micromachines

Review
Low-Cost Microbolometer Type Infrared Detectors
Le Yu , Yaozu Guo, Haoyu Zhu, Mingcheng Luo, Ping Han and Xiaoli Ji *
School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China; [email protected] (L.Y.);
[email protected] (Y.G.); [email protected] (H.Z.); [email protected] (M.L.);
[email protected] (P.H.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-025-89683965




Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 20 August 2020; Published: 24 August 2020


Abstract: The complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) microbolometer technology

provides a low-cost approach for the long-wave infrared (LWIR) imaging applications. The fabrication
of the CMOS-compatible microbolometer infrared focal plane arrays (IRFPAs) is based on the
combination of the standard CMOS process and simple post-CMOS micro-electro-mechanical system
(MEMS) process. With the technological development, the performance of the commercialized
CMOS-compatible microbolometers shows only a small gap with that of the mainstream ones. This
paper reviews the basics and recent advances of the CMOS-compatible microbolometer IRFPAs in the
aspects of the pixel structure, the read-out integrated circuit (ROIC), the focal plane array, and the
vacuum packaging.

Keywords: microbolometer; complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible;

uncooled infrared detectors; thermal detectors; infrared focal plane array (IRFPA); read-out integrated
circuit (ROIC)

1. Introduction
Infrared (IR) detectors are devices that measure the incident IR radiation by turning it into other
easy-to-measure physical phenomenon. The IR detectors may be classified into photon detectors and
thermal detectors according to the basis of their operating principle [1]. The photon IR detector absorbs
the radiation by the interaction with electrons in the semiconductor material, and then the variation in
the electronic energy distribution results in observable electrical output signal. This kind of detectors
shows perfect signal-to-noise performance and very fast response, while its utilization is limited because
of the requirement of cryogenic cooling [2–5]. Compared to its competitor, the thermal IR detector,
which absorbs the incident IR power to cause temperature rise and measures the consequent change
in some physical properties, presents smaller volume, lower cost, and non-necessity of cryogenic
cooling, therefore it has wide application in automobile, security, and electric appliance [6–8]. The
development of thermal IR detectors could be traced back to Langley’s bolometer in 1880, which use
two platinum foils to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge [9]. However, thermal IR detectors failed
to attract sufficient attention until the last decade of the 20th century. The reason is that the thermal
IR detectors are considered to be much slower and less insensitive than the photon IR detectors [6].
In 1992, both Texas Instruments and Honeywell published their uncooled IRFPAs (infrared focal
plane array) based on pyroelectric type and microbolometer type thermal detector, respectively, with
fascinating performance [10,11], successfully encouraging a sustained effort to further reduce the pixel
size, improve the device performance, and reduce the production cost [12–46].
Today, one of the most attractive thermal IR detectors for imaging purpose is the microbolometer
IRFPA. Comparing to other thermal IR detectors like thermopile detector [47–50], pyroelectric
detector [51–54], and superconducting transition edge sensor (TES) bolometer detector [55–58],

Micromachines 2020, 11, 800; doi:10.3390/mi11090800 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 2 of 19

it is promising for the commercial imaging applications because of its respectable performance, small
pixel size, and ease to make [59]. Attributing to the continuous efforts and the technological advances,
the pixel size of the microbolometer detector fabricated via the low-cost manufacture technology based
on silicon LSI (large scale integration) circuit process has been reduced to beyond 17 µm [18–20]. Not
only does the high-integration process lower the production cost of the detectors, but also it provides
mature approach with small feature size and high uniformity to benefit the pixel size and the device
performance. Especially, the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) microbolometer
technology is developed for long-wavelength IR (LWIR, 8–14 µm) FPAs via CMOS foundry compatible
approaches [23–46]. During the fabrication process, the layer structures of the absorber and the thermal
sensor are formed with CMOS process, and then post-CMOS micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)
process are used to form suspended microbridge structures in purpose of thermal isolation. This
technology aims to eliminate the requirement of special process and simplify the post-CMOS MEMS
process in order to achieve the ultra-low-cost microbolometer IRFPAs.
However, the most common thermistor materials like vanadium oxide (VOx ) [60–62] and silicon
derivatives (a-Si, a-SiGe, a-Gex Si1−x Oy , etc.,) [63–65], which have appropriate electrical properties,
are not compatible with the CMOS process. For the CMOS-compatible microbolometer IR detector,
one choice is the p-n junction diode which has acceptable properties and compatibility with CMOS
process; therefore the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) diode IRFPAs have attracted continuous attention since
first reported by Ishikawa et al. in 1999 [13], and have been widely adopted in low-cost commercial
IR detectors. Besides, CMOS-compatible metal or semiconductor materials (e.g., aluminum [41–43],
titanium [12,29], polycrystalline silicon [44], etc.,) have been investigated as another choice as well.
Although the SOI diode IRFPA and the CMOS-compatible material microbolometer IRFPA have relative
low temperature coefficient, it could be compensated by the high integration and high uniformity.
Till now, a lot of efforts have been done to improve these two types of microbolometer detectors:
Ueno et al. proposed a multi-level structure that has an independent metal reflector between the
absorber and the thermistor for interference IR absorption in SOI diode IRFPA [15]; Takamuro et al.
invented the 2-in-1 SOI diode pixel technology to significantly increase the diode series number in a
pixel, leading to the increase of responsivity [18]; Ning et al. implemented a double-sacrificial-layer
aluminum microbolometer fabrication process to enhance both the thermal isolation of the suspended
microbridge structure and the IR absorption of the optical resonant cavity [42].
In this paper, we focus on the CMOS-compatible microbolometer IR detectors, that is, the low-cost
microbolometer type IR detectors for imaging purpose fabricated via CMOS process (or conventional
silicon LSI circuit process). During the fabrication process, no special delicate approach (e.g., the
deposition of vanadium oxides) should be needed, and only simple MEMS process is applied after the
CMOS process. The basics and the fabrication processes of such low-cost microbolometer IR detectors
will be introduced, while the development trends and the technological advances are also discussed.

