TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................2
PREFACE.....................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................4
A. BACKGROUND OF STUDY.........................................................................4
B. PROBLEM FORMULATION.........................................................................4
C. PROBLEM PURPOSE................................................................................4

CHAPTER 2. DISSCUSSION................................................................................5
A. KENNEDY AND THE NEW FRONTIER............................................................5
B. LYNDON JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY................................................5
C. CONFRONTATION OVER CUBA...................................................................6
D. THE SPACE PROGRAM.............................................................................6
E. THE WAR IN VIETNAM.............................................................................7
F. DETENTE.............................................................................................8
G. NIXON'S ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND DEFEATS...................................................8
H. THE FORD INTERLUDE............................................................................9
I. THE CARTER YEARS...............................................................................9
J. POST-VIETNAM FOREIGN POLICY...............................................................9
K. THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1960-1980...................................................10
L. THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT......................................................................11
M. THE LATINO MOVEMENT........................................................................12
N. THE NATIVE AMERICAN MOVEMENT...........................................................12
O. THE COUNTER-CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTALISM.......................................12

CHAPTER 3. CLOSING....................................................................................13
A. CONCLUSION......................................................................................13

2
 PREFACE

First thing first, thanks to Jesus Christ for the blessing as of the author has written the
summary well. The purpose of this summary is to fulfill the assignment given by Mr. Royke Kewas,
S.S, M.Pd as the lecturer of American History and Culture subject.
Arranging this summary was not as easy as it looks like. There are still a bunch of mistakes
you will find in this summary. Hence, The author truly apologize with an eye to the reader’s
understanding. In light of the fact that the author thanks to all the individuals involved of making
this summary. The author needs the criticism from the readers for perfecting the next summary.
Last but not the least hopefully, this summary will be able to help the readers of gaining more
knowledge about The American History.

Manado, May 16Th , 2021

Author

3
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

A. Background of Study
At the end of World War 2, the Victorian Railways was in a parlous state, with rolling
stock and track requiring major restoration. As part of the rejuvenation of the system, a
review was undertaken and recommendations were made under the title of ‘Operation
Phoenix’, which set out what would be required to restore health to the Victorian Railways.
The implementation of some of these recommendations brought about 2 decades of
unprecedented change, where, over the course od the 1920s to the end of the 1960s, the
Victorian Railways was transformed. It was not only the change from steam locomotives to
diesel electrics, but also electrification and the introduction of light weight railcars. There
was also the closure or truncation of over 50 branch lines. In this programme, utilising film
from a number of sources, we look back at how the Victorian Railways looked in the early
1950s and the changes that occurred over the next 20 years. We feature the various types of
steam locomotive that were in use at the time, along with their gradual demise, as well as
the diesel and electric locomotives that replaced them.

B. PROBLEM FORMULATION
a. What are the changes ?
b. Who is involved in each decade ?
c. How The Change goes each decades ?

C. PROBLEM PURPOSE
a. Explaining about the changes
b. Informing the people involved
c. Describing how the changes goes

4
CHAPTER 2. DISSCUSSION
By 1960 government had become an increasingly powerful force in people's lives. The
number of civilians employed by the federal government rose from 1 million to 3.8 million during
World War II, then stabilized at 2.5 million throughout the 1950s. Most Americans accepted
government's expanded role, even as they disagreed about how far that expansion should continue.
Democrats wanted the government to use its power to ensure growth and stability.
Republicans, while accepting government's basic and necessary responsibility, hoped to cap
spending and restore a larger measure of individual initiative.

A. KENNEDY AND THE NEW FRONTIER

On television, in a series of debates with opponent Richard Nixon, he appeared able,
articulate and energetic. Kennedy wanted to exert strong leadership to extend economic
benefits to all citizens, but a razor-thin margin of victory limited his mandate. Even though
the Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress, conservative Southerners resisted
plans to increase federal aid to education, provide health insurance for the elderly and
create a new Department of Urban Affairs. And so, despite his rhetoric, Kennedy's policies
were often limited and restrained. When he later called for a large tax cut to provide capital
and stimulate the economy, conservative opposition in Congress destroyed any hopes of
passing the deficit measure. The overall legislative record of the Kennedy administration
was meager. The president made some gestures toward civil rights leaders but did not
embrace the goals of the civil rights movement until nearly the end of his presidency. He
failed in his effort to aid public education and to provide medical care for the elderly. Still,
he did secure funding for a space program, and established the Peace Corps to send men and
women overseas to assist developing countries in meeting their own needs. Kennedy had
planned an ambitious legislative program for the last year of his term.

