List of abbreviations

αe Modular ratio

b Width of flange

b1 Stiff bearing length

be Effective breadth

d Depth of web

D Depth of section

D.L Dead load

d.u.m Design ultimate moment

d.u.s Design ultimate shear

Grade S Grade of steel

Ix Second moment of area about major axis

Mb Buckling resistance moment

Mc Moment capacity

Mlt The major axis moment

m Moment

P Force in section

Pc Compression resistance

Pcy Compression resistance considering buckling about minor axis

Pb bending strength

Py Design strength of steel

Pv Shear capacity of a section

Px The buckling resistance of a load carrying stiffener

Pyw The design strength of the web

Pbw Bearing capacity

r Radius of gyration
Sx Plastic modules about major axis

T Thickness of flange

t Thickness of web

t.l Total load

w Distributed load

Zx Elastic modules about major axis

τ Stress

λ Slenderness

η The constant =0.5 for symmetrical section

δ Defection

ε Constant (275/Py)^0.5

Chapter 1
‫‪Introduction‬‬

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‪:‬‬

1-1-1 Introduction

Structural optimization is a design system for searching better solutions, which better
fulfil engineering requirements. The main requirements of a modern load carrying
structure are the safety, fitness for production and economy.

The safety and producibility are guaranteed by design and fabrication constraints, and
economy can be achieved by minimization of a cost function.

The structural optimization has four main components:

(1) design constraints relate to stress, stability, deformation, eigenfrequency, damping,

(2) fabrication constraints formulate the limitation of residual welding distortions,

requirements for welding technology, limitations of plate thicknesses and main structural
dimensions, definition of available profile series,

(3) a cost function is formulated according to the fabrication sequence and contains the
cost of materials, assembly, welding, cutting and painting,

(4) mathematical methods.

1-1-2 The optimization

Structural optimization means finding the best solution while considering several design
constraints. The optimization can be topology, shape and size optimization.

Structural optimization is a very useful system for the modern innovative design of steel
structures. These constraints can be the behavior of the structure, like the stresses,
fatigue, deformations, stability, eigenfrequency, damping, etc. These constraints are
usually highly nonlinear, so to find the optimum it is not an easy task.

1-1-2-1 Optimum Design

In the optimum design a structural version is sought, which fulfils the design and
fabrication constraints and minimizes the cost function.
Advantages

(a) clear and exact formulation of design problems (goals and constraints),

(b) possibility to include all the important engineering aspects,

(c) treats the fabrication aspects and cost function,

(d) possibility to achieve significant cost savings in design stage,

(e) possibility to give designers aspects for innovative, competitive structures,

(f) possibility to give a realistic basis for comparison of different structural versions,

(g) possibility to show the most important structural characteristics to be varied.

Disadvantages

(a) most of problems can be treated only numerically, therefore general conclusions
cannot be drawn,

(b) in order to use continuous functions, the results of experiments published in tabulated
or graphic form as well as the cross-sectional characteristics of fabricated series of
profiles should be formulated by approximate functions,

(c) special mathematical methods should be used,

(d) difficulty to obtain realistic cost data from industry,

(e) difficulty to treat coupled instabilities (more active constraints),

(f) cost savings is significant in serial production, but this can be realized not very often,

(g) remuneration of designers is not proportional to cost savings, but rather to

total cost.

