UNIT 1 COMPONENTS OF

ORGANISATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT (OD) PROCESS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Process of Organisational Development
1.3 Initial Diagnosis
1.4 Data Collection
1.5 Data Feedback and Confrontation
1.6 Selection and Design of Interventions
1.7 Implementation of Intervention
1.8 Action Planning and Problem Solving
1.9 Team Building
1.10 Inter-Group Development
1.11 Evaluation and Follow-Up
1.12 Let Us Sum Up
1.13 Unit End Questions
1.14 Suggested Readings and References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the Block 1 we have extensively discussed about organisational development.
We described organisational development as a process of improving organisations.
It can be explained as an effort, planned organisation wide and managed from the
top to increase organisational effectiveness and health through planned interventions
in the organisations process using behavioural science knowledge.
An organisation is a part and parcel of society at large and thus it has an external
environment that is outside the organisation and an internal environment. Both
these environment need to be taken in to consideration to promote organisational
development. The success of organisational development thus will depend on the
implementation of internal and external measures.Internal measures entails a
paradigm shift in terms of reorienting all levels of personnel toward development
goals the creation of a development office a high level of transparency collaboration,
flexibility and creative thinking. In the external measures the process requires the
implementation of highly integrated public relations, fundraising and advocacy plans.
This integration of the internal and external measures comes as a core of an
institution for its development.
The intervention strategies of organisational development lead to improved
organisation performance through an improved decision making climate. 5
Analysing and Managing the Organisational development experts work to improve relationship among interacting
OD Process
and interdependent organisational group and gather attitudinal data throughout the
organisation and feel this data back to selected individuals and group. This
information comes as a basis for planning and making needed improvements. The
process of organisational development is long term and requires both commitment
and positive attitude of those involved in it. It is not a one time training and
development programme but is an ongoing and cyclic process.
In the present unit we will focus on the process of organisational development. We
will discuss each stage of organisational development process one by one and try
to understand their relevance.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 discuss about process of organisational development; and
 explain each step involved in the process of organisational development.

1.2 THE PROCESS OF ORGANISATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Organisational development can also be described as a process of changing people
and other related aspects of an organisation. Thus it consists of many sub processes
and steps. When the process of any organisational development starts it progresses
through different stages and determines satisfactory progress made for additional
involvement. The organisational development process is based on the action research
model which begins with an identified problem or need for change. The process
proceeds through assessment, planning of an intervention, implementing the
intervention, gathering data to evaluate the intervention, and determining if satisfactory
progress has been made or if there is need for further intervention. The process
is cyclical and ends when the desired developmental result is obtained.
The organisational development process begins when an organisation recognises
that a problem exists which impacts the mission or health of the organisation and
change is desired. It can also begin when leadership has a vision of a better way
and wants to improve the organisation. An organisation does not always have to
be in trouble to implement organisation development activities. The process can
be initiated to bring about overall change in organisational culture or just for
enhancement of processes and structures in an organisation. The process may also
be implemented keeping in mind the long term and aspirational goals of the
organisation.
The process may also be launched when a member of an organisation or unit
contacts an organisational development practitioner about potential help in
addressing an organisational issue. The organisation member may be a manager,
staff specialist, or some other key participant, and the practitioner may be an
organisational development professional from inside or outside of the organisation.
Determining whether the two parties should enter into an organisational development
relationship typically involves clarifying the nature of the organisation’s current
functioning and the issue(s) to be addressed, the relevant client system for that
issue, and the appropriateness of the particular organisational development
6
practitioner. In helping assess these issues, the organisational development
practitioner may need to collect preliminary data about the organisation. Similarly, Components of
Organisational
the organisation may need to gather information about the practitioner’s competence Development (OD)
and experience. This knowledge will help both parties determine whether they Process
should proceed to develop a contract for working together.
Before we go on to discussing the organisational development process we will
focus on two important terms, that of, entering and contracting. Entering and
contracting involve defining in a preliminary manner the organisation’s problems
and opportunities for development and establishing collaborative relationship
between the organisational development practitioner and a group of employees
involved in the organisational development process, about how to work on those
issues. Entering and contracting set the initial parameter for carrying out the
subsequent paces of organisational development: diagnosing the organisation,
planning and implementing changes and evaluating and institutionalising them. They
help to define what issues will be addressed by those activities, which will carry
them out, and they will be accomplished.
Entering and contracting can vary in complexity and formality depending on the
situation. In those cases where the manager of a work group or department serves
as his or her own organisational development practitioner, entering and contracting
typically involve the manager and group members meeting to discuss what issues
to work on and how they will jointly accomplish that. Here, entering and contracting
are relatively simple and informal. They involve all relevant members directly in the
process without a great number of formal procedures. In situations where managers
and administrators are considering the use of professional organisational development
practitioners, either from inside or from outside the organisation, entering and
contracting tend to be more complex and formal. Organisational development
practitioners may need to collect preliminary information to help define the
problematic or development issues. They may need to meet with representatives
of the client organisation rather than with the total membership; they may need to
formalise their respective roles and how the change process will unfold.
The activities of entering an organisational development relationship are a necessary
prelude to developing an organisational development contract. They define the
major focus for contracting, including the relevant parties. Contracting is a natural
extension of the entering process and clarifies how the organisational development
process will proceed. It typically establishes the expectations of the parties, the
time and resources that will be expended, and the ground rules under which the
parties will operate. The goal of contracting is to make a good decision about how
to carry out the organisational development process. It can be relatively informal
and involve only a verbal agreement between the client and organisational
development practitioner. A team leader with organisational development skills, for
example, may voice his or her concerns to members about how the team is
functioning. After some discussion, they might agree to devote one hour of future
meeting time to diagnosing the team with the help of the leader. Here, entering and
contracting are done together informally. In other cases, contracting can be more
protracted and result in a formal document. That typically occurs when organisations
employ outside organisational development practitioners. Government agencies,
for example, generally have procurement regulations that apply to contracting with
outside consultants.
Regardless of the level of formality, all organisational development processes require
some form of explicit contracting that result in either a verbal or a written agreement.
Such contracting clarifies the client’s and the practitioner’s expectations about 7
Analysing and Managing the how the organisational development process will take place. Unless there is mutual
OD Process
understanding and agreement about the process, there is considerable risk that
some once expectations will be unfilled. That can lead to reduced commitment and
support, to misplaced action, or to premature termination of the process. The
contracting step in organisational development generally addresses three key
areas: what each party expects to gain from the organisational development process,
the time and resources that will be devoted to it, and the ground rules for working
together.
The different approaches to OD process but the typical process consists of seven
steps, viz., initial diagnosis, data collection, data feedback and confrontation, action
planning and problem solving, team building, inter group development and evaluation
and follow up.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss the meaning of organisational development relationship.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) How is organisational process cyclical?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Explain developing contract as a part of process of organisational
development.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Explain the concept of entering.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.3 INITIAL DIAGNOSIS

Diagnosing organisation is a major aspect of organisational development. When
8
diagnosis is done well, it clearly points the organisation and the organisational
development practitioner toward a set of appropriate activities that will improve Components of
Organisational
organisational effectiveness. Development (OD)
Process
Diagnosis is the process of understanding how the organisation is currently
functioning and provides information necessary to design change interventions. It
generally follows from successful entry and contracting, which sets the stage for
successful diagnosis. They help the organisational development practitioners to
focus on, how to collect and analyse the data to understand them, and how to
work together to develop action steps from the diagnosis.
It is not necessary that initial diagnosis is conducted when the organisation faces
certain problems as the process can be initiated to tackle the problem and improve
the performance of the organisation. In order to do so initially the focus should be
on identifying the parts of the organisation that requires to be changed. Once
choice is made, condition may be further reviewed to understand the problem
better. This review or in other words data collection is the second step in the
process of organisational development and will be discussed later.
Diagnosis provides a systematic understanding of organisations so that appropriate
interventions may be developed for solving problems and enhancing effectiveness.
If executives recognise that there are inadequacies within organisation which can
be corrected by organisational development activities, it is necessary to find out
the professional and competent people within the organisation to plan and execute
organisational development activities.
If competent people are not available within the organisation the services of an
external agency may utilised. The consultants adopt various methods including
interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, analysis of documents and reports,
focused group discussions for diagnosing the problem. The methods can be selected
on the basis of the initial diagnosis and then the organisation can move to the next
stage of data collection.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of initial diagnosis.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the relevance of initial diagnosis.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) When do we take the help of external agency?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
9
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 1.4 DATA COLLECTION
After the initial stage of diagnosis is complete it is necessary to carry out data
collection in order to generate necessary information that will facilitate and enhance
the process of organisational development. This stage may also be termed as need
assessment as the development of intervention strategy will mainly depend on this
stage. Various methods of data collection may used for this purpose. A combination
of methods may also be used as per the purpose of data collection. It can be done
with the help of questionnaires, observations, interview methods etc. Focus group
discussion is another method that can be used in order to collect data from the
employees in an organisation.
The initial diagnosis will give certain idea about the impending problem in the
organisation and depending on that a suitable method of data collection may be
selected and data may be collected. Data can be collected to assess the
organisational culture or climate or to understand any behavioural problems arising
in the organisation. On the whole this particular stage is important so as to have
a concrete proof of the problem or situation occurring in the organisation and to
confirm the results of initial diagnosis. The data collection may be conducted by
the personnel from the organisation or experts from an external agency may also
be hired for the purpose.
However, encouraging participation of employees in this step can be of great help
as it will promote their involvement. Also the goal and objective of data collection
should be made clear in order to inform the employees about the overall purpose
of the process and to ensure their cooperation and deal with any kind of insecurities
in their minds.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the relevance of data collection.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) How does initial diagnosis help?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Why do we have to encourage employee participation in the data collection
process?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
10
 Components of
1.5 DATA FEEDBACK AND CONFRONTATION Organisational
Development (OD)
During the stage of data feedback and confrontation, data collected is analysed Process
and reviewed by the organisational development practitioners. This is mainly done
to bring in to perspective the view points of various organisational development
practitioners involved in the process and also to better understand the data collected.
The data collected is to be systematically analysed an interpreted so as to have
a concrete idea about the problem and situation in the organisation. The results
obtained are discussed at a length by the practitioners or the experts involved in
the process of organisational development. Again the participation of the employees
at various levels may be of great help in this case. The data thus analysed is now
ready in order to select and design suitable intervention strategy. Thus after the
stage of data collection, feedback is sought from the experts or the organisational
development practitioners and it is confronted or discussed at a length in order to
interpret it correctly. This process is crucial in a way as with inputs from varied
experts and employees the data collected can be meaningfully interpreted in order
to make decisions with regard to the nest step.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of data feedback.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What is meant by confrontation here?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.6 SELECTION AND DESIGN OF

INTERVENTIONS
Once the process of diagnosis including the initial diagnosis, data collection and
feedback and confrontation is complete, then based on the interpretation and
discussion, suitable intervention strategy may be selected and applied. During this
stage goals are created on the basis information collected. Decisions with regard
about suitable intervention strategy to be implemented and the way in which it is
implemented is to taken at this stage. The interventions are the planned activities
that are introduced into the system to accomplish desired changes and improvements.
During this stage the suitable interventions are to be selected. In earlier blocks we
discussed in detail about various intervention strategies that can be implemented
in an organisation. We will now focus on some of the strategies.
1) Techno structural approach: As the name suggests this intervention mainly
relates to technology and also task methods and processes. The main goal of
the intervention is to match technology and social structure existing in the 11
Analysing and Managing the organisation. A technological advancement in an organisation is often met with
OD Process
strong resistance from the employees. Technological advancement is necessary
for organisational development as it will lead to less error rate and fast and
improved production. But negative attitude and resistance from the employees
will interfere with the whole process of technological advancement. Thus this
intervention strategy can be used in order to help employees understand the
relevance of the technological advancement and to put to rest their insecurities.
This can be done when an alignment is created between the technological
configuration and the social structure of the organisation.
2) Process consultation: This mainly focuses on the processes in the organisation
and is mainly implemented in order to enhance these processes in order to
make them faster and more effective. The processes may be related to
communication, interpersonal relationship, problem solving, decision making
etc. This intervention strategy has been discussed in detail in the earlier block.
3) Team building: Team work today is one of the most important aspects in
an organisation. Organisations generate varied measures in order to encourage
team work amongst their employees. Team work not only ensures effective
dealing of complex problems faced by the organisations but also leads to
efficiency in complex work activity. However putting a team together is a
challenge and that is what is exactly covered under this intervention of team
building. It mainly focuses on how a team can be created and discusses the
stages of forming, norming, storming, performing and adjourning.
4) Third-party intervention: This is an intervention that is designed in order to
improve inter group relationships through better communication and interaction
between various groups that exist in the organisational setup. It also strives
to reduce conflict, unhealthy competition, promoting interdependence and a
spirit of team work and encouraging cooperation.
5) Survey Feedback: In this intervention a survey is conducted with help of a
questionnaire. Information is collected with regard to the attitudes, perceptions
and feelings of the employees. The data thus collected is then used to provide
a feedback to the organisation so that they have an idea about their employees.
The data thus can be used by the organisation to make the overall functioning
of the organisation more effective and to develop satisfaction and organisational
citizenship amongst their employees.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss third party intervention.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Describe techno structural activities.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

12
.....................................................................................................................
 Components of
3) What is process consultation? Organisational
Development (OD)
..................................................................................................................... Process

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Explain team building.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.7 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERVENTION

During this stage the selected intervention is finally implemented. Intervention may
take the form of training programmes, workshops, feedback of data to the
employees, group discussions, written exercises, on-the-job activities, etc. Great
care needs to be taken before the intervention is implemented to avoid any sort
of negative impact. A huge amount of effort and financial investment goes in to the
overall organisational development process and at this stage the whole process
should not crumble just because no adequate care is taken at the time of
implementation of an intervention strategy. The organisational development
practitioners should identify before hand any negative attitudes and resistance on
the part of the employees and that should be dealt with before the actual
implementation. A conducive environment should be conducted in the organisation
in order to ensure success and positive effect of the intervention strategy. This will
also ensure real and long lasting change with regard to the problem. More than
one intervention may also be employed at the same to time.