2. Theory and Development Trends

2.1. Basics of Microbolometer

When the IR radiation falls on the surface of the bolometer, it is absorbed and results in a
temperature increase ∆T. When the heat balance is reached, the temperature rise is

εP0 εP0
∆T = = (1)
( G2 + ω2 C2 )1/2 G(1 + ω2 τ2 )
1/2

here C is the thermal capacitance of the absorber, which is connected to the environment via the
thermal conductance G. ε is the emissivity (absorptance) of the incident IR radiation with amplitude
P0 and angular frequency ω. τ is the thermal time constant, which commonly ranges from several
to several tens of milliseconds for the thermal IR detector. For both resistance type and diode type
microbolometers, the temperature increase is transferred into the electric signal and then measured.
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 3 of 19

Lower thermal conductance results in larger temperature increase and higher sensitivity, but
worse time constant. Therefore, a small thermal capacitance is always necessary in order to relax the
restriction of the trade-off between the sensitivity and the thermal constant time.
The output signal of the microbolometer accompanies with noise that originates from various
uncorrelated source, resulting in undesired random fluctuations. There are several major noise sources
that should be considered in a microbolometer IR detector: Johnson noise, temperature fluctuation
noise, and 1/f noise [66]. Besides, the shot noise also could be taken into consideration for the diode
type microbolometer detector [27]. The total noise could be calculated in terms of its mean square as
the sum of the mean squares of these noises:

Vn2 = V 2J + VTF
2 + V2 + V2
1/ f shot
(2)

These noises determine the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD). NETD is defined as
the change in temperature when the output signal equals to the noise, i.e., the minimum temperature
difference that could be measured. The performance of a microbolometer IR detector with optics may
be evaluated in terms of the NETD. It is given by [67].

 q
4F2 + 1 Vn2
NETD = (3)
AεRv (dP/dTt )λ1 −λ2

Here F = f /D is the F-number of the optical system, where f and D are the focal length and the
aperture of the optics, respectively. A is the size of the absorber, Rv is the responsivity defined as the
change of the output voltage resulted from per unit incident IR power, (dP/dTt )λ1−λ2 is the change
in power per unit area radiated by a blackbody at temperature Tt measured within the IR spectral
band from λ1 to λ2 . The value of (dP/dTt )λ1−λ2 for a 295 K blackbody within the 8–14 µm band is
2.62 × 10−4 W/cm2 K [68]. The NETD of a low-cost microbolometer IRFPA under its operation condition
typically ranges from 50 to 500 mK.

2.2. Development Trends

Before the thermal detector has been demonstrated to be practical for imaging purpose, the IR
detector field was dominated by the photon detectors which were restricted to military applications
because of the expensive materials and requirement of cryogenic coolers. The appearance of the
commercialized thermal IR detector encourages the expectation for non-military application. The
CMOS-compatible microbolometer IRFPA, from its very beginning, aims to further lower the cost and
the chip size, while maintain an acceptable performance.
Pixel size, as the indicator of the integration level, is the key factor limiting the chip size. The pixel
size reduction of the CMOS-compatible IR detectors is shown in Figure 1. Because of the considerable
efforts, the pixel size of the SOI diode uncooled IRFPAs has been reduced to 15 µm in 2011 [18].
Meanwhile, the spatial resolution or the array size is related to the pixel size. With the progress of the
CMOS microbolometer technology, the array size also increases from 128 × 128 reported in 1996 [12] to
2000 × 1000 reported in 2012 [19].
As shown in Figure 2, unlike the pixel size and spatial resolution, the NETD generally shows a trend
of remaining in the same level rather than continuously improving. Since the CMOS microbolometer
IR detectors mainly aim the non-military market, a NETD of several tens mK is already capable in
handling those applications.
Smaller pixels collect less IR power to increase the temperature, resulting in lower sensitivity.
In a conventional structure of the microbolometer pixel, the absorber, the thermal sensor, and the
supporting legs are in the same suspended layer. When the pixels are scaled down, higher fill factor
and higher emissivity are necessary in maintaining the same sensitivity since less IR radiation is
absorbed, bringing a hard task for the trade-off between the thermal conductance and the fill factor. To
 Micromachines 2020, 11, x 4 of 19

[15,72,73] have been proposed. By these new structures, the high fill factor and low thermal
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 4 of 19
conductance
Micromachines could
2020, 11, x be simultaneously achieved in small pixels. However, it seems that the further 4 of 19
step of the pixel size reduction has slowed down in recent year, indicating the requirement of novel
technical
[15,72,73]
fix innovation.
have
this issue, In addition,
been proposed.
the multi-level By the
structures with restriction
these hidden of thelegdiffraction
new structures,
support the limitation
highor fill
[69–71] also low
factorabsorber
umbrella and impedes
thermal
[15,72,73]the
progress
have been of
conductance pixel
could
proposed. size
Byreduction,
be these newwhich
simultaneously is discussed
achieved
structures, the in later.
small
high pixels.and
fill factor However, it seems
low thermal that the further
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impedes the progress of pixel size reduction,
which is discussed later.

Figure 1. Trends of the pixel size reduction for complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-
compatible microbolometer infrared (IR) detectors, data taken from (in left-to-right order) [12–15,17–
Figure 1. Trends of the pixel size reduction for complementary metal oxide semiconductor
22,25,27–29,31–35,37,39–41,43,46].
(CMOS)-compatible microbolometer infrared (IR) detectors, data taken from (in left-to-right
Figure[12–15,17–22,25,27–29,31–35,37,39–41,43,46].
order) 1. Trends of the pixel size reduction for complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-
compatible microbolometer infrared (IR) detectors, data taken from (in left-to-right order) [12–15,17–
22,25,27–29,31–35,37,39–41,43,46].

Figure 2. Trends of the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) for CMOS-compatible
microbolometer IR detectors, data taken from (in left-to-right order) [12–15,17–22,25–29,31,33–35,37,40,46].
Figure 2. Trends of the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) for CMOS-compatible
3. Complementary
microbolometerMetal Oxide Semiconductor
IR detectors, data taken from (CMOS)-Compatible Microbolometer
(in left-to-right order) Pixel
[12–15,17–22,25–29,31,33–
35,37,40,46].
3.1. The Resistance Type Microbolometer Pixel
Figure 2. Trends of the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) for CMOS-compatible
3. Complementary
Figure
microbolometer Metal
3 shows the Oxide
pixel Semiconductor
structure
IR detectors, data of thefrom
taken (CMOS)-Compatible
resistance order) Microbolometer
type microbolometer.
(in left-to-right Pixel
The microbolometer
[12–15,17–22,25–29,31,33–
pixel 35,37,40,46].
contains three parts: the infrared absorber, the thermal sensor, and the microbridge structure.
3.1. The Resistance Type Microbolometer Pixel
The infrared absorber usually consists of the dielectric layer or the multi-layer structure of dielectric
3. Complementary
and Metal
metal layers [74]. TheOxide Semiconductor
thermal (CMOS)-Compatible
sensor is implemented Microbolometer Pixel
using a CMOS-compatible thermistor

