5.

Hajj

Hadjdj or hadj, in Islam, the pilgrimage to the holy city

of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, which every adult Muslim must
make at least once in his or her lifetime
ISLAM

− Major world religion spread by the HINDUISM

Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in 7th century CE
Beginnings and purpose
− Arabic term islām, literally “surrender,”
− Bhakti or devotional Hinduism spread across
illuminates the fundamental religious idea of
the Indian sub-continent, and the old Vedic gods
Islam—that the believer accepts surrender to the
were replaced by deities
will of Allah (in Arabic, Allāh: God).
like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Brahma, and Devi.
− Islamic theology affects all aspects of Muslim life.
− Temples were built to house a sacred symbol of
− The Muslim’s submission of will to Allah ideally
a particular God and were decorated with
appropriates space and reorganizes temporality
sculptural figures recalling episodes
− Five Pillars (in Arabic it literally means “corners”). from mythology.
− Pillars are configured in a pattern of a quincunx
(an arrangement of five objects in a square, with EARLY INFLUENCES
four at the corners and one in the center)
• Early Buddhist, Stupa
THE FIVE PILLARS • first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut
caves and repeated the idea of relief panels and
1. Shahādah
the decorative gavaska window form.
• Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE,
The shahādah, or the profession of faith that begins with the first free-standing Hindu temples were
the verse “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is constructed with features such as towers and
the prophet of Allah” projecting niches.
• first materials used were wood and terracotta
2. The Prayer • no mortar was used in the older temples
• so precise cutting of dressed stones was required
The second pillar consists of five daily canonical prayers.

1. performed before sunrise, BUDDHISM

2. just after noon
− a faith founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the
3. in the late afternoon
Buddha”)
4. immediately after sunset
− one of the major world religions
5. before retiring to bed
− most prominent in East and Southeast Asia

3. The Zakāt TYPES OF BUDDHISM

The obligatory tax called zakāt (“purification,” indicating a. Theravada Buddhism: Prevalent in Thailand,
that such a payment makes the rest of one’s wealth Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma
religiously and legally pure).
b. Mahayana Buddhism: Prevalent in China,
Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam
4. Fasting
c. Tibetan Buddhism: Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal,
Fasting during the month of Ramadan (ninth month of the Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and
Muslim lunar calendar), laid down in the Qurʾān (2:183– northern India
185), is the fourth pillar of the faith. Fasting begins at
daybreak and ends at sunset, and during the day eating,
drinking, and smoking are forbidden.

1
 BEDOUIN & ARABIAN INFLUENCES
− started through a variety of influences, among ▪ Earliest buildings, a masjid built with stone and
which the most evident are: mud-clay bricks.
− Founding Prophet - spaces & orientation, ▪ Bedouins were the builders of Petra, and were
garden based on paradise quite prolific with masonry and sands tone
− Bedouin & Arabian influences- open court & construction.
climate adaptations, mud & grass construction, ▪ Sahn or open court is surrounded by cloisters
geometry and algebra called riwaq that allow for shade and ventilation
− Byzantine - AR character, domes, iconoclasm, form the center of the structure
minaret, arcade, portico as iwan, Damascus ▪ Water source like well or sometimes a small pool
masjid called howz, or fountain to relieve oneself from
− Sassanid - mosaic, masonry, Dome of the Rock the arid climate is always found in these central
open courts.
− Visigoths and Umayyads
▪ Algebra and Geometry became tools for
− Ottoman - gender segregation and conversion
planning & construction. Numbers and equations
of the Hagia Sofia into a masjid
of proportions, geometric shapes and parabolic
CONTRIBUTIONS: curves became the source of wall ornamentation
as Islamic beliefs adapted iconoclasm.
▪ Moslems learned the technique of making ▪ These patterns became the basis for creating
paper from the Chinese warriors they had the mashrabiyas or wooden lattice-works that
captured in the battle serve as window screen or wall dividers.
▪ Arabic numerals were taken from India and
transmitted to the Western world became the BYZANTINE
standard mathematical symbols
▪ Umayyad caliphate is the empire responsible
▪ Heritage of Classical Greece- both scientific and
for the early spread of Islam towards the
philosophical returned through translation Byzantine regions, Africa through Egypt and the
undertaken in Islamic lands
Mesopotamia where they brought down the
FOUNDING PROPHET Sassanid empire, and later in the Iberian
peninsula of Spain.
▪ The prophet Muhammad founded the religion in ▪ In the Byzantine, the first major city they
the late the 6th century in Medina. occupied is Damascus in Syria in 634 AD, and
▪ He adopts the religion of the Arabs forefather, this is where they converted the city’s early
Ishmael, first-born of Abraham/Ibrahim, of the Christian Basilica into a masjid.
near-east monotheistic belief. ▪ In Damascus, the dome of the church dedicated
▪ It is believed he was born in Mecca in 571 AD to John the Baptist gave the ideal roofing for
Mecca and died in Medina in 632 AD. masjid/prayer hall. muqarnas - intricate dome
▪ He built the very first masjid, place where both ceiling ornamentation.
prayers and teachings were held and plan ▪ The ideal dome was the dome of Hagia Sofia,
became the basis for designing future then a Christian church. The Constantinople
mosques/masjid. church was the template then for many religious
▪ Made with thatch, mud-brick walls and palm buildings including that of Islam.
trunks facing an open court called sahn. ▪ In Damascus, Islam started to adapt iconoclasm
and maintained ornamentation to the use of floral
and geometric patterns and Arabic
calligraphy. The riwaq immediately adapted the
arcaded façade.

2
SASSANID THE EAST INFLUENCE:

▪ The Sassanids were largely represented by the ▪ Chinese and Mughal architecture as Islam
Mesopotamians and the Persians. spread to Southeast Asia.
▪ The Umayyads started to claim the site where
Mohammad is said to have ascended taking DISTINCT FEATURES DEVELOPED:
advantage that the Jews where in diaspora. − form of buildings, and the decoration of surfaces
▪ The Dome of the Rock was completed in 691AD
− Islamic calligraphy
in timber/wooden construction. It needed
rebuilding and was completed in 1023 AD. − geometric and interlace patterned ornament
▪ Mesopotamian masonry was a major building − New architectural elements:
technique used by the Umayyads. − cylindrical minarets
▪ Mosaic provided ornamentation with iconoclastic − pointed arch
geometrical and floral patterns. − Muqarnas
THE MOST IMPORTANT BUILDINGS IN THE HOLY
− Arabesque
ENCLOSURE ARE: − multifoil

1. Dome of the Rock BY EIGHT CENTURY, THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS

OF A MOSQUE INCLUDE:
− The Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount –
the “Noble Sanctuary” and the third holiest ▪ mihrab – a niche in the prayer wall indicating
shrine of Islam the direction of Mecca – an arcaded courtyard
− Associated with the mystical night journey and and minarets.
ascension of the Prophet Mohammad with many ▪ Minarets – massive towers, first used for the call
biblical figure to prayer in the fourteenth century.
− Abraham, Jacob Jesus, David and Solomon
among others, accepted as prophets by Islam Mosque - part of a larger complex include:
− The shape of the sanctuary was determined by ▪ Koran school (madrasa), hospital, lodging for
the platform created by Herod the Great for the travelers (caravanserai) and baths (hammam)
Jewish Temple, destroyed by the Romans in AD ▪ Islamic architecture is also famous for massive
70. fortifications and desert places
2. Aqsa Mosque
DECORATIVE SYSTEMS
VISIGOTHS AND UMAYYADS
▪ Ornament and elaborate interior decoration are
▪ The Umayyad empire declined and its territories integral to Islamic architecture.
were mostly dominated by the Abassids. ▪ The decorative motifs consist of elaborate,
▪ Nasrid Emirate built one of the grandest of dense, intertwining, infinitely repeating
palaces of the Middle ages, the Alhambra, the vegetative, geometric and calligraphic elements.
“Red Fort”. ▪ nonfigural art - strictly nonrepresentational in
▪ Alhambra, is a palace where geometry provided mosques and other sacred places,
the best forms of ornamentation on lattice works ▪ figural representation - tolerated in a secular
and mossaic, while ideal visual proportions were context
derived simply through the use of compass and ▪ Use of horseshoe arch, adapted from a much
straight edge. simpler version common in buildings of the
▪ It had 3 palaces, the Lions Palace, the Comares Visigoth their predecessors in Spain.
Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal ▪ Muqarnas - a three-dimensional plaster
Palace. It has several courtyards and a garden decoration resembling honeycombs or stalactites
worthy to symbolize paradise as mentioned in the to embellish domes, vaults and niches
scriptures.

3
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER ▪ By the eleventh century an important decorative
element had also become established - Islamic
▪ Countries into which Islam first expanded were muquarnas and or stalactite corbel.
already rich in building tradition. Marble was ▪ Muquarnas are superimposed corbels, angled
generally available, lime and gypsum for mortars so that the quoin of the lower corbel is coincident
and plasters were usually readily procurable, with the groin of the two superimposed corbels
variety of building stones is found in areas and above.
the techniques of working them and building in
▪ calligraphy and pattern-making took the place of
masonry had been highly developed
figures
▪ Cyclopean masonry had survived from
antiquity, and Roman quarries such as those at
Baalbek still yielded massive stones.
▪ Most masonry structures of importance were in ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH ASIA
arched, vaulted or domed forms
▪ True voussoirs were used in the curved shapes, − Islam arrived in India around the 13th century.
and interlocking voussoirs guarded against − Meanwhile in the Near East, Mongols and
earthquakes. Afghans have melted into a dynastic alliance that
▪ Cements, plasters and stucco were used for created the Timurid empire. The Timurids who
bas-relief carving, and the highly decorative were Islam adapted the building techniques of the
muqarnas techniques employed in domes, vaults Seljuks (Afghan-Russian-Turks) and have
and arches. perfected techniques and design for the following:
▪ The greatest volume of building in Islamic lands − Paradise-Garden, built for masjids, palaces, or
has been achieved with earth walling. mausoleums (Seljuks where likely influenced by
▪ The architecture of Islam as a matter of arcuated the Babylonian hanging gardens of the ancient
masonry construction in which its artisans past)
achieved the highest level of finish and invention. − Tileworks evolved from mosaics and geometric
patterns
Characteristic features of Muslim architecture are
− 3-dimensional surface decoration which
the pointed arch, and the horseshoe arch
eventually gave rise to filigree-like (marble lattice
▪ The origins - pre-Muslim era in the eastern screens) called jaali.
territories of Byzantium, and to the Sassanian
THESE STRUCTURES MAY BE RESOLVED INTO
Empire.
THREE MAIN DIVISIONS, NAMELY:
▪ The pointed arch - earliest significant Muslim
monuments and carried to the western 1. The Delhi or Imperial Style (1200 to 1526 C.E):
Mediterranean by Muslim in the eighth century.
▪ (West) The horseshoe shape is round-headed, Imperial style of architecture was developed and
(East) the round arch disappeared after the ninth continued at Delhi and its surroundings for nearly four
century, when the four-centered arch evolved. centuries beginning at the close of 12th century up to the
▪ The use of cusping and of guarding colonnettes middle of 16th century, when it was succeeded by Moguls.
or nook-shafts. Cusping has a pre-Muslim 2. Architecture of Provinces (1150 to 1687 C.E):
history in church buildings in Syria in the sixth
century, but was first used regularly in decorative The second of these styles, the provincial refers to the
frets to arches in late eighth-century Iraq. building art developed in the self-contained Provinces
▪ Nook-shafts are found in Coptic and Hellenistic away from Delhi and their governors under the obeisance
Christian architecture of the fifth and sixth to Delhi Sultans.
centuries.
3. Mogul Period (1526 to 1707 C.E):
▪ The regular use in Muslim architecture is dated
to the ninth century, after which they were used In the second quarter of 16th century, Moguls raised and
widely for entrance openings of significance. brought whole of India under their control. Mogul
4
architecture was the latest and ripest form of Indo-Islamic ▪ sarais or caravancies, equivalent of the Arabian
architecture continued to flourish till 18th century. wikala.
▪ dargahs/darwasa or commemorative gateways
Religious structures - the most significant of which are in ▪ Haveli – quasar or townhouse of the affluent
this garden, promoting the Paradise theme that became a ▪ Mausoleums
focal development in Persian Islamic architecture. The ▪ Bagh – paradise garden of Persian origin
sultanate of Delhi, though originated from this city,
eventually came to build Agra, the capital of the dynasty Other styles: Deccan, based in the cities of Bidar and
that came to conquer them – the Mughals. Golkanda (14th century onwards)