1.8 ACTION PLANNING AND PROBLEM

SOLVING
Based on the data collected and its interpretation the organisational development
practitioners prepare recommendations and specific action plan in order to solve
the specific and identified problem.The present stage of action planning and problem
solving is required in order to ensure effective management of the problem or the
situation faced by the organisation. The process of developing an action plan
involves the identification of certain target variables and determination of techniques
to deal with impending situation or problem. The action plan can be termed as
another intervention strategy. It actually specifies the intervention strategy. As certain
objectives are created that are to be achieved as part of the intervention strategy
implementation process. Also planning is done about the people involved in
implementation, time period required, assignment of responsibilities etc.
With regard to problem solving, the focus is mainly on understanding the nature
of the problem, identifying a suitable solution and then trying to resolve the problem.
Problem solving in an organisational set up does not merely focus on decision
making with regard to suitable solution. It also includes identifying the problem
13
and understanding it in a better way, deciding about the possible solutions and
Analysing and Managing the implementing them. The process of problem solving also includes reviewing the
OD Process
outcomes after implementation of the solutions.
Thus the action planning and problem solving is an important stage that specifically
focus on the problem in a systematic matter, that adds on to the effect of an
intervention strategy.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain the stage of implementation of intervention.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What is involved action planning and problem solving?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Describe the process of problem solving.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.9 TEAM BUILDING

As discussed earlier in this unit and in earlier blocks, team building is a process
of creating teams. Teams have always existed in an organisation. There are formal
teams and there are informal teams. Formal teams are the part of an organisational
structure. For example a particular department is a formal team that has various
employees working together and who are interdependent to get their work activities
successfully completed. An informal team on the other hand may be a group of
employees from various departments that interact and have a common goal. In an
organisational set up teams may be purposely created in order to deal with certain
problems or issues or in order to promote innovations or to make certain decisions.
Organisations have long understood the relevance of teams and how they enhance
the overall production process and lead to increased profits. However if a team
is not effectively put together then it can lead to disastrous outcome. Employees
are to be assigned to teams in a systematic manner after having a complete idea
about their techniques, skills, personalities, behaviour, attitudes, values etc. Thus
the whole process of team building is very crucial. The size of the team and its
composition is also extremely important. This will again depend on the purpose for
which the team is been built. The organisation should focus on a team right from
14
the first stage that of forming to the last stage of adjourning, when the team is Components of
Organisational
dissolved after its purpose is achieved. Development (OD)
Process
Team building as part of organisational development process is essential mainly for
successful implementation of the process. During implementation of any intervention
varied activities or tasks may be required to be performed; teams would help in
effective conduction of these activities and tasks. Further the trust, interdependence
and cohesiveness between the team members will promote efficient implementation
of any strategy. However as mentioned earlier utmost care needs to be taken
while building the teams.

1.10 INTER-GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Besides team building another important stage is that of intergroup development.
There will exist various groups in organisation that can be categorized as formal
and informal. One main objective of the organisational development practitioners
should be to promote positive interaction and smooth communications amongst
these groups. This in turn will again facilitate the implementation of intervention
strategy. Inter- group development can be brought about by conducting meetings
and workshops and constantly encouraging interaction amongst the members of
various groups. This will lead to a positive relation between groups that will in turn
lead to reduced conflict, better team work and overall effective functioning in the
organisation.
The inter- group development will also take care of diversity amongst the employees
in an organisation that results from employees belonging to different races, religion,
culture, region and gender. It will promote acceptance and respect amongst various
group members in the organisation leading to development of a harmonious
environment.

1.11 EVALUATION AND FOLLOW-UP

This is the last stage of organisational development process, but can be termed as
the most effective stage. During this stage organisational development practitioner
tries to evaluate the whole process and impact of the process. At this stage it is
necessary to evaluate each stage for their effectiveness and take necessary measures
if the intended results are not obtained. Based on the evaluation of the whole
process, follow up in terms of developing or selecting new intervention strategies
or adopting other measure to rectify any shortcomings in process may be required.
These two aspects are extremely important to mainly understand the impact and
the degree of impact of the whole process. Further depending on the result of the
evaluation suitable follow-up can be developed.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe team building.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

15
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 2) What is meant by inter group development?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Explain evaluation and follow-up.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.12 LET US SUM UP

Organisational development can be defined as the process of working together
with organisations, organisation leaders and organisation groups in bringing
systematic change to the root problems and hence increasing productivity and
employee satisfaction. Mainly organisational development offers three things, what
we do, how we do and the results we get. By understanding these three aspects
we can solve critical aspects of the organisation. It is a complex strategy that
brings changes in every aspect of the entire organisation. It is designed in a way
to produce a end kind of result. Ultimately it can be said that organisational
development is a new field which also includes positive adult development and
plays a major role in business profit.
Managing the organisational development programs is a constant concern and a
continuous activity. Innovations are carried out to solve complex organisational
problems through laboratory training, feedback methodology and action research.
Second generation organisational development efforts revolved around organisational
transformation visioning and virtual organisation. What one should understand is
various objects of organisational development before the beginning is made. In
other words it is the planned change to a company or organisation to enable
growth in an effective way. It includes consulting with the organisation to improve
effectiveness, the client and consultant relation, empowering individuals and team
and developing capable managers.
A lot of planning needs to done before the organisational development process is
implemented. The success of organisational development process mainly depends
on the members of an organisation, that is not only the top management but
employees at hierarchical levels. This process calls for active involvement and
participation of the employees. The attitudes of the employees are of extreme
importance in this case. Any change is normally met by a negative reaction. Thus
the employees should be given an idea about the problem and need for organisational
development intervention. They also should be encouraged to participate in the
overall process which will give them a feeling of involvement and will also reduce
insecurities sin their minds that result from anticipation of any kind of change in an
organisation.
16 To conclude, the process organisational development is extremely important to
bring about a positive change and promote advancement in an organisation. An Components of
Organisational
organisation should adopt it as a part and parcel of its functioning and make it an Development (OD)
ongoing process. Process

1.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the role of initial diagnosis in understanding the problems of the
organisation.
2) Discuss team building and state its relevance in the process of organisational
development.
3) Which is the most important stage in the organisational development according
you? Give reason.
4) Describe the stages of action planning and problem solving.

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Smith, A. (1998), Training and Development in Australia. 2nd ed. 261. Sydney:
Butterworths.
Richard Arvid Johnson. Management, Systems, and Society : An Introduction.
Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co.
Richard Beckhard (1969). Organisation development: strategies and models.
Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. p. 114. ISBN  0876205406 9780876205402
OCLC 39328. 
Wendell L French; Cecil Bell. Organisation development: behavioural science
interventions for organisation improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W. (Editors) (2005). Organisation Development. San
Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W. (Editors), 2005, Reinventing Organisation
Development. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
deKler, M. (2007). Healing emotional trauma in organisations: An O.D. Framework
and case study. Organisational Development Journal, 25(2), 49-56.
Wendell L French; Cecil Bell (1973).Organisation development: behavioural science
interventions for organisation improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
chapter 8.
Cherrington, David J. Organisational Behaviour: The Management of Individual
and Organisational Performance . Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Dove, Rick. “The Principles of Change.”Automotive Manufacturing and
Production.March 1997.
Dyer, William G. “Team Building: A Microcosm of the Past, Present, and Future
of O.D.” Academy of Management OD Newsletter.Winter 1989.
Gibson, James L., John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly Jr. Organisations:
Behaviour, Structure, Processes. 8th ed. Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1994.
Goodstein, Leonard D., and W. Warner Burke.”Creating Successful Organisation
Change.”Organisational Dynamics.Spring 1991. 17
Analysing and Managing the Ivancevich, John M., and Michael T. Matteson. Organisational Behaviour and
OD Process
Management . Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1990.
Lippitt, Gordon L., Peter Longseth, and Jack Mossop. Implementing Organisational
Change.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
Northcraft, Gregory B., and Margaret A. Neale.Organisational Behaviour: A
Management Challenge . Chicago: The Dryden Press, 1990.
Recardo, Ronald J. “Best Practices in Organisations Experiencing Extensive and
Rapid Change.” National Productivity Review.Summer 2000.
Shaffer, Rima. Principles of Organisation Development.American Society for Training
and Development, 2000.
Block, P. (2000). Flawless consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise
Used (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Block, P. (2002). The answer to how is yes. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Bolman, L. G. and Deal, T. E. (1997).Reframing organisations: Artistry, choice,
and leadership. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bradford, D. L. & Burke, W. W. (Eds.) (2005).Reinventing organisation
development: New approaches to change in organisations.Wiley & Sons.
Bunker, B. B. & Alban, B. T. (1997). Large group interventions: Engaging the
whole system for rapid change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Burke, W. W. (2007). Organisation Change: Theory and practice (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cummings, T. G. & Worley, C. G. (2005). Organisation development & change.
(8th ed.). Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing.
Fordyce, J. & Weil, R. (1979).Managing with people, A manager’s handbook
of organisation development methods (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Francesco, A.M. and B.A. Gold. (1998). International organisational behaviour:
Text, readings, cases, and skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Harvey, D. & Brown, D. R. (2005). An experiential approach to organisation
development (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive
plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Lippitt, G. L. &Lippitt, R. (1994). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.).
New York: Wiley & Sons.
Mclean, G. N., Rothwell, W. J., & Sullivan, R. S. (eds.). (2005). Practicing
organisation development: A guide for consultants (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
Nevis, E. C. (1987). Organisational consulting: A gestalt approach. London:
The Analytic Press.
Perrow, C. (1986). Complex organisations: A critical essay (3rd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
18
Robinson, D. G. & Robinson, J. C. (1996). Performance consulting: Moving Components of
Organisational
beyond training. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Development (OD)
Process
Rothwell, W. J., Sullivan, R., & McLean, G. N. (Eds.). (1995). Practicing
organisation development: A guide for consultants. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer.
Schein, E. (1987). Process consultation Volume II: Lessons for managers and
consultants. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Schein, E. (1988). Process consultation Volume I: Its role in organisation
development (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Schein, E. H. (1999). Process consultation revisited: Building the helping
relationship. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Weisbord, M. R. (2004). Productive workplaces revisited: Dignity, meaning,
and community in the 21st century. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

19
 UNIT 2 DIAGNOSING THE SYSTEM,
SUBUNITS AND PROCESS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Definition and Concept of Diagnosis
2.3 Phases of Diagnosis
2.3.1 Entry
2.3.2 Data Collection
2.3.3 Feedback

2.4 Organisational Processes to be Diagnosed

2.5 Marvin Weisbord’s ‘Six Boxes Model’
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings and References

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we discussed about the organisational development process.
In this unit we are going to specifically highlight one of the most important aspects
in organisational development, that is, diagnosis. Diagnosis is the first step in the
organisational development process and also one of the most crucial steps as the
whole process depends on how this step is carried out and on outcome of this
step. In this unit we will focus on diagnosing the system, sub units and processes
in an organisation. Such a diagnosis will help identify any loopholes and develop
suitable intervention strategies.
Diagnosis in organisational development is a structured work for the growth of the
organisation. Since the development of organisational development, diagnosis has
moved from behavioural to strategic and holistic approach. Organisational
development and diagnostic phase of activities in particular is spreading from the
occupational psychologists toward mainstream business. The analysis of an
organisation’s structure, subsystem and process in order to identify the strengths
and weakness of its structural components and process is basic to development
of plans to improve the organisation.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define and discuss the concept of diagnosis;
 Explain the phases of diagnosis;
 Discuss the organisational processes that need to be diagnosed; and

20
 Describe the Marvin Weisbord’s ‘Six Box Model’.
 Diagnosing the System,
2.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF DIAGNOSIS Subunits and Process