It is as important to have a reliable optimization technique like

1. Firefly Algorithm
2. Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
2.1 The PSO Algorithm
2.2 Modification of PSO Algorithm with
Gradient Estimation
2.3 Comparing the Standard PSO and the
Modified PSO (GPSO)
3. The IOSO Technique
3.1 Main Features of IOSO Technology
3.2 Testing of the Method
3.3 Novelty and Distinctive Features of IOSO
1-1-3 Cost Calculations
The cost calculations are founded on material costs and those fabrication costs, which
have direct effect on the sizes, dimensions or shape of the structure. The cost function
includes the cost of material, assembly, welding as well as surface preparation, painting
and cutting, edge grinding, forming the shell and is formulated according to the
fabrication sequence. Other costs, like amortization, investment, transportation,
maintenance. Sometimes we can predict the cost of design and inspection, but usually
they are proportional to the weight of the structure. Cost and production time data come
from different companies from all over the world. When we compare the same design at
different countries, we should consider the differences between labor
costs. It has the most impact on the structure, if the technology is the same. Modern
technologies such as laser, plasma, waterjet, etc. These costs are the objective functions
in structural
optimization. When we consider the interaction of design and fabrication technology, we
should not forget about the cost as the third important characteristic of the structure.
These three together help us to find the best solution.
1-1-3-1 The Cost Function
The cost function of a real structure may include the cost of material, assembly, the
different fabrication costs such as welding, surface preparation, painting and cutting, edge
grinding, forming the geometry, etc. There are some researches, which have been done in
this field.
In the cost function we calculate
1- The Cost of Materials
2-The Fabrication Cost in General
3-Total Cost Function
The total cost function can be formulated by adding the previous cost functions together.
1-2 Objectives

1-Design an excel spread sheet to find an optimum section

2-Design all type of beams (restrained and unrestrained on plan)

3-Design end connections

Chapter 2

Beam Local and overall buckling

2-1 Beam

Beams are possibly the most fundamental type of member present in a civil engineering
structure. Their principal function is the transmission of vertical load by

Means of flexural (bending) action, for example, the columns in a rectangular

Building frame or the abutments in a bridge which support them

 Table2-1

Since the principal requirement of a beam is adequate resistance to vertical bending, a

very useful Indication of the size of section likely to prove suitable may be obtained
through the concept of the span to depth ratio. This is simply the value of the clear span
divided by the overall depth. An average figure for a properly designed steel beam is
between 15 and 20, perhaps more if a particularly slender form of construction is
employed or possibly less if very heavy loadings are present... When designing beams,
attention must be given to a series of issues, in addition to simple vertical bending, that
may have some bearing upon the problem. Torsion loading may often be eliminated by
careful detailing or its effects reasonably regarded as of negligible importance by a
correct appreciation of how the structure actually behaves; in certain instances, it should,
however, be considered. Section classification (allowance for possible local buckling
effects) is more involved than is the case for struts since different elements in the cross-
section are subject to different patterns of stress; the flanges in an I-beam in the elastic
range will be in approximately uniform tension or compression while the web will
contain a stress gradient.

The possibility of members being designed for an elastic or a plastic state, including the
use of a full plastic design for the complete structure, also affects section classification.
Various forms of instability of the beam as a whole or of parts subject to locally high
stresses, such as the web over a support, also require attention. Finally, certain forms of
construction may lend themselves to the appearance of unacceptable vibrations; although
this is likely to be affected by the choice of beams.

Figure2-1
2-2 Local buckling and cross-section classification

The efficient use of material within a steel member requires those structural properties
which most influence its load-carrying capacity to be maximized. This, coupled with the
need to make connections between members, has led to the majority of structural sections
being thin-walled as illustrated in (Figure2-2). Moreover, apart from circular tubes,
structural steel sections (such as universal beams and columns, cold formed purloiners,
built-up box columns and plate girders) normally comprise a series of flat plate elements.
Simple considerations of minimum material consumption frequently suggest that some
plate elements be made extremely thin but limits must be imposed if certain potentially
undesirable structural phenomena are to be avoided. The most important of these in
everyday steelwork design is local buckling.

Terms such as compact and slender are used to describe the proportions of the individual
plate elements of structural sections based on the insusceptibility to local buckling. The
most important governing property is the ratio of plate width to plate thickness (b) often
referred to as the (b/t) ratio. Other factors that have some influence are material strength,
the type of stress system to which the plate is subjected, the support conditions provided,
and whether the section is produced by hot-rolling or welding.
Figure2-2

Assuming (d/t) to be such that local buckling of the webs does not occur, which of the
four different forms of response given in (Figure2-4) applies depends on the compression
flange slenderness (b/T). The four cases are defined as:

(a) b/T£b1, full plastic moment capacity (Mp) is attained and maintained for large
rotations and the member is suitable for plastic design – plastic cross-section (Class 1)
Figure2-3

(b) b1 < b/T < b2, full plastic moment capacity )Mp (is attained but is only maintained for
small rotations and the member is suitable for elastic design using its full capacity –
compact cross-section (Class 2).