3.1. The Resistance Type Microbolometer Pixel

Micromachines 2020, 11, x 5 of 19

Figure 3 shows the pixel structure of the resistance type microbolometer. The microbolometer
pixel contains three parts: the infrared absorber, the thermal sensor, and the microbridge structure.
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 5 of 19
The infrared absorber usually consists of the dielectric layer or the multi-layer structure of dielectric
and metal layers [74]. The thermal sensor is implemented using a CMOS-compatible thermistor layer
layer sandwiched
sandwiched in theinabsorber,
the absorber,
whichwhich is designed
is designed to be to be serpentine
serpentine to maximize
to maximize the resistance.
the resistance. The
microbridge structure consists of two support legs to sustain the suspended area, creating a thermallya
The microbridge structure consists of two support legs to sustain the suspended area, creating
thermallycavity
isolated isolated cavity between
between the absorber
the absorber and theandsubstrate
the substrate in order
in order to greatly
to greatly reducethe
reduce the thermal
thermal
conductance. In
conductance. In an
an Al
Al microbolometer,
microbolometer, the IR absorber is implemented using the SiO /Si33N
SiO22/Si N44 layer,
layer,
with the Al thermistor from the metal interconnect
interconnect layer
layer Metal
Metal 3 sandwiched
sandwiched inside
inside the
the SiO
SiO22 layer.
layer.
SiO22and
The SiO andSiSi 3N
3N 4 also
4 also provide
provide protection
protection for for
the the thermistor
thermistor and and the read-out
the read-out circuit
circuit during during the
the post-
post-CMOS
CMOS etchingetching process.
process.

Figure 3. The cross-sectional schematics showing the pixel structure of an aluminum microbolometer.
The inset
Figure provides
3. The a 3D perspective
cross-sectional viewshowing
schematics on the structure
the pixel of the absorber
structure and the thermistor.
of an aluminum microbolometer.
The inset provides a 3D perspective view on the structure of the absorber and the thermistor.
As shown in Figure 4, the process flow of the Al microbolometer shown in Figure 3 is as follows:

a. AsTheshown in Figure
p+/n−well 4, the
(2,3), gateprocess
oxide flow of the
(4), and Al microbolometer
polysilicon shown in
(5) are fabricated onFigure 3 is as follows:
the substrate (1) via
a. lithography,
The p+/n−welldeposition,
(2,3), gate ion implantation,
oxide and annealing
(4), and polysilicon (5) arein fabricated
order to form on the transistor.
substrate (1) via
b. Deposit SiO2deposition,
lithography, (6) as the isolation layer, then etch
ion implantation, and and depositinWorder
annealing (7) toto
form thethe
form contacts. Afterwards
transistor.
b. the metal
Deposit SiOinterconnect
2 (6) as the layer Metal
isolation 1 (and
layer, the etch
then subsequent metal W
and deposit interconnection
(7) to form the layers in the
contacts.
active region
Afterwards theasmetal
well) is formed by depositing
interconnect layer MetalAl1(8) as the
(and theconnection
subsequentofmetalthe read-out circuit.
interconnection
c. layers
Depositin the
SiOactive
2 (6) andregion
thenasform
well) is W
the formed by The
(7) vias. depositing
Al (8) inAlmetal
(8) asinterconnect
the connection of Metal
layer the read-
2 is
out circuit. as the sacrificial layer in the sensor region.
deposited
c.
d. Deposit
DepositSiO SiO2 (6) and
2 (6), then
form theform
W (7)the W (7)
vias, andvias.
thenThe Al (8)Alin(8)
deposit metal
for theinterconnect
interconnectlayer
layerMetal
Metal2 is3
deposited
to form the as thermistor
the sacrificial layer
in the in theregion.
sensor sensor region.
d.
e. Deposit
DepositSiO SiO2 (6), form the W (7) vias, and then deposit Al (8) for the interconnect layer Metal 3
2 /Si3 N4 (6,9) to protect the device. Then dry etch the SiO2 /Si3 N4 over the pad area
toand
form the thermistor
expose in the
the sacrificial sensor region.
layer.
f. Use photoresist (10) to protect the pad area during the post-CMOS etching. Use the phosphoric
acid solution to etch the sacrificial layer to form the cavity and expose the microbridge structure.
 e. Deposit SiO2/Si3N4 (6,9) to protect the device. Then dry etch the SiO2/Si3N4 over the pad area and
expose the sacrificial layer.
f. Use photoresist (10) to protect the pad area during the post-CMOS etching. Use the phosphoric
acid solution
Micromachines to etch the sacrificial layer to form the cavity and expose the microbridge structure.
2020, 11, 800 6 of 19

Figure 4. The process flow for an Al microbolometer: (a–e) are in a standard CMOS process and (f) is
inFigure
a subtractive micro-electro-mechanical
4. The process system (MEMS)
flow for an Al microbolometer: process.
(a–e) are in a standard CMOS process and (f) is
in a subtractive micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) process.
The steps a to e are in a standard CMOS process, while step f is in a post-CMOS MEMS process.
The whole process
The steps a to could
e are inbea completed in a CMOS
standard CMOS process,foundry to achieve
while step f is in ahigh uniformity
post-CMOS MEMSdevices in
process.
ultra-low
The whole process could be completed in a CMOS foundry to achieve high uniformity devices isin
production cost. However, an intrinsic limitation of the CMOS-compatible microbolometer
the thermistor material. When infrared radiation illuminates the surface of the absorber, the thermistor
in the absorber is heated and causes a change in its resistance related to its temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR) α, defined as:
1 dRb
α= · (4)
R0 dT
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 7 of 19

R0 is the resistance of the bolometer at room temperature; dRb is the resistance change depending
on the temperature change dT. Under a certain bias current, the change of the thermistor resistance
could be obtained by measuring the output voltage. Therefore, the value of TCR significantly influences
the device sensitivity. Generally, the semiconductor-based microbolometers have negative TCR values,
while the metal ones have positive TCR values. Table 1 lists several common CMOS-compatible
thermistor materials. Compared to the high TCR thermistor materials like VOx which has a TCR of
about 2–3%/K, the CMOS-compatible materials have obvious disadvantage in the TCR. This results in
a low sensitivity which needs to be compensated by the high-spec read-out circuit.