Development in any organisation will depend to a great extend on diagnosis. It is

a planned change by the organisational development practitioners and plays an
active role in gathering data from employees and management for diagnostic purpose.
Diagnosis in an organisation is a way of determining gaps between current and
desired performance and also to understand ways in which the goals of the
organisation can be achieved. Today diagnosis is one of the major aspects of
organisational development rather than a mere technique. The main reason being,
that the whole process of intervention depends on the results obtained after the
process of diagnosis. Diagnosis in an organisation should be carried in a systematic
fashion, with focus on the organisation and its structures. It should then focus on
the changes that are required to be brought in in the organisation.
Diagnosis gives the state of the organisation or one or more of its subsystems and
points out the scope for improvements that made for achieving organisational
effectiveness. Effective diagnosis is require for the rapidly changing environment,
new organisation forms must be developed more for more effective goal setting
and planning process must be learned.
The importance of conducting diagnostic activities prior to change implementation
is recognised in a variety of prescriptive theories of change implementation. The
careful direction of change efforts through the use of diagnostic information is
important because many change efforts fail to produce expected results.
According to Cummins and Worley diagnosis involves the systematic collection of
data to determine the current state of an organisation allowing managers and
consultants to enhance organisational effectiveness. This definition helps clarify that
the diagnostic approach in organisational development is the understanding the
organisation and enhancing its effectiveness.
According to Howard diagnosis involves developing road maps to guide and
direct organisational change. That is, when any diagnosis is carried out in the
organisation it leads towards changes on the overall aspect.
Beckhard states that in rapidly changing environment, forms must be developed,
more effective goal setting and planning processes must be learned and practiced.
Teams of independent people must spend real time improving their methods of
working, decision making and communicating. Competing or conflicting groups
must move towards a collaborative way of work. In order for these changes to
occur and be maintained, a planned and managed change effort is necessary. This
definition clarifies the importance of diagnosis for any good organisation change to
work for one cause in a collaborative manner is necessary for the organisation
development. The diagnosis phase in organisation is often regarded as an overall
organisational development process, but commonly known as consulting process.
The purpose of a diagnosis is to identify problems facing the organisation and to
determine their causes so that management can plan solutions. This is a powerful
conscious raising activity its main usefulness lies in the action that it induces.
In any organisation, effectiveness comes with its performance in the social field by
their employees. It show the strength of the organisation ,the organisation should
be diagnosed in a way of attempting ,gaps between current and desired
performance and goals can be achieved. Diagnosis basically based on behavioural
science theory for introducing in the human system, collecting valid data about 21
Analysing and Managing the human experiences with the said system and feeding that information back to the
OD Process
system for promoting increased understanding of the system by its members. This
diagnostic approach provokes human nature inevitably for change.
Robbins stated that organisational development should increase performance at
organisational and individual level. This statement clarifies that, planned change
through humanistic values aims to improve organisational effectiveness and wellbeing
of the employee. The work in organisational diagnosis require professional to
work within the organisation as a whole, including organisation environment relations,
group inside and outside the organisation and individuals who are being shaped by
the organisation and they are only in turn determine the nature of organisation. The
development is an action programme based on valid information about current
problems and opportunities which effects the goal achievement. The requirement
for diagnostic activities designed to provide an accurate account of things which
are really stems from too needs, first to know the state of things and second is
to know the effects or consequences.
The diagnostic activities emphasised by Beckhard is a diagnosis of the various
subsystem that makeup the total organisation and second are the process like
decision making process, communication patterns and styles, relationship between
interfacing groups, the management of conflict, setting of goals and planning methods.
The major targets or subsystems in an organisation desire common methods of
obtaining the information. Organisational consultant works from both the way
targets to process the organisational development. They provide a means for
protecting themselves from excessive and unproductive demands by clients. Continual
diagnosis is a necessary ingredient of any planned change effort. Action plans are
developed to close the gap, are continuously monitored to measure progress or
movement toward the goal.
Further it can be said that organisational development programme are not only the
results of diagnostic activities but how the information is collected and what is
done with the information are significant aspects of the process. It is collaboration
between organisation practitioner and the organisation members about issues what
target groups are to be diagnosed. How the diagnosis is best accomplished, what
process and dynamics should be analysed, what is to be done with the information,
how the data will be worked with and how the information will be used to aid
action planning. Therefore the diagnostic component and the action component
are intimately related in organisation development.
Diagnosis can be carried out in an organisation for various purposes. Some of the
purposes are discussed as follows:
1) To develop an understanding of functions and processes in the
organisation: This is one of the purposes of diagnosis in an organisation.
Diagnosis can help in developing better understanding about the various process
and functions that are carried out in an organisation. For example the process
of communication may be diagnosed in order to understand it in a better
manner and also to find out any problems with regard to the process. In case
if any problems are identified then suitable measure can be carried out in
order to rectify them.
2) To promote growth and development of the organisation: Diagnosis may
also be carried out with a purpose of promoting growth and development in
the organisation. In this case diagnosis will be required to be carried out of
22
 the structure, system and sub systems in the organisation to identify if any Diagnosing the System,
Subunits and Process
modifications or changes are required in them before the organisation plans
its development strategy.
3) To improve organisational effectiveness and increase productivity:
Diagnosis may further be carried out in order to improve organisational
effectiveness and to increase productivity. This is one of the main goals of any
organisation and in order to achieve it the employees have to perform at their
best at the same time the structure, systems and process in the organisation
should be conducive to promote growth and effectiveness in the organisation.
Thus a diagnosis can be carried out to understand the situation and identify
any possible problems with the organisational structure, process and systems
in order to carry out necessary steps to promote organisational effectiveness
and increase productivity.
4) Enhance problem solving and decision making in organisational set
up: A systematic diagnosis will provide the organisation with relevant information
about various aspects of the organisation, persistent problems and relevant
situation. This information then can be used in order to solve problems
effectively and also to make effective decisions.
5) Develop suitable intervention strategy: As we have discussed that
diagnosis will help understand a particular problem in a better manner and
then suitable intervention strategies may be developed and applied. Some of
the intervention strategies that can be used are discussed in the previous units.
6) Understand the organisational culture: The diagnosis can also be carried
out to understand the culture prevalent in the organisation. We have an idea
that organisational culture is one of the most important aspects of an
organisation as it has an influence on the employee performance, satisfaction
and is thus related to the overall growth and development of the organisation.
It is thus important to understand the organisational culture of an organisation
so as to identify any deviations and take measures to modify or change it.
Further diagnosis in an organisational setup can be carried out from various
perspectives. For example, the diagnosis can be carried out from perspective of
economics that deals with distribution of resources human, monitory and non
monitory. An organisation can be diagnosed from a political perspective that focuses
on the power and politics prevalent in the organisation. Another perspective would
be that of social, that mainly highlights the interaction between the groups and
various members in the organisation that can be important for the overall functioning
of the organisation. Management is another perspective that includes not only the
roles played by the managers in an organisation but also focuses on the strengths
and weakness of an organisation threats faced by it and opportunities available,
goals to achieved, existing policies and so on. The last is the behavioural perspective
which focuses on human process and behaviours through out the organisation. It
is also concerned with values, attitudes and beliefs of the members or employees
in the organisation.
Diagnosis can thus be carried from one or more of the above perspectives. The
decision about which perspective to take will depend on the decision taken by the
management depending on the problem arising in the organisation or depending on
the goals of organisational development.
23
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process Self Assessment Questions
1) What is diagnosis in organisational development?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Explain diagnosis according to Howard.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) What are the diagnostic activities emphasised by Beckhard?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Highlight any two purposes of diagnosis in an organisation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Discuss various perspectives from which diagnosis in an organisation can be
carried out.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

2.3 PHASES OF DIAGNOSIS

There are three main phases in diagnosis; they are entry, data collection and
feedback. These three are discussed in detail as follows:

2.3.1 Entry
Entry is major primary objectives and is also the time to quickly grasp the nature
of the organisation identifying the appropriate decision and build a trusting
24 relationship. Entry phase determines which unit of the organisation will participate
in the diagnosis and whether researcher and respondent can reach agreement Diagnosing the System,
Subunits and Process
about their respective roles during data collection and feedback. In the entry the
first encounter starts between concerned members of the organisation and consultant
and conclude with the decision that whether they can jointly continue to complete
the diagnosis.
This stage is also a time to collect data as consultant starts learning about the
organisational system through observation and by studying documents. Consultants
can be the members of the organisation who have their own vested interest in their
organisations. Consultants establish some type of liaison system to manage the
relationship between the consultant and those elements of the system where
diagnosis takes place. Depending on the nature of the system the liaison system
may be an individual, a series of individual or a group.
Entry is thus the initial phase of the diagnosis when the preparation to start the
process takes place. The relationship need to developed during this phase and a
conducive environment has to be created in order to facilitate the process of
diagnosis. Also during this phase the consultant or the persons in charge of carrying
out diagnosis need to foresee possible problems and obstacles that they may
come across while carrying out the process. They also have to observe and study
documents in order to develop better understanding of the organisation. The success
of this phase will lead to effective implementation of other phases during the
process of diagnosis.

2.3.2 Data Collection

The next step that follows after the phase of entry is that of data collection. The
entry phase helps the consultant develop better idea about the organisation and he/
she thus has some idea about the impending problems and situation in the
organisation. Data collection can now be carried out in a particular direction
depending on the information collected during the entry phase. Also the entry
phase has paved a way and created a conducive environment for collection of
data.
Data collection can be termed as a systematical way of gathering valid information.
It is the information regarding the nature of the system in the organisation. Data
collection begins with the aim when consultant prepares a methodology for eliciting
information and contacts members of the system to implement the methodology
and it ends when the consultant has analysed the data and is prepared to provide
feedback.
In this process of eliciting the information through data collection from employees,
consultant becomes more specific about kinds of data that will be useful. In the
process of data collection the liaison system assists the consultant in determining
what data to be collected and how to collect it. Effective liaison system helps the
consultant with access to part of the system where data must be collected and aids
the consultant in establishing credibility so that the data obtained will maintain its
validity. Various methods can be used to collect data depending on the nature of
the problem or the situation. Methods data collection like questionnaires, Interviews,
Observation, focused group discussions can be used in order to collect data.
Further records, circulars, appraisal reports and other organisational literature,
hard data of organisations and various units can also be analysed to get an idea
about the organisation and its aspects. Problem identification/problem solving
workshops, seminars, symposia and training programme and recording and
25
Analysing and Managing the examining critical incidents, events can also be carried out in order to collect data
OD Process
or to understand the problems and situations in an organisation in a better manner.
After the data is collected using suitable methods of data collection, the data is
compiled and analysed. The data can be analysed with the help of various tools
of statistics. It is then used to carry out the last phase, that is, feedback.

2.3.3 Feedback
Feedback consists of series of meetings between the consultant and members of
the organisation during which the consultant presents the data analysis and the
parties discuss and interpret the data. Effective feedback design relates the content
of the feedback to the process by which the analysis is delivered. Content of
feedback is the data analysis prepared at the close of the data collection phase.
The process of feedback is the composition of feedback meetings, behaviour of
the organisational system during feedback and the behaviour of the consultant
within and between feedback meetings. The best known feedback design is built
around the “family group” that consists of the supervisors and immediate
subordinates. Conventionally structured organisation can be viewed as a series of
interlinking family groups from top to bottom. The alternative design is called as
“peer group-intergroup model”. In this people first meet in group of peers, which
have no formal hierarchical differences among members, then the next step begins.
This peer group-intergroup depends upon how it has been managed effectively
and the tendencies toward ethnocentrism that exist in all groups.
Thus during the feedback phase, the members of the organisation are given an
idea about the information collected through the process of data collection. This
information can then be used in order to develop suitable intervention strategies
or to carry out various other steps in the process of organisational development.
Charts, graphs and various other modes of presentation can be used in order to
present the feedback to the members of the organisation. It is important that the
feedback is given in a systematic and clear manner in order to facilitate the
understanding of the persistent problem or situation in the organisation. A well
compiled feedback will help the organisation to take suitable measures in order to
implement the intervention strategies.
Thus care needs to be taken at each phase of the diagnosis so that the whole
process is carried out in a systematic manner in order to provide the organisation
with reliable and valid information.
1) What are the phases of diagnosis in organisational development?
2) Discuss the first phase in diagnosis of an organisation.
3) Discuss the phase of feedback.

2.4 ORGANISATIONAL PROCESSES TO BE

DIAGNOSED
1) Communication pattern, styles and flows: This mainly focuses on the
most important aspect in an organisation that is the communication process.
This will mainly highlight issues like who talks to whom how long about what,
who initiates. Is communication directed upward or downward or both are
they filtered why in what way?
26
 The methods used for data collection may be observations, questionnaire, Diagnosing the System,
Subunits and Process
interviews and discussions with groups
2) Goal setting: Goal setting is yet another important function in an organisation.
Setting task objectives and determining criteria to measure accomplishments
of objectives is the main focus with regard to diagnosis here. The questions
that arise in this context are Do they set goals how is done? Who participates
in goal setting? Do they posses the necessary skills.
Questionnaires, interviews and observation can be used for data collection
with regard to collecting information about goal setting.
3) Decision making, problem solving and action planning: It is important
to diagnose the decision making, problem solving and action planning in an
organisation as these functions will directly lead to achievement of goals in an
organisation. Also evaluating alternatives and choosing a plan of action are
integral function for most organisation members. Questions asked in this regard
are who makes decisions? Are they effective? Are all available sources utilised?
With regard to methods of data collection, observation of problem solving
meetings at various organisational levels can be used.
4) Conflict resolution and management: In this regard Conflict interpersonal,
intrapersonal and intergroup frequently exists in organisations are taken in to
consideration. Questions that arise are where does conflict exist? Who are
the involved parties? How is it being managed?
Interviews, third party observations and observation meetings are some of the
methods that can be used in this context.
5) Managing interface relations: Interfaces represent the situations wherein
two or more groups face common overlapping problems. The questions
highlighted here are what is the nature of the relations between two groups?
Are goals clear is responsibility clear?
6) Superior subordinate relations: This mainly focuses on the formal
hierarchical relations in organisations dictate that some people lead and other
follow. This relationship is again important for goal achievement and smooth
functioning of an organisation. The questions that arise here are what are the
extant leadership styles? What problems arise between superiors and
subordinates?
Questionnaires can be used to collect data here.
7) Technological and engineering systems: All organisations rely on multiple
technologies for production and operations for information processing and
thus diagnosing technological and engineering systems is of utmost importance.
Some important questions here are, are the technologies adequate for
satisfactory performance?
Interviews and group discussions focusing on technology are among the best
ways to determine the adequacy.
8) Strategic management and long range planning: Monitoring the
environment, adding and deleting products, predicting future events and making
decisions are some of the functions that fall under this process. Who is
27
Analysing and Managing the responsible for looking range decisions? Do they have adequate tools and
OD Process
support? are some of the questions highlighted in this context.
Interviews of key policy makers’ group discussion and examination of historical
records may be used to collect relevant data.
9) Organisational learning: This diagnosis is mainly concerned with the learning
climate in an organisation. The questions that arise are what are our strengths
problem areas? What observation ideas suggestions are available from all
organisational members?
Interviews, questionnaires, group methods of diagnosis examination of assumptions
and culture can be used to collect information in this regard.