(c) b2 < b/T£b3, full elastic moment capacity My (but not Mp) is attained and the member
is suitable for elastic design using this limited capacity – semi-compact cross -section
(Class 3).

(d) b2 < b/T, local buckling limits moment capacity to less than My– slender cross section
(Class 4).

Since the classification of the section as plastic, compact, etc., is based on considerations
of the compression flange alone, the assumption concerning the web slenderness (d/t) is
that its classification is the same as or better than that of the flange. for example, if the
section is semi-compact, governed by the flange proportions, then the web must be
plastic, compact or semi-compact; it cannot be slender.

If the situation is reversed so that the webs are the controlling elements, then the same
four categories, based on the same definitions of moment–rotation behave our, are now
determined by the value of web slenderness (d/t). However, the governing values of (b 1,b2
and b3 change since the web stress distribution differs from the pure compression in the
top flange. Since the rectangular fully plastic condition, the triangular elastic condition
and any intermediate condition contain less compression, the values of bare larger.
Thus section classification also depends upon the type of Cross -sectional dimensions
and moment–rotation behave our

Figure2-4

Figure2-5

Stress system to which the plate element under consideration is subjected. If, in addition
to the moment (M), an axial compression (F) is applied to the member, then for elastic
behaviour the pattern of stress in the web is of the form shown in (Fig. 2-6(a)).

The values of s1 and s2 are dependent on the ratio (F/M) with (s 2) approaching (S), if
(F) is large and )M) is small. In this case it may be expected that the appropriate (b) limits
will be somewhere between the values for pure compression and pure bending,
approaching the former if σ2 = σy, and the latter if σ2 = -σ2.
A qualitative indication of this is given in (Fig. 2-7), which shows )Mu (as a function of
d/t for three different (σ2/σ1) ratios corresponding to pure compression, (s2 =0) and pure
bending.

If the value of (d/t) is sufficiently small that the web may be classified as compact or
plastic, then the stress distribution will adopt the alternative plastic arrangement of
(Figure2-6) for a plate element in a member which is subject to pure compression the
load carrying capacity is not affected by the degree of deformation since the scope for
change in strain distribution as the member passes from a wholly elastic to a partially
plastic state, as illustrated in (Figure2-4) for pure bending, does not exist. the plastic and
compact classifications do not therefore have any meaning; the only decision required is
whether or not the member is slender, and specific values are only required for (b3)

Figure2-6
Stress distributions in webs of symmetrical sections subject to combined bending end
compression. (a) Semi-compact, elastic stress distribution. (b) Plastic or Compact, plastic
stress distribution

Figure2-7

Several other factors which affect local buckling have a corresponding influence on (b)
limits. As an example, the flanges of an I-section receive support along one longitudinal
edge only, with the result that their buckling resistance is less than that of the flange of a
box section, and lower (b) values may be expected. Similarly, the plate elements in
members fabricated by welding generally contain a more severe pattern of residual stress,
again leading to reduced (b) values. One special case is the webs of beams and girders
subject to shear. Although (b) limits for the purpose of section classification are normally
provided for designers, the efficient design of plate girder webs may well require these to
be exceeded.
 Chapter 3

Microsoft excel
Programming
3-1 Microsoft Excel

3-1-1 Introduction

It is a program from the Microsoft Office suite of office programs that performs
arithmetic operations, analyzes information, and represents data in tables.

It is a program that handles and supports various functions, as well as databases and
graphs, as well as a worksheet consisting of rows and columns.
Excel features
Smooth data entry
Ultra-fast data analysis
Display the results of the analysis to the user as desired by the user
It contains many functions in all fields
3-1-2 The function
3-1-2-1 Vlookup function
=Vlookup(lookup value, table_array, column, match flag).
Lookup value : The value you want to find in the first row of a column at the far end of
the table.
Table : The table to search where you explore the table.
Column : The column number from which to return the value.
Match flag: The value flag matches a boolean value, whether it is true or false, and then
that value stays null in my case it's in the values in my option and it's looking for the most
specific values.
This function looks for a left or rightmost value in the table and returns the value
referring to a reference from a page of its choice.
Example (3.2.1)