Table 1. Resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of several complementary metal
oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible materials [12,75].

Material Resistivity (10−4 Ω·cm, at 300 K) TCR (%/K)

undoped polysilicon 199 −0.085
n−polysilicon 62.2 −0.016
Al 0.03 0.38
Ti 1.2 0.25

3.2. The Diode Type Microbolometer Pixel

The pixel structure of the diode type microbolometer is similar to that of the resistance type
microbolometer; it also consists of three parts: the infrared absorber, the thermal sensor, and the
microbridge structure. Here the thermal sensor becomes the p-n junction diodes, which are connected
in series to enlarge the output signal. The diodes are usually fabricated on the SOI film for several
reasons: (a) The diodes fabricated on deposited Si film exhibit large 1/f noise [76,77]; (b) the diodes
fabricated on Si substrate need a special electrochemical etch-stop technique to protect the n−well
during the post-CMOS etching process [27,33,78]; (c) the SOI film is expected to have fewer defects
and localized states which could reduce the 1/f noise. The pixel structure of a SOI diode detector is
shown in Figure 5. The BOX (buried oxide) layer and the dielectric film over the diodes protect the
diodes during the post-CMOS etching process.
The temperature change in the diode under a certain bias current results in a voltage shift. The
temperature coefficient in a diode type microbolometer is determined by the forward voltage Vf . With
diodes in series connection, the sensitivity is given by [14]:

dV f n(1.21 − V f /n)
=− (5)
dT T
where n is the number of the diodes in the series. The typical value of the sensitivity for a single diode
at 300 K is ~2 mV/K under a bias voltage of 0.6 V [59], which is equivalent to a temperature coefficient
of only ~0.33%/K. However, as the number of the diodes in the series increases, the temperature
coefficient could become comparable to the TCR of VOx . For instance, when n = 8, the diodes in series
connection have a temperature coefficient of ~3%/K. Meanwhile, benefiting from the high uniformity
of the CMOS process and the low defect density in the SOI film, the diode type microbolometer usually
exhibits much better noise.
reasons: (a) The diodes fabricated on deposited Si film exhibit large 1/f noise [76,77]; (b) the diodes
fabricated on Si substrate need a special electrochemical etch-stop technique to protect the n−well
during the post-CMOS etching process [27,33,78]; (c) the SOI film is expected to have fewer defects
and localized states which could reduce the 1/f noise. The pixel structure of a SOI diode detector is
Micromachines 2020, 11,5.800
shown in Figure 8 ofthe
The BOX (buried oxide) layer and the dielectric film over the diodes protect 19
diodes during the post-CMOS etching process.

Micromachines 2020, 11, x 8 of 19

(a)

(b)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. The pixel structure
structure of
of aa diode
diode type
type microbolometer:
microbolometer: (a) cross-sectional
cross-sectional view and
and (b)
(b) 3D
3D
perspective view.
perspective view.