2.5 MARVIN WEISBORD’S ‘SIX BOX MODEL’

Marvin Weisbord’s “Six Box Model” is a diagnostic tool in order to understand
the effectiveness of an organisation. This model also helps understand management
of change in an organisational set up. Weisbord identified six areas in which things
should go right and be internally consistent for an organisation to be successful.
The six box in this model are described as follows:
1) Purpose: When we speak about purpose as one of the boxes we mainly
focus on the objective of the organisation and reason why the said objective
was developed. What is the purpose behind the overall functioning of the
organisation and understanding it is of utmost value under this. Diagnosis of
the purpose or goal will definitely help develop suitable intervention strategy
in order to achieve the goals of the organisation. Further if the purpose is not
suitably derived, the process of goal setting can be repeated.
2) Structure: The work activity in order to achieve the organisational goal
needs to be divided or structured for its smooth achievement. Under this box
the work activity may be categorized in a systematic manner. The structure
is diagnosed for any changes that are required to be made based on the
external environment, changes in technology and so on.
3) Relationship: Interpersonal relationship between employees and between
the employees and management is extremely important and thus under this
box with the help of varied techniques the relationship in the organisation
needs to be enhance. This will lead to reduction in conflict and effective
performance amongst the employees. Diagnosis of relationships and also
communications is extremely relevant as an y problems diagnosed in this area
may be dealt with at the earliest in order to avoid any complications and
obstacles in the organisational processes.
4) Rewards: To work towards change process and towards organisational
development some kind of driving force is required. An appropriate reward
system will serve as a suitable driving force. Diagnosis of reward system is
also important in order to find out whether they are suitable and on par with
the work activity and performance displayed by the employees.
5) Leadership: All the boxes that we discussed are crucial but an effective
leader is required not only to supervise the whole activity but also to maintain
integrity and balance. Diagnosis has to be carried out with regard to the
effectiveness of leadership in an organisation so as to develop suitable
28
 intervention and training programmes in case if the leadership is not found to Diagnosing the System,
Subunits and Process
be effective in an organisation.
6) Helpful mechanism: Various mechanisms, like technological support, help
from experts and other facilities should be available to facilitate the whole
process of managing change. Diagnosis in this area will help the organisation
update their technology and also develop various other facilities.
This model will also be discussed in the context of managing change.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss relationship as one of the boxes in the model suggested by Weisbord.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the box pertaining to helpful mechanism.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

2.6 LET US SUM UP

The purpose of organisational diagnosis is to establish a widely shared understanding
of a system and based on that understanding to determine whether change is
desirable. Diagnosticians attempt to change an organisation as its necessary to
accomplish the purpose of diagnosis change in one part of the system affects the
other part. Organisational development focuses to improve the organisational
capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. It should
also include the things like improved interpersonal and group process with effective
communication, enhanced ability to cope with organisational problems of all kinds
etc. It also includes improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict and higher
levels of trust and cooperation among members of the organisation. These all
objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of
man that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of
development. This all process should be carried out more scientifically by testing
the hypothesis and continual reviewing of results. The diagnostic component and
the action component are intimately related in dual way in development of the
organisation.
This unit highlights that diagnosis is a conceptual and collaborative process involving
both managers and consultant. It aimed at discovering the cause of specific problems
and directed in assessing the departments of the organisation. The organisation is
viewed as open system to coordinate the behaviours of its department. As open
system organisation are hierarchically ordered and composed of groups. It consists
of environmental inputs, a set of design components called a strategic orientation
and a variety of outputs. Diagnosis thus involves understanding each of the parts
and then to assess how the strategic orientation starts with each other.
29
Analysing and Managing the In today’s world of growing competition and globalization, any organisations needs
OD Process
to carry out diagnosis of its structure, systems, sub systems and processes in
order to understand them in a better manner and to further carry out changes and
modifications.
Thus in the present unit we discussed about the concept of the diagnosis in an
organisational set up and further discussed about the purposes and perspective of
diagnosis. We also highlighted the three phases of organisational development
namely, entry, data collection and feedback. Then we explained various
organisational processes that may be required to be diagnosed in order to promote
organisational effectiveness. Lastly we discussed the Marvin Weisbord’s ‘Six Box
Model’ that helps us understand the diagnosis in an organisation in a better manner
with the help of the six boxes namely, purpose, structure, relationship, rewards,
leadership and helpful mechanisms.

2.7 UNIT END QUESTION

1) Discuss in detail the concept of diagnosis and its relevance in an organisational
set up.
2) Explain any two phases of diagnosis in an organisation.
3) Discuss the purposes to carry out diagnosis in an organisational set up.
4) Discuss various organisational processes that need to be diagnosed.
5) Describe the Six Box Model.

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Coffey, R. R., Cook, C.W., & Hunsaker, P.L. (1997). Management and
Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Ed. New Delhi. McGraw- Hill Companies.
Levinson, H. (1972). Organisational Diagnosis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press,
T.G Cummings and C.G .Worley. (1993). Organisational Development and
Change, St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.
Wendell L French; Cecil Bell. Organisation Development: Behavioural Science
Interventions for Organisation Improvement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall.
References
Alderfer, C. P. (1968). Comparison of questionnaire responses with and without
preceding interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1968, 52, 335-340. (a)
Alderfer, C. P. Organisational diagnosis from initial client reactions to a researcher.
Human Organisations, 27, 260-265. (b)
Alderfer, C. P. (1976) Boundary relations and organisational diagnosis. In H.
Meltzer & F. R.Wickert (Eds.), Humanizing organisational behaviour. Springfield,
111.: Charles C Thomas
Alderfer, C. P. (1977.a). Groups and intergroups. In J. R. Hackman & J. L. Suttle
(Eds.), Improving life at work. Santa Monica, Calif.: Goodyear,
30
Alderfer, C. P. (1977.b) Improving organisational communication through long- Diagnosing the System,
Subunits and Process
term intergroup intervention.Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 13, 193-
210.
Alderfer, C. P., & Holbrook, J. (1973). A new design for survey feedback.
Education and Urban Society, 5, 437- 464.
Berg, D. (1977). Failure at entry. In P. Mirvis & D. Berg (Eds.), Failures in
organisation development. New York: Wiley.
Bowers, D. G., & Franklin, J. L. (1972). Survey-guided development: Using
human resources measurement in organisational change. Journal of Contemporary
Business, 7, 43-55.
John P. Kotter, (March- April 1995). Leading Change: Why Transformation Fails,
Harvard Business Review, P.61
Harrison, I. M., & Shirom, A. (1999). Organisational Diagnosis and Assessment:
Bridging Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Hart, P. M., Griffin, M. A., Wearing, A. J., & Cooper, C. L. (1996). Manual for
the QPASS Survey. Brisbane: Public Sector Management Commission.
Hornstein, H. A., & Tichy, N. M. (1973). Organisation Diagnosis and Improvement
Strategies. New York, Behavioural Science Associates.
Howard, A. (1994). Diagnostic perspectives in an era of organisational change. In
A. Howard & Associates (Eds.), Diagnosis for Organisational Change: Methods
and Models (pp. 3-17). New York: The Guilford Press.
Karasek, R. (1990). Lower health risk with increased job control among white
collar workers.Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 11(3), 171-185.
Nadler, D. A. (1981). Managing organisational change: An integrative perspective.
The Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 17(2), 191-211.
Nadler, D. A., & Tushman, M. L. (1977). A diagnostic model for organisation
behaviour. In J. R. Hackman, E. E. Lawler, & L. W. Porter (Eds.). Perspectives
on Behaviour in Organisations. New York, Academic Press.
Nadler, D. A. (1977). Feedback and organisation development. Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley,
Rice, A. K. Individual, group and intergroup processes. Human Relations, 1969,
22, 562- 584.

31
 UNIT 3 MODELS FOR MANAGING
CHANGE (Including Six Boxes
Organisational Model)
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 The Concept of Change
3.3 Preparation before Implementing Change
3.4 Resistance to Change
3.5 Strategies for Change
3.6 Models of Change
3.6.1 Lewin’s Change Model
3.6.2 Kotter’s Eight Step Plan for Implementation of Change
3.6.3 Marvin Weisberg “Six Box Model”
3.6.4 Greiner’s Model
3.6.5 Cumming and Worley Model
3.6.6 Burke and Litwik Model of Organisation Change
3.6.7 John Fisher Change Model

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 Suggested Readings and References

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we discussed a great deal about the organisational development
process. In the present unit we will be highlighting another important aspect of
organisational development that is managing change. Why do we speak about
managing change? And what is the relevance of the topic? These are some of the
questions that may come to your mind.
Change is something that is permanent. As we discussed in one of the earlier
blocks, that organisation is a part of parcel of society at large and thus there are
two environments with regard to an organisation. One is external to the organisation
and the other internal to the organisation. Both these environments can be influenced
by numerous factors and thus will lead to change in various aspects of an
organisation. A change can be planned or unplanned. A planned change is
systematically brought about by the human resource managers or the management.
However an organisation should always be prepared to face the changes that they
have not planned but that can have an impact on the overall functioning of the
organisation. Change and organisational development are greatly related as to
develop meaning to change in a positive direction. In fact the modern approach
to the management of change and the development of human resource is called
organisation development.
32
Thus in the present unit we will discuss this relevant topic and also focus on types Models for
Managing Change
and models of change.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the concept of change;
 Discuss the preparations to be made before implementing change;
 Explain resistance to change;
 Highlight strategies for change; and
 Describe the models of change.

3.2 THE CONCEPT OF CHANGE

The term “change” refers to any alteration which occurs in the overall work
environment of an organisation. According to Robbins change means making things
different. Change in an organisation includes adapting to change, controlling change
and effecting change. It can also be described as a shift in the external situation
is situational and happens at a given time in space. Four main areas in an
organisation need special focus when we discuss about change in an organisational
set up, they are as follows:
1) Changing Organisational Structure: With globalization, competition and
technological advancements, it becomes necessary that changes are made in
the structure of the organisation. Thus this one of the most important changes
that can be brought about in an organisation and the one that will call for
planning and a lot of effort and involvement of management and employees
at all levels.
2) Changing Technology: Technology is fast changing and the organisation has
to keep pace of it in order to remain in business and survive strong competition.
Thus new machinery has to be bought or existing machinery has to be updated
in the organisation. This is a major change as, as per the technological
advancements other changes like changes in structure, job positions, training
programmes etc. have also to be made.
3) Changing Work Environment: Work environment is fast changing due to
various reasons, as a result of diversity in the organisation, changing technology,
changes in job market etc. A launching of new product or merger or acquisition
may also call for certain changes in an organisation. Thus the organisation has
to keep track of such changes and develop measure to deal with them.
4) Change with regard to People in the Organisation: Changes also occur
with regard to people in the organisation, due to attitudes, values, beliefs.
Changes can also be as a result of new recruitment, promotions, demotions,
transfers etc. may also take place and they are to be effectively dealt with.
Change can be explained with help of the following points:
1) Change Results from the Pressure of Forces, which are both Inside
and Outside the Organisation: As discussed earlier various factors from
33
Analysing and Managing the within the organisation and external to it may bring about some kind of
OD Process
change in an organisation. The external forces like technology, nature of
work, economic shocks, competitions, social trends and politics necessitate
change in the internal organisation like machinery, equipment, relationships,
leadership and decline in profitability etc. This organisational change is the
alteration of work environment in organisation which implies a equilibrium
between different components of the organisation.
2) The Whole Organisation Tends to be Affected by the Change: In some
way or the other change influences the whole organisation as the sub units or
various departments in an organisation are interrelated and interdependent.
3) Change Takes Place in All Parts of the Organisation but in its Own
Rates of Speed of Significance: Different sections or different departments
of an organisation are influence by change differently and this influence may
vary in its speed and degree.
Usually there are many changes occurring simultaneously in an organisation. An
effective management technique is thus required in order to deal with the changes.
Changes in an organisation depend on various aspects. These are the aspects of
an organisation that facilitate change.
These aspects can be discussed as follows:
1) Genuine and Hard Working Employees: Change will depend on the
commitment of the employees to the functioning of the organisation.
2) The Willingness of the Employee to Develop: The employees should
have an intrinsic motivation to develop and become fully functional. This will
create a positive attitude in them to readily accept change.
3) Effective Leadership: Effective Leaders Will Ensure Effective
Management Of Change In An Organisation: The leaders in an organisation
play most crucial role in implementation of the change as they are the ones
who are in regular touch with employees and have great influence over them.
4) Effective Diagnosis of Need for Change: In order to effectively implement
change effective diagnosis about need for change is also required. In the
previous blocks we have discussed about diagnosis and we now understand
how relevant the topic is. The strategy to be employed for implementation of
change will depend on the diagnosis.
5) Commitment of Leaders in the Organisation to Diagnosis,
Implementation and Evaluation: As we discussed about effective leadership
in the same way the leaders should be committed and participate fully in the
process of diagnosis, implementation and evaluation of change process.
Change agents also play an important role in the whole process of managing
change. They are the ones who anticipate possible need for change and suggest
strategies to manage them. According to Robbins change agents are individuals
who act as catalyst and assume responsibility for change management activities.
Change agents are required in order to ensure smooth implementation of change
process.