Before the Mughals came, there were already distinct ▪ Followed the Lodi and Sayyid structures and
Hindu-Islamic elements in the region and these are: with strong Persian influences.
▪ Limited local influences
▪ Chhatri – Dome on post and lintel pavilion, ▪ Dynasties that contributed to the styles include:
reminiscent of the shrine structures 1. Gulbarga Phase
▪ Arcuated post & lintel – merger of local post 2. Bidar Phase
and lintel construction with arcuated Islamic 3. Golkonda Phase (Qutub Shahi Dynasty
structure.
▪ Jaali – perforated stone screen similar to filigrees PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:
▪ Haveli – mansion for the affluent sultan which GUJARAT
eventually utilized also for the town house of the
affluent (the equivalent of a quasar) ▪ Among the earliest (14th century)
▪ Zenana-the harem section of the house ▪ Two factors are responsible for the prodigious
▪ Mardana – male section of the house output of architecture in this region:
▪ Proliferated by the Ahmed Shahi dynasty as a
The need to add a finial in lotus or bell-form led to the way to prove their influence and wealth
popularity of onion/bulbous dome in the region, but of ▪ The supply of skilled indigenous workmen from
different origins than the Russian onion domes. the north.

PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:

MANDU
The famous Taj Mahal is a mausoleum dedicated by the
ruler Shah Jahan to his wife, Mumtas Mahal when she ▪ Also known as the architecture from
died young while giving birth. The plan is said to be of Mandavgad in Madhya Pradesh, an ancient city
highly formal balance (symmetrical) that a jawab (used as in western part of central India, where Afghan
guest house) mirroring the masjid needed to be built to architecture and culture have become part of the
maintain formal balance in the complex. According to local culture
historians, the recognized architect is Ustad Ahmad. ▪ Style rose from migration of afghan Muslims into
the city
Construction materials were originally timber and
masonry based. Precious stones inlays and incisions PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE ARE
were mostly using marble and granite. Stone masonry is GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS:
mostly of corbelled assembly. Chuman, or limestone
plaster, is sometimes used for ornamentation to create Bengal – Sri Lankan traditional architecture applied in
the incised 3-d traceries. temple construction. The string Buddhist and Hindu
construction styles have largely influenced the latter
Building typologies: period Indo-Islamic structures.

▪ masjids/mosque Manily built with terracotta and masonry techniques due

▪ minars (minaret), some of which were not limited to the abundance of these materials.
to mosques, can also be built to commemorate a
victory of certain rulers.

5
PROVINCIAL INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE: ▪ Surrounding cloisters
JAUNPUR ▪ Sanctuary on west. But some temples are
exceptional to this.
▪ Pylon facades ▪ In a mosque, the central court is totally open.
▪ Arches are Tudor-like ▪ But in a temple the main temple occupies the
▪ Built based on traditional trabeated pillar system, area of the court.
hence adaptation to masonry still shows timber
construction elements WALLS AND SURFACES:
▪ Pillar accentuated
▪ The temple was given the texture of stone and
the natural tint.
▪ The presentation of human figures, sculptures,
imagery are prohibited in Islam structures.
− blend of local and exotic designs (Indian, Islamic ▪ The walls of a mosque are decorated in
and Persian styles) geometrical patterns in different coloured
− the impact of Islamic ideas and techniques on marbles, plaster, stucco, paints and glazed tiles.
the established civilization of Hindu kingdoms in
India. TRABEATE AND ARCUATE:
− a synthesis between two divergent building ▪ The indigenous architecture of India was of
systems that of Hindus and Muslims. Trabeate order, in which the void spaces in the
walls were spanned by means of horizontal lintels
Type of Structures Built:
or beams.
▪ Religious structures- Mosques and Tombs ▪ Arch technique is different used by
▪ Secular structures- forts, palaces, pavilions, Mohammedan builders. An arch can be made up
town-gates and gardens. of bricks or pieces of stones.

RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES ROOFS:

COMPARISON OF HINDU AND ISLAM WORSHIPPING ▪ Roofs are mostly flat.

STRUCTURES: ▪ temples have pyramidal roofs or Sikharas.
▪ With the advent of Mohammedans, the dome
There is a great contrast in the two religions of Hindu and came into existence.
Islam in respect of worshipping structures, the temple and
the mosque. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR PRODUCTION OF
GREAT ISLAM BUILDINGS:
PLANNING AND FOCAL POINT:
1. late development
▪ The temple is an abode of the deity to which it is
consecrated and contains massive walls, long 2. due to the remarkable genius of Indian craftsmen
corridors, compartments and high
THE MOSQUE (MASJID)
embellishments.
▪ The mosque is open in its design & has no need The mosque or masjid is the worshipping place of Islams.
of a central shrine or image of deity. It is open in its design.
▪ It is enough for the devotee to turn to the
direction of Mecca. Main elements:
▪ Sanctuary is the sacred part of the mosque and
▪ Sanctuary on west side
the focal point is the Mihrab in the sanctuary.
▪ Mihrab – a sacred focal point in the Sanctuary
▪ Minbar – a pulpit in the Sanctuary
▪ Surrounding cloisters called Liwans
THE SIMILAR ELEMENTS IN AN INDIAN TEMPLE AND ▪ An open courtyard called Sahn
MOSQUE ARE:

6
SANCTUARY appearance of a mosque, a separate screen of
arches of huge size was added across the front
▪ Sanctuary is a pillared hall opening itself on east of the sanctuary.
into the courtyard. ▪ Arch became a symbol of Islam structures.
▪ The hall is used for religious congregations and
prayers called Namaz. Examples:
▪ A portion of the sanctuary is screened off into a
compartment for women (Zenana) in some 1. Qutb mosque, Delhi
mosques. 2. Arhai-din-ka Jhompra mosque, Ajmer
▪ The sanctuary has a central nave and side 3. Eg- Jama Masjid at Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at
aisles. Champaner
▪ The nave is often spacious and raised higher in 4. South India mosques were built in provinces in
roof than the aisles. Malwa, Bijapur and Deccan, the sanctuary façade
▪ Some mosques have only sanctuary and they is not separately built or added.
had no central open court and cloisters. Designs of Mosques
▪ The façade of sanctuary was monumentally built
in some mosques. − Layout of these mosques is same in all mosques
▪ There is continuous change, innovation and having sanctuary on west side and cloisters on
development in the design of pillars, arches, other sides.
mihrab, parapets, kiosks and turrets. − Entrances, façades, arches and domes are
varied in their mass and design.
MIHRAB
− Row of arches became the prominent feature.
▪ A religious structure however needs a focal − Sanctuary façades varied in designs like simple,
point. ornamental, artistic, monumental, fine and royal.
▪ To meet this, a recess or an alcove called
Feature wise examples are mentioned here:
Mihrab is placed in the center of western wall in
the nave of sanctuary indicating the Qibla or 1. Sanctuary nave is spacious and pillars less in
direction of prayer. Mihrab is a prayer niche. some mosques. Eg- Adina masjid, Pandua
Jaunpur mosques.
MINBAR
2. Classical decorated pillars are made in the nave
▪ a raised platform with steps for the preacher to making a Rotunda extended in tiers above. Eg-
deliver the sermon Jama masjid, Ahmedabad.
▪ placed to the north of Mihrab in the sanctuary. 3. Sanctuary and cloister entrances are much
elaborated, projected and highlighted. Eg-
OPEN COURTYARD AND CLOISTERS Jaunpur mosques and Jama masjid,
Ahmedabad.
▪ In front of sanctuary an open place takes place
4. Central arch of Sanctuary façade is made
without roof called Sahn. The other three sides
different by means of foliated arch. Eg- Jama
are covered by pillared cloisters called Liwans.
masjid, Bijapur.
The mosque is totally enclosed and secured. It is
5. One and only example of Mosque which has no
entered usually through three gates each on east,
open central court is- Jama masjid, Gulbarga.
south and north except on west. Main entrance
6. Worshiping hall for Royals (Chapel) and Zenana
mostly takes place on east. A water tank is placed
were added in first floor in a grand scale. Eg-
in the center of open court for ablutions.
Adina masjid, Pandua and Jaunpur mosques.
Occasionally a fountain also takes place in this
7. Royal and palace type mosques are- Jama
tank.
masjid, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and Jama masjid,
SCREEN OF ARCHES AND DOME Delhi.
8. Simple design mosques are- Jama masjid,
▪ The mosque sanctuary appeared like a temple Mandu and Bijapur.
pillared hall (Mandapa). Therefore to impose the
7
THE TOMB SECULAR STRUCTURES

▪ The custom of Hindus is to cremate the dead TIN DARWAZA, AHMEDABAD, 1425 C.E
body.
▪ Tomb is the everlasting abode for the dead. ▪ a triumphal archway in the city of Ahmedabad.
Finest Indo-Islamic architecture was developed in ▪ central feature of Ahmed shah’s processional
these structures. route, connecting the palace and the Jama
▪ The tomb building consists of a single Masjid, Ahmedabad.
compartment or a chamber known as ‘Huzrah’ or ▪ The archway is known as Tin Darwaza or triple
‘Estanah’. The cenotaph or Zarih is in the doors.
center. The whole structure is roofed over by a
WAVS OR STEP WELLS
dome.
▪ The mortuary chamber called the ‘Maqbarah’ ▪ common in the towns of western India.
takes place in the ground underneath with the ▪ the region is hot and nearer to desert, hence
grave or Qabr in the middle. public wells were built to meet people’s water
▪ Mihrab is placed in the western wall. needs
▪ A separate mosque building is added in some of ▪ The Wavs of Gujarat took the form of extensive
the larger mausoleums, the whole being subterranean galleries of a high architectural
contained within an enclosure called ‘Rauza’. value.
▪ Important tombs are designated as ‘Dargahs’ a
Persian word signifying a court or palace.

