Eurocentrism

Eurocentrism (also Eurocentricity or

Western-centrism)[1] is a worldview
that is centered on Western
civilization or a biased view that
favors it over non-Western
civilizations. The exact scope of
Eurocentrism varies from the entire
Western world to just the continent
of Europe or even more narrowly, to
Western Europe (especially during
the Cold War). When the term is
applied historically, it may be used
in reference to an apologetic stance
toward European colonialism and
other forms of imperialism.[2]

A map of the Eastern Hemisphere from Adams

Synchronological Chart or Map of History. "The
bright colors denote those countries that are the
Subjects of history, previous to the discovery of
America".

The term "Eurocentrism" dates back

to the late 1970s but it did not
become prevalent until the 1990s,
when it was frequently applied in the
context of decolonisation and
development and humanitarian aid
that industrialised countries offered
to developing countries. The term
has since been used to critique
Western narratives of progress,
Western scholars who have
downplayed and ignored non-
Western contributions, and to
contrast Western epistemologies
with Indigenous ways of
knowing.[3][4][5]
Terminology

Eurocentrism as the term for an

ideology was coined by Samir Amin in
the 1970s

The adjective Eurocentric, or Europe-

centric, has been in use in various
contexts since at least the 1920s.[6]
The term was popularised (in
French as européocentrique) in the
context of decolonisation and
internationalism in the mid-20th
century.[7] English usage of
Eurocentric as an ideological term in
identity politics was current by the
mid-1980s.[8]

The abstract noun Eurocentrism

(French eurocentrisme, earlier
europocentrisme) as the term for an
ideology was coined in the 1970s by
the Egyptian Marxian economist
Samir Amin, then director of the
African Institute for Economic
Development and Planning of the
United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa.[9] Amin used
the term in the context of a global,
core-periphery or dependency
model of capitalist development.
English usage of Eurocentrism is
recorded by 1979.[10]

The coinage of Western-centrism is

younger, attested in the late 1990s,
and specific to English.[11]

History
According to historian Enrique
Dussel, Eurocentrism has its roots
in Hellenocentrism.[12]

European exceptionalism

During the European colonial era,

encyclopaedias often sought to give
a rationale for the predominance of
European rule during the colonial
period by referring to a special
position taken by Europe compared
to the other continents.

Thus Johann Heinrich Zedler, in

1741, wrote that "even though
Europe is the smallest of the world's
four continents, it has for various
reasons a position that places it
before all others.... Its inhabitants
have excellent customs, they are
courteous and erudite in both
sciences and crafts".[13]
The Brockhaus Enzyklopädie
(Conversations-Lexicon) of 1847 still
expressed an ostensibly Eurocentric
approach and claimed about Europe
that "its geographical situation and
its cultural and political significance
is clearly the most important of the
five continents, over which it has
gained a most influential
government both in material and
even more so in cultural aspects".[14]

European exceptionalism thus grew

out of the Great Divergence of the
Early Modern period, due to the
combined effects of the Scientific
Revolution, the Commercial
Revolution, and the rise of colonial
empires, the Industrial Revolution
and a Second European
colonisation wave.

European exceptionalism is widely

reflected in popular genres of
literature, especially in literature for
young adults (for example, Rudyard
Kipling's 1901 novel Kim) and in
adventure-literature in general.
Portrayal of European colonialism in
such literature has been analysed in
terms of Eurocentrism in retrospect,
such as presenting idealised and
often exaggeratedly masculine
Western heroes, who conquered
"savage" peoples in the remaining
"dark spaces" of the globe.[15]

The European miracle, a term

coined by Eric Jones in 1981,[16]
refers to the surprising rise of
Europe during the Early Modern
period. During the 15th to 18th
centuries, a great divergence took
place, comprising the European
Renaissance, the European age of
discovery, the formation of
European colonial empires, the Age
of Reason, and the associated leap
forward in technology and the
development of capitalism and early
industrialisation. As a result, by the
19th century European powers
dominated world trade and world
politics.