34
 Models for
Self Assessment Questions Managing Change

1) Explain changing organisational structure and changing work environment.

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Highlight any two aspects that facilitate change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Discuss the relevance of change agents in the process of change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.3 PREPERATION BEFORE IMPLEMENTING

CHANGE
The following care needs to be taken before implementing change in an organisation:
1) Ensure Effective Participation of the Employees: For the success of any
change process, the effective participation of the employees is of utmost
importance. This will ensure commitment to the change process and lack of
resistance.
2) Plan Effectively: Effective planning is required before the change process
is initiated in order to foresee the possible problems like resistance from the
employees and negative attitudes. Planning needs to be carried out not only
for smooth implementation of change process but also in order to develop
suitable intervention to deal with certain obstacles and problems.
3) Employee’s Interest should be Considered: While bringing out change
the employee’s interest should be foremost as they are the most important
unit of an organisation and the overall development of an organisation depends
on them.
4) Focus on Group Dynamics: In any organisations there are various groups,
both formal and informal. While implementing change the group dynamics in
such groups should be identified.
5) Systematic Implementation of Change: Caution and patience should be
maintained while implementing change. Also it should be implemented in a
systematic fashion in order to avoid any negative outcome. 35
Analysing and Managing the 6) Motivation: The employees and also the management should be motivated
OD Process
in the direction of change in order to ensure its successful implementation.
7) Highlighting the Benefits Of Change: In order to ensure the commitment
and interest of the employees in the change process, the benefits of the
change should be highlighted. This will discourage the employees from resisting
to change and will ensure their cooperation.
8) Training and Developmental Activities: Any change will require the
employees to develop new skills and techniques. Thus training and other
developmental programmes should be organised for the employees. This will
also take care of any insecurity amongst the employee that occurs due to lack
of skills required after implementation of change.
9) Understanding the Purpose of Change, the Risks and Benefits involved
and Communicating the Same to the Employees: An open communication
should be promoted during the change process where the employees have
complete idea about the risks and benefits of the change. Once employees
understand the purpose of the change and its benefits then it would be easier
to ensure their cooperation.
10) Anticipating Possible Reasons for Resistance to Change and Making
Suitable Preparation: During the planning stage, the change agents should
take to consideration the possible reasons for resistance that may arise and
plan suitable interventions for the same.
11) Constantly Focusing on the Process of Change: The change process
should be constantly focused on in order to identify any obstacles and take
suitable measures.
12) Interacting with Leaders/ Supervisors in the Organisation: Leaders and
supervisors play an utmost important role in the change process as they are
the ones who are constantly interacting with the employees. Thus the change
agents should keep in touch with the leaders in the organisation, seek their
cooperation and suitably train them to encourage and support employees
through the change process.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Highlight any two preparations to be made before implementation of change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the relevance of leaders in the organisation during the change process.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
36
 Models for
3) Which is the most important aspect during preparation for implementation of Managing Change
change according to you? Give reason.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Change no matter how dynamic and constant a phenomenon is often received with
resistance from the employees. This is mainly due to the insecurities and lack of
clear idea about the consequences of change. Some of the factors that cause
resistance to change are as follows:
1) Economic Factors: Economic fear may be one of the major factors for
resistance. There is fear amongst the employees that they may loose their
jobs as a result of change in technology and due to lack of skills to work with
the new technology. This insecurity that they may be demoted, or may not be
able to perform their jobs and that they may even loose their jobs as a result
of this can create resistance towards change in minds of the employees.
2) Psychological Factors: Different psychological factors like ego defensiveness,
status quo, lack of trust, low tolerance, unknown fear etc. This makes the
person to defend their ego and resist change. The change is perceived as an
instrument for exposing the weakness of the people. The reason behind is
people don’t want to get disturbed in their existing equilibrium of life and
work, and they tries to avoid it. This shows that people have very low level
of tolerance for change and ambiguity as compared to others. When people
have low degree of confidence then person also fears for unknown and show
resistance to change efforts.
3) Social Factors: People desire to maintain existing social interaction and feel
satisfied. If there is any change, their existing social interactions are also likely
to change which people do not want and therefore resist for change.
4) Group Resistance: Group dynamics like forces in the group who determines
behaviour of its members. An employee may resist change just to maintain the
conformity of the group and not because he/ she really wants to resist change.
Change in an organisation is the vital need for its functioning and going profit in
varied terms.It becomes the responsibility of the change agent or the organisational
development expert to implement the changes and provide interventions so that
weak areas are improved in a phase manner. Resistance may be possible not only
from employees, but even manager may resist changing due to above reasons.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss economic factors as reason for resistance change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... 37
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 2) Describe psychological factors that lead to resistance to change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.5 STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE

Strategies for change are discussed as follows:
1) Shaping the Future: This is the first strategy for organisational change. It
creates scenarios for the future of the business. The strengths and weakness
of the organisation are considered with respect to how well or poorly prepared
for implementation of the proposed changes. The responsibility of the
organisational change lies on, how much clear sense the organisation has and
how it leads to set the stage for second level.
2) Selecting Core Competencies: In this, management identifies the strength
and weakness of that organisation. Analysis of opportunities and threat also
complete in preparation for defining the organisation may assume that the
future will mirror the past. Others may have been involved with working in
the framework of the organisation existing mission statement and not given the
freedom to refine and revise the mission.
3) Making Structural Changes: This strategy takes the form of transformational
change. It is radical in nature and involves big picture changes. This stage also
comesas a reengineering for organisational process. This aims at improving
productivity and satisfaction.
4) Changing Work Process: The fourth and final strategy of organisational
change involves incremental changes. It tends to be risk averse and tends to
underestimate how much organisation change is actually require. The levels of
changes can become unsuccessful if the small changes are not supported
throughout the organisation.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain shaping the future as a strategy for change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Highlight changing work process as a strategy for change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

38
.....................................................................................................................
 Models for
3.6 MODELS OF CHANGE Managing Change

Managing change may be described as adoption of a new idea or behaviour by

an organisation. Organisations need to continuously adapt to new situations if they
are to survive and prosper. Also constant change keeps organisations agile and is
an indicative of learning organisations.
Change at all times involve and agree support from people within system and
understand the organisation. Managing organisational change is the process of
planning and implementing change in organisation in a way as to minimize employees’
resistance and cost to the organisation, at the same time maximizing the effectiveness
of the change. A systematic approach of dealing with change should focus on both
the perspective of an organisation and on the individual level. Thus change is not
on micro level but on a macro level. It is generally expected from the management
of the organisation to manage change in a systematic and effective manner. The
responsibility of organisation is to develop adaptability to change otherwise it will
either be left behind or be swept away by the forces of change.
Change calls for the organisation and the employees to make new adjustments.
This can give rise to insecurity and anxiety amongst the employees. Change can
reactive or proactive. Proactive change is the change that is planned and a whole
lot of preparation goes in that process to achieve the anticipated outcome. A
reactive change is an automatic or planned response to change occurring in the
environment. In the proactive change, change is not a response to a particular
problem or a situation. But it is initiated in order to further develop the organisation.
With regard to reactive change, it is in response to some kind of problem or
situation that arises in the organisation.
Change management can be described effectively with the help of following models:

3.6.1 Lewin’s Change Model

The process of change was first put forth by Kurt Lewin. He proposed three stage
model of the change process for any organisation development.
1) Unfreezing: To move people from this “frozen” state, to unfreeze them and
to make them “change ready” significant effort is required. This stage mainly
focuses on creating motivation and readiness to change amongst the employees.
The managers as a change agent have to assume the responsibility to break
open the shell of complacency and self righteousness among their subordinates.
Manager has to identify the background factors contributing to resistance.
Subordinates may resist change for economic social or personal reasons. The
interplay among the several factors are responsible for resistance have to be
isolated. Manager need to discuss with his or her subordinates, explain them
the problem and need for change. This is a process of mutual learning between
the manager and the subordinates. Unfreezing basically cleans the slate so
that fresh behavioural pattern, customs, traditions can be imprinted which
becomes a new way of doing things.
2) Movement: A change process that transforms the organisation from the
status quo to a desired end state. Helping the employees to see, feel, judge
things. After unfreezing moving means incorporating change begins. The
employees undergo cognitive restructuring. This is done with the help of
compliance, identification and internalisation. Compliance is achieved by 39
Analysing and Managing the introducing rewards and punishments. Under identification, employees are
OD Process
psychologically impressed upon to select their role model and modify behaviour.
Internalization involves internal changing of individuals thought process in
order to adjust to a new environment.
3) Refreezing: Putting down roots again and establishing the new place of
stability. This relates to integrating the new behaviour into persons personality
and attitude. It also refers to as stabilization. This stage comes when new
behaviour takes a new form of normal way of life. New behaviour replaces
the old on permanent basis.
Simultaneously Lewin also introduced force field analysis for analysis for
implementing change. This analysis identifies what forces required to push the
change what forces are likely to restrain. Lewin perceived change as occurring
due to two forces, those internal to an employee and external forces that are
imposed by the environment. He also categorized external forces in to driving
forces and restraining forces. The equilibrium can be changed by strengthening the
driving forces or by weakening the restraining forces.

3.6.2 Kotter’s Eight Step Plan for Implementation of Change

John P Kotter’s attempted to give his own point of view for change model. Kotter
suggested eight steps which are as follows:
1) Establishing a Sense of Urgency by Creating A Compelling Reason for
why Change is Needed: A Sense of urgency can be created amongst the
employees by informing them about the reasons for requirement to bring
about a change. This will to some extend help the organisation deal with
resistance expressed by the employees.
2) Form a Coalition with Enough Power to Lead the Change: Once the
employees are convinced with regard to the need for change then a strong
coalition can be created that will ensure successful implementation of change.
The coalition can be amongst the employees or it can be between employees
and the management. The informal group leaders may also be involved in this.
3) Create a New Vision to Direct the Change and Strategies for Achieving
the Vision: A goal or an objective has then to be creates and the organisation
as a whole should work towards it.
4) Communicate the Vision Throughout the Organisation: This vision or
goal or an objective once created should be informed to all the employees
in the organisation.
5) Empower Others to Act on the Vision by Removing Barriers to Change
and Encouraging Risk Taking and Creative Problem Solving: Once the
objectives are set and the employees are communicated about it, then suitable
training programmes should be organised in order to help the employees
achieve the goal. Basically the employees should be encouraged and helped
to develop suitable skills in order to achieve the objectives.
6) Plan for Create and Reward Short-Term “Wins” That Move the
Organisation toward the New Vision: The overall vision or objective to
bring about change may further be divided in to smaller goals and achievement
of these goals may be rewarded.
40
7) Consolidate Improvements Reassess Changes, and Make Necessary Models for
Managing Change
Adjustments in the New Programs: The whole process of bringing about
change should be continuously assessed and necessary changes should be
made to the strategy of change process from time to time.
8) Reinforce the Changes by Demonstrating the Relationship Between
New Behaviours and Organisational Success: Change can be encouraged
by highlighting its positive outcomes. So as to ensure the employees that
change is necessary and leads to enhances work activity and environment.