Designs of Tombs:

▪ Tomb building designs vary from one to other

and that of Sultans mainly Tughlaqs, Sayyids and
Lodis are either Square or Octagonal in plans
built at Delhi.
▪ Square tombs are taller and Octagonal tombs
are wider in general. These structures had
battering walls, sphere head fringes in arches,
merlon parapets, central dome and kiosks.
▪ Designs of Mogul tombs are large, spacious,
fine, rich and monumental in appearance
consisting of surrounding garden, enclosure walls
and gateways.
▪ They are square in plan having chamfered
corners. Domes, kiosks and slender turrets sky-
lined on these tomb structures. Fine Ashlar
masonry and close inlaid patterns are seen in
Mogul tomb structures.

Examples:

1. Earlier tomb – Tomb of Shams-ud-din Altumush,

Delhi
2. Beautiful tomb – Taj Mahal, Agra
3. Large tomb – Golgumbaz, Bijapur
4. Fine and Variety tomb – Itmad ud Daula, Agra
5. Later tomb – Mausoleum of Safdar Jung, Delhi

8
 − Then third kingdom was the period where
Hinduism and the Ashoka Empire spread east-
most to Myanmar and west-most to eastern
From Indus to Hindu Persia.
- The Indus Valley civilization began in 2500 BC − 263 BC, Ashoka the Great converted to
dwindled into non-urbanized fragmented Indic Buddhism, which turned his vast territory to
settlements by 1500 BC. Buddhist societies
- 500 BC, Indian settlements (mixture of Indus and
Aryans from Russia & Persia) began to converge THE ASHOKA KINGDOM AND THE RISE OF
into population areas, considered the Indian BUDDHISM AND SOUTH ASIAN ECCLESIASTICAL
Kingdoms Period, fueled by 3 indigenous religion, ARCHITECTURE
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
- Lasted for about 1700 years. − The Mauryan/Ashoka period is known for the
development of Buddhist architecture.
VEDIC PERIOD AND NANDA PERIOD
− South Asian Buddhist architecture are the
− Hinduism started during the Vedic Age together monasteries of vihara, chaitya or the prayer hall
with the Sanskrit and the epic Mahabrata prior to and the stupa or the repository of a Buddha relic.
the 2nd Urbanism of south Asian people. − Chaitya became integrated with the stupa.
− By 500 AD, population growth around Ganges − The stupa being a relic repository is essentially
River fueled urban lifestyles centered on a burial mound (which at first contained the ashes
Hinduism. of a Buddhist priest), similar to tumulus and
− It paved way to a system of government, initially Aegean tholos of the Mediterranean. It
headed by priests, nobilities & warriors, skilled symbolizes the ascend to the enlightened state of
workers and farmers, and unskilled workers. a former human being (or Nirvana in Hinduism)
− Nanda Kingdom - first Indian kingdom period − A stupa contains the sarcophagus where the
− Gupta Kingdom - around the time of the enlightened monk is buried. Relics vaults were
Hellenistic period in Europe and Near East. added. As it evolved the sarcophagus vanished
and mostly the relic vault remained.
− Hinduism is anchored on the following beliefs:
• Reincarnation and souls are reborn in a In southeast Asia, the stupa evolved to integrate the 5
newly created human or animal life. elements of nature, thus the 5-storey version.
• Karma: Every action brings about
Vihara is the term used to denote the Buddhist
certain results. There is no escaping the
monastery, the place where monks reside and study the
consequences of one’s actions
teachings of Gautama/Siddhartha Buddha, and recite the
• Dharma: A set of rules that must be sutras (prayers). The Vihara originally has the chaitya.
followed by all living things if they wish to
work their way up the ladder of Chaitya is the sacred and main prayer hall were originally
reincarnation. done in India with:
• Ahimsa: Supports the idea of being in
harmony with nature. Seeing all life as • semi-circular (apsidial) roof
sacred – a part of a “oneness”. Results in • a small rectangular door-way which opens to a
the life principle of non-violence vaulted hall, with likewise apsidal end and divided
• Caste system – Brahma (priest on top, longitudinally by two colonnades forming a broad
and slaves at the bottom. nave in the center and two side aisles.

9
JAINISM AND JAIN SHRINE/TEMPLES central India. Of the 3, the Dravidian became the
most wide-spread.
− Before temple buildings for Buddhist worship
happened in South Asia, the 3 major religion NAGARA SHRINES
that emerged from the region co-existed by
having small outdoor shrines cut-out from caves, − Nagara architecture came earlier than
or when detached were made of stone and Dravidian architecture. It originated from
timber, sometimes covered with thatch. northern India during the early Gupta Kingdom
(6th-10th century AD).
− Stone building technologies in the region started
with Jain buildings. These buildings were − It derived spaces from the older Buddhist
centered on a shrine covered with a corbelled architecture, where in the most sacred part or the
dome or spire (on corbeled vault) and with a sanctuary is represented by a mound.
pillared porch. The plan is octagonal within a − The main parts of the temple are the gopuram
square, smaller, lighter yet more detailed in (gateway), mandapa (porches), chawadi (hall)
ornamentation than latter evolved Buddhist and garbha-griha or sanctuary, typically with
temple. statuary niches.
− The corbelled ceiling has a central pendant − Among its notable traits of Nagara temples are:
accent. • Sikhara (or base/platform of the lotus bud
− Persian/Aryan descent of the early Vedans, Jain (amalaka), sometimes signifying the
temples integrated columns based on Persian mythical mount Meru) is often more
construction influences. prominent than the vimana
− With the corbelled vault of brackets in octagonal • Garbahgriha is elevated (as in Dravidian
layout, the Buddhist based the vaulting of their and Chalukyan style) and capped with
stupa. The pillared portico is the basis of the vimana, below a sikhara.
cloisters (concentric square) plan later developed • Mandapa (cloister halls) is also integrated
in Buddhist temples. with spires or towers, with fewer pillars
− Vedic period up to the Ashoka period, Hindu • Sanctuary crown depicting a chariot or
structures were mostly Brahmanical shrines vimana is often single storey hence not
(priest-centered shrines), which were built always prominent
outdoors and mostly with local materials, with • Plans are predominantly square (similar to
timber, thatch, or stones, if these were in the base of a stupa)
abundance in the area. • Gopuram is not prominent
− After the fall of the Ashoka Kingdom and • A sacred pool is mostly integrated
Hinduism came to flourish to follow the form and • More than 1 entrance/gopuram is possible
massiveness of latter Ashoka period Viharas
• Spires are lotus-bud like & circular in plan
(Buddhist monasteries).
mostly on the sanctuary.
− Hindu temples were ornate with double-headed,
eagles, elephants, divinities, human figures, etc. DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE “KOIL” (TEMPLES)

RISE OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE – Dravidian, Tamil architecture, or architecture of the

