

Africa the more I respect him and the more I realize how much and how profoundly we

must learn from him. I believe our need of him is as great as his of us. I see us as two

halves designed by life to make a whole ...

We force the African continually to take from us and prevent him from giving to us in

his own rich way. We deny Africa its own unique creativeness ...

Allow me to give you an example of how automatic this under-valuation can be. Some

years ago when I was organising an expedition to the great Kalahari desert of Southern

Africa, two scientists of international repute arrived with letters of introduction at my

advance base. They asked if they could accompany the expedition because they were

239 African perspectives

 doing research work on the bushman in Africa. When I asked what kind of research,

they explained that they were making a comparative study of the head-measurements

of primitive peoples of the world. They described at length the methods they used and

showed me an impressive catalogue of detail already observed. After a long while of

this I asked: ``What about the inside of their heads? Are you not interested in what goes

on inside them?''

``That is a different branch of science'' they said with conclusive professional

superiority. Yet they were very upset because I saw no point in taking them with me.

Over and over again I have been humbled by what goes on in the minds and hearts of

these and other primitive people ... One realises that it is not we who are filled with

spirit or soul, but rather the dark people about us. They have so much of it that it

overflows into the trees, rocks, rivers, lakes, birds, snakes and animals that surround

them. The bushman makes gods out of all the animals around him: the Hottentots

kneel to an insect, the praying mantis; the Bantu listens to the spirit of his ancestors in

the noise of his cattle stirring in their kraals of thorn at night ... They are poorer in

almost every way than we ... but in one great respect they are richer. Whatever

happens to them their lives are never lonely for lack of spirit nor do they find life

wanting in meaning (they are also less lonely because of their community

embeddedness).

To this day if I want information about the stones and mineral deposits of Africa I am

embarrassed by the richness of the material instantly placed at my disposal. Yet if I

want information about the people of Africa, if I want information about the peoples

themselves, their spirits, languages, and minds, about the things they find funny and

the things they believe wonderful, I am dismayed and saddened by the terrible lack of

material and interest generally displayed. I am certain all this is because European

man arrived already despising Africa and African beings. He arrived there, not for

Africa's sake, but for what he could get out of Africa on his behalf. He arrived as a

superior person ready to impose himself and his way of living on Africa, not doubting

for a second that his was the better way and that it was all for Africa's good ... Chiefs,

tribal organisations, witchdoctors and ancient rituals were abolished swiftly by the

administrator with his pen ... The missionary came to abolish the black man's spirits,

give him a new sense of sin, do away with his practice of religion as base superstition,

and win him over to a new and superior white god ...

Having taken away their way of life we then made it impossible for them to acquire any

other. Having supplanted their law by ours we then gave them no right to live as our

law demanded but rather forced them to drift suspended in dark acceptance of a state

of non-being ... What most terrifies the primitive man is not physical danger but the

fear that he may lose his soul Ð (his soul which) is implicit in all his ritual, religion

and daily behaviour.

The next extract is specifically about Laurens van der Post's holistic view that, in spite of

their negative attitude to Africa, Westerners cannot survive without Africa. According to Van

African perspectives 240

 PYC2601/1

der Post, the West and Africa are two poles that are essential for each other's survival. It is in

this connection that Van der Post can apply Jung's polar view of the structure and dynamics

of the individual's psyche to the relationship between cultures.

Now in a profound sense every man has two halves to his being; he is not one

person so much as two persons trying to act in unison. I believe that in the heart of

each human being there is something which I can only describe as a ``child of

darkness'' who is equal and complementary to the more obvious ``child of light''.

[Compare Jung's view of the shadow in the psyche.] Whether we know it or not we

all have within us a natural instinctive man, a dark brother, to whom we are

irrevocably joined as to our own shadow. However much our conscious reason may

reject him he is there for good or ill, clamouring for recognition and awareness and

a fair share of life just as the less conscious black man of Africa is struggling and

clamouring for life, light and honour in our societies. I need not emphasise how the

rational, calculating, acutely reasoning and determined human-being that western

man has made of himself has increasingly considered this side of himself not as a

brother but as an enemy, capable with his upsurges of rich emotion and colourful

impulses of wrecking conscious man's carefully planned and closely reasoned way

of existence ... This separation of the white man with his bright morning face from

his dark rejected brother within, increases with frightening acceleration.