3.6.3 Marvin Weisberg “Six Box Model”

Six box model by Marvin Weisberg is a diagnostic tool of organisational development
that highlights the effectiveness of an organisation. Weisberg identified six areas in
which things should go right and be internally consistent for an organisation to be
successful. The result of diagnosis should proceed towards change process.
This approach outlines the organisational structure and design. It focuses on issues
like planning, incentives and rewards, the role of support function like personnel,
internal competitions among organisational units, standards for remuneration,
partnerships, hierarchical and the delegates of authority, organisational control,
accountability and performance assessment. The six box in this model are described
as follows:
1) Purpose: When we speak about purpose as one of the boxes we mainly
focus on the objective of the organisation and reason why the said objective
was developed. What is the purpose behind the overall functioning of the
organisation and understanding it is of utmost value under this.
2) Structure: The work activity in order to achieve the organisational goal
needs to divided or needs to be structures for its smooth achievement. Under
this box the work activity may be categorized in a systematic manner.
3) Relationship: Interpersonal relationship between employees and between
the employees and management is extremely important and thus under this
box with the help of varied techniques the relationship in the organisation
needs to be enhance. This will lead to reduction in conflict and effective
performance amongst the employees.
4) Rewards: To work towards change process and towards organisational
development some kind of driving force is required. An appropriate reward
system will serve as a suitable driving force.
5) Leadership: All the boxes that we discussed are crucial but an effective
leadership is required not only to supervise the whole activity but also to
maintain integrity and balance.
6) Helpful Mechanism: Various mechanisms, like technological support, help
from experts and other facilities should be available to facilitate the whole
process of managing change.
The above model is basically easy to understand and to visualize. It reflects the
important activities in an organisation and successfully implemented to assist in
changing the organisation. This model offers superficial strategic and financial
analysis. The strategy is assumed to be constant and require a capable leadership
for rebalancing the six boxes.
41
Analysing and Managing the 3.6.4 Greiner’s Model
OD Process
Organisational change also requires management of growth which measures the
organisational development. Greiner has developed a theory of change by
considering growth as a factor for change. He identified different problems in each
stage of evolution. The solution to the problem brings change. At the starting
growth is achieved through creativity of a founder of the organisation but sometimes
it creates a problem of leadership. In order to tie-up with problem of leadership
higher level managerial personnel take charge of the situation.But after a period of
time it is noticed that excessive leadership creates a situation of concentration of
power in organisation and subordinates have to wait for the decision. Thus the
change is necessitated that leads to delegation of authority to subordinates. Geriener
said that each organisation moves through five phases of development as it grows.
Each phase contains a calm period called as evolutionary phase and ends with a
management crisis marked by a substantial amount of internal turmoil. Each evolution
period is characterised by dominant problems and solved so that the growth
continues. The age of an organisation is critical because problems and decisions
are rooted in time. The phases in organisational growth and change are discussed
as follows:
1) Growth through Creativity: This first phase and it emphasises on creativity
in the organisation with regard to the products, marketing and sales strategy
etc. As the organisation grows in size and complexity the need for greater
efficiency cannot be achieved through informal channels of communication.
Thus many managerial problems emerge and the first revolutionary period
begins. These problems can be dealt with adequately by coming up with
creative and innovative solutions.
2) Growth through Direction: When there is a leadership crisis for power to
professional managers, organisation growth is achieved through direction. In
this phase the professional managers and key staff takes most of the
responsibilities for instituting direction and lower level supervisors are treated
as functional specialist than autonomous decision making managers. Thus
directive management technology enables the organisation to grow. Further as
low level supervisors become more knowledgeable, they begin to demand
more autonomy and thus the growth moves toward delegation.
3) Growth through Delegation Stage: Crisis resolution for autonomy is through
powerful top managers relinquishing some of their authority and certain amount
of power equalisation. When any organisation reaches the stage of growth
through delegation, it usually begins to develop a decentralised organisation
structure which heightens motivation of the lower levels. This crisis leads to
the next phase of coordination stage.
4) Growth through Coordination: Coordination is the most effective method
for overcoming crisis of control. This phase needs to have more formal
system for achieving greater coordination with top management as the watch
dog. The new coordination system proves useful for achieving growth.
Procedure takes precedence over problem solving, the organisation becomes
too large and requires to be managed through formal programmes and rigid
systems.
5) Growth through Collaboration: This stage involves more flexible and
behavioural approaches to the problems of managing a large organisation.
42
 Greiner observed that while the coordination stage was managed through Models for
Managing Change
formal systems and procedures, the collaboration stage emphasis greater
spontaneity in management action through teams and skillful confrontation of
interpersonal differences.
This model shows the variety of stages through which organisation is likely to go
during its growth period. The overall potential issues and problems between stages
are highlighted. The major problem is seen as managerial behaviour that needs to
be overcome with help of suitable training programmes and workshops.

3.6.5 Cumming and Worley Model

This model suggested five areas for change that can be discussed as follows:
1) Motivating Change: It is important that the leaders of organisation must
create readiness to change amongst their employees. The motivation is achieved
through sensitizing people about the pressure of change, highlighting advantage
of change, creating pains in the minds of the employee and involving employee’s
right from the beginning of change.
2) Creating a Vision: This is visualizing that how the future will look. Vision
shows the reality. It need to be beneficial to the majority of people in the
organisation and should be attainable. With these desired vision organisation
need to have mission backed up by the values and making available the inputs
require for achieving the essence of change.
3) Developing Political Support: It is suggested that the practitioner assess his
or her own power. Individual need to identify the key players whose support
is require for success of implementing change. Individuals who wedge power
in the organisation need to associate with the change efforts.
4) Managing the Transition: Unfreezing of present state, that the transition to
the new future, attainment of desired goals and refreezing the outcome. This
involves checklist preparation of various activities, sequence of events and
people responsible for various activities. Commitment planning is important
for managing the transition.
5) Sustaining Momentum: It needs to have regular meetings to review progress
of the work done, solving problem, ensuring the resources available and close
interaction with the specialist. To maintain sustainment it is necessary for
highlighting the gains, and reminding the employees to make a change effort
in group.

1.6.6 Burke and Litwik Model of Organisation Change

The model strives to bring in change in the performance of a team or an organisation
by creating a link between performance and internal, external factors. It begins
with outlining a framework, comprising the affecting factors which can be
manipulated for smooth transition of one phase changing process to another. The
12 dimension in this structure, practices and the system of the organisation are
discussed as follows:
1) External Environment: It is the key factors that have an impact on the
organisation must be identified. The direct and indirect impact on the
organisation is clearly established.
2) Mission and Strategy: The mission and strategy of the organisation is defined
by the top management and examined from employees’ point of view. 43
Analysing and Managing the 3) Leadership: The leadership structure in the organisation is carried out which
OD Process
identifies the chief role models.
4) Organisational Culture: It seeks information on the explicit as well as the
rules, regulations, customs and principles implied that influence the
organisational behaviour.
5) Structure: The structure should be function based focusing on the responsibility,
authority; decision making that exists between the people of the organisation.
6) Systems: It includes all types of policies and procedures in regard to both
the people and the operations of the organisation.
7) Management Practices: This entail a study that how well manager can
conform to the organisation strategy and deal with employees and resources.
8) Work unit Climate: It is a collective study of how the employees think, feel
and what they expect. The kind of relationships the employees share with
their team members and other.
9) Tasks and Skills: This involves understanding the job position its demand.
This also includes the kind of skills and knowledge that employees have to
fulfill the responsibility.
10) Individual Values and Needs: This dimension seeks to explore employees
opinion about their work, identify quality factors which result in job enrichment
and better satisfaction.
11) Motivation Level: Identifying the motivational level makes it easier to
determine the willingness to be put in their effort to achieve organisational
goals
12) Individual and Overall Performance: This dimension takes into account
the level of performance on individual and organisational levels in different
key areas like productivity, quality, efficiency etc.

3.6.7 John Fisher Change Model

As per the model stated by John Fisher, an employee operates within a multitude
of environments within an organisation. During the changes we go through the
stages which are more complex. The speed of transition depends on the employees
self perception, locus of control and other past experiences all this combine and
create their anticipation of future events.
According to Fisher transition effectively need to understand for the perception of
past, present and future. The stages move from Anxiety, Happiness, Fear, Threat,
Guilt, Depression, Disillusionment, Hostility and ends with Denial. The overall
changes in the employees passes through all stages and he or she experience the
new way of dealing in the organisation. The organisation in this way also gains and
the development curve emerge.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain in detail Lewin’s change model.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
44
 Models for
..................................................................................................................... Managing Change

.....................................................................................................................
2) Highlight Marvin Weisberg “Six Box Model”.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Discuss the 12 dimensions in Burke & Litwik model of Organisation Change.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.7 LET US SUM UP

Thus in the present unit we mainly focused on managing change. We initially
disused about the concept of change as we see it in an organisational set up and
then highlighted the preparation that bare to be made before implementation of
change, resistance expressed by the employees towards change process. We
further discussed the strategies and models for change.
Change is an important part of an organisational process. Any human resource
manager needs to be aware about the need for change in an organisation and also
should be prepared to deal with unplanned change. As discussed during the change
process planning is the mopst important function and at the same time it is important
to encourage the employees to participate and involve in the change process right
from the start.

3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain in detail the concept of change.
2) Discuss the preparations that are to be carried out before implementation of
change
3) Highlight the strategies for change.
4) Discuss any two models of change.

3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Andriopoulus, Constantine and Patrick Dawson.(2009). Managing Change,
Creativity and Innovation. New Delhi. Sage Publication.
Heller, Robert. (1998). Essential Managers: Managing Change. New York.
D.K Publishing. Inc.

45
Analysing and Managing the Coffey, R. R., Cook, C.W., & Hunsaker, P.L. (1997). Management and
OD Process
Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Ed. New Delhi. McGraw- Hill Companies.
French, W.L., Bell, C. H., & Vohra, V. (2006) Organizational Development. 6th
Ed. New Delhi. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Newstorm, J. W., & Davis, K. (1997). Organizational Behaviour: Human
Behaviour at Work. 9th Ed.New Delhi. Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company
Limited.
Pareek, U. (2008). Understanding Organizational Behaviour, 2nd Ed. New
Delhi. Oxford University Press.
References
Bergman JI. Managing change in the nonprofit sector: lessons from the evolution
of five independent research libraries. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1996.
Curzon SC. Managing change: a how to do it manual for planning, implementing,
and evaluating change in libraries. New York, NY: Neal-Schuman Publishers,
1989.
Cherrington, David J. Organisational Behaviour: The Management of Individual
and Organisational Performance . Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Dove, Rick. “The Principles of Change.”Automotive Manufacturing and
Production. March 1997.
Dyer, William G. “Team Building: A Microcosm of the Past, Present, and Future
of O.D.” Academy of Management OD Newsletter. Winter 1989.
Gibson, James L., John M. Ivancevich, and James H. Donnelly Jr. Organisations:
Behaviour, Structure, Processes. 8th ed. Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1994.
Goodstein, Leonard D., and W. Warner Burke.”Creating Successful Organisation
Change.”Organisational Dynamics. Spring 1991.
Ivancevich, John M., and Michael T. Matteson. Organisational Behaviour and
Management . Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1990.
Lippitt, Gordon L., Peter Longseth, and Jack Mossop. Implementing
Organisational Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
Northcraft, Gregory B., and Margaret A. Neale. Organisational Behaviour: A
Management Challenge . Chicago: The Dryden Press, 1990.
Recardo, Ronald J. “Best Practices in Organisations Experiencing Extensive and
Rapid Change.” National Productivity Review. Summer 2000.
Shaffer, Rima. Principles of Organisation Development. American Society for
Training and Development, 2000.
vonDran GM, Cargill J. eds. Catalysts for change: managing libraries in the 1990s.
New York, NY: Haworth Press, 1993.

46
UNIT 4 PROGRAMME EVALUATION
PROCESS IN ORGANISATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Definition and Concept of Programme Evaluation
4.3 Types of Evaluation
4.4 Stages in Programme Evaluation
4.5 Models of Programme Evaluation
4.5.1 Donald Kirkpatrick Model
4.5.2 Jack Philip ROI Model
4.5.3 CIPP Model
4.5.4 Kaufman’s Five Levels of Evolution
4.5.5 CIRO Model

4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.7 Unit End Questions
4.8 Suggested Readings and References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we focused on topics like the organisational development
process, diagnosing the system and models of managing change.
Understanding these topics is extremely important in order to successfully carry
our organisational development in an industry or organisation.
In the present unit we will highlight yet another important aspect of organisational
development, that is, programmme evaluation. Programme evaluation is a systematic
method for collecting, analysing, and using information to the gaps in the
programmes. It focuses particularly about the effectiveness and efficiency of a
particular programme.
In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders want to know if the programmes
which are being funded, implemented, voted for are actually having the intended
effect. With the changes all over the world, organisations are facing competition.
It is not only about delivering a quality product for customers but an art of
surviving in the markets and making profits. To exist as a perfect competitor one
has to go in for constant evaluation and introspection of the organisation. In this
kind of situation to survive and develop the organisations have to keep an eye on
their programmes and projects.
In the unit we will further discuss about the concept of programme evaluation, its
significance and methods that can be used while conducting evaluation.

47
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 4.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Discuss the definition and concept of programme evaluation;
 Explain the types of evaluation;
 Discuss the stages in programme evaluation; and
 Describe the models of programme evaluation.