THE GUPTA KINGDOM southern style, is characterized by intricate imagery of
the Hindu doctrine Bragavad Gita and Mahabrata. This
− After the Mauryan/Ashoka period came the Chola developed in southern India where stone, stone-masons
dynasty, Chera and Pandyan empires and sculptors abound. Nagaran influences, if any, may
(3rd century AD) in a period called the Gupta have come from the Kalinga architecture.
kingdom.
− 3 types of architecture evolve from the above KALINGA ARCHITECTURE
period, the Nagara of the north and Dravidian
The Kalinga region is on the north eastern part of India,
of the south, and lastly the Chalukyan of
where the Nagara style flourished. However, due to the
10
region’s latter adaptations of Hinduism, it differs slightly − Timber and thatch where the most common
from the Nagara architecture and slightly adapted the materials with occasional stone structure primarily
latter Tamil type of sikhara (the stone mound roof of the for rock-cut-out shrines and small temples.
shrine or garbagriha) called Rekha-deula, by having a − The shrine typologies of the period which then
pyramidal form, slightly curving at top with the amalaka gave rise to the architectural characteristics of
(lotus top). Buddhist and Hindu architecture. The stupa found
its origins in the apsidial proto-valabhi and amalaka
− The Sun Temple (1200s BCE) at Konark, an
roofed shrines and a combination of influences
example of Kalinga architecture, was built to glorify
from other shrine roof types, while hindu
‘surya’ the sun god at Konark.
architecture is influenced by most of these roof
− The temple shrine (garbagriha) is capped with a types, particularly the Nagara style.
sikhara (stone roof/cap) formed like a ‘ratha’ or
− These shrine roofs then became a sort of classical
wheeled chariot.
order for south Asian religious structures.
− The temple is depicted to be resting on a large
platform with twelve giant wheels. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
− Like most Hindu temples, the shrine building is
elevated and occupies the highest floor level in the − Buddhist often has its torana at the south of the
complex. complex. Oftentimes, the road that leads to a
Buddhist temple (generally a north-south oriented
CHALUKYAN SHRINES/TEMPLES road) becomes a basis for the natural growth of the
place into a town as pilgrims flock the area for
− A third architecture evolved during the Chalukya worship which then necessitates that shops and inn
dynasty in the central part of India (6th-12th c. be built along this road.
AD.). It is likewise developed form a rock-cut-out
− Buddhist temple complexes always required
structures
gateways to mark the entry of the holy place,
− Badami was the capital of this dynasty. It was gateways were not necessary in early Nagara
protected by a fort wall surrounded by a Temples, but became quite prominent in Dravidian
moat. There were other water features in the city style temples.
to hold sporting water events for the royal
− The garbhagriha or the naos of the Hindu temple
families.
always has its entrance facing the east, and thus
− Badami was a religious center eith the goddess the gopuram takes east most side of the
Banashankari as the main deity. complex. Secondary gateways may likewise be
− Chalukyan architecture combined certain placed facing other cardinal directions as Hindu
features of the Nagara and Dravidia to generate complexes tend to maintain rectangular
a new set of architectural characteristics. It is development.
generally characterized by high platform/loggia,
ornate door frames, plinth moulding, and the ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
presence of vestibule for the Chawadis or halls.
− While Buddhist temple complexes always required
− Cave or rock cut-out structure
gateways to mark the entry of the holy place,
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS gateways were not necessary in early Nagara
Temples, but became quite prominent in Dravidian
− The early Vedic and Nanda periods gave the style temples. The garbhagriha or the naos of the
foundation for the development of both Buddhist Hindu temple always has its entrance porch
and Hindu architecture in South Asia, where the (mandapa) facing the east, and thus the main
Jain religious structure was the first to evolve from gopuram takes east most side of the complex.
the SHRINE typology. Its early temple was like the − Nagaran style traces its roots to the Kuta, Valabhi
small Roman temples but it with own characteristic and Phamnsana shrine roofs. When integrated,
aedicula based on the shrine roofing of the period, these shrine tops form the Latina shrine roof which
and with a portico. then characterized the Nagara style. This
11
 development happened around the 10th century, in (ex.barrel vaulted Buddhist temple at Karla & Elora
the north and northwestern India and parts of caves), but eventually turned to have a central
Pakistan. sanctuary (stupa) arrangement. The stupa plan itself
− Shikahara became the most prominent structure becomes more like a compounded square and
in Nagara temples, capped with egg-shaped or eventually turned circular in certain regions (ex.: stupa
disk-shape amalaka. On rare occasions, instead of at Sanchi). The Buddhist adapted the octagonal
the amalaka, a bell spire form the top of the ceiling and came to relegate octagonal elements and
Shikhara. The Shikhara symbolizes a mountain circular elements for the divine.
and sometimes textured stepped-like horizontal − The Hindu temple plan took a “blossoming” evolution
bands called buhmi. where wings were first added and appendages
“sprouted” from corners in between these
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS appendages.
− The Dravidian garbhagriha dome/spire/mound cap
is based on the kuta and the shala. The style evolved
to have a more prominent vimana, and is generally
with a gate or more, with the main gate facing
towards the east.
− The integration of a reflection pond between the
BURMESE ARCHITECTURE
gateway and the shrine (and sometimes before the
entering the complex) then became another Hindu • Stupa
temple plan tradition. • massive brick construction of domical external
− Dravidian temples tend to have longer mandapa form,
than the Nagara. The gopuram is built higher than • built upon a plinth of three or five diminishing
the vimana. If the vimana symbolizes a chariot, the terraces;
gopuram is more representational of mount Meru, a
• Temple is usually square in plan
mythical mountain told in the Sanskrit and
Mahabrata. • brick walls enclosing narrow vaulted corridors
embracing a solid masonry core, which had
− Because of its prominent Vimana, which symbolizes
centrally-placed niches on each side to
a chariot or palace, ornamentation with figures and
accommodate statues of Buddha;
shalas (pediment symbolizing the mouth of a
mythical creature) become a common • walls are decorated with frescoes or sculptured
ornamentation. These shalas continue the mini bas-reliefs
shrine/aedicula theme that characterize walls of • central core rose in a series of receding storeys,
palaces. and was crowned with a tapering shikhara-shaped
− With the Dravidian chariot theme, the ratha (wheel) finial.
is symbolized by the piers of the walls or the plinth of Both kinds of religious buildings were also referred to as
the structure. pagodas (paya).
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
• The monasteries (kyaung) and ordination halls
− Northern and southern styles evolved in a bud-growth (thein) from monks were derived from wood
like transformation, with the early Jain temple as an prototypes, and libraries (pitakat-taik), housing
inspiration, a portico-ed structure which emerged in the sacred Buddhist texts, resembled the simpler
the late Vedic and Nanda periods. temple designs.
− Nanda period temples are simply enlarged shrines • Pagan period – there are 5000 stupas and
that became available for access and movement of temples within the boundaries of the capital. Post-
Brahmas/priests to attend to prayers and rituals. Pagan era Burma declined architecturally, as well
as politically.
− From Jain temple plan, the Buddhist temple evolved
to have an apsidial end based on the Valabhi ceiling
12
 • Chinese influence contributed to the • The lake provided for the need of
emergence of the ‘Pagoda” style, which community, its final purpose being to irrigate
characterized the architecture of the 17th to the the paddy fields.
19thcenturies.
TRANSITIONAL CLASSICAL KHMER
• Typical of the Burmese feeling for rich and
PERIOD (10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES)
intricate artistry
Evolution of temple mountain continued in Baksei
CAMBODIA
Chamkrong, Angkor (c.911), the first to be built up in stone
− The earliest recorded capital of Cambodia (c. (laterite) in pyramidal terraces from flat ground, and Koh
fifth century AD) was Vyadhapura) (Angkor Borei) Ker(921), 64 km (40 miles) north-east of Angkor,
on the lower reaches of Mekong River, 200 km constructed on an artificial lake by damming a stream, the
(120 miles) from the sea and the port Oc Eo. normal east-west axis of the city altered to align with it
− It was an agglomeration of wooden houses on • Ta Keo (completed c.1010 where classical five
piles, connected by little canals, linked to a large terraces and five colossal towers were
waterway capable of taking sea-going ships. introduced, and still another in the Baphuon
− Later Funanese and early Khmer architectural (c.1050)), in which the style and scale of the
development (7th and 8th centuries) was centered temple mountains became formalized.
upon Sambor Prei Kuk
− Wooden buildings gave way to more substantial THE CLASSICAL KHMER PERIOD ( 12TH AND EARLY
brick and stone imitations of timber prototypes, 13TH CENTURIES)
which show a mixture of Indian forms
was dominated by two majestic architectural
EARLY CLASSICAL KHMER PERIOD achievements:

Three important architectural events indicating the • Angkor Wat, the temple city of Suryavarman II
transitional stage between the pre-Angkor and early (1113-50)
Angkor styles. • Angkor Thom, the remodelled capital of
Jayavarman VII (1180-1218)
1. Creation of a city and temple mountain in 800
AD on the hill of Phnom Kulen ,near Angkor and • Stone was used like a wood, and stone walls
the lake of Tonle -Sap. were often reinforced with concealed timber
2. Building of another capital (893) on the hill and beams.
round the temple mountain of Phnom Bakeng, • The corbelled vaulting was never modified and
close to Phnom Kulen, terraced into the hill as a permitted only the spanning of small space
five-levelled pyramid, with isolated towers on the • No mortar was used
topmost tier and smaller towers of the lower
• Everywhere sculptural ornaments breaks
levels.
through the architectural lines particularly at
• walled rectangle
Angkor Thom.
• temple and the central intersection of the
principal avenues radiating towards gate PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
in the four sides of the moated enclosure,
• main gate facing east A traditional Borneo long house plan
3. Construction at Roulus,Angkor, of the archetypal
Khmer urban irrigation system. An immense • Socialization and working areas are the ruai and
artificial lake, ‘Barai’ Lolei about 3 km (2 miles) tempuan
long and 800 m ( half a mile) wide was formed by • Private areas are the are the bilik, dapor and
earthen dykes to store water from the Stung toilet and bath (recent addition).
Roluos River flowing into a network of moats and
waterways.
• In larger rumah a meliga (maiden’s quarters)
and panggau (bachelors’ quarter) mezzanines
may be present
13
 • The veranda side of the ruai is called tanju, over- Leimyyethna Paya Temple
looking the rice fields.

MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES (MYANMAR)

− While early religion in the region were mostly

animists with outdoor shrines and rituals,
Buddhism introduced the idea of prayer halls,
sacred monument (stupa) and monastery (school
to study the doctrine).
− With Myanmar/Burma, the period of monumental
structures started with the Pyu period. Where
cylindrical stuppas (called chedi) with 4 archways
started to appear, centered to the ancient city of
Beikthano. The Leimyyethna Paya temple located in Pyu is another
− Most Pyu structures (mostly in ruins now) are brick masonry Buddhist (praying hall) temple, with a
studied to have similar architectural square plan and a central pillar supporting the tower
characteristics as the Andrah Buddhist above(now mostly only the ruins remain) which may be
architecture of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in construed as a stupa. The temple, surrounded by moat,
southern India. is believed to be constructed around 600AD.

Bawbawgyi Paya stupa Pagan Kingdom

• The rise of the Pagan kingdom during the

• Bawbawgyi Paya stupa is among the best 9th century marked the golden age of Buddhist
preserved from the period, estimated to be monumental structure construction.
constructed between the 6th and the 7th • Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism took turns
centuries. It is 46m in height and with about 24m in reigning over the period between the 9th and
high vault inside. Conservationists believe this 13th century, when most of the monumental
brick masonry structure was once covered with structures were built. Tantric Buddhism and
stucco. Hinduism where minor religions during the period.
• Located near Pyay, south of Beikthano.
• Approximately 1000 stupas, 10,000 temples and
3,000 monasteries were built during the reign of
the Pagan kingdom.
• The Bagan architecture is influential to the
development of the architecture of the Siam
kingdom (Thailand) which came centuries later,
centered on Ayutthaya.

14
Dhammayangyi Temple • After the period of decline caused by the Mongol
attacks in the 13th century, Burmese monarchy
briefly rose again in 1510 with the Toungoo
kingdom, while annexing Laos and the Siamese
Ayuthaya kingdom. Earliest buddhist structures
restored under this kingdom is the Shwemawdaw
Pagoda in Bago, Myanmar (15th century).
• Konbaung dynasty(1752-1885) new Buddhist
monumental structures started to be built
(Hsinbyume Pagoda, completed around 1807 in
Mingyu, Myanmar)

CAMBODIA/KHMER

The most prominent of the numerous temples is the − The Toungo empire was supported by 2
Dhammayangyi Temple, built around 1165 during the significant bodies of fresh-water, Mekong River
reign of Bagan king Narathu. It is believed to have not and Tonle-sap lake, which makes it very fertile
been completely finished due to the untimely death of the and rich.
ruler. − During the succeeding Chenlan period centered
on Sambor Prei Kuk where circular temples were
Shwezigon temple built colonades capped with capitals of
Indochinese characteristics.
− Khmer kingdom started to flourish around 700
AD, under a Hindu ruler and was a significant city
by 802 AD under, Jayavarman II.
− Angkor was the center of civilization where most
large structures are of religious nature and made
of bricks, hardened clay stone (laterite) and/or
sandstone.

MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES (CAMBODIA/KHMER)

Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple was built in a combination of

• The stupa at Shwezigon temple, built in the
a temple mountain and galleried type of temple, in a
11th century, is significant in the sense that it set the
manner like the stone-cut temples of India. This originally
standard for letter-built stupas in Myanmar.
Hindu temple has the following spaces:
• Ananda Pahto temple is one of Bagan’s earliest
temples, completed around 1105. • Central sanctuary
Shwemawdaw Pagoda • Prang/tower above sanctuary
• Enclosure and enclosure galleries
• Gopura/gate
• Library (separate building)
• moat and reflection pond

15
Banteay Kdei HISTORY

LICCHAVI DYNASTY

• ruled between the 5th and 7th centuries

• no buildings remain but there are many surviving
sculptures.