In Lectures on the Philosophy of

History, published in 1837, Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw world
history as starting in Asia but
shifting to Greece and Italy, and then
north of the Alps to France,
Germany and England.[17][18] Hegel
interpreted India and China as
stationary countries, lacking inner
momentum. Hegel's China replaced
the real historical development with
a fixed, stable scenario, which made
it the outsider of world history. Both
India and China were waiting and
anticipating a combination of
certain factors from outside until
they could acquire real progress in
human civilisation.[19] Hegel's ideas
had a profound impact on western
historiography and attitudes. Some
scholars disagree with his ideas
that the Oriental countries were
outside of world history.[20]
Max Weber (1864-1920) suggested
that capitalism is the speciality of
Europe, because Oriental countries
such as India and China do not
contain the factors which would
enable them to develop capitalism
in a sufficient manner.[21] Weber
wrote and published many treatises
in which he emphasized the
distinctiveness of Europe. In The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism (1905), he wrote that the
"rational" capitalism, manifested by
its enterprises and mechanisms,
only appeared in the Protestant
western countries, and a series of
generalised and universal cultural
phenomena only appear in the west.[22]

Even the state, with a written

constitution and a government
organised by trained administrators
and constrained by rational law, only
appears in the West, even though
other regimes can also comprise
states.[23] ("Rationality" is a multi-
layered term whose connotations
are developed and escalated as with
the social progress. Weber regarded
rationality as a proprietary article for
western capitalist society.)
Recent usage

Journalists detected Eurocentrism

in reactions to Russia's invasion of
Ukraine in February 2022, when the
depth and scope of coverage and
concern contrasted with (for
example) that devoted to longer-
running, bloodier and more vicious
contemporary wars outside Europe
such as those in Syria and in
Yemen.[24]
Anticolonialism

Even in the 19th century,

anticolonial movements had
developed claims about national
traditions and values that were set
against those of Europe in Africa
and India. In some cases, as China,
where local ideology was even more
exclusionist than the Eurocentric
one, Westernisation did not
overwhelm longstanding Chinese
attitudes to its own cultural
centrality.[25]
Orientalism developed in the late
18th century as a disproportionate
Western interest in and idealisation
of Eastern (i.e. Asian) cultures.

By the early 20th century, some

historians, such as Arnold J.
Toynbee, were attempting to
construct multifocal models of
world civilisations. Toynbee also
drew attention in Europe to non-
European historians, such as the
medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn
Khaldun. He also established links
with Asian thinkers, such as through
his dialogues with Daisaku Ikeda of
Soka Gakkai International.[26]

The explicit concept of

Eurocentrism is a product of the
period of decolonisation in the
1960s to 1970s. Its original context
is the core-periphery or dependency
model of capitalist development of
Marxian economics.

Debate since 1990s

Eurocentrism has been a

particularly important concept in
development studies.[27] Brohman
(1995) argued that Eurocentrism
"perpetuated intellectual
dependence on a restricted group of
prestigious Western academic
institutions that determine the
subject matter and methods of
research".[27]

In treatises on historical or
contemporary Eurocentrism that
appeared since the 1990s,
Eurocentrism is mostly cast in
terms of dualisms such as
civilised/barbaric or
advanced/backward,
developed/undeveloped,
core/periphery, implying
"evolutionary schemas through
which societies inevitably progress",
with a remnant of an "underlying
presumption of a superior white
Western self as referent of analysis"
(640).[28] Eurocentrism and the
dualistic properties that it labels on
non-European countries, cultures
and persons have often been
criticised in the political discourse
of the 1990s and 2000s, particularly
in the greater context of political
correctness, race in the United
States and affirmative action.[29][30]
In the 1990s, there was a trend of
criticising various geographic terms
current in the English language as
Eurocentric, such as the traditional
division of Eurasia into Europe and
Asia[31] or the term Middle East.[32]

Eric Sheppard, in 2005, argued that

contemporary Marxism itself has
Eurocentric traits (in spite of
"Eurocentrism" originating in the
vocabulary of Marxian economics),
because it supposes that the third
world must go through a stage of
capitalism before "progressive
social formations can be
envisioned".[3]

Andre Gunder Frank harshly

criticised Eurocentrism. He believed
that most scholars were the
disciples of the social sciences and
history guided by Eurocentrism.[4]
He criticised some Western
scholars for their ideas that non-
Western areas lack outstanding
contributions in history, economy,
ideology, politics and culture
compared with the West.[33] These
scholars believed that the same
contribution made by the West gives
Westerners an advantage of endo-
genetic momentum which is pushed
towards the rest of the world, but
Frank believed that the Oriental
countries also contributed to the
human civilisation in their own
perspectives.