4.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF

PROGRAMME EVALUATION
Patton defined programme evaluation as a systematic collection of information
about the activities,characteristics and outcomes of programme to make judgments
about the programme, improve programme effectiveness and or inform decisions
about future programming.
Programme evaluation may also be defined asevaluative inquiry that is an ongoing
process for investigating and understanding critical organisational issues.It is an
approach to learning that is fully integrated with an organisation’s work practices.This
definition specifically highlightsthat programme evaluation is an ongoing investigation
and makes new learning in the organisational setup.
Programme evaluation can also defined as a systematic acquisition and assessment
of information pertaining to a programme to provide useful feedback about the
organisation. This emphasises all works collecting and shifting through data, making
judgments about valid information and of inferences we derive from it.
Generally the goal of the programme evaluation is to provide useful feedback,
which would act as a facilitator in decision making. It is a methodological area that
is closely related. Programme evaluation is broader in sense and encompasses the
most general groups. It goes on continuously rather than on periodic basis and
thus allows progress and effective monitoring at the same time.
Organisation’s programme evaluation measures compare and analyse the coherence
between results and specific objectives, between specific objectives and between
general objects of institutional projects. Programme evaluation is an important
aspect of improving the administration in any organisation. This plays a very
important role in helping the managers to improve the efficiency and effectiveness
in their operations. Programme evaluation in any organisation generates reliable
information which then becomes a valuable experience and is very useful for
planning the future, establishment of priorities and resource allocation. With the
help of programme evaluation, organisations solve their internal conflicts. Conflicts
in any organisation are inevitable but it is the skill of the management as to how
they integrate those conflicts and difference in opinion in an efficient manner. This
helps the evaluation team to learn more about an employee’s motivational level in
the organisation. This approach poses a major facilitator to any organisation for
assessing their internal conflicts or disagreement and helps the organisation to
rebuild. The situation greatly increases the importance of developing ways to help
organisations assess their work, examine what’s working and what is not and learn
how to strengthen the organisations and increase their impact.
48
Programme evaluation is thus an integral part to determine the effectiveness of the Programme Evaluation
Process in Organisational
organisation. It is needed for training interventions with regard to learning, transfer Development
and organisation impact which involves a number of complexity factors.
The programme evaluation process demands clarity of purpose and the answers
to the questions which will yield a guiding framework for the measurement process.
If evaluation lacks clear purpose then it tends to wander aimlessly and results in
findings which are devoid of organisational relevance. Specifically it will be used
to address the appropriateness of the learning objectives and the length of the
course and also assessing the effectiveness of the overall programme in terms of
the performance needs which is design to address. For example in any organisation
which have faced with financial cutbacks or a rigorous budget setting process,
evaluation would be utilised to measure the extent.
Through this process of evaluation the net result could be achieved, but it needs
rigorous planning. This planning will help the organisation to sustain in the market
and also would facilitate to maintain the credibility.
With the help of programme evaluation managers and employees of an organisation
becomes continually aware of their achievements and objectives. External
opportunities and threat and internal strength and weakness represent the basis of
current strategies are continually monitored. Failure to make satisfied result toward
the accomplishment of long term objectives signals a need for corrective actions.
Some of the major strategies used in programme evaluation are as follows:
1) Scientific experimental models: This is the most dominant strategy especially
in social sciences. This prioritizes on the desirability of impartiality, accuracy,
objectivity and the validity of the information generated about a particular
programme. It is scientific in nature and focuses on the objectivity of the
study. This is one systematic approach that can be used in order to evaluate
programmes.
2) Management oriented systems models: This is widely used method for
programme evaluation. It studies the problems related with management group
in terms of controlling, managing and organising the work. In this process
gaps may be present which this system evaluates.
3) Qualitative model: This model emphasises the importance of observation;
the need to retain the phenomenological quality of the programme evaluation.
It values the subjective human interpretation in the programme evaluation
process.
4) Participant oriented models: It emphasises the central importance of the
interacting with participants, specially clients and users of the programme in
order to evaluate the programme.
Thus we understand that programme evaluation plays a significant role in the
overall process of organisational development and is an extremely important tool
in order to achieve organisational goals and objectives.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is programme evaluation?
.....................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... 49
Analysing and Managing the .....................................................................................................................
OD Process
.....................................................................................................................
2) Highlight the any two strategies that can be used in programme evaluation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Which strategy would be most effective in programme evaluation according
to you? Give reason.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.3 TYPES OF EVALUATION

There are various types of evaluation used in organisations. As stated earlier the
type of evaluation selected will mainly depend on the demands of the problem or
situation in an organisation. Some of the types of evaluation are discussed as
follows:
1) Formative evaluation: It improves the situations which is being evaluated
and helps by examining the delivery of the program and the quality of its
implementation and also by assessing the organisational context. The purpose
of the formative evaluation is to make sure that the programme is well
developed. This uses methods like stakeholders consultation, need assessment,
collaborative group process etc. It facilitates group discussion with stakeholders
interviewing stakeholders about the program implementation and reporting
about the development and determines who needs the program, how much
it is needed and what might work to meet the need.
2) Implementation evaluation: This monitors the fidelity of the program. It
sees how effectively the program is being delivered. Review of past research
literature and experience-It reviews what is already known about the type of
program or intervention being used and using this to improve the outcomes
model for the program. Monitoring and evaluation of data collected-new data
collected their protocols need to be put in a place for further evaluation
otherwise it will have its impact on the outcome.
3) Summative evaluation: In contrast to the former ones, this examines the
effects or outcome of some situation. It describes what happens subsequent
to delivery of the program, assessing the caused outcome and determining the
overall impact of the causal factor. Beyond it the only immediate target
outcomes and estimating the relative costs associated with the situation. This
may be further categorized in to the following:
a) Outcome evaluation: Which investigate the program caused demonstrate
50
effects on specifically targeted outcomes.
 b) Impact evaluation: This is broader in sense and assess the overall Programme Evaluation
Process in Organisational
effects, intended or unintended of the program as a whole. Development

c) Cost effectiveness and cost benefit: It focus on the questions of

efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their costs and values.
d) Secondary analysis: Secondary analysis reexamines the existing data
to address new questions and use new methods which are previously
used.
e) Meta analysis: It integrates the outcome estimates from multiple studies
and arrive at an overall judgment on an evaluation question.
Even though evaluation is a potent and necessary tool considered for measuring
the development phenomena in the organisations. Impact of all evaluation can only
be perceived with the organisational output. There must be a continuous loop that
links organisation to performance gap identification to the final evaluation of the
programme.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain formative evaluation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Highlight various categories of summative evaluation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.4 STAGES IN PROGRAM EVALUATION

Programme evaluation is carried out at through various stages by using data derived
from the policing plan priorities and objective performance gap identification, job
profiles, capacity building design and existing capacity building programme. Each
of these represents a starting point for evaluation and generates a wealth of data
to guide and structure the measurement process. The process of programme
evaluation involves four basic stages that will be discussed as follows:
1) Needs: When we focus on this stage of programme evaluation, we mainly
discuss about the purpose of programme evaluation including expected impact
and outcome of the programme. During this step it is also important to
identify the focus group or participants or stakeholders in the programme,
financial requirement and the time period required for the programme.
2) Planning: As we have discussed in previous unit, planning is an important
aspect in the overall process of organisational development. In a similar
manner, in programme evaluation also planning is of extreme importance. 51
Analysing and Managing the During this stage it is necessary to determine objectives of the programme,
OD Process
gather relevant information and evaluate the planning to identify any loop
holes.
3) Collection of data: After needs are identified and planning is accordingly
carried out, the nest stage is collection of data. During this stage a suitable
model or method for programme evaluation is selected. Also methods for
data collection are finalized based on the objectives, budget and time period.
4) Finalization of the report: The data collected in the above stage is then
analysed and findings are reported to the competent authority for further
application.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What are the starting points to initiate the programme evaluation process.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the relevance of planning as one of the stages of programme
evaluation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Highlight collection of data as one of the stages in programme evaluation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.5 MODELS OF PROGRAMME EVALUATION

An important decision that the management has to take during implementation of
the process of evaluation is about which model to choose. The choice of a single
model will mainly depend on the nature of the problem or the situation in an
organisation. However an integrative approach using more than one model may
also be used.
Before implementation of any of these models and before the actual process of
evaluation starts it is important to make suitable preparations and create a conducive
environment in the organisation for successful conductance of the evaluation. The
following points are to be taken in to consideration before and at the time an
evaluation is carried out in an organisation:
52
 Evaluation needs identification and setting of objectives by the organisation Programme Evaluation
Process in Organisational
 Planning, design and preparation of the programmes. Development

 Pre-course identification of people with needs and completion of the preparation

required by the evaluation programme.
 Provision of the agreed evaluative programmes.
 Pre-course briefing meeting.
 Completion of end-of-programme Learning Questionnaire or Key Objectives
Learning Questionnaire.
 Completion of Action Plan.
 Post-course debriefing meeting.
 Review meetings to discuss progress of implementation.
 Final implementation review meeting.
Some of the models of programme evaluation are discussed as follows:

4.5.1 Donald Kirkpatrick Model

This model mainly focuses on programmes that are related to learning and training.
Learning/ training evaluation is a widely researched area. Learning lies at the core
of human resource development and is a key to organisational development. Any
organisation would value an effective training programme as it will update the skills
of their employees and make them more efficient.
The four levels of learning/ training evaluation introduced by Kirkpatrick
are as follow:
1) Reaction: Reaction evaluation is how the employees felt about the training
or learning experience. ‘Happy sheets’, feedback forms. Verbal reaction,
post-training surveys or questionnaires can be used in order to find out about
the reactions of those employees who participated in the training programme.
This is of utmost importance as the reactions will not only provide information
about the effectiveness of the training programme and whether to repeat it,
but it will create an impression on the employees that the organisation is
genuinely concerned with the individual development of the employees. This
will increase the morale of the employees in general.
2) Learning: Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in
knowledge. That is the status of knowledge before and the status of knowledge
after the training programme. The reaction evaluation will provide information
about the feeling of the employees towards the training programme. The
learning evaluation on the other hand will provide information about the
effectiveness. This can be done by comparing the skills and knowledge of the
employees before and after the training programme. Interview or observation
can also be used.
3) Behaviour: Behaviour evaluation is the extent of applied learning back on
the job - implementation. This is again very important as, what ever learned
by the employees during the training programme has to be implemented. For
this the training programme should be effective enough to encourage and
53
Analysing and Managing the promote transfer of learning at the same time the environment in the organisation
OD Process
should be conducive to transfer of learning.
4) Results: Results evaluation is the effect of training on the business or
environment. Once the training programme is conducted it should be related
to the outcome in the organisation. Whether it led to increase in production,
reduction in absenteeism, increase in profits and so on.
Thus training programmes in an organisation can be evaluated effectively with the
help of this model.

4.5.2 Jack Philip ROI Model

ROI means Return on Investment. As the name suggests the model focuses on
whether the returns or outcome of a particular programme really match the
investment made in them. This is extremely important as investment without positive
outcomes is a loss to an organisation and thus to be avoided. Thus this model can
help us understand ROI in context of a particular programme.
In the process of ROI analysis begins with deliberate attempts to isolate the
effects of training on the data items. The ROI model requires a variety of data
collection tools ranging from questionnaires and surveys to monitoring on the job
performance. Different strategies have been used to accomplish the ROI calculation.
The ROI formula is the annual net programme benefits divided by programme
costs, and net benefits are the monetary value of the benefits minus the costs of
the programme. It is as follows:
ROI (%) = Benefits – Costs × 100costs.
This model also recognises that there would be intangible benefits that will be
presented along with the ROI calculation organisations. Several common strategies
began to emerge that can be considered best practices for calculating an ROI in
training and development. The process of establishing evaluation targets has two
important advantages.
1) It provides measurable objectives for the training staff to clearly measure
progress for all programs or any segment of the process.
2) Adopting targets focuses more attention on the accountability process,
communicating a strong message tothe training staff about the commitment to
measurement and evaluation.
This model consists of five levels, they are discussed as follows:
1) Reaction and Planned Action: This level is similar to that of the Reaction
level we discussed in Donald Kilpatrick Model. The reaction of the participants
is recorded to understand the effectiveness of the programme. Besides the
reaction the planned action or the way the participants intend to apply whatever
learned by them is also taken in to consideration.
2) Learning: In this level stock is taken of the kind of learning or enhancement
of knowledge occurring due to the programme.
3) Job Applications: This mainly focuses on whether the participants are applying
what they learned while carrying out their job activity.
4) Business Results: This level is mainly concerned with whether the earlier
step that is job application had produced any business results or positive
54
outcomes for an organisation.
5) Return on Investment: At this stage the formula can be applied to find out Programme Evaluation
Process in Organisational
whether the outcome has exceeded the investments in terms of finances and Development
other resources.

4.5.3 CIPP Model (Context, Input, Process and Product)

This model was developed by Stufflebeam et al in 1960s as a result of their
experience of evaluating education projects for the Ohio Public Schools District.
As the title suggests the model focuses on the four aspects of context, input,
process and product. The model can be termed as decision-focused approach to
evaluation. It emphasises the systematic provision of information for management
and operation of a programme. This information in turn can be helpful in making
certain decisions.
This model mainly focuses on linking programme to decision making in order to
ensure effective implementation of a programme. This is mainly done with the help
of four aspects that is, context, input, process and product. These aspects are
discussed in details as follows:
1) Context: In context the main focus is collecting data in order to conduct a
needs assessment to determine goals, priorities and objectives of a particular
programme. A context is created in order to understand the future course of
action. The decision involved here is mainly with regard to planning.
2) Input: This deals with what is required for the programme to be successful,
resources and strategies required for successful management of the programme.
The decision here mainly focuses on the structure.
3) Process: This mainly highlights the actual process of implementation of the
programme. Whether it is been implemented as per the plan and if there are
any obstacle that need to be dealt with. The decision thus focuses on
implementation.
4) Product: This aspect focuses on the outcome and whether the whole process
of programme implementation was successful or not. Based on this decision
can be taken with regard to the future course of action.

4.5.4 Kaufman’s Five Levels of Evaluation

Kaufman, Keller & Watkins (1996) promoted an assessment strategy called the
Organisational Elements Model (OEM) which involves four levels of analysis.
Since the introduction of Kaufman’s four-level OEM model, it has been widely
used for evaluation. Kaufman, et al. (1996), for example, later added levels of
impact that go beyond the traditional four-level, training-focused approach which
they felt did not adequately address substantive issues an organisation faces. Such
modification to the model resulted in the addition of a fifth level, which assesses
how the performance improvement program contributes to the good of society in
general as well as satisfying the client. This model is mainly developed to evaluate
a program from the trainee’s point of view Let us discuss the five levels of analysis:
1) Input and Process: This analysis is based on inputs, and focuses on reductions
of cost. This analysis can be divided in two parts, the first part focuses on
the resources, financial, human resource and so on and the second part
highlights the actual process and the reaction of the participants in the
programme in order to understand the effectiveness of the programme.
55
Analysing and Managing the 2) Acquisition: This analysis focuses on the potentiality of the participants involved
OD Process
in the programme to grasp or acquire.
3) Application: This is in a way related to the previous analysis of acquisition.
In this the actual application of knowledge and skills acquired is focused on.
4) Outputs: This relates to the products or services that are delivered to external
clients.
5) Outcomes: This analysis highlights the value of the outputs (the aggregated
products or services) delivered to external clients and their clients and ultimately
to society.