SHAH DYNASTY

• 1786 onwards, Nepal entered its ‘modern era

• 1816, the Shah kingdom ruled and the country's
architecture was heavily influenced by the Newar
style. During the Shah reign, various temples,
Another prominent Hindu galleried temple in Angkor is fountains and other important buildings were
the Banteay Kdei, completed around the 13th century but constructed.
with very little-known background.
RANA DYNASTY
The Ta Keo temple
• 1846 to 1951 the Rana dynasty ruled, which saw
both art and architecture of Nepal become heavily
influenced by popular architectural trends in
Europe

20TH CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

• Between the end of the Rana dynasty and the

restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepal’s
architecture became significantly more modern
• dhunge dhara is a traditional stone drinking
fountain, intricately carved stone waterway
through which water flows uninterrupted from
A classic example of a temple mountain is the Ta Keo underground sources.
temple depicting Mount Meru (a sacred Indian mountain), • pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with
built around 975 by Jayavarman V. An enclosure gallery multiple eaves
likewise surrounded the temple.
• stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure
containing relics that is used as a place
of meditation
• trade routes of India, Tibet and China, Nepali • chaitya, chaitya hall, refers to a shrine,
architecture reflects influences from these sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in Indian
cultural strongholds. religions.
• The pagoda architectural tradition • tutedhara (Nepali) or jahru (Newari) is a
• Buddhist temples reflect the Tibetan traditional drinking fountain found in Nepal. It is a
tradition of Buddhist architecture water reservoir built out of stone with a tap that
• Stupa features prominently can be opened and closed.
• Mugal, summit and dome styles • Palaces
• Influence for Nepal's architecture comes from • Monasteries
India • temple - building reserved for spiritual rituals
and activities such as prayer and sacrifice.
16
RESIDENTIAL HOUSES • Durbar square at Patan, Durbar square at
Bhaktapur.
• Newar houses - three or four stories and faced
outwards to either the street or a courtyard Kathmandu - "Land of Gods" and as "land of the largest
• Sherpa houses -elongated shape, have two congregations of magnificent historical monuments and
stories, a rigid roof and most have the ground shrines ever built”
floor built into the hill or slope behind it
MATERIALS AND LAYOUT
• traditional housing is architecturally designed to
cope Nepal’s hot, dry summers and cold winter • temples of Nepal are made of brick, stone or
wood and despite some stylistic differences, most
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE temples follow a similar architectural layout or
predominantly Hindu places of worship, feature a pagoda pattern.
roof, common features include pillars with animals, • temples consist of either a single roof structure or
humans and important deities depicted on them as well one with multiple tiers, statues of the gods and
as carved wooden struts to support the structure. goddesses reside known as Mandir
• Please see the recorded lecture in Panopto.
SHIKHARA TEMPLE STYLE

• Krishna Mandir, Patan Durbar Square, Lalitpur,

Establishment of Chinese and Central Asian Buddhism
Nepal.
• This construction involves between five and nine • 6th century CE, Mahayana Buddhism had made
layers that meet at the peak of the building to its way into China and Korea, and from there
represent “the crown of Himalayas”. crossed into Japan.
• The Han emperor built a monastery for them
THE NEWAR PAGODA STYLE TEMPLE
called the Baima-si (or the White Horse
• These temples have between one and five Monastery).
layers of roofs and are dedicated either to • Buddhism, however, was only one among many
Buddhism or Hinduism competitive intellectual traditions prevalent in
China at the time
STUPAS • In 400 CE, Buddhism was supported by the
Northern Dynasties (386–581 CE). In the
• Ashoka Stupa Chaitya, Lalitpur district.
Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE), Confucianism
• Stupas are similar to temples with characteristic was still dominant
dome-like structures that contain significant, often
religious relics. The most common elements of Chinese Architecture
stupas in Nepal are the pedestal that the stupa
stands on, the mound of the actual structure and Ancient Chinese architecture and styles are rich and
the spire on top varied. Building typologies were numerous even in early
iron age, such as temples, imperial palaces, altars,
KATHMANDU (NEPAL) pavilions, official residencies and folk houses, which
greatly reflect Chinese ancient thought - the harmonious
The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has unity of human beings with nature.
been categorized under the well known seven groups of
heritage monuments and buildings. PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS TO SHANG DYNASTY

Five monuments in Kathmandu: Shang Dynasty : Erlitu in Henan province was the
earliest settlement in this dynasty, where a metal smelter
• Durbar square of Hanuman Dhoka, of bronze was unearthed. Shangcheng and An-yang
• Hindu temples of Pashupatinath were the latter period cities where residences were built
and Changunarayan, in rows of wooden houses with rammed earth on walls,
• Buddha stupas of Swayambu and Boudhanath; and
17
while on the central part of the city a palace or temple on • Chinese philosophy saw its emergence in the
earthen mound was built. period, with Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti, Lao-Tzu
(codified Taoism), and Sun-Tzu as the leading
Early settlement in China emerged more than 4 thousand
thinkers. Taoism remained a major doctrine.
years ago, very likely by ancient migrants from Tibet, and
• Among the notable excavations from the period
later on, by migrants from India via Southeast Asia. These
was the tomb of Duke Jing of Qi (547-490 BCE),
include the settlement where earthen wares abound in
who was buried together with about 600 horses
prehistoric middens. China is known to be among the
and chariots to accompany him to the after-life.
earliest to use calligraphy, and integrate glazing in their
• Zhou period established a system of coin-based
pottery and this opened opportunities for pottery trading
currency and iron tools eventually became
with neighboring regions.
common.
PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS
QIN DYNASTY
Prehistoric period to Shang period houses include thatch
• The architectural development seemed to have
roofed pith houses.
mainly undergone refinement in timber
• development of timber frame structures on construction method in the periods following the
rammed earth platform. Zhou dynasty (Springs and Fall period), while
• timber posts stand on flagstone base and fortified structures became the dominant type of
support a system of bracketing that carry a gable development during the Period of Warring
roof with bamboo tiles and imbrication. States.
• Geomancy was a common practice and • A palace at Xinyang (Hsienyang Palace)
developed into the widely practiced Feng Shui. became the center of the government. This was
• Building orientation, space planning, fenestration similarly built on a rammed earth base/platform
orientation are still affected up to the present by with timber structural elements.
feng-shui.
HAN DYNASTY
• Feng shui prescribes access on the south with
preference for north-south major axis orientation. The Han dynasty succeeded the Quin dynasty and this
led back to Zhou dynasty type of social structure. By this
Feng-shui was later adapted to east Asian Buddhist, time, beam-in-tiers or the tai-liang method from the north
temple layout, in the 3-Kingdom period, when a and the column-and-tie-beam or the chuan-dou method
temple is necessarily placed with a north-south axis from the south were the dominant construction methods.
with mountain on the north, a river on the east, a great
road (highway) on the west and a pond and/or open The Han dynasty succeeded the Quin dynasty and this
area on the south. led back to Zhou dynasty type of social structure. By this
time, beam-in-tiers or the tai-liang method from the north
ZHOU/CHOU DYNASTY and the column-and-tie-beam or the chuan-dou method
• The succeeding Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) from the south were the dominant construction
had very distinct palace-like structures made methods. Confucian philosophy ang feng-shui beliefs
mostly of timber but with stone masonry continue to be used as guidelines for construction.
base/plinth, the ruins of which remains today. The Siheyuan plan is a Confucian residence with
• With the Zhou palaces artifacts came the courtyard layout where in feng-shui is applied.
understanding that the period had well-stratified
social structure composed of royalties,
intellectuals, warriors, artisans, peasants and
• Feng-shui, an ancient geomancy practice is
slaves. The construction method used in the
seen as among the most influential on building
period provided the prototype of the timber
and design of the ancient Chinese doctrines
bracket system China is well known for, the dou-
gong (dou=cap, gong =block).

18
 • Building orientation, space planning, fenestration • The main building of the Daminggong Palace
orientation are still significantly affected up to the built with 188 posts, and the Sakayumi pagoda
present by feng-shui in Chinese architecture. which is 67m in height are the architectural
• Feng shui prescribes access on the south with highlight of the period.
preference for north-south major axis orientation. • The architectural development in the Song
• Feng-shui was later adapted to east Asian dynasty peaked with the use of color and
Buddhist temple layout, when a temple is exquisite ornamentation as seen from the original
necessarily placed with a north-south axis with Shaolin temple and monastery.
mountain on the north, a river on the east, a great
MING AND QING DYNASTIES
road (highway) on the west and a pond and/or
open area on the south. By the 14th century, refined version of earlier Buddhist,
3-KINGDOM PERIOD palace halls, pavilions and garden were seen in may parts
of the region, showing the following distinct
• More distinct local architectural characters characteristics:
developed in the 3-Kingdom period (220-581
CE), and this was mainly due to the advent of • Unity or structure with architectural art: This
Buddhism coming from the Tibetan includes having decorative pillars, dog and lion
regions. Indian and Persian influences were statuary at the entrance, paintings on wall
introduced from the west. canvass, garden with water feature, bridge and
stone lanterns and the like.
• The evolution of the mound-based stupa to the
octagonal pagoda happened from the 3-Kingdom • Anti seismic function: timber construction is
period to the emergence of southern and northern generally preferred over stone, the Chinese
dynasties. The adaptation of timber roofing and octagonal pagoda uses timber mainly for roofs,
that symbolizes the chattras but earlier timber versions included timber
or umbrella/canopy/crown were then turned into frameworks. Timber posts are not imbedded in a
wooden framed octagonal roofs in multi-tier. foundation but are simply standing on flagstones.
• Buddhist temples are made highly symmetrical • High degree standardization: A bay between 2
in China and accessed mostly from a south to timber posts is called jian generally follow a
north road, with the paifang/pailou at the standard distance. The tai-liang, chuandou and
south(unlike in India where numerous access at the combined framework provide construction
cardinal directions were possible). standard. The cai or the vertical part of the dou-
gong was used as a unit of measure; or the fanga
• A Chinese chaitya or miao is the main temple
piece of wood with height:width ration of
prayer hall of the whole temple complex. Often
3:2. Other standards are describe in a guideline
painted with red and black combination, it was
for building called Yingshao Fazi from the Song
originally made with timber but eventually built
Dynasty.
with masonry materials for posterity purposes.
• Bright color palette for buildings: Paint is used
• Pavilions or ting are integrated (from Taoism
to prevent weathering and insect infestation of
practices) and generally used as garden sheds,
wood. Palace and temple walls, pillars, doors &
found in temple gardens as ornamental and
windows are often painted. Roofs were often
resting structures.
painted yellow, while cool colors (blue and green)
TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES are for the eaves.
• Systematic grouping and formal arrangement of
• The architectural characteristics developed from buildings: the central courtyard approach allow
the previous periods, together with the new for all doors and windows in a residential complex
architectural characteristics brought by Buddhism to face an open private space. On the other
were brought to refinement in the Tang and Song hand, larger complex grounds have buildings in
dynasties, together with related building axial or multi-axial arrangement. Significant
construction systems. structure: Forbidden City, a palace temple