Arnold Toynbee in his A Study of

History, gave a critical remark on
Eurocentrism. He believed that
although western capitalism
shrouded the world and achieved a
political unity based on its economy,
the Western countries cannot
"westernize" other countries.[34]
Toynbee concluded that
Eurocentrism is characteristic of
three misconceptions manifested
by self-centerment, the fixed
development of Oriental countries
and linear progress.[35]

There has been some debate on

whether historical Eurocentrism
qualifies as "just another
ethnocentrism", as it is found in
most of the world's cultures,
especially in cultures with imperial
aspirations, as in the Sinocentrism
in China; in the Empire of Japan (c.
1868–1945), or during the American
Century. James M. Blaut (2000)
argued that Eurocentrism indeed
went beyond other ethnocentrisms,
as the scale of European colonial
expansion was historically
unprecedented and resulted in the
formation of a "colonizer's model of
the world".[36]

Indigenous philosophies have been

noted to greatly contrast with
Eurocentric thought. Indigenous
scholar James (Sákéj) Youngblood
Henderson states that
Eurocentricism contrasts greatly
with Indigenous worldviews: "the
discord between Aboriginal and
Eurocentric worldviews is dramatic.
It is a conflict between natural and
artificial contexts."[5] Indigenous
scholars Norman K. Denzin and
Yvonna S. Linco state that "in some
ways, the epistemological critique
initiated by Indigenous knowledge is
more radical than other
sociopolitical critiques of the West,
for the Indigenous critique
questions the very foundations of
Western ways of knowing and
being."[37]
Academic discourse

The terms Afrocentrism vs.

Eurocentrism have come to play a
role in the 2000s to 2010s in the
context of the academic discourse
on race in the United States and
critical whiteness studies, aiming to
expose white supremacism and
white privilege.[38] Afrocentrist
scholars, such as Molefi Asante,
have argued that there is a
prevalence of Eurocentric thought in
the processing of much of
academia on African affairs.[39][40][41]
In contrast, in an article,
'Eurocentrism and Academic
Imperialism' by Professor Seyed
Mohammad Marandi, from the
University of Tehran, states that
Eurocentric thought exists in almost
all aspects of academia in many
parts of the world, especially in the
humanities.[42] Edgar Alfred Bowring
states that in the West, self-regard,
self-congratulation and denigration
of the 'Other' run more deeply and
those tendencies have infected
more aspects of their thinking, laws
and policy than anywhere else.[43][44]
Luke Clossey and Nicholas Guyatt
have measured the degree of
Eurocentrism in the research
programs of top history
departments.[45]

Some authors have focused on how

scholars who denounce
Eurocentrism often inadvertently
reproduce Eurocentrism.[46][47] The
methodologist Audrey Alejandro
refers to this process as a "recursive
paradox": "It is a methodo-
epistemological recursive paradox
that [International Relations] critical
scholars experience, producing a
discourse that is implicitly counter-
productive to the anti-Eurocentric
values they advocate."[48]

Transformations of
eurocentrism

Authors show that since its first

conceptualisation, the concept of
eurocentrism has evolved. Alina
Sajed and John Hobson[49] point to
the emergence of a critical
eurocentrism, stressing that ‘while
[critical IR theory] is certainly critical
of the West, nevertheless its
tendency towards “Eurofetishism” —
by which Western agency is reified
at the expense of non-Western
agency— leads it into a “critical
Eurocentrism”. Expanding on their
work, Audrey Alejandro has put
forward the idea of a postcolonial
eurocentrism, understood as an
emerging form of Eurocentrism that

follows the criteria of

Eurocentrism commonly
mentioned in the literature –
denial of ‘non-Western’ agency,
teleological narrative centred
on the ‘West’ and idealisation
of the ‘West’ as normative
referent —but whose system of
value is the complete opposite
of the one embodied by
traditional Eurocentrism: With
postcolonial Eurocentrism,
Europe is also considered to be
the primary “proactive” subject
of world politics— but, in this
case, by being described as the
leading edge of global
oppression, not progress.
Indeed, according to
postcolonial Eurocentrism,
European capacity to
homogenise the world
according to its own standards
of unification is considered to
be a malevolent process (i.e.
the destruction of diversity)
rather than a benevolent one
(i.e. a show of positive
leadership). In both forms of
Eurocentrism, the discourse
performs “the West” as the
main actor capable of
organising the world in its
image. European
exceptionalism remains the
 same —although, from the
postcolonial Eurocentric view,
Europe is not considered to be
the best actor ever, but the
worst.’[50]

Latin America
Eurocentrism affected Latin
America through colonial
domination and expansion.[51] This
occurred through the application of
new criteria meant to "impose a new
social classification of the world
population on a global scale".[51]
Based on this occurrence, a new
social-historic identities were newly
produced, although already
produced in America. Some of these
names include; 'Whites', 'Negroes',
'Blacks', 'Yellows', 'Olives', 'Indians',
and 'Mestizos'.[51] With the
advantage of being located in the
Atlantic basin, 'Whites' were in a
privileged to control gold and silver
production.[51] The work which
created the product was by 'Indians'
and 'Negroes'.[51] With the control of
commercial capital from 'White'
workers. And therefore, Europe or
Western Europe emerged as the
central place of new patterns and
capitalist power.[51]