B. LYNDON JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY

Lyndon Johnson, a Texan who was majority leader in the Senate before becoming
Kennedy's vice president, was a masterful politician. He had been schooled in Congress,
where he developed an extraordinary ability to get things done. As president, he wanted to

5
 use his power aggressively to eliminate poverty and spread the benefits of prosperity to all.
Johnson took office determined to secure the measures that Kennedy had sought. Immediate
priorities were bills to reduce taxes and guarantee civil rights. Using his skills of persuasion
and calling on the legislators' respect for the slain president, in 1964 Johnson succeeded in
gaining passage of the Civil Rights Bill. Introduced by Kennedy, it was the most far-reaching
piece of civil rights legislation enacted since Reconstruction. Soon Johnson addressed other
issues as well.
On the economic front, Johnson pushed successfully for a tax cut, then pressed for a
poverty program Kennedy had initiated. «This administration today, here and now, declares
unconditional war on poverty in America,» he announced. The Office of Economic
Opportunity provided training for the poor and established various community-action
programs to give the poor themselves a voice in housing, health and education programs.
Under Johnson's leadership, Congress enacted Medicare, a health insurance program for the
elderly, and Medicaid, a program providing health-care assistance for the poor. Similarly,
Johnson succeeded in the effort to provide aid for elementary and secondary schooling
where Kennedy had failed. Funds could be used to assist public- and private-school children
alike. Federal assistance went to artists and scholars to encourage their work. The Johnson
administration also addressed transportation safety issues, in part because of the efforts of a
young lawyer, lobbyist and consultant named Ralph Nader. In September 1966, Johnson
signed into law two transportation bills. The first provided funds to state and local
governments for developing safety programs, while the other set up federal safety standards
for cars and tires.

C. CONFRONTATION OVER CUBA

The United States broke diplomatic ties just before Kennedy assumed office, and the
Central Intelligence Agency began training Cuban exiles to invade their homeland and spark
an uprising. Kennedy, who approved the plan initiated by the Eisenhower administration,
accepted responsibility for the defeat. The next year, seeking to recoup lost prestige,
Kennedy stood firm when he learned the Soviet Union was secretly installing offensive
nuclear missiles in Cuba.

D. THE SPACE PROGRAM

6
 Space became another arena for competition after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik
-- an artificial satellite -- in 1957. Americans were chastened, for the Russians had beaten
them into orbit with a rocket that could have easily carried a nuclear bomb. Kennedy
responded by committing the United States to land a man on the moon and bring him back
«before this decade is out». In July 1969, with hundreds of millions of television viewers
watching around the world, Neil A. Other Apollo flights followed, but many Americans began
to question the value of manned space flight. In the early 1970s, as other priorities became
more pressing, the United States scaled down the space program.

E. THE WAR IN VIETNAM

Meanwhile, Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese communist, sought to liberate his nation from
colonial rule and took the American War for Independence as his model. The United States,
eager to maintain French support for the policy of containment in Europe, provided France
with economic aid that freed resources for the struggle in Vietnam. At an international
conference in Geneva, Vietnam was divided, with Ho in power in the North and Ngo Dinh
Diem, a Roman Catholic anti-communist in a largely Buddhist population, heading the
government in the South. Persuaded that the fall of Vietnam could lead to the fall of Burma,
Thailand and Indonesia, Eisenhower backed Diem's refusal to hold elections in 1956 and
began to increase economic and military aid.
Kennedy increased assistance, and sent small numbers of military advisors, but still
the struggle between North and South continued. Guerrillas in the South, known as Viet
Cong, challenged the South Vietnamese government, sometimes covertly, sometimes
through the National Liberation Front, their political arm. Aided by North Vietnam, they
gained ground, especially among the peasants in the countryside. Determined to halt
communist advances in South Vietnam, Johnson made the Vietnam War his own. After a
North Vietnamese naval attack on two American destroyers, Johnson won from Congress on
August 7, 1964, passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed the president to
«take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United
States and to prevent further aggression.» After his re-election in November 1964, he
embarked on a policy of escalation. A massive bombing campaign wrought havoc in both
North and South Vietnam. policy, especially among the young, pressured Johnson to begin
negotiating for peace. Anti-war sentiment in 1968 led Johnson to renounce any intention of
seeking another term. While slowly withdrawing American troops, Nixon ordered some of the

7
 most fearful bombing in the war. He also invaded Cambodia in 1970 to cut off North
Vietnamese supply lines, which passed through there to South Vietnam. Although American
troops departed, the war lingered on into the spring of 1975, when North Vietnam
consolidated its control over the entire country. The United States spent over $150
thousand-million in a losing effort that cost 58,000 American lives. The war also ended the
Cold War foreign policy consensus. The public found that certain American military units had
engaged in atrocities in Vietnam and that the government had lied about the circumstances
surrounding the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964.