19
 complex built around 1420-1924, during the • Liao dynasty the octagonal plan was preferred
Quing dynasty. Plan was highly rectangular and and the eaves were no longer parabola-shaped.
formal, particularly in symmetry. The Pagoda of Tianning (Haven of Peace) temple
in Beijing is of this kind and is built to imitate
OTHER ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
timber-framed building style.
• A traditional Chinese roofing material is the • The storeyed pagoda. The Chinese storeyed
bamboo which are assembled as imbrexes. This building combined the pagoda form with that of
became the inspiration for the molded ceramic the Indian stupa. The earliest existing storeyed
version. Roof structure is called wu-ding and pagodas were built in the Tang dynasty and were
come in a variety of gable, hip and hip-gable square in plan (an example is the Greater Wild
combination of assemblies. Goose Pagoda in Xi’an) but the more popular
• The South Asian stupa, chaitya and vihara then form, from the tenth to thirteenth centuries, is
found its own adaptation in China, and further octagonal.
evolved in other east Asian regions. • Temple of Kaiyuan in Quanzhou built between
• Buddhist temples are highly symmetrical and 1241 and 1252, resembled earlier wood-framed
access mostly from a south to north road. pagodas. Kaiyuan Temple Pagoda, which is 82 m
• Structures introduced with Buddhism include the (269 ft) high, in Dingxian county, Hebei province,
pagoda, temple and monastery. have less decoration.
• A pagoda is the east Asian version of the stupa, • Some brick pagodas have an outer wooden
typically contains a relic of a holy person believed gallery. Example is the The Bao’en Temple
to have reached Nirvana. It is essentially a Pagoda in Suzhou, built in 1131-1162. The brick
monument not entered into by the public, pagoda has various structural forms.
• There were two types of Buddhist temple: the • Vase-shaped pagodas evolved directly from
first combined a tall, symbolic feature (a stupa or stupas; they were first built in the late Tang
pagoda) with a temple-hall; the second and later dynasty, but became popular only after the Yuan
type consisted of buildings arranged around dynasty in the temples of Lamaism. The White
courtyards. Pagoda in the Temple of Miaoying (Divine
• The earliest examples of the first type were Retribution) in Beijing was built in 1271 with the
temples with stupas which had been introduced guidance of a Nepalese craftsman. It is 56 m (184
from India at the time of the Eastern Han dynasty ft) high. These pagodas were usually built in
(first century). groups, sometimes five or more in a line or
arranged symmetrically around a major building.
• The stupas, which usually stood in the center of
The surface of the pagodas are faced in glazed
the group of temple buildings, were said to
brickwork.
contain Buddha’s remains and were objects of
homage for his disciples. • Groups of Pagodas honoring Buddha’s warrior
attendants, popular in the Ming and Qing periods,
• By the time of the Northern Wei dynasty, temple-
were built in imitation of the Buddha Gaya relic-
halls were combined with pagodas. This kind of
house complex in India. Five pagodas were
temple was built from the fourth to sixth centuries
usually placed along the diagonals of a square
and later was passed to Japan through Korea.
terrace decorated with carved statues. Each was
• Pagodas with closely layered eaves, of which
a closely-layered eaves pagoda and pyramidal in
the earliest remaining example is the oldest
shape, for example the Zin Gang Bao Zuo
pagoda of the Songyue Temple built in 520 at
Pagoda in the Zheng-jue Temple, Beijing.
Mount Songshan, in Henan province. Externally it
• Single-storey pagodas were built as tombs for
is twelve-sided, but its interior is octagonal.
monks and nuns. They may be square,
• Tang dynasty, the caves pagoda became very
octagonal, circular or hexagonal. They are often
popular and a square plan shape was evolved.
found in groups or lines adjacent to temples.
The Lesser Wild Goose Pagoda at Xi’an in Shanxi
province is an example of the square pagoda.

20
 • There are collections of pagodas at the Shaolin • Grottoes carved on natural cliffs are large and
Temple, Henan province, and at the Lingyan without decoration; they belong to the first stage.
Temple, Shandong province. • The appearance and clothing of the giant
• Wooden tower pagodas were built from the Buddhas reveal the influence of India and Central
third century onwards, but the Shija Pagoda in Asia.
the Buddhist Palace Temple, Shanxi province, • The second stage is distinguished by square
built in c.1056, is the only surviving building of this caves with central columns. Niches for statues of
kind in China. the Buddha were carved on some of the central
• It is 67 m (221 ft) in height, and 26 m (86 ft) in columns, while others were shaped into Buddhist
diameter at its base. Between each of the five pagodas.
outside storeys there is a hidden interior storey. • The grottoes at this time had many designs
taken from India, Persia and Greece, for example
PALACES AND VILLAS
flamboyant lions, twin-headed beasts back to
Significant structure: Forbidden City, a palace temple back and Ionic capitals.
complex built around 1420-1924, built during the Ming
and Qing dynasty. Plan was highly rectangular and
formal, particularly in symmetry.

SHRINES JOMON PERIOD (14TH CENTURY TO 4TH CENTURY

BC)
• Shrines were used in ancient China for making
sacrifices to ancestors and famous historical • Pre-Buddhism Japan is divided into the Jomon,
personages, as well as to the gods. The most Yayoi and Gofun periods.
famous is the group of buildings known as • Jomon period (from 14th century to 4th century
Tiantan Shrine in the southern district of Beijing. BC) is characterized by the presence of pit
It extends over an area of 280 ha (690 acres) and dwellings, Thatched covered depression on
was built for emperors of the Ming and Qing ground with earthen floors.
dynasties. • During this period, most settlements were of
• The buildings of the Huanquitan also include the hunter gatherers, believed to have migrated from
Huangqiongyu (Imperial Vault of Heaven), which the mainland, hence the strong similarities of
houses a sacred tablet. The Huanquitan itself is a structures with the pit houses of Korea.
three-tiered circular, marble terrace, the • With limited predator species in the archipelago,
uppermost tier of which is 26 m (86 ft) and the
rarely were these settlements were fortified.
lowest tier 55 m (180 ft) in diameter.
• The period after Jomon is the Yayoi period,
GROTTOES which happened between 300 BC to 300
AD. During this time, it was believed that there
• The Buddhist grottoes were introduced to China came migrants from southeast Asia who brought
from India. They are shrines carved into cliff faces stilted structures to Japan. Interestingly, these
and inside the caves. The earliest in China are structures on stilts are found to have been first
the Mingshashan Grottoes in Dunhuang, Gansu built as storage for the emerging widespread rice
province, and the Hesser Grottoes in Xinjiang, cultivation.
also cut in the fourth century.
• Among the best-known grottoes are the Mogao YAYOI PERIOD (3RD CENTURY BC TO 3RD CENTURY
Grottoes in Dunhuang, Gansu province, the AD)
Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi province,
and the Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Henan
• The Yayoi period the development of large
tracks of land cultivated to produce rice. Rice
province.
cultivation might have started earlier but the
• The rock caves of the Yungang Grottoes cut
period brought in larger population dedicated to
during the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534)
rice cultivation, combined with animist beliefs
21
 mainly focused towards rice-cultivation related (Buddhist temple complex) construction in the
deities, that gave way to Shintoism. archipelago.
• During the Yayoi period, it was believed that
there came migrants from southeast Asia who
brought stilted structures to Japan. Interestingly, The short Gofun/Kofun period came between the 3rd
these structures on stilts are found to have been century to 538AD, prior to the arrival of Buddhism. This
first built as storage for the then emerging is the period where the Naikū and Gekū sites of the Ise
widespread rice cultivation. shrine were built (3rd to 5th century AD), in the
• The stilted structures of the Yayoi period were refined architecture that evolved from the preceding
eventually adopted as residences, aside from its Yayoi period, called shinmei-zukuri. the most prominent
granary function. The interiors were mostly character of which are the stilted shrines containing the
blackened with sooth to prevent decay of the mirror, comb and sword. Entrance to a Shinto shrine was
wood and grass materials used. then marked by a gateway called torii.
• The Yayoi period likewise saw the wider
acceptance of Shintoism, a religion in which the • The ‘torii’ is the entrance gate of a shrine precint,
main deities are highly associated with elements and consists primarily of two pillars and two
of nature, particularly those related to rice horizontal beams. Both of the pillars are usually
cultivation. embedded directly in the earth.
• Shimmei torii are the simplest form, and the
YAYOI PERIOD (3RD CENTURY BC TO 3RDCENTURY Myojin torii has double lintels curved to resemble
AD) the eaves of temple architecture.

• During this period, small shrines (mikoshi) on

stilts started to be erected. These shrines are
highly regarded as ephemeral structures and SHINTO ARCHITECTURE
were rebuilt periodically(i.e. every 20 years) in the
The Shinto shrine called honden evolved into a variety of
very same feature as the original ones.
forms in subsequent Shinto shrine structures, some of
• During the Yayoi period, Shinto rites were held which were later merged with the Chinese temple
outdoors in demarcated holy sites. Ise, in Mie form. Mikoshi (small portable shrines) of ancient
prefecture was designated as a Holy site since architectural characteristic or with Chinese Buddhism
around 4 AD. influences are still used for a variety of religious festivals.
KOFUN/GOFUN PERIOD (3RD CENTURY AC TO 538
• Shinto shrines are never entered into except
AD)
during holy ceremonies, and only by the
The Kofun/gofun period is actually named after the burial designated priest.
mounds for the Japanese nobilities of the 3rd-6th century • In order to realize the periodical replacement of
AD. These mounds were often in key-hole shapes and these shrines, there is a designated holy forest
sometimes artificially made. wherein the timber production is mainly for the
shrine repair or replication. This tradition is
These mounds for the nobilities are called kofun, from among the reasons for the forest preservation
which the period is named. Those entombed in these culture of the Japanese up to the present.
mounds are often buried with their sword, mirror and other
personal belongings similar to the artifacts of the gods, The Shinto. gateway is the torii, which is a more ancient
that are housed in Shinto shrines. architectural element.

Buddhism was introduced to Japan by the Paekche In a Shinto shrine, before one goes to front of the honden
Kingdom in 538 AD when emissaries brought scrolls od for prayer, they must first wash their hands, then mouth,
Buddhist doctrine to the then emperor of Japan This in a structure called temizu-ya or chozu-ya. In a Buddhist
gesture maks the start of timber pagoda and dera temple, these pavilions are not present. However, up to
the late 19th century, Shinto shrines and Buddhist
22
temples were allowed to co-exist (because the Japanese structures against earthquakes. Temple
practice both religions simultaneously), thus in many construction from the Tang dynasty were
Buddhist temples, the temizu-ya can still be found like in modified to suit the earthquake prone geology of
the Kyomizu-dera Japan. The dougong system was immediately
adopted as this appears to be suitable for
structures under frequent tectonic
The first remarkable architectural feature of the Ise Shrine movement. The dougong is called tou-kyou or
is a storehouse with an elevated floor. masugumi by Japanese carpenters.
• The center of development was in Nara, and
At Ise, all the shrine buildings have columns embedded in later in Kyoto, the seats of the imperial power
the earth instead of being set on stone bases as was the during the period.
general practice elsewhere. • Cremation which was by then the popular
The traditional method of handing down the form of Buddhist internment mode brought a stop to the
shrines, known as shikinen-sengu (the transfer to new creation of kofuns.
shrines in certain ceremonial years), was established. It • While the emperor and the imperial family
became customary to rebuild all shrine buildings every remained largely as Shinto figure-heads,
twenty years: a pair of adjacent sites of the same shape Buddhism was widely practiced alongside
and size was required for each set of shrines. Shintoism, Taoism and Chinese Geomancy.
• The seat of the emperor moved to Kyoto in 794,
A number of mausolea are also regarded as shrines. The which then shifted the building of Buddhists
first of these is the Kitano Shrine, built in the Gongen style structures and palaces towards this area.
in Kyoto.
• By this time the pagoda has reached peak-form
The Tokugawa Shogunate followed the same custom, and its structural design, mainly done with timber,
and built a number of mausolea-shrines. enabled it to be earthquake ready. Builders, by
late Heian period, were already integrating a
The Izumo Shrine. The present building is a smaller pendulum-like central structural component
version rebuilt in 1744, 24 m (80 ft) in height from the called shin-bashira to act as earthquake tremor
ground to the top of the forked finials. It is 10.9 m (36 ft) damper. Initially, the shin-bashira was a column
square in plan and each side is divided into two bays. The embedded into the plinth at the center of the
gabled roof, covered with cypress bark, has a slight curve, wooden pagoda. But later Heian versions copied
two separate forked finials at each end, and three ridge the Chinese column’s roller base which allows
billets. for the movement of this column during
earthquakes, movement that counteracts the
NARA PERIOD (710-794AD) AND HEIAN (794-1195)
swaying of the outer shell of the pagoda.
PERIODS
• A Japanese religious complexes like most
• Narra and Heian periods are considered as the citadels are entered into through a gateway,
imperial classical periods of Japan. Chinese entered from the south in Japan sometimes in a
writing medicine, silk and tea cultivation became series of gateways, called the romon. For
widely accepted together with Buddhism. Buddhist complexes, romons can come in a
• The significant development for these periods variety of styles, like the karamon which has a
were the construction of Buddhists temples or serf-curved gateway canopy (roof), somon, the
dera/tera, pagodas and monasteries. The sideways-gable roofed gateway and earliest of
temples of the Tang dynasty were painstakingly styles and the very grand type called sanmon.
copied using local construction/carpentry • The Japanese buddhist complex is called dera,
methods. Initially, Japanese carpenters tried to the main/largest building is called kondo which
copy the iron nail joinery of the Chinese temples contains the moya, the shrine hall (for prayers)
but reverted back to the use of wooden pegs as surrounded by a hallway called hisashi.
purely wood joinery assures better resilience of