Simultaneously prejudice against the black skin of the natural African has

deepened and made it a dangerous symbol, for the white man in Africa sees

reflected in the natural dark man around him that dark aspect of himself which he

has rejected. Consequently he confuses the reflection without with the dark reality

within, and without hesitation engages in fruitless and mutually disastrous battle

with it.

We have talked all through this century of the white man's burden in Africa, yet what

fatal irony there is in the phrase! Would it not be more accurate at the moment to talk

of the black man's burden? I refer of course to this burden of terrible unconscious

projection which modern European man thrusts upon the natural African who, by

reason of his primitive instinctual life and ``participation almost mystical'' in his natural

environment is such a suitable container for it. Yet it is this very projection, outcome

of the insidious civil war raging in the innermost being of modern man, which

prevents the white man from ever seeing the black man as he really is. The white man

can see in the black man only those aspects which confirm and justify his own

projection and enable it to pass itself off as an outward and genuinely objective

condition, which it is not ... The black man is thereby prevented from being himself

and from living out his unique being ...

(On the other hand) the black man too, has an unlived aspect of himself, a darker

brother within, which constant denial daily makes great with the spirit of revenge and

powerful with unused energies, and which is fast growing into an angry giant about to

burst his bonds and use his strength like a colossus ... Meanwhile the same

processes have gone on developing in the white man. His unlived aspect too, the

despised and rejected dark brother of his own being has grown greater and daily more

241 African perspectives

 terrible. Up to now these things in life have ended only in one way. The unlived

aspects in the two opposites overwhelm their oppressors, the conscious restraints that

have imprisoned them for so long break loose and they interlock in fatal battle ...

In physics one cannot introduce a negative charge of electricity in a given field without

instantly inducing an equal and opposite charge of positive electricity. No matter how

great may be your one-sided charge, an equal and opposite keeps pace parallel with it

until finally both become so powerful that they leap the space which separates one

from the other and make the zig-zag spark we call electricity ...

The whole problem of modern culture expresses the need for some transcendent factor

or purpose wherein neither white nor black, neither natural nor thinking man will have

to be sacrificed to one another but instead both will be joined and made complete in

one transcending purpose. [Compare Jung's idea of individuation and transcendence

in the development of the individual's self, with the idea of the transcendence of

cultural polarities in establishing a possible Euro-African self.] After all, the two

opposites of electricity need no longer be expressed through the bright and dangerous

medium of lightning but can now be transformed and resolved together into a source

of creative energy.

QUESTION 17 (ENRICHMENT)

In keeping with the introduction and the answer you wrote for Question 4, you can now

begin to discuss the following question in more detail: How and what can an African

perspective contribute to personology?

QUESTION 18 (ENRICHMENT)

Critically discuss the following statement: ``The Western and the African are two sides of the

same coin and the one is unthinkable without the other''.

NOISULCNOC NI

For students of human functioning across cultural boundaries there is still much new

ground to be covered and the new South Africa provides exactly the kind of living laboratory

that we need for carrying out our investigations. This presents an exciting challenge for

personology in particular and psychology in general. Are you prepared to take it on in your

future studies?

African perspectives 242

 PYC2601/1

REFERENCES

Magona, S. (1990). To my children's children. Claremont: David Philip.

Mbiti, J. S. (1969). African religions and philosophy. London: Heinemann.

Nsamenang, A. B. (1995). Factors influencing the development of psychology in Sub-

Saharan Africa. International Journal of Psychology, 30(6), 729±739.

Sogolo, G. (1993). Foundations of African Philosophy: A definitive analysis of conceptual

issues in African thought. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.

Van der Post, L. (1955). The dark eye of Africa. Braamfontein: Lowry.

Van Niekerk, A. (1992). Saam in Afrika. Kaapstad: Tafelberg.

243 African perspectives

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