Figure 3-1
3-1-2-2 Match function
The MATCH function searches for a specific value in a column or row and returns the
number of the column or row in which that value is located.
=match(lookup_value,lookup_array,[match_type])
Lookup_value : The value to be searched for.
Lookup_array : The row or column that contains the value to be searched for.
Match_type : Matching quality
0 or Exact match: The search must be exactly the same.
1 or Greater than :If it does not find the searched value itputs the nearest value greater
than the shearched value.
-1 or Less than:If it does not find the searched value it puts the nearest value smaller than
the searched value.
Example (3.2.2)
If we want to find the row number in which the section is located in the previous
example, we use the match function as an example
Figure 3-2
3-2 Practical application in an example from a reference [4] page 462 with
addition of it is algorithm diagram

Figure3-3

First we enter the grade of steel, value for loads, thickness and lengths

Secondly we calculate the design ultimate moment and design ultimate shear

The design ultimate moment is equal

Figure3-4

Cell C8 = total load

Cell C6= transverse space between beams

Cell C5= beam span

The design ultimate shear is equal

Figure3-5

thirdly we calculate min Sx

The Sx is equal

Figure3-6

Cell C9= design ultimate moment

To calculate min Sx by the min function

Figure3-7
The values of Sx that achieves the minimum values of ultimate moment divided by P y are
listed in the above table.

Figure3-8

The ok Sx column by

figure 3-9

Cell G3=Sx for all sections

Cell C11= Sx

Calculate min mass by min function for

Figure3-10

The mass column by

Figure3-11

Cell C12=in Sx

Cell UB!C7 mass for all sections from bs5950 table UB

To find the optimum section by vlookup function

Figure3-12
Cell C13=min mass and column M is sections

4th T, b, d and t

Calculate T by min function for

Figure3-13

The T column by

Figure3-14

Cell UB!G7=T for all sections

The b, d, t for calculate like T.

Py by if function
Figure3-15

Cell C15=T

Cells B66, B67, B68, B69 and B70 is T

C66, C67, C68, C69, C70 and C71 is PY

Figure3-16

Cell B66 as an example is equal

Figure3-17

Cell C2=grade S, UB!AE7= strength for steel and cells B67 to cells B71 like that.

Section class from bs5950 table 11

Table3-1
The section is outstand element of compression flange and rolled connection section

By if function
Figure3-18

5th Moment capacity, vertical shear capacity and deflection

The moment capacity is equal

Figure3-19

Cell C16=Py

Cell C12=min Sx

The Vertical shear capacity is equal

Figure3-20

Cells C18=d

Cell C19=t

The deflection is equal

Figure3-21

Cell C4=imposed load

Cell C20= second moment of area

Deflection limit is equal

Figure3-22
 Chapter 4

Design and Result

4-1 Introduction
To verify that the spreadsheet calculation gives real values firstly we calculate and find
the optimum beam sections after that we use the sections selected to design the beams
and we compare the output result of sheets with that calculated manually.

4-2 comparisons between manual design and program output

As an example, we take a manual design
4-2-1 The example shown below is a problem from a reference [4] page 47

Figure 4-1
The selected beam section in example is 356×127 UB33

The program output:

With the same data

Figure 4-2

We find that the program has chosen the section 305×102UB33, it is smaller in size,
Weight and economial .

4-2-2 The example shown below is a problem from a reference [5] page 462.
Figure 4-3

The selected beam section in example is 457x152x67

The program output

Figure 4-4

We find that the program has chosen the section 406×178UB67, it is smaller in size,
Weight and economial .
4-2-3 The example below is a problem from a reference [4] page 53.

Figure 4-5

The selected beam section in example 457x152x60

The program output

Figure 4-6

We find that the program has chosen the section 305×102UB33, it is smaller in size,
Weight and economial.
4-3 Design output calculations
4-3-1 Restrained beam Example from a reference [4] page 47.

The steel beams for part of the floor of a library with book storage are shown in

Figure 4.1. The floor is a reinforced concrete slab supported on universal beams.