23
 • Buddhist temples also often have a pond, a bell said to the similar in structure as Korea’s 3-
tower/platform, and incense urn. Kingdom timber buildings.
• In Japanese architecture the term hisashi has • In the ancient period, the layout of Buddhist
two meanings: monasteries was strictly prescribed.
• indicates the eaves of a roof - the part • The kondo and pagoda at Horyuji, the world’s
along the edge of a roof projecting beyond oldest extant wooden buildings, were constructed
the side of the building to provide after the original Horyuji temple was destroyed by
protection against the weather. fire in 670. The present kondo, 9 bays long and 7
bays wide, 18.5 x 15.2 m (61 ft x 50 ft) including
• indicate the area surrounding
mokoshi completed by 693
the moya (the core of a building) either
completely or on one, two, or three sides. • cloud-shaped bracket complexes (kumo-tokyo)
support the eaves
• Open corridors or verandas under
• characteristic of these buildings is a marked
extended or additional roofs are also
entasis on the pillars
sometimes referred to as hisashi. In
temples constructed in the hip-and-gable • The storehouse is an important early
building type and the most famous example
style (irimoya-zukuri), the gabled part
is the Shosos’in at Todaiji, Nara, which
usually covers the moya while the hipped
houses the collection of treasures left by the
part covers the hisashi.
Emperor Shomu.
• Kyoto fast became an urban center in this
• The building is 108.4 m x 30.5 m (356 ft x
period, with its establishment as the capital, and
100 ft) raised high above the ground on stout
seat of the Imperial power.
pouts and divided into three parts. The two
• Daimyos have had their shinden zukuri, a house end sections are constructed in the ‘azekura’
in the midst of a large garden, symmetrical in style of logs, notched and fitted together in
layout, and with rooms were connected with long such a way that their ends cross each other
hallways. It allowed residents to enjoy seasonal and project beyond the corners.
events and the beauty of nature.
• Kyoto machiya (townhouses) or kyo-machiya, on KAMAKURA (1185-1333), ASHIKAGA (1336-1573)
the other hand, were built in blocks as people AND MUROMACHI (1392-1573) SAMURAI PERIODS
flock to Kyoto for government-related
These periods started off the feudal system in Japan
transactions, and to establish commercial
where the samurai class ruled and the emperor became
enterprise. These were mostly owned by
simply a symbolic figure-head.
merchants, with shops at one end. A property
dimension is approximately 8m x 39.5m and often Similar to Europe, the period ushered in the castle
referred to as “the bedroom for eels.” During architecture development, which served as the
these times taxes were greater for longer street headquarters of the regional daimyo (chief samurai) and
frontage of dwellings or shops. his army.
• Zenkoji Temple in Nagano was built in the
7th century, which then resulted to the The feudalism brought the stratification of the society
development of the town/city of Nagano. It is built wherein merchants and entertainers were at the bottom,
with the Korean timber temple construction just above the morticians. Second to the samurai were
influences, showing the characteristic upward hip the farmers, but they were heavily taxed in order to
ridges. support the armament requirements of the samurais.

EARLY NARA (HAKUHO) PERIODS (552-710) Zen Buddhism was also spreading which was the
samurai’s preferred branch of Buddhism, were the
• The Horyuji temple and the pagoda are spartan life of monks are emulated. Out of Zen Buddhism
considered the oldest surviving timber structures came the Bushido philosophy, which brought philosophy
in the world, approximately 1300 years old, are to the art of warfare among the samurai class.

24
Architecture likewise took a spartan form and became with moldings known as 'kurigata'. Use of a
more integrated with natural environment. In these unique bracket complex known as 'sashihijiki'
periods, governance swung back and forth between (bracket arms inserted into the shaft of a pillar).
samurai clan heads (daimyos) and the imperial court.
ZEN/ ZENSHŪYŌ'S STYLE.
The Ashikaga family period brought the center of the
samurai governance back to Kyoto, in its Muromachi The Zen style (Karayo) favored by the Zen sects was the
district. But this did not happen until the Kamakura bakufu other important new style introduced at the very beginning
ended and then emperor Go Daigo was able to restore of the thirteenth century. It is one of the three most
power to the Imperial court. However, not all samurai significant styles developed by Japanese Buddhism on
clans were satisfied with succeeding actions off the the basis of Chinese models
imperial court and thus a new samurai clan rose to ensure
• Its characteristics are decorative pent roofs
that the samurai class remains in power and leadership,
(mokoshi) and pronouncedly curved main roofs,
and this was the Ashikaga clan.
cusped windows (katōmado), earthen floors and
The Ashikaga period, now practicing the doctrines of paneled doors. Wood structures are relatively
Bushido, together with the popularity of Zen Buddhism light, design light and orderly. All buildings are
brought new outlooks and approaches in constructing erected on stone podia and have either stone or
buildings, whether for religious purpose, or for earthen floors.
residences. This time, the influences from China have
SEN NO RIKYU
mostly disappeared. Buildings of the period ditched the
formal planning adopted from China, and instead were Sen no Rikyu is a tea ceremony master who hosted
organically integrated into the setting/environment. Gyon, imperial court people and daimyos (samurai warlords)
a district in Kyoto for Geisha’s was provided additional alike for philosophical discussions during tea-
architectural characters for the period. This period is ceremonies. He promoted the concept of wabi–sabi, a
where tea ceremonies evolved giving birth to the traditional Japanese view of beauty, in which something
tokonoma alcove for ikebana. natural and ephemeral is valued as beautiful and precious
for its brief existence. The Wabi-cha, a new tea ceremony
Kinkaku-ji is a temple pavilion (honden) that serves as a
style called for the most natural of landscaping, the use of
classical example of the style of the period. This is a
natural elements in the tea
former villa of one of the Muromachi rulers.
The room the wabi-cha is deliberately made humble
compared to elaborate tea ceremonies of earlier periods,
KAMAKURA PERIOD (1185 – 1333) in Japan or China. The design uses mainly natural light
into the interior, and a major use of the space is to gaze
• The Wayo style. The standard style and method towards garden and contemplate about life and nature.
of temple building up to the end of the Heian
EDO PERIOD (1600-1863)
period came to be called Wayo or ‘Japanese’
style, after the beginning of the Medieval Age. Edo or Tokugawa Period (1600-1863) was the period of
Temples were usually established on a true unification of Japan when again a singular shogun
mountainside or hilltop near a village. Scenic (governing over daimyos and samurais of all region)
views and natural surroundings were important; headed the country as an independent state.
rocks or waterfalls within the temple grounds
were often sanctified. This period also saw the closure of Japan from any
foreigners except for the Dutch, who were allowed to land
DAIBUTSU/DAUBUTSU-YO STYLE and stay in Nagasaki only. The architecture, therefor,
evolved more homegrown characteristics, free from
• Architecturally it utilizes horizontal wooden
foreign influences.
beams known as penetrating tie beams which are
combined with pillars to reinforce the structure
The ends of penetrating tie beams are decorated
25
These include: In Tokyo and the larger cities new, Western style
concrete, stone and brick buildings and bridges were built.
RYOKANS AND MINSHUKUS These were often designed by foreign architects and the
Architectural typologies that emerged included the inns or most famous include The Bank of Japan, Ginza
ryokans and minshuku to cater to traveling samurai Bricktown, The Asakusa Twelve Storeys, Tokyo Central
families, as ordered by the shogun. Nakesendo and Station and the infamous Rokumeikan. Gas lighting came
Tokaido inns to the Ginza in 1874 and electricity in 1878.

YOSHIWARA

This district for hiring courtesans in Tokyo provided a new

type of building function (essentially a red-light district) BUDDHISM’S ARRIVAL IN KOREA AND JAPAN
Minka or Traditional houses in Japan were able to 6th century, with the gradual unification of the clans of
develop more of its complex features based on tradition Silla under King Beopheung (514–40 CE), Silla became a
due to the relative peaceful period under the Tokugawa full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as its state religion.
reign.
One of the first Buddhist temples was the Hwangnyongsa
Traditional Japanese houses vary, but a typical plan Temple (553–644 CE). Hwangnyongsa, which means
contains 3 major spaces: “Golden (or Imperial) Dragon Temple,” located near the
Doma: work space where the kitchen and bathroom are royal palace, on a plain surrounded by mountains. The
also located. It is floor is generally covered in earth or whole was enclosed and framed by a rectangular
stone flagstones. The yoku or furo (bath is often with a perimeter wall. An immense 80-meter-high, nine-story,
wooden tub made of hinoki) The toilet is of squat type and wooden pagoda stood right in front of the entrance.
in a separate room. Behind it were three halls.

Hiroma is where the hearth is and is used for From Korea, Buddhism crossed into Japan during the
gatherings. The irori when used to heat the house also reign of the emperor Kimmei (509–71 CE). Along with
provides the sooth that preserves the timber used for the their teachings, the Koreans brought with them their
house. The house is mosthly made of timber and thus the architecture, which defined the early period of Japanese
preservative effect of the smoke from the hearth is Buddhist architecture.
essential. PREHISTORIC PERIOD KOREA
Zashiki is mainly used for sleeping, but also for The period of written history started in Korea between the
ceremonies (tea, prayers, etc). 1st century BCE and 7th century AD, a time when tribal
MEIJI PERIOD (1863-1945) kingdoms emerged, initially with Koguryu people, then
followed by the Pakeche and the Shilla tribes.
This period saw the adaptation of European architecture
in Japan when the country needed to catch up with Pit houses with thatch roofs and timber support emerged
western technology and sent scientists and scholars to as early as 3,000 BCE, found mostly in aggregation of
Europe to study locomotion and other technologies small settlements. Later, log settlements emerged, with
brought by the west’s industrial development. Modern raised floors and heated by ondol heating system, a
Japan started in this period. network of horizontal flues under the floor, to keep the
floors heated from a furnace integrated below the
The Meiji Jingu shrine(1915) is a Shinto complex elevated floor.
dedicated to Emperor Meiji who died in 1912. Because it
was built at the heart of Tokyo, and Shinto shrines are Dolmens were also found in the regions believed to have
often built to be surrounded by nature, either by a forest been built prior to 1st century BCE are believed to have
or sea, a forest then had to be created to surround it in the been built for burial purposes.