3.3. Improvement in Absorber

The temperature change forin
Small Pixel Structure
the diode under a certain bias current results in a voltage shift. The
temperature coefficient in a diode type microbolometer is determined
The small pixels benefit the detectors from a production point ofby the forward
view. voltage
For instance, Vf. With
when the
diodes in series connection, the sensitivity is given by [14]:
scaling down from 25 µm pixel to 17 µm, it decrease the processing cost by 40% and the power
consumption by 33%, while the detection range is increased significantly [61]. However, since the IR
dVf n(1.21 −Vf n)
absorption is proportional to the absorber area, = −it demands novel structures that achieve high fill factor (5)
or high emissivity in order to compensate dT the disadvantage T of small pixel size.
where The umbrella
n is absorber
the number of theisdiodes
a widely adopted
in the series. design to maximize
The typical the sensitivity
value of the absorber area for athat captures
single diode
more incident IR energy. As shown in Figure 6a, it consists of an IR absorber layer, which
at 300 K is ~2 mV/K under a bias voltage of 0.6 V [59], which is equivalent to a temperature coefficient individually
suspends over the bolometer
of only ~0.33%/K. However,and as support
the numberlegs, of
supported
the diodesby one or more
in the seriesposts. The umbrella
increases, absorber
the temperature
consists
coefficientof dielectric layercomparable
could become or multi-layer structure
to the TCR ofofVOmetal and dielectric layers, which is the same as
x. For instance, when n = 8, the diodes in series
that
connection have a temperature coefficient of ~3%/K. Meanwhile, have
of the conventional absorber layers. Some umbrella absorbers etch holes
benefiting fromdesigned to enhance
the high uniformity
the sacrificial
of the CMOSremoval.
process andThesetheetch
lowholes
defectalso benefitinthe
density theresponsivity
SOI film, the duediode
to thetype
decrease of thermal
microbolometer
capacitance of the umbrella absorber
usually exhibits much better noise. [79]. The umbrella absorber can achieve a fill factor above 90%
and ~23% improvement in responsivity [72]. This structure provides the fill factor close to an ideal
value at the expense
3.3. Improvement of morefor
in Absorber process
Small steps, usually increasing 2–5 masking layers and corresponding
Pixel Structure
deposition and etching steps [45].
The small pixels benefit the detectors from a production point of view. For instance, when the
scaling down from 25 μm pixel to 17 μm, it decrease the processing cost by 40% and the power
consumption by 33%, while the detection range is increased significantly [61]. However, since the IR
absorption is proportional to the absorber area, it demands novel structures that achieve high fill
factor or high emissivity in order to compensate the disadvantage of small pixel size.
The umbrella absorber is a widely adopted design to maximize the absorber area that captures
more incident IR energy. As shown in Figure 6a, it consists of an IR absorber layer, which individually
Micromachines 2020, 11, x 9 of 19
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x 99 of
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Figure 6. The schematics of a microbolometer with (a) umbrella absorber; (b) metasurface.
Figure 6. The schematics of a microbolometer with (a) umbrella absorber; (b) metasurface.
Figure 6. The schematics of a microbolometer with (a) umbrella absorber; (b) metasurface.
Another prospective
Another prospective approach
approach to to improve
improve the the absorption
absorption is is the
the absorber
absorber with with aa metasurface.
metasurface.
The Another
magnetic prospective
resonance inapproach
the to
metasurfaceimprove
could the absorption
control the is
thermal
The magnetic resonance in the metasurface could control the thermal emission of phonon, therefore the absorber
emission with
of a
phonon, metasurface.
therefore
The
the magnetic
the IR
IR absorption
absorption resonance
spectrum
spectrum in the ofmetasurface
of the metasurface
the couldcould
metasurface control
could bethe
be thermal emission
manipulated
manipulated of phonon,
via changing
via changing therefore
the structure
the structure
the IR
parameter absorption
[80]. Thisspectrum
could be of the metasurface
implemented to the could
surface be manipulated
of the
parameter [80]. This could be implemented to the surface of the absorber in order to enhance the absorber via
in changing
order to the
enhance structure
the IR IR
parameter
absorption[80].
absorption in the
in the This could be implemented
microbolometer
microbolometer pixel,as
pixel, to thein
as shown
shown surface
in Figureof
Figure 6b.
6b.the This
This absorber in order tohas
novel approach
novel approach enhance
has thethe
attracted
attracted IR
the
absorption
attention ofin the
several microbolometer
groups and the pixel, as shown
preliminary in
results Figure
reveal6b. This
its novel
potential
attention of several groups and the preliminary results reveal its potential of frequency selection and approach
of frequency has attracted
selection the
and
attention
absorption
absorption ofenhancement
several groups
enhancement and the preliminary results reveal its potential of frequency selection and
[81–83].
[81–83].
absorption enhancement [81–83].
4. Read-Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC)
4.
4. Read-Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC)
The IR
The IR energy
energy absorbed
absorbed by by the
the microbolometer
microbolometer pixel pixel is is transformed
transformed into weak photocurrent,
which
which The
is IR capable
is not
not energy
capableabsorbed
for direct by
for direct the microbolometer
processing
processing dueto
due to the
the noisepixel
noise is transformed
interference.
interference. into weak photocurrent,
The photocurrent
The photocurrent needs to
needs to bebe
which
amplified
amplified is not
and
and capable
finallyfor
finally directinto
turned
turned processing
into due toby
digital signal
digital signal the
by noise
the
the interference.
read-out
read-out integrated
integrated Thecircuit
photocurrent
circuit (ROIC).needs
(ROIC). to be
Benefiting
Benefiting
amplified
fromthe
from theCMOSand finally
CMOS turnedthe
technology,
technology, into
the
ROICdigital
ROIC signal
hashas
the the by the read-out
advantages
advantages of highof integrated
high
signalsignal circuit
handling (ROIC).
handling
capacity, Benefiting
capacity,
high high
circuit
from
circuitthe
density, CMOS
density,
low low
power technology,
dissipation, thehigh
power dissipation, ROIC has uniformity
high
uniformitythe advantages
and low and of [3].
low
noise high
noise
Assignal
[3].
shownAshandling
shown
in Figure capacity,
in Figure 7,high
7, the ROIC the
circuit
ROIC density,
usually low
contains power dissipation,
several blocks: high
(1) The uniformity
read-out and
circuit low
(ROC) noise
usually contains several blocks: (1) The read-out circuit (ROC) to amplify the photocurrent and turn itto [3]. As
amplify shown
the in Figure
photocurrent 7, the
and
ROIC
into usually
turnaitvoltage contains
into a voltage
signal; (2) several
signal; (2)blocks:
the row the row
decoder (1)decoder
The the
and read-out
and the
column circuit
column (ROC)
multiplexer totoamplify
multiplexer tothe
select an photocurrent
select
individual pixel;and
an individual (3)
turn
pixel;
the it(3)
powerintothea voltage
power
supply signal;
andsupply (2) the
and
clock signal rowsignal
clock decoder
generator and the
togenerator
provide tocolumn
the provide
bias and multiplexer
the clock
bias and to select
the(4)
signal; an
clock
someindividual
signal;
IRFPAs (4)
pixel;
somethe
have (3) the power
IRFPAs
on-chip have supply
the on-chipand clock
analog-to-digital signal(ADC)
analog-to-digital
converter generator to provide
converter
integrated (ADC)
in the the bias and
integrated
ROIC, while the
in clock
the
others signal;
ROIC, while
implement (4)
some
others
the IRFPAs
implement
external ADC.have thetheexternal
Among on-chip
all these analog-to-digital
ADC. Among
blocks, the ROC converter
all these
and the blocks,
ADC (ADC)the
are ROCintegrated
the theinADC
andblocks
core the
which ROIC,
are thewhile
determinecore
others
blocks
the implement ofthe
which determine
performance the external ADC. Among
the performance
ROIC. of theallROIC.
these blocks, the ROC and the ADC are the core
blocks which determine the performance of the ROIC.

Figure 7. The block schematics of a read-out integrated circuit (ROIC).

Micromachines 2020, 11, x 10 of 19

Figure 7. The block schematics of a read-out integrated circuit (ROIC).

Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 10 of 19
4.1. Read-Out Circuit (ROC)
In the
4.1. ROC,Circuit
Read-Out the photocurrent
(ROC) generated from the pixel is amplified and accumulated by a
capacitor during an integration time to form a stronger voltage signal, which is then read out into a
In the ROC, the photocurrent generated from the pixel is amplified and accumulated by a
sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit for the consequent digital conversion in ADC. The design of the ROC
capacitor during an integration time to form a stronger voltage signal, which is then read out into
significantly affects the
a sample-and-hold (S/H)power
circuitdissipation and thedigital
for the consequent quality of the in
conversion analog
ADC. output
The designsignal
of thebefore
converting. The most commonly used ROC configuration in microbolometer
ROC significantly affects the power dissipation and the quality of the analog output signal before IRFPAs are direct
injection (DI) [61,84,85],
converting. The most gate modulation
commonly used ROC input (GMI) [13,34,35],
configuration and capacitive
in microbolometer IRFPAstransimpedance
are direct
amplifier (CTIA)
injection [20,31,65,86,87].
(DI) [61,84,85], The design
gate modulation concepts
input (GMI) involve
[13,34,35], theand
performance and the structural
capacitive transimpedance
amplifiereach
complexity; (CTIA) [20,31,65,86,87].
designer may prefer The design concepts
a different design involve
depending the performance
on the technicaland the structural and
requirement
complexity;
the process schedule.each designer may prefer a different design depending on the technical requirement and
the
Theprocess schedule.
structure of the DI configuration is shown in Figure 8a. The photocurrent is injected to C1
The structure of the DI configuration is shown in Figure 8a. The photocurrent is injected to C1 to
to integrate after being amplified via M1, and then is read out to S/H circuit through M4. The function
integrate after being amplified via M1, and then is read out to S/H circuit through M4. The function of
of M2 is to reset the voltage on C1. The DI benefits from simple structure and low power dissipation,
M2 is to reset the voltage on C1. The DI benefits from simple structure and low power dissipation,
but suffers from unstable bias voltage, poor linearity, and poor noise suppression. Figure 8b shows
but suffers from unstable bias voltage, poor linearity, and poor noise suppression. Figure 8b shows
the structure
the structureof the GMI
of the GMIconfiguration.
configuration. TheThe photocurrent
photocurrentflows flowsintointoaacurrent-mirror
current-mirror to to generate
generate the
mirror
the mirror current toward C1 and then gets integrated. The GMI itself has a varying current gain gain
current toward C1 and then gets integrated. The GMI itself has a varying current
depending
depending on the background,
on the background, therefore
thereforeleading
leading to the higher
to the highersensitivity,
sensitivity, background
background suppression,
suppression,
and high dynamic
and high dynamic range.
range.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,the thecircuit
circuitnoise
noise isis suppressed
suppressedbybythe the current
current mirror
mirror structure.
structure.
The disadvantage of GMI is that the
The disadvantage of GMI is that the linearity is linearity is still affected by the unstable bias voltage,
affected by the unstable bias voltage, while while the the
current
current gaingain
andand injection
injection efficiencyare
efficiency aresusceptible
susceptible to to the
thethreshold
thresholdvoltage
voltage and process
and condition
process of of
condition
the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), resulting
the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), resulting to a negative influence on to a negative influence on
the circuit performance.
the circuit performance.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 8. Structures
Figure of of
8. Structures read-out
read-outcircuit
circuitconfiguration: (a) direct
configuration: (a) directinjection
injection (DI),
(DI), (b) (b)
gategate modulation
modulation
input (GMI), and (c) capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA).
input (GMI), and (c) capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA).