F. DÉTENTE
As the war wound down, the Nixon administration was able to deal pragmatically with
the major communist powers. Several months after his trip to China, he visited the Soviet
Union. He held several cordial meetings with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in which they
agreed to limit stockpiles of missiles, cooperate in space and ease trading restrictions.

G. NIXON'S ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND DEFEATS

Nixon took office after eight years of Democratic rule. Vice president under
Eisenhower before his unsuccessful run for the presidency in 1960, Nixon embraced politics,
but without the passion of President Johnson. Nixon imposed wage-price controls in 1971,
but they did little good. Factors beyond Nixon's control undermined his economic policies.
This era of recession and inflation brought an end to the unprecedented economic boom
America had enjoyed since 1948. While trying to manage the economy, Nixon also sought to
restore «law and order.» Rising crime rates in American cities and political protests,
increased drug use and more permissive views about sex in U. The Committee to Re-elect
the President launched a massive fund-raising campaign to collect money before
contributions had to be reported under a new law. Early in 1972, Nixon's team proposed to
tap the telephones of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate apartment
complex in Washington, D. When the burglars, carrying money and documents that could
ultimately be traced to The White House, were arrested, the administration decided to
cover up its involvement. Six days after the discovery of the break-in, Nixon told the Central
Intelligence Agency to order the Federal Bureau of Investigation to cease its investigation on
the grounds that national security was at stake.

8
 In fact, the break-in was just one aspect of a campaign to locate and destroy people
whom the administration considered its «enemies.» These activities involved illegal
wiretapping, break-ins and fundraising. Although Nixon was overwhelmingly re-elected that
year, the press, particularly the Washington Post, continued to investigate. As the scandal
unfolded, the Democratic majority in the Congress instituted impeachment proceedings
against Nixon.

H. THE FORD INTERLUDE

Agnew, after it was revealed that he had accepted bribes both before and during his
term as vice president. Twenty months later, upon Nixon's resignation, Ford became
president. His first priority was to restore trust in the government, which had been shaken
by impeachment proceedings aimed at removing Nixon from office. Initially Ford enjoyed a
great deal of confidence, but it quickly eroded when he pardoned Nixon and thus headed off
any possible prosecution in the future. In public policy, Ford followed the course Nixon had
set.

I. THE CARTER YEARS

In economic affairs, Carter at first permitted a policy of deficit spending. When the
Federal Reserve Board, responsible for setting monetary policy, increased the money supply
to cover deficits, inflation rose to 10 percent a year. Carter responded by cutting the budget
to slow inflation, but cuts affected social programs at the heart of Democratic policy. He
presented a comprehensive program, aimed at reducing dependence on foreign oil, that he
called the «moral equivalent of war.» Opponents thwarted it in Congress. Though Carter
called himself a populist, his political priorities were never wholly clear. He endorsed
government's protective role, but then began the process of deregulation -- the removal of
governmental controls in economic life. Carter hoped to reestablish Democratic leadership,
but his efforts failed to gain either public or congressional support. By the end of his term,
his disapproval rating reached 77 percent, and Americans began to look toward the
Republican Party again.

J. POST-VIETNAM FOREIGN POLICY

In the aftermath of the Vietnam War, the United States continued to pursue an active
policy in world affairs, addressing issues in Europe, the Middle East and Latin America.

9
 However, in the late 1970s, serious problems emerged in relations with the Soviet Union,
and particularly with Iran. President Ford continued the Nixon administration policy of
pursuing detente with the Soviet Union. In November 1974, Ford met with Soviet leader
Leonid Brezhnev in Vladivostok. It recognized the permanence of the changes in European
borders after World War II -- an acknowledgment that Moscow had long sought. President
Jimmy Carter helped to achieve a significant breakthrough between Egypt and Israel in
which these countries ended 30 years in a state of war. Acting as both mediator and
participant, Carter met in 1978 at Camp David, Maryland, the presidential retreat, with
Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to negotiate a
peace settlement. Though he assumed office with detente at high tide and declared that the
United States had escaped its «inordinate fear of communism,» his insistence that «our
commitment to human rights must be absolute» antagonized the Soviet government.
Senate, in part to protest the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. That same year
Carter began a defense build-up that paved the way for the huge expenditures of the 1980s.
In 1979 Carter encountered even more trouble with Iran. After a fundamentalist revolution,
led by Shiite Muslim leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, replaced a corrupt but friendly
regime, Carter admitted the deposed shah to the United States for medical treatment. Angry
Iranian militants seized the American embassy in Teheran and held 53 American hostages for
more than a year. Despite his efforts, Carter could not secure their release, and his failure
contributed to his electoral defeat.

K. THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1960-1980

The struggle of black Americans for equality reached its peak in the mid-1960s. Their
sit-in captured media attention and led to similar demonstrations throughout the South. The
next year, civil rights workers organized «freedom rides,» in which blacks and whites
boarded buses heading South toward segregated terminals, where confrontations might
capture media attention and lead to change. , who had emerged as the preeminent
spokesman for civil rights. President Kennedy was initially reluctant to press white
Southerners for support on civil rights because he needed their votes on other issues. When
James Meredith was denied admission to the University of Mississippi in 1962 on account of
his race, Kennedy sent federal troops to uphold the law. After protests aimed at the
desegregation of Birmingham, Alabama, prompted a violent response by the police, he sent
Congress a new civil rights bill mandating the integration of public places. Not even the

10
 «March on Washington,» however, could extricate the measure from a congressional
committee, where it was still bottled up when Kennedy was assassinated.
President Johnson was more successful. A Southerner from Texas, he became
committed to civil rights as he sought national office. Finally, in 1968, the Congress passed
legislation banning discrimination in housing. To many these two assassinations marked the
end of an era of innocence and idealism in both civil rights and the anti-war movements.
The federal commitment to civil rights diminished when Richard Nixon became president.
Nixon was determined to consolidate his political base around conservative whites who felt
that the movement for black equality had gone too far. The «Southern strategy» led the
administration to reduce the appropriation for fair housing enforcement and in 1970, to
prevent, unsuccessfully, the extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. When the Supreme
Court ruled in 1971 that busing children was a permissible means of desegregating schools,
Nixon denounced the ruling on television and sought a congressional moratorium or
restriction. The backlash against preferential treatment for minorities became even more
public in a Supreme Court case in 1978.

L. THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT

Arguing that women often had no outlets for expression other than «finding a husband
and bearing children,» Friedan encouraged readers to seek new roles and responsibilities, to
seek their own personal and professional identities rather than have them defined by the
outside, male-dominated society. The women's movement of the 1960s and 1970s drew
inspiration from the civil rights movement. It was made up mainly of members of the middle
class, and thus partook of the spirit of rebellion that affected large segments of middle-class
youth in the 1960s. Another factor linked to the emergence of the movement was the sexual
revolution of the 1960s, which in turn was sparked by the development and marketing of the
birth-control pill. During debate on the 1964 Civil Rights bill, conservatives hoped to defeat
the entire measure by proposing an amendment to outlaw discrimination on the basis of
gender as well as race. First the amendment, then the bill itself, passed, giving women a
legal tool to secure their rights. Women themselves took measures to improve their lot.
Passed by Congress in 1972, it declared, «Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied
or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.» Over the next several
years, 35 of the necessary 38 states ratified it. Wade sanctioned women's right to abortion
during the early months of pregnancy -- a significant victory for the women's movement. In

11
 the mid- to late 1970s, however, the women's movement stagnated. It failed to broaden its
appeal beyond the middle class. Divisions arose between moderate and radical feminists.
Conservative opponents mounted a campaign against the Equal Rights Amendment, and it
died in 1982 without gaining the approval of the 38 states needed for ratification.

M. THE LATINO MOVEMENT

Coming from Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico and Central America, they were often
unskilled and unable to speak English. The example of black activism in particular taught
Hispanics the importance of pressure politics in a pluralistic society. The National Labor
Relations Act of 1935 had excluded agricultural workers from its guarantee of the right of
labor to organize and bargain collectively. Hispanics became politically active as well.
Gonzalez won election to Congress from Texas. Three years later Elizo de la Garza, another
Texan, followed him, and Joseph Montoya of New Mexico went to the Senate.

N. THE NATIVE AMERICAN MOVEMENT

In the 1950s, Native Americans struggled with the government's policy of moving them
off reservations and into cities where they might assimilate into mainstream America. In
1961 when the policy was discontinued, the United States Commission on Civil Rights noted
that for Indians, «poverty and deprivation are common». In the 1960s and 1970s, watching
both the development of Third World nationalism and the progress of the civil rights
movement, Native Americans became more aggressive in pressing for their own rights. The
American Indian Movement , founded in 1968, helped channel government funds to Indian-
controlled organizations and assisted neglected Indians in the cities. The episode ended,
after one Indian was killed and another wounded, with a government agreement to re-
examine treaty rights, although little was subsequently done. Still, Indian activism brought
results. Other Americans became more aware of Native American needs. Officials in all
branches of government had to respond to pressure for equal treatment that was long
overdue. The Senate's first Native American member, Ben Nighthorse Campbell of Colorado,
was elected in 1992.