ARCHITECTURE & HOUSING IN THE MEIJI PERIOD

26
3-KINGDOMS PERIOD KOREA (57BC-668AD) • Around the middle part of the Koguryu period,
Buddhist wooden pagodas and temples were
When the 3-Kingdoms emerged, these were already
believed to have been built (no ruins remain) in
under much influence of the Chinese geomancy, Taoism
Chinese architecture. These structures were
and Confucian ideas as the ancient Koreans were
originally larger, like Chinese scale by made
migrants from China and Mongolia. The earliest of the 3
smaller in latter periods due to limited timber.
kingdoms was the Koguryu kingdom. This occupied the
largest section of the region and even extends to parts of • Houses in the Koguryu and another 3-Kingdom
present-day Manchuria. period included the original pit, the log house and
elevated house.
No wooden structures, like palaces, survived from the • The shift to stone pagoda for posterity reasons
Koguryu period due to the latter invasion of foreign happened in this period.
powers and eventual conflict with supporters of • Buildings during the Koguryo Kingdom (57 BC-
Confucianism. 668) may be envisaged from the murals depicting
Buddhism came directly from India around this fortress walls in the Samshilch’ong,
period. This brought in the construction of Buddhist Yodongsongch’ong and Yaksuri tombs and in
temples. Early pagoda was built mainly to reflect the houses in the Sang-yongch’ong, Anak No.1 and
canopy of the structure and were built several tiers T’onggu No. 12 tombs.
high. Stupas were separately built to serve as burial • Painted pillars and beams in the murals at the
structures of Buddhist monks. corners of the burial chambers of Muyongch’ong,
Kwigapch’ong and Anak No. 1 tombs
The second kingdom to emerge was the Paekche • Koguryo structures had round pillars with
kingdom which occupied the south-western tip of the entasis, supporting simply executed brackets.
Korean peninsula and is believed to be closely related by Short struts with bearing blocks or inverted V-
blood to the Koguryu people of the north. Only 2 pagodas shaped trusses were fitted on beams and purlins
from the Paekche period survived, from the Miruksa to sustain the framework of hipped or gabled
temple of 7th century and the Chongnimsa temple (6th- roofs.
7th century). • Most of the houses depicted in the murals have
The Shilla kingdom was the last to emerge in the 3- tiled roofs. Probably the architecture of Koguryo
Kingdom period and was the kingdom that united all was influenced by that of the later Han (25-219)
three. Prior to the unification, The Shilla people built the and of the Northern Wei (386-534) dynasties of
Chomsongdae observatory and the Pungwangsa temple, China.
the pagoda of which still survives today. UNIFIED SHILLA PERIOD (668-935AD)
The timber structures of the 3-kingdom period are
• The Shillla kingdom unified Korea, upon
believed to be similar to that of Horyuji Temple in Japan
conquering the Koguryus and the Paekches in
as the Buddhist influence to Japan has traveled through
the late 7th century AD.
Korea from China.
• A 12th century written account of the Shilla and
KOREAN ARCHITECTURE the earlier 3-Kingdom period showed that houses
in the Unified Shilla period had tiled roofs, with
• The earliest settlements of Korea with “public” end tiles at the eaves and with bird’s tail
buildings evolved around the Koguryu period, ornamentation at the ridge, while ends of the hip
Paekche period and the Silla period known as the ridges have grotesque mask ornamentation (like
3 Kingdoms, founded around 37 AD and lasted gargoyles of the gothic architecture. Eaves were
up to 668AD. said to be double tiered supported by dou-gong
• In this period, large palace-like structures with brackets on top of pillars. Timber structures were
clay roof tiles stamped with lotus or demon mask mostly colored and covered with gold and silver
designs, are believed to have been built with only ornaments.
the ruins of foundations remain today.
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 • The remaining stone structures from the Unified period. In this period, Buddhism continued to flourish and
Shilla period are its stone pagodas. These spread.
pagodas were mostly 3-tiered, and earlier
Significant timber structures from this period are mostly
versions are said to be based on the Miruksa
preserved which includes Kungnak chon or the Nirvana
pagoda of the previous period, such as the
Hall of Pong Jongsa Temple in Andong, a hall built in the
pagoda of the Komunsa temple in Wonsong.
style of earlier periods.
• Sokkat’ap, is another Unified Shilla period
pagoda of the Pulguksa temple in Kyongju. This A new style emerged in the Koryu period which came from
pagoda is supported on a square pedestal with south of China. His style includes the use of curved
pillars carved on it. Each of its storey is a brackets and is the highlight of the Muryanagsujon in
separate stone. Pusoksa Temple.
• Sokuram, an 8th century grotto is another
Thereafter, brackets above girder became a trend in the
significant building from the period.
14th century Koryu period. The brackets later became
• The Shilla kingdom got help from the Tang more complex and heavier than those of its Chinese
dynasty to assume power over the Pakeche and origin. An example of this is found in the Pongwanjon of
Koguryu kingdoms. With the help of China, Korea Shimwomsa.
came a period of rapid building construction
which allowed for refinement of its Chinese- The 3-storey pagoda construction from the Unified Shilla
influenced architecture. period was continued under the Koryu period. A
• The Unified Silla period is a period where significant example is the 3-tiered pagoda in the
imperial and Buddhist structures were given Yonggoksa temple in Kurye.
significant local adaptations. Gyeongju, the
UNIFIED KORYU/GORYEO PERIOD (918-1392 AD)
capital of this period, was estimated to have 35
OTHER EVENTS:
palaces, districts with streets and about 179
thousand houses. This period saw very limited construction due to the
• The Unified Shilla period had stupas, aside from prevalence of Mongol invasion. Most buildings of the
pagodas. The term, in Korean context, is used to period were wooded, and none survived after ages of
denote the not so vertical, burial chamber, like decay.
stone lanterns. Most stupas in Korea (like China)
are octagonal in shape. Lions, apsaras (celestial Among the landmarks of the period were the burial
goddesses) and Buddhist guardian kings mounds of King Kongmin, and his mongol wife known as
decorate the stupa. the Hyonjongrung Royal Tomb built in the 14th century,
during a brief Mongol annexation period.
• The roof of a stupa is, even though it is made of
stone, is patterned after timber structures of The period brought the Song dynasty influence on Korean
Chinese origins. An example from the period is pagoda, which then were mostly build in octagonal
the stupa of the Sshangbongsa Temple at (sacred shape for the divine) or rounded plan. Painting of
Hwasun, for the Zen monk Ch’olgam. wooded structures also became part of building
• The Shilla period ended due to internal preservation technology.
squabble, and the descendants of the old
Koguryu period started to wield influence, which Stone lanterns were likewise made popular during this
later became known as the Koryu kingdom. period, with form adaptations from the stupa, but in
rectangular or hexagogal plan, whereas the stupa takes a
• The Koryu period officially started in 918 AD,
circular or octagonal plan.
from which the name Korea is derived.

UNIFIED KORYU/GORYEO PERIOD (918-1392 AD) • Chinese influence from the Song and Liao
dynasties (960-1279) is evident in polygonal
The Koryu period continued to rule under a unified Korea, pagodas such as that at Kumsansa Temple in
as how it was established during the Unified Shilla Kimche, Chollabuk-do, which is hexagonal, and
in the octagonal, nine-storey pagoda of
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 Wolchongsa Temple in P’yong-ch’ang, Kang- • The Nandaemun and Tongdaemun gateways to
wond-do. The ten-storey pagoda of the city of Seoul characterize the development
Kyongch’onsa, which is now in Seoul, is a done in the city to imprint the mark of the Yi
meticulously sculptured stone replica of a dynasty of the Choson period.
wooden structure and shows a strong Yuan
(1271-1368) influence. Religious structures of the period include the Sakyamuni
• The predominant type of stupa was octagonal, halls (taeungjon) of Pongjongsa temple in Andong, and
but bell-shaped stupas began to appear towards the Kaeshimsa Temple in Sosan. These structures were
the end of the period, rich sculptural mostly built in timber with the following significant
embellishment appeared on the body of structures:
octagonal stupas, and the size of the roofstone
• Bracket (dougong) on column
was reduced. The stupa that enshrines the
• Bracket (dougong) on beam or girder
remains of High Priest Chongjin in Pongamsa
Temple, Mun-gyong, Kyongsangbuk-do, is one of • Wing-like bracket (dougong)
this type. A stupa on the site of Kodalsa Temple The period latter Choson period ushered in the
in Yoju, Kyonggi-do, is noted for the bold carving hyanggyo (local schools) construction in Seoul and
of a dragon and tortoise motif on its pedestal. numerous provincial cities. In these institutions, sons of
• Two unique stupas are the lamp-shaped stupa the royalties were trained prepared for civil service
of Royal Preceptor Hongbop at Pulguksa Temple careers in an atmosphere of Confucian learning.
and the palanquin-like stupa of Royal Preceptor
Chigwang at Popch’onsa Temple. The body of The period also brought painting Donggwoldo, depicting
the former is topped with a roof stone shaped like a landscaped city with extensive grounds and home to the
a lotus leaf, and the latter is covered with Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung palaces, which
elaborate carvings. was then used to restore Buyongjeong pavilion of the real
Changdeokgung palace.
CHOSON/JOSEON PERIOD (1392-1910 AD)
Shirhak, or schools for practical learning managed by
• The latter Koryu period was turbulent one and scholars dedicated to promoting social welfare also
the kingdom was weakened by the clashes marked the latter part of Choson period.
between followers of Confucianism and
Buddhism. The Mongols succeeded in annexing Western influences came around the late 17th century,
Korea in 1260 AD. Then attacks from Japan which brought into the region industrial and neo-classic
aggravated the situation. architectural styles.
• The attacks of these invaders resulted in the HONGSALMUN
destruction of many ancient structures from the
earlier kingdoms. - A gate for entering a sacred place in Korea. It is arranged
• In 1392, a Korean warrior, Yi Song Gye and his by two round poles and two horizontal lines.
army were able to push out the Mongols and
Japanese attackers. This started the Choson
period, with Hanyany (Seoul) as the seat of
power. The court of Choson was allied with the
Confucian philosophers and this brought further
destruction and neglect to many Buddhist
structures. Despite the decline of Buddhism in
Korea, the Choson period is said to be
instrumental in bringing the golden age of Korea.
• Kyong-bokkung, Ch’anggyonggung,
Ch’angdokkung and Toksugung palaces are
classic examples of Choson period architecture.

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