As the most popular configuration in microbolometer IRFPAs, the CTIA configuration is shown
in Figure 8c, which is an integrator with the capacitor C1 is in the negative feedback loop of the
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 11 of 19

As the most popular configuration in microbolometer IRFPAs, the CTIA configuration is shown
in Figure 8c, which is an integrator with the capacitor C1 is in the negative feedback loop of the
operational amplifier. M1 is the reset switch and M2 controls the output. The CTIA has low input
impedance thus high injection efficiency, stable bias thus excellent linearity, controllable current gain,
high sensitivity, and good jam-proof. However, it has relatively high power dissipation, large occupied
area, and would introduce more noise due to the offset voltage. Compared to the DI configuration, the
CTIA has higher current gain which provides higher sensitivity to detect weaker current, and it also
has lower input impedance leading to higher injection efficiency. Compared to the GMI configuration,
the CTIA provides more stable bias voltage for the detector, resulting in a better linearity in the output
signal. The typical CTIA parameters for microbolometer IRFPAs are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Parameters of capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) read-out circuit in microbolometer

infrared focal plane arrays (IRFPAs).

Analog Output Power Dissipation Integration Supply

Reference Linearity
Swing (V) (mW) Capacitance (pF) Voltage (V)
METU [87] 2.5 85 1–32 (programmable) 3.3
ULIS [88] 2.8 150 ≈1% 5
ULIS [89] 2.8 150 <1% 5
AUT [90] 351 3.3
WPU [91] 2.7 29.8 10 5

4.2. Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC)

Generally, the high-speed ADC with a high dynamic range is required for the utility in the
CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs. Although the on-chip ADCs using the pixel-level Sigma-Delta (Σ-∆)
ADC [92–94], the monolithic pipeline ADC [95,96], and the column-parallel successive approximation
register (SAR) ADC [97] are reported to be available to achieve the high sensitivity ROICs for
microbolometer IRFPAs, there are no report about the on-chip ADC for readily available CMOS
microbolometer IRFPAs. The CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs usually use external ADCs, due to
the inadequate signal processing area in the monolithic FPA. The microbolometer IRFPAs raises the
requirement to the ADC such as low power dissipation, high speed, low delay, low offset voltage, low
noise, and high slew rate. Table 3 shows typical parameters of an on-chip monolithic pipeline ADC for
the microbolometer IRFPA.

Table 3. Parameters of a 14 bits on-chip pipeline analog-to-digital convertor (ADC) designed for
microbolometer IRFPA [95].

Effective Number Signal-to-Noise Differential Integral Total Harmonic Power

of Bits Ratio Nonlinearity Nonlinearity Distortion Consumption
12.9 79 dB 0.76 4.9 −72 dB 95 mW

5. Focal Plane Array (FPA)

Microbolometer pixels are usually fabricated on the substrate with repeating arrangement to form
a microbolometer array for imaging purpose. Each microbolometer absorbs the incident IR radiation
and transforms it into electric output, which is read out and calibrated by the ROIC to produce a pixel
in a two-dimensional image. A microbolometer FPA is the combination of the microbolometer array
and the ROIC. Generally, the IRFPA could be sorted as hybrid and monolithic [98]. In the hybrid FPA,
the detector pixels and the ROIC are fabricated in different substrates, which are combined using the
flip-chip bonding via metal bumps. Since it has the advantages such as the independent optimization
of detector material and multiplexer, near 100% fill factor, and sufficient signal processing area, it is
widely used in the cooled IRFPAs and high-end uncooled IRFPAs [6]. The monolithic FPA integrates
the ROIC and the detector pixels in the same substrate, and part of the column or row selecting circuit
Micromachines 2020, 11, x 12 of 19