O. THE COUNTER-CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTALISM

12
 The visible signs of the counterculture permeated American society in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. The energy that fueled the civil rights movement and catalyzed the
counterculture also stimulated an environmental movement in the mid-1960s. Public
concern about the environment continued to increase throughout the 1960s as many became
aware of other pollutants surrounding them - automobile emissions, industrial wastes, oil
spills -- that threatened their health and the beauty of their surroundings.

CHAPTER 3. CLOSING

A. CONCLUSION
By 1960 government had become an increasingly powerful force in people's lives. The
number of civilians employed by the federal government rose from 1 million to 3.8 million
during World War II, then stabilized at 2.5 million throughout the 1950s. When he later
called for a large tax cut to provide capital and stimulate the economy, conservative
opposition in Congress destroyed any hopes of passing the deficit measure. The overall
legislative record of the Kennedy administration was meager. As president, he wanted to use
his power aggressively to eliminate poverty and spread the benefits of prosperity to all.
Using his skills of persuasion and calling on the legislators' respect for the slain president, in
1964 Johnson succeeded in gaining passage of the Civil Rights Bill. On the economic front,
Johnson pushed successfully for a tax cut, then pressed for a poverty program Kennedy had
initiated. Similarly, Johnson succeeded in the effort to provide aid for elementary and
secondary schooling where Kennedy had failed. The United States broke diplomatic ties just
before Kennedy assumed office, and the Central Intelligence Agency began training Cuban
exiles to invade their homeland and spark an uprising. The next year, seeking to recoup lost
prestige, Kennedy stood firm when he learned the Soviet Union was secretly installing
offensive nuclear missiles in Cuba. Space became another arena for competition after the
Soviet Union launched Sputnik -- an artificial satellite -- in 1957.
Kennedy responded by committing the United States to land a man on the moon and
bring him back «before this decade is out». Meanwhile, Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese
communist, sought to liberate his nation from colonial rule and took the American War for
Independence as his model. The United States, eager to maintain French support for the
policy of containment in Europe, provided France with economic aid that freed resources for

13
the struggle in Vietnam. Determined to halt communist advances in South Vietnam, Johnson
made the Vietnam War his own. policy, especially among the young, pressured Johnson to
begin negotiating for peace. As the war wound down, the Nixon administration was able to
deal pragmatically with the major communist powers.
This era of recession and inflation brought an end to the unprecedented economic boom
America had enjoyed since 1948. The Committee to Re-elect the President launched a
massive fund-raising campaign to collect money before contributions had to be reported
under a new law. In fact, the break-in was just one aspect of a campaign to locate and
destroy people whom the administration considered its «enemies.» These activities involved
illegal wiretapping, break-ins and fundraising. His first priority was to restore trust in the
government, which had been shaken by impeachment proceedings aimed at removing Nixon
from office. In public policy, Ford followed the course Nixon had set. Carter responded by
cutting the budget to slow inflation, but cuts affected social programs at the heart of
Democratic policy. By the end of his term, his disapproval rating reached 77 percent, and
Americans began to look toward the Republican Party again. In the aftermath of the Vietnam
War, the United States continued to pursue an active policy in world affairs, addressing
issues in Europe, the Middle East and Latin America. Senate, in part to protest the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
The struggle of black Americans for equality reached its peak in the mid-1960s. Finally,
in 1968, the Congress passed legislation banning discrimination in housing. The federal
commitment to civil rights diminished when Richard Nixon became president. During debate
on the 1964 Civil Rights bill, conservatives hoped to defeat the entire measure by proposing
an amendment to outlaw discrimination on the basis of gender as well as race. In the mid- to
late 1970s, however, the women's movement stagnated. Coming from Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Mexico and Central America, they were often unskilled and unable to speak English. The
example of black activism in particular taught Hispanics the importance of pressure politics
in a pluralistic society. In the 1950s, Native Americans struggled with the government's
policy of moving them off reservations and into cities where they might assimilate into
mainstream America. The American Indian Movement , founded in 1968, helped channel
government funds to Indian-controlled organizations and assisted neglected Indians in the
cities. The visible signs of the counterculture permeated American society in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. The energy that fueled the civil rights movement and catalyzed the
counterculture also stimulated an environmental movement in the mid-1960s.

14