4.5.5 CIRO Model (Content, Input, Reaction and Outcome)

The CIRO model was developed by Birdet al. The main elements of this model
are Content, Input, Reaction and Outcome. It is very similar to the CIPP model.
The main advantage of the CIRO model is that the objectives (context) and the
training equipment (input) are taken in to consideration during the evaluation. The
main elements of the model are discussed as follows:
1) Context evaluation: This evaluation is concerned with factors such as the
effective identification of training needs and the setting of objectives with
focus on organisation’s culture and climate. The context in which the programme
is to be implemented is given utmost importance.
2) Input evaluation: This evaluation is concerned with the design and
implementation of the training activity.
3) Reaction evaluation: It focuses on collecting and using information about
the quality of trainees’ experiences.
4) Outcome evaluation: It highlights the achievements gained from the activity.
The activities are assessed at three levels: (a) immediate, (b) intermediate,
and (c) ultimate evaluation. The focus is on the end results of the evaluation.
Immediate evaluation attempts to measure changes in knowledge, skill, or
attitude before a participant returns to the job. Intermediate evaluation refers
to the impact of training on job performance and transfer of learning on the
job. And ultimate evaluation attempts to assess the impact of training on
departmental or organisational performance in terms of overall results.
Third Wave Consulting
After ten years of Weisbord six box model the new concept of third wave managing
and consulting was introduced by him, in which Weisbord reconsidered the issues
of diagnosis and intervention. Third wave indicates that the world has progressed
through the agricultural revolution (first wave), industrial revolution(second wave)
and information and technological revolution (third wave).Weisbord did not believe
in problem centered model to help people in achieving the desired organisational
diagnosis, instead he preferred wellness to achieving the desired outcome. The
third wave consultant focuses on assessing the potential for action, getting the
whole system in the room, focusing on the future and structuring tasks that people
can do for themselves. This optimistic goal oriented view helps the organisation in
the evaluation process.

56
 Programme Evaluation
Self Assessment Questions Process in Organisational
Development
1) Describe Kirkpatrick’s model of evaluation?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss Kaufman model.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) What is third wave consulting?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.6 LET US SUM UP

With the help of this unit we discussed the concept of programme evaluation and
also described its relevance in an organisational set up. We discussed about the
type of evaluation, stages of programmes and more importantly the various models
of programme evaluation.
A programme is often taken in an organisation inn order to enhance productivity
or profitability. A huge investment in terms of finance, human resource, time and
efforts is made in order to make a particular programme successful. Thus with this
kind of investment systematic planning, management and evaluation of these
programmes is very important in order to ensure success of the programme and
also in order to make decisions about programmes to be conducted in future. The
organisation thus needs to focus and prioritize programme evaluations in their
setup.

4.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the concept programme evaluation in organisational development.
2) Describe various types of evaluation.
3) Highlight the stages of programme evaluation.
4) Discuss how the Kirkpatrick’s model is more effective for programme
evaluation in organisation development?
5) Highlight Kaufman’s Five Levels of Evaluation.
6) Compare CIRO and CIPP model for evaluation. 57
Analysing and Managing the
OD Process 4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Mc David, James, C and Hawthron, Laura R.L (2006) Programme Evaluation
and Performance Measurement: An Introduction to Practice. New Delhi: Sage
Publication Inc.
Ross, P. H;Lipsey M.W and Freeman Howard. (2004). Evaluation: A Systematic
Approach. New Delhi: Sage Publications Inc.
Royse, David; Theyer, Bruce and Padgett Deborah. (2010). Programme
Evaluation: An Introduction. USA: Wadsworth,Cengage Learning.
References
Archer, J. (2003, November 19). Survey: Administrators vexed by mandates.
Education Week, 23(12), pp. 3-6.
Argyris, C., &Schon, D. (1978). Organisational learning: A theory of action
perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Argyris, C (1992). On organisational learning. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Business.
Alter, C. and J. Hage. 1993. Organisations working together. London: Sage.
Aldrich, H. 1999. Organisations evolving. London: Sage.
Armstrong J. and A. Whyte. 1998. Learning partnerships: A review of IDRC
secretariats. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Baird, L. and J. Henderson. 2001. The knowledge engine. San Francisco, CA:
Berrett-Koehler.
Barney, J.B. and W. Hesterly. 1996. Organisational economics: Understanding the
relationship between organisations and economic analysis. In Handbook of
organisational studies, edited by S. Clegg, C. Hardy, and W. Nord. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Best, S. and D. Kellner. 2001. The postmodern adventure: Science, technology,
and cultural studies at the third millennium. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Blackerby, P. and R.F. Blackerby. 1994. Strategic planning. Armed Forces
Comptroller. 39(2): 21–26.
Boyle, R. and D. Lemaire (eds.). 1999. Building effective evaluation capacity.
New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Bryson, J. 1995. Strategic planning for public and nonprofit organisations: A guide
to strengthening and sustaining organisational achievement. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Carroll, T. 2002. Construyendocapacidadescolectivas. Quito: ImprentaRispergraf.
Castells, M. 1996. The rise of the network society, the information age: Economy,
society and culture. Cambridge and Oxford: Blackwell.
Castells, M. 1997. The power of identity, the information age: economy, society
and culture. Cambridge and Oxford: Blackwell.
Castells, M. 1998. End of millennium. Oxford and Malden: Blackwell.
58
Christian Reformed World Relief Committee. 1997. Partnering to build and measure Programme Evaluation
Process in
in Organisational
Organisational
organisational capacity. Lessons from NGOs around the world. Grand Rapids, Development
MI: Christian Reformed World Relief Committee.
CIP–UPWARD. 2002. Capacity development for participatory research. Los
Baños, Philippines: International Potato Center and Users’ Perspectives with
Agricultural Research and Development.
Collison, C. and G. Parcell. 2001. Learning to fly. Oxford: Capstone.
Compton, D. W., M. Baizerman, and S. HueftleStockdill (eds.). 2002. The art,
craft, and science of evaluating capacity building. New directions for program
evaluation.Number 93.Spring 2002.
Eade, D. 1997. Capacity building. Oxford: Oxfam.
Earl, S., F. Carden, and T. Smutylo. 2001. Outcome mapping. Building learning
and reflection into development programs. Ottawa: International Development
Research Centre.
Easterby-Smith, M., J. Burgoyne, and L. Araujo. 1999. Organisational learning
and the learning organisation: Development in theory and practice. London: Sage.
Fisher, R., W. Ury, and B. Patton (eds.). 1991. Getting to yes: Negotiating
agreement without giving in. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Fukuda-Parr, S., C. Lopes, and K. Malik (eds.). 2002. Capacity for development.
New solutions to old problems. London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan and United
Nations Development Program.
Gibbons, M., H. Limoges, S. Nowotny, P. Schwartzman, P. Scott, and M. Trow.
1994. The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research
in contemporary societies. London: Sage.
Grant, R.M. 1995. Analysing resources and capabilities. In Contemporary strategy
analysis: Concepts, techniques, applications. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Gubbels, P. and C. Koss. 2000. From the roots up: Strengthening organisational
capacity through guided self-assessment. Oklahoma City, OK: World Neighbors.
Hage, J. and K. Finsterbusch. 1987. Organisational change as a development
strategy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
Hall, A. 2002. Innovation systems: Agenda for North-South research collaboration
and capacity development. Special issue of International Journal of Technology
Management and Sustainable Development. December (2002): 1–82.
Harrison, M.I. 1994. Diagnosing organisations: Models, methods, and processes.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hatch, M.J. 1997.Organisation theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Horton, D. 2002. Planning, implementation, and evaluating capacity
development.Briefing Paper No. 50. The Hague: International Service for National
Agricultural Research.
Horton, D., V. Galleno, and R. Mackay. 2003. Evaluation, learning, and change
in research and development organisations. Discussion paper No. 03-2. The Hague:
International Service for National Agricultural Research. 59
Analysing and Managing the Horton, D., R. Mackay, A. Andersen, and L. Dupleich. 2000. Evaluating capacity
OD Process
development in planning, monitoring, and evaluation: A case from agricultural
research. Research Report No. 17. The Hague: International Service for National
Agricultural Research.
Johnson, S. and J.D. Ludema. 1997. Partnering to build and measure organisational
capacity: Lessons from NGOs around the world. Grand Rapids, MI: Christian
Reformed World Relief Committee.
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. 1994. The program
evaluation standards. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Joy, L. 1999. Capacity development: An analysis and synthesis of its current
conceptualisation and implications for practice. New York, NY: United Nations
Development Program and United Nations Children’s Fund.
LaFond, A. and L. Brown. 2003. A guide to monitoring and evaluation of capacity-
building interventions in the health sector in developing countries. MEASURE
Evaluation Manual Series No. 7. Carolina Population Center, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Love, A. 1991. Internal Evaluation: Building Organisations from within. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Lusthaus, C., M.H. Adrien, G. Anderson, F. Carden, and G.P. Montalvan. 2002.
Organisational assessment. A framework for improving performance. Ottawa/
Washington DC: International Development Research Centre and Inter-American
Development Bank.
Lusthaus, C., M.H. Adrien, and M. Perstinger. 1999a. Capacity development:
Definitions, issues, and implications for planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
Montreal: Universalia.
Lusthaus, C., M.H. Adrien, and M. Perstinger.1999b. Enhancing organisational
performance. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Lusthaus, C., G. Anderson, and E. Murphy. 1995. Institutional assessment: A
framework for strengthening organisational capacity for IDRC’s research partners.
Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Mabey, C.L., J.G. Salaman, and J. Storey (eds.). 1998. Strategic human resource
management: A reader. London: Sage.
Mackay, R. and D. Horton. 2002. Capacity development in planning, monitoring,
and evaluation: Results of an evaluation. Briefing Paper No. 51. The Hague:
International Service for National Agricultural Research.
Mackay, R. and D. Horton. 2003. Expanding the use of impact assessment and
evaluation in agricultural research and development. Forthcoming in Agricultural
Systems.
Mackay, R., D. Horton, L. Dupleich, and A. Andersen. 2002. Evaluating
organisational capacity development. The Canadian Journal of Program
Evaluation, 17(2): 121–150.
Mook, B. 2001.Evaluating information: A letter to a project manager.Wageningen:
Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA).
60
Morgan, P. 1998. Capacity and capacity development: Some strategies. Hull: Programme Evaluation
Process in Organisational
Canadian International Development Agency. Development

Morgan, P. 1999. An update on the performance monitoring of capacity

development programs: What are we learning? Hull: Canadian International
Development Agency.
Patton, M.Q. 1997. Utilisation-focused evaluation: The new century text. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M.Q. 1999. Organisational development and evaluation.The Canadian
Journal of Program Evaluation. Special Issue: 93–113.
Preskill, H. and R. T. Torres. 1999. Evaluative inquiry for learning organisations.
London: Sage.
Qualman, A. and J. Bolger. 1996. Capacity development: A holistic approach to
sustainable development. Development Express No. 8. Canada: International
Development Information Centre.
Russ-Eft, D. and H. Preskill. 2001. Evaluation in organisations. A systematic
approach to enhancing learning, performance, and change. Boston, MA: Perseus
Books.
Senge, P. 1990. The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organisation.
New York, NY: Doubleday Dell.
Sonnichesen, R.C. 2000.High impact internal evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Swiss Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE).
1998. Guidelines for research in partnership with developing countries.
(www.kfpe.ch/ key_activities/publications/guidelines/guidelines_e.html).
Taschereau, S. 1998. Evaluating the impact of training and institutional development
programs: A collaborative approach. Washington DC: The International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development - The World Bank.
UNDP. 1998. Capacity assessment and development in systems and strategic
management context. New York, NY: United Nations Development Program.
UNDP. 2000. Capacity for sustainable development. www.undp.org/wssd/docs/
BDP Policy Journal Vol 1.pdf.
UNDP Evaluation Office. 2002. Partnership for local governance. United Nations
Development Program Evaluation Office Essentials No. 7. August 2002.
Uphoff, N. 1994.Puzzles of productivity in public organisations. Oakland, CA:
Institute of Contemporary Studies Press.
Uphoff, N. and C.M. Wijayaratna. 2000. Demonstrated Benefits from Social
Capital: The Productivity of Farmer Organisations in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka. World
Development. 28 (11): 1875–1890.
W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2001. Logic model development guide. Battle Creek,
MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
Weiss, C.H. 1998. Evaluation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
61
Analysing and Managing the Weiss, C.H. 1999. The interface between evaluation and public policy.Evaluation.
OD Process
5(4): 468–486.
Bennis, W. (1989).On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Dervitsiotis, K. N. (1998). The challenge of managing organisational change:
Exploring the relationship of re-engineering, developing learning organisations, and
total quality management. Total Quality Management, 9(1), 109-123.
DiBella, A. J. & Nevis, E. C. (1998). How Organisations Learn. San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass

62