monolithic FPA integrates the ROIC and the detector pixels in the same substrate, and part of the
column or row selecting circuit is integrated in the pixels. Since the silicon-based monolithic FPA
technology is compatible
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 with CMOS process, providing a mature approach with high uniformity 12 of 19
and low cost, it is widely used in the microbolometer IRFPAs.
The reduction of pixel size makes challenging tasks for the mechanical stability of the pixel
structure, theinROIC,
is integrated the pixels. Since the
the signal silicon-based
to noise ratio, etc.monolithic
Not only FPA technology
the thermal is compatible
sensor withalso
material, but CMOSthe
process, providing a mature approach with high uniformity and
overall process becomes the limits of the final performance of the IRFPAs. Table 4 lists low cost, it is widely used in the
the
microbolometer IRFPAs.
performance of several commercial IRFPAs. The performance of SOI diode IRFPAs and the CMOS-
The reduction
compatible resistance of microbolometer
pixel size makesIRFPAs challengingis stilltasks for the
inferior mechanical
to that of the VO stability of the pixel
x or Si derivatives
structure, the ROIC, the signal to noise ratio, etc. Not only the thermal
microbolometer, but the gap between the two is small. This means the low sensitivity resulted sensor material, but also the
from
overall
the lowprocess
TCR ofbecomes the limits
the thermal sensor of material
the final performance
could be partly of the IRFPAs. Table
compensated by 4the
lists the performance
small feature size
of several commercial IRFPAs. The performance
and high uniformity provided through CMOS or Si LSI process. of SOI diode IRFPAs and the CMOS-compatible
resistance microbolometer IRFPAs is still inferior to that of the VOx or Si derivatives microbolometer,
but the gap between
Table the two is small.
4. CMOS-compatible This means the
microbolometer low versus
IRFPAs sensitivity
otherresulted from the
microbolometer low TCR of the
IRFPAs.
thermal sensor material could be partly compensated by the small feature size and high uniformity
Pixel ROIC Frame
provided through CMOS or Si Material
Reference LSI process. Array Size NETD
Size Type Rate 1
Mitsubishi
Table 4. [20]
CMOS-compatible Diode
microbolometer 320IRFPAs
× 240 versus17 μm CTIA
other microbolometer 60IRFPAs.
Hz 50 mK
CMOS-compatible
MikroSens
Reference[45] Material 120 × 160
Array Size 35 μmROICCTIA
Pixel Size Type Frame11 Hz1
Rate 117 mK
NETD
resistance
Mitsubishi [20] Diode 320 × 240 17 µm CTIA 60 Hz 50 mK
Toshiba [37] Diode
CMOS-compatible
320 × 240 22 μm GMI 25 ms 200 mK
MikroSens [45] 120 × 160 35 µm CTIA 11 Hz 117 mK
Raytheon [60] VOx
resistance 640 × 512 20 μm 30 Hz <50 mK
Toshiba [37] Diode 320 × 240 22 µm GMI 25 ms 200 mK
DRS [61]
Raytheon [60] VOx
VO x 1024
640 × 512
× 76820 µm
17 μm DI 30
30 Hz
Hz <50 mK
<50 mK
FLIR [99]
DRS [61] VOxVOx 1024 × 640
768 × 51217 µm 12 μm DI 3060
HzHz <40mK
<50 mK
FLIR [99]
L-3 Communications VOx 640 × 512 12 µm 60 Hz <40 mK
L-3 Communications [85] a-Si/a-SiGe 1024 ×1024
a-Si/a-SiGe 768 × 768 17 µm17 μm DI DI 1010
msms 35mK
35 mK
[85][65]
ULIS a-Si 1024 × 768 17 µm CTIA 30 Hz 46 mK
ULIS [65] 1 Or time a-Si
constant in case1024 × 768
the frame 17not
rate is μm CTIA
mentioned. 30 Hz 46 mK
1 Or time constant in case the frame rate is not mentioned.
6. Vacuum Packaging Technology
6. Vacuum Packaging Technology
The thermal conduction via the atmosphere takes over a large fraction in the total thermal
The thermal
conduction, conduction
especially when the via pixel
the atmosphere
size is small. takes overthe
Since a large fractionchange
temperature in the total
and thusthermal
the
conduction, especially when the pixel size is small. Since the temperature
responsivity is proportional to the thermal conductance, the vacuum packaging of the microbolometer change and thus the
responsivity
pixels is proportional
is necessary to eliminate to the the
thermalthermal conductance,
conduction through the vacuum packaging
air. Unfortunately, the costofof thethe
microbolometer pixels is necessary to eliminate the thermal conduction through
vacuum packaging is one of the major cost drivers for the microbolometer IRFPA. The typical vacuum air. Unfortunately,
the
levelcost of the here
required vacuum packaging
is below is oneraises
1 Pa, which of thea major
challengecostto
drivers for the microbolometer
the packaging technology [100]. IRFPA. The
Although
typical vacuum level required here is below 1 Pa, which raises a challenge
such requirement could be achieved via one-by-one pumping through a fine-bore tube, the cost becomes to the packaging
technology
a bottleneck[100]. Although
in lowering thesuch
cost requirement could beFigure
of uncooled IRFPAs. achieved via one-by-one
9 shows the concept pumping through a
of the wafer-level
fine-bore tube, the cost becomes a bottleneck in lowering the cost of uncooled
packaging (WLP) technology for IRFPA, which is a popular option for cost reduction [59,101,102]. IRFPAs. Figure 9 showsIn
the concept of the wafer-level packaging (WLP) technology for IRFPA,
this technology an IR transparent cap wafer is bonded to the IRFPA wafer under vacuum and then which is a popular option for
cost reduction [59,101,102].
the hermetical In this technology
sealing is achieved using solders. an IR transparent
Several steps arecapneeded
wafer is bonded
prior to thetobonding
the IRFPA to
wafer under vacuum and then the hermetical sealing is achieved using
accomplish the cap wafer. The cavities for the pixels are formed via etching, and then both sides solders. Several stepsof are
the
needed
cap wafer prior
areto the bonding to accomplish
antireflection-coated, afterwardsthe cap wafer. The
the vacuum cavities
getters for the pixels
are deposited are the
inside formed via
cavities.
etching, and then both sides of the cap wafer are antireflection-coated, afterwards
The WLP technology is a practical technology that is capable to reach an average seal yield > 95% with the vacuum getters
are deposited
correct inside
parameters the cavities. The WLP technology is a practical technology that is capable to
[103].
reach an average seal yield >95% with correct parameters [103].

Figure 9.
Figure Concept of
9. Concept of the
the wafer
wafer level
level packaging
packaging technology.
technology.