The design loading has been estimated as: Dead load slab, self-weight of steel, finishes,
Ceiling,

partitions, services and fire protection: = 6.0 kN/m²

Imposed load from Table I of BS 6399: Part 1

= 4.0 kN/m²

Determine the section required for beams 2A and 1B and design the end

Connections. Use Grade 275 steel.

The distribution of the floor loads to the two beams assuming two-way

Spanning slabs is shown in Figure 4-1:

Figure 4-7
Figure 4-8
Figure 4-9
Figure 4-10
4-3-2 Unrestrained beam example from a reference [4] page 53.
Design the simply supported beam for the loading shown in Figure 4-5. The

Loads P are normal loads. The beam ends are restrained against torsion with

The compression flange free to rotate in plan. The compression flange is unrestrained
Between supports. Use Grade S275 steel.

Figure 4-11

Figure 4-12
Figure 4-13

4-3-3 Restrained beam example from a reference [4] page 56.

A compound beam is to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 400 kN and

An imposed load of 600 kN. The beam is simply supported and has a span of

11 m. Allow 30 kN for the weight of the beam. The overall depth must not

Exceed 700 mm. The length of stiff bearing at the ends is 215.9 mm where

The beam is supported on 203 x 203 UC 71 columns. Full lateral support is

Provided for the compression flange. Use Grade S275 steel.

(1) Design the beam section and check deflection, assuming a uniform section

Throughout.

(2) Determine the theoretical and actual cut-off points for the flange plates and

The possible saving in weight that would result if the flange plates were

Curtailed.

(3) Check the web for shear, buckling and bearing, assuming that plates are

Not curtailed.

(4) Design the flange plate to universal beam welds.

Figure 4-14
4-3-4 Restrained beam example from a reference [5] page 462.

Design and Select a suitable UB section to function a simply supported beam

Carrying a 140mm thickness solid concrete slab together with an imposed load of
7.0KN/ M 2 .Beam span is 7.2M and beams are spaced at 3.6M intervals. The slab

may Be assumed capable of providing continuous lateral restraint to the Beam’s top
flange.

Due to restraint from slab there is no possibility of lateral-torsional buckling, so

Design beam for,

i) Moment capacity

ii) Shear capacity

iii) Deflection limit

Figure 4-15
4-3-5 Restrained beam example from a reference [5] page 465.

For the same loading and support conditions of example (4.4) select a suitable UB
assuming that the member must be designed as laterally unrestrained.

It is not now possible to arrange the calculations in such a way that a direct choice is
Possible, a guess and check approach must be adopted.

Figure 4-16
4-3-6 Restrained beam example from a reference [5] page 535.

Choice optimum section and Check the suitability of the section in S355 steel for use as
The column in a portal frame of clear height 5.6m if the axial compression is 160KN, The
Moment at the top of the column is 530KNm and the base is pinned, The ends of the
Column are adequately restrained against lateral displacement (i.e. out of the plane) and
Rotation.

Figure 4-17

Loading corresponds to compression and major axis moment distributed as shown. Check
Initially over full height.
Figure 4-18
 Chapter 5

Conclusion and
Recommendations
5-1 Conclusion

1-an excel spreadsheet was designed and an optimum steel section was predicted.

2- the main beam sections was designed and the output was compared with manual
solution as shown in chapter 4.

3- beam end connection was designed for bolt type.

5-2 Recommendations

1-Weld connection may be added to the program.

2- Column type and column basis have to be added to the sheet to complete structural
elements.
Reference

1- Eng. Osama Al Kamel., A book to Learn Excel from Zero to Professionalism,

Institute of modern technology.
2- Osama Al Koshak., Excel for Engineers.
3- Eng. Munther Suleiman., Excel Functions.
4- Dennis Lam., Thien-Cheong Ang., Sing-Ping Chiew., Structural Steel Work,
Elsevier Ltd., 2004
5- Buick Davison., Graham W.owens., Steel Designer’s Manual., Silwood Park
Ascot., 2003
6- Dr. Józef Farkas., Dr. Karoly Jarmai., Optimum Design of Steel Structures,
Springer Heidelberg New York, London, 2013
7- BS 5950-1:2000
8- Universal Beams to BS4 Part1 1993 - Dimensions & Properties