Integrated Circuits

Digital circuits are constructed with integrated circuits. A integrated

cin:uit (abbreviated IC) is a small silicon semiconductor crystal.
called a chip, contain· ing the electronic components for the digital
gates. The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the
required circuit. The chip is mountedIn a ceramic or plastic container,
and connections are welded by thin gold wires to external pins to
form the integrated circuit.

An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip or chip, is a

miniaturized electronic circuit consisting of interconnected electronic
components such as transistors, resistors, capacitors, and diodes.
These components are fabricated on a small semiconductor material,
typically silicon, and are combined into a single chip to perform
various electronic functions.

Integrated circuits are classified into different categories based on

their complexity and functionality. The two main types are:

1. Analog Integrated Circuits: These circuits process continuous

signals and are designed to perform tasks such as amplification,
filtering, and signal conditioning. Analog integrated circuits are
commonly used in audio amplifiers, power management
systems, and communication devices.
2. Digital Integrated Circuits: These circuits process discrete
binary signals (zeros and ones) and are the basis of digital
electronics. They are used in digital logic gates,
microprocessors, memory chips, and other digital systems.
 Digital integrated circuits are responsible for tasks such as data
processing, computation, and control.
The manufacturing process of integrated circuits involves several
steps, including designing the circuit layout, fabricating the chip on a
semiconductor wafer, and packaging the chip to protect it and provide
electrical connections.

the number of gates that can be put in a single chip has increased
considerably. The differentiation between those chips that have a few
internal gates and those having hundreds or thousands of gates is
made by a customary reference to a packages as being either a small·,
medium·, or large-scale integration device.

Small scale integration (SSI) devices contain several independent

gates in a single package. The inputs and outputs of the gates are
connected directly. to the pins in the package. The number of gates is
usually less than 10 and is limited by the number of pins available in
the IC.

Medium-scale integration (MSI)devices have a complexity of

approximately 10 to 200 gates in a single package. They usually
perform specific elementary digital functions such as decoders,
adders, and registers.

Large-scale integration (LSI)devices contain between 200 and a few

thousand gates in a single package. They include digital systems, such
as processors, memory chips, and programmable modules.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) devices contain thousands of

gates within a single package. Examples are large memory arrays and
complex microcomputer chips.

Many different logic families of integrated circuits have been

introduced commercially. The following are the most popular.

TTL Transistor-transistor logic

ECL Emitter-coupled logic
MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor
CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

TTL: The transistor-transistor logic family was an evolution of a

previoustechnology that used diodes and transistors for the basic NAND gate.
Thistechnology was called DTL, for "diode-transistor logic." Later the diodes
werereplaced by transistors to improve the circuit operation and the name of
thelogic family was changed to "transistor-transistor logic."

ECL
The emitter-coupled logic (ECL) family provides the highest-speed
digitalcircuits in integrated form. ECL is used in systems such as
supercomputers andsignal processors where high speed is essential.

Decoders
The combinational circuit that changes the binary information into
2N output lines is known as Decoders. The binary information is
passed in the form of N input lines.
Discrete quantities of information are represented in digital computers
with binary codes. A binary code of n bits is capable of representing
up to 2n distinctelements of the coded information. A decoder is a
combinational circuit that converts binary information from the n
coded inputs to a maximum of 2nunique outputs. If the n-bit coded
information has unused bit combinations,the decoder may have less
than 2noutputs.

The logic diagram of a 3-to-8-line decoder, The three data inputs, Ao,
A1, and A2, are decoded into eight outputs, each output representing
one of the combinations of the three binary input variables.
The three inverters provide the complement of the inputs, and each of
the eight AND gates generates one of the binary combinations.

2 to 4 line decoder:
1. A particular application of this decoder is a binary-to-octal
conversion.

2. The input variables represent a binary number and the outputs

represent the eight digits of the octal number system, a 3-to-8-
line decoder can be used for decoding any 3-bit codeto provide
eight outputs, one for each combination of the binary code.
3. The decoder of Fig. 2-1 has one enable input, E. The decoder is
enabled when E is equal to 1 and disabled when E is equal to 0.
When the enable input E is equal to 0, all the outputs are equal
to 0 regardless of the values of the other three data inputs.

4. When the enable input is equal to 1, the decoder operates in a

normal fashion.

5. For each possible input combination, there are seven outputs

that are equal to 0 and only one that is equal to 1. The output
variable whose value is equal to 1 represents the octal number
equivalent of the binary number that is available in the input
data lines.

6. NAND Gate Decoder Some decoders are constructed with

NAND instead of AND gates. Since a NAND gate produces the
AND operation with an inverted output, it becomes more
economical to generate the decoder outputs in their complement
form.
Encoders:

An encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse operation of a

decoder. An encoder has 2n (or less) input lines and n output lines.
The output linesgenerate the binary code corresponding to the input
value.
An example of an encoder is the octal-to-binary encoder, whose truth
table is given below.It has eight inputs, one for each of the octal
digits, and three outputs thatgenerate the corresponding binary
number.

It is assumed that only one inputhas a value of 1 at any given time;

otherwise, the circuit has no meaning.
The encoder can be implemented with OR gates whose inputs are
determined directly from the truth table.

4 to 2 line Encoder:In 4 to 2 line encoder, there are total of four

inputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, and Y3, and two outputs, i.e., A0 and A1. In
4-input lines, one input-line is set to true at a time to get the
respective binary code in the output side.

Multiplexers (MUX):

A multiplexer is a combinational circuit that receives binary

information from one of 2n input data lines and directs it to a single
output line. A 2n-to-1 multiplexer has 2n input data lines and n input
selection lines whose bit combinations determine which input data are
selected for the output.
 1. A 4-to-1-line multiplexer each of the four data inputs I0 through
I3, is applied to one input of an AND gate.
2. The two selection inputs S1 and S0 are decoded to select a
particular AND gate.
3. The outputs of the AND gates are applied to a single OR gate to
provide the single output.
To demonstrate the circuit operation, consider the case when S1S0 =
10. The AND gate associated with input I, has two of its inputs equal
to 1. The third input of the gate is connected to I2• The other three
AND gates have at least one input equal to 0, which makes their
outputs equal to 0. The OR gate output is now equal to the value of I,,
thus providing a path from the selected input to the output.

The 4-to-1 line multiplexer of Fig. 2-4 has six inputs and one output.
A truth table describing the circuit needs 64 rows since six input
variables can have 26 binary combinations. A more convenient way to
describe the operation of multiplexers is by means of a function table.
The function table for the multiplexer is shownin Table 2-3.
The table demonstrates the relationship between the four data inputs
and the single output as a function of the selection inputs S1 and S0.
The Demultiplexer

The demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch

one common input line to one of several separate output line.
The demultiplexer takes one single input data line and then switches it
to any one of a number of individual output lines one at a time.

1×4 De-multiplexer:
In 1 to 4 De-multiplexer, there are total of four outputs, i.e., Y 0, Y1, Y2, and Y3, 2
selection lines, i.e., S0 and S1 and single input, i.e., A. On the basis of the combination
of inputs which are present at the selection lines S 0 and S1, the input be connected to
one of the outputs. The block diagram and the truth table of the 1×4 multiplexer are
given below.