Although the wafer level packaging technology provides a significant cost reduction, it still takes
a considerable proportion in the total cost of the uncooled IRFPA, especially for the low-end market.
A pixel level packaging (PLP) technology has been developed to address this issue [104–106]. The
PLP process consists in the manufacturing of IR transparent microcaps that cover each pixel in the
Micromachines 2020, 11, x 13 of 19

Although the wafer level packaging technology provides a significant cost reduction, it still takes
aMicromachines
considerable proportion
2020, 11, 800 in the total cost of the uncooled IRFPA, especially for the low-end market. 13 of 19
A pixel level packaging (PLP) technology has been developed to address this issue [104–106]. The
PLP process consists in the manufacturing of IR transparent microcaps that cover each pixel in the
direct consequent
direct consequentstep stepofofthethe
wafer level
wafer bolometer
level fabrication,
bolometer i.e., no
fabrication, extra
i.e., no bonding processprocess
extra bonding is needed.is
Figure 10 shows the schematics of a packaged pixel. To form this structure, first, a
needed. Figure 10 shows the schematics of a packaged pixel. To form this structure, first, a sacrificial sacrificial layer with
trenches
layer witharound
trenches each pixeleach
around is formed
pixel isabove
formed the microbolometer
above via deposition
the microbolometer and etching.
via deposition Then,
and etching.
an IR transparent material is deposited to form the microcap structure. After
Then, an IR transparent material is deposited to form the microcap structure. After that, etch holes that, etch holes are
formed through the IR transparent microcap and the sacrificial layer is removed.
are formed through the IR transparent microcap and the sacrificial layer is removed. Finally, a sealing Finally, a sealing and
anti-reflecting
and layerlayer
anti-reflecting is deposited under
is deposited high high
under vacuum. The pixel
vacuum. usingusing
The pixel PLP keeps a stable
PLP keeps vacuum
a stable level
vacuum
below 10 −3 mbar and shows nominal performance after one year of ageing, demonstrating the PLP to
level below 10 mbar and shows nominal performance after one year of ageing, demonstrating the
−3

be a to
PLP prospective novel vacuum
be a prospective packaging
novel vacuum technology
packaging for the microbolometer
technology for the microbolometerIRFPAs.IRFPAs.

Figure 10. Schematics of the pixel level packaging technology.

Figure 10. Schematics of the pixel level packaging technology.
7. Limitation and Future Trends
7. Limitation and Future
The minimum Trends
resolvable size x decided by the diffraction limitation could be expressed by the
F-number and the wavelength
The minimum λ according
resolvable size x decidedto by
thethe
Rayleigh Criterion,
diffraction which
limitation is be expressed by the
could
F-number and the wavelength λ according to the Rayleigh Criterion, which is
x ≈ f θ = 1.22λF (6)
x ≈ f θ = 1.22 λ F (6)
Here θ is the diffraction angle, and f is the focal length of the optical lens. In a LWIR detector the
Here θ is the diffraction angle, and f is the focal length of the optical lens. In a LWIR detector the
λ ranges from 8–14 µm, while the F-number for CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs is usually close to 1
λ ranges from 8–14 μm, while the F-number for CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs is usually close to 1
to make the device compact, indicating the minimum resolvable size is 10–17 µm. When the pixel
to make the device compact, indicating the minimum resolvable size is 10–17 μm. When the pixel
size is between 0.5λF and 1.22λF, the resolution still benefits from the oversampling but saturates
size is between 0.5λF and 1.22λF, the resolution still benefits from the oversampling but saturates
quickly as the pixel size is smaller [79]. However, unlike the photon detectors which prefer a pixel size
quickly as the pixel size is smaller [79]. However, unlike the photon detectors which prefer a pixel
close to or even smaller than the diffraction limit to achieve the maximum performance, the reported
size close to or even smaller than the diffraction limit to achieve the maximum performance, the
CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs are still in the “detector limit” regime, i.e., still far from the potential
reported CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs are still in the “detector limit” regime, i.e., still far from the
limiting performance.
potential limiting performance.
The main factor that limits the pixel size reduction in CMOS microbolometer is the responsivity. As
The main factor that limits the pixel size reduction in CMOS microbolometer is the responsivity.
mentioned above, smaller pixel means less IR absorption, resulting in low responsivity. Meanwhile, the
As mentioned above, smaller pixel means less IR absorption, resulting in low responsivity.
scale-down of circuits results in a lower applied bias voltage, which also means lower responsivity. The
Meanwhile, the scale-down of circuits results in a lower applied bias voltage, which also means lower
responsivity could be enhanced by adjusting the fill factor, the emissivity ε, the thermal conductance G,
responsivity. The responsivity could be enhanced by adjusting the fill factor, the emissivity ε, the
and the temperature coefficient TCR or dVf /dT. The fill factor and the emissivity in the state-of-the-art
thermal conductance G, and the temperature coefficient TCR or dVf/dT. The fill factor and the
technology are already high, although the ε is still capable to increase to a certain extent via the
emissivity in the state-of-the-art technology are already high, although the ε is still capable to increase
metasurface technology. The thermal conductance could be decreased with thinner or longer support
to a certain extent via the metasurface technology. The thermal conductance could be decreased with
legs. The TCR is intrinsic to the material, but the resistance increase of the thermistor is able to raise
thinner or longer support legs. The TCR is intrinsic to the material, but the resistance increase of the
the responsivity. On the other hand, the temperature coefficient of the diode type microbolometer is
thermistor is able to raise the responsivity. On the other hand, the temperature coefficient of the diode
mainly determined by the number of diodes in series. In any case, the way to enhance the responsivity
type microbolometer is mainly determined by the number of diodes in series. In any case, the way to
of the small pixels is related to a smaller feature size.
enhance the responsivity of the small pixels is related to a smaller feature size.
Besides, the spatial resolution is also affected by the array size. Although the XGA (extended
Besides, the spatial resolution is also affected by the array size. Although the XGA (extended
graphics array) format (1024 × 768) is popularized in the VOx and silicon derivatives microbolometer
graphics array) format (1024 × 768) is popularized in the VOx and silicon derivatives microbolometer
IRFPAs, the QVGA (quarter video graphics array) format (320 × 240) is still popular with the CMOS
IRFPAs, the QVGA (quarter video graphics array) format (320 × 240) is still popular with the CMOS
microbolometer IRFPAs. Since the difficulty to achieve larger array size is much easier compared
to that to the pixel size reduction, the status of the low spatial resolution could be considered as a
Micromachines 2020, 11, 800 14 of 19

trade-off between the production cost and the performance. It also implies that the market demand to
the performance improvement in low-end IR detector is not eager. However, the merit of the pixel size
reduction is significant. The small pixel provides low production cost, high spatial resolution, and
small device size. Although the steps of the pixel size reduction in the CMOS microbolometer IRFPAs
has slowed down in recent years because of insufficient market demand, the smaller pixels with lower
costs and better performance will come sooner or later as the technology based on smaller feature size
becomes practical.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.J., P.H.; writing—original draft preparation, L.Y.; writing—review
and editing, X.J., H.Z., Y.G. M.L.; visualization, L.Y., Y.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Key Research and Development Program of China
(2016YFB0400402, 2016YFA0202102, 2016YFB0402403); Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and
Detectors (IIMDKFJJ19-07).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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