In 1627, when English colonisers

arrived in Barbados, they
slaughtered the local indigenous
inhabitants, and claimed the island
for themselves.[52]

Effect on beauty standards in

Brazil

The beauty ideal for females in

Brazil is the "morena"; a mixed-race
brown woman who is supposed to
represent the best characteristics of
every racial group in Brazil.[53]
According to Alexander Edmond's
book Pretty Modern: Beauty, Sex, and
Plastic Surgery in Brazil, whiteness
plays a role in Latin American,
specifically Brazilian, beauty
standards, but it is not necessarily
distinguished based on skin
colour.[54] Edmonds said the main
ways to define whiteness in people
in Brazil is by looking at their hair,
nose, then mouth before
considering skin colour.[54]
Edmonds focuses on the popularity
of plastic surgery in Brazilian
culture. Plastic surgeons usually
applaud and flatter mixtures when
emulating aesthetics for performing
surgery, and the more popular
mixture is African and European.[55]
This shapes beauty standards by
racialising biological and popular
beauty ideals to suggest that
mixture with whiteness is better.[54]
Donna Goldstein's book Laughter
Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence,
and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown
also addresses how whiteness
influences beauty in Brazil.
Goldstein notes that in Brazil, there
is a hierarchy for beauty that places
being mixed race at the top and
pure, un-admixed black
characteristics at the bottom,
calling them ugly.[56][57]

Challenging these standards of

beauty in Brazil would require
society to "question the romantic
and sexual appeal of whiteness."[56]
Goldstein said as a result, black
bodies would have to be
decommodified, and black women
in particular have had to commodify
their bodies to survive.[56]

In Erica Lorraine William's Sex

Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous
Entanglements, Williams addresses
how European and white beauty
standards have more privileges than
darker skinned and black women in
Brazil.[58] Black women in Brazil
have to strategise ways to receive
more respect in spaces popular for
sex tourism.[58] Williams cites Alma
Gulliermoprieto when she explains
that there is a superiority given to
light-skinned black women over
darker-skinned black women as
light-skinned women were
considered more beautiful because
they were "improved with white
blood."[59]
Islamic world
Eurocentrism's effect on the Islamic
world has predominantly come from
a fundamental statement of
preventing the account of lower-
level explanation and account of
Islamic cultures and their social
evolution, mainly through
eurocentrism's idealist construct.[60]
This construct has gained power
from the historians revolving their
conclusions around the idea of a
central point that favours the notion
that the evolution of societies and
their progress are dictated by
general tendencies, leading to the
Islamic world's evolution becoming
more of a philosophical topic of
history instead of historical fact.[60]
Along with this, eurocentrism
extends to trivialise and marginalise
the philosophies, scientific
contributions, cultures, and other
additional facets of the Islamic
world.[61]

Stemming from Eurocentrism's

innate bias towards Western
civilisation came the creation of the
concept of the "European Society,"
which favoured the components
(mainly Christianity) of European
civilisation and allowed
eurocentrists to brand diverging
societies and cultures as
"uncivilized."[62] Prevalent during the
nineteenth century, the labelling of
uncivilised in the eyes of
eurocentrists enabled Western
countries to classify non-European
and non-white countries as inferior,
and limit their inclusion and
contribution in actions like
international law. This exclusion
was seen as acceptable by
individuals like John Westlake, a
professor of international law at the
University of Cambridge at the time,
who commented that countries with
European civilisations should be
who comprises the international
society, and that countries like
Turkey and Persia should only be
allowed a part of international
law.[62] The figurative superiority
resulting from the rise of "European
Civilization" and the labels of
"civilized" and "uncivilized" are partly
responsible for eurocentrism's
denial of Islamic social evolution,
giving westerners the advantage of
an early dismissal of such ideas
regarding Oriental civilisations
through comparisons to the West.
Along with that, the rooted belief of
the inferiority of non-white and non-
Europeans has given justification for
racial discrimination and discredit to
the Islamic world, with much of
these feelings still present today.

Orientalism

Eurocentrism's reach has not only

affected the perception of the
cultures and civilisations of the
Islamic world, but also the aspects
and ideas of Orientalism, a cultural
idea that distinguished the "Orient"
of the East from the "Occidental"
Western societies of Europe and
North America, and which was
originally created so that the social
and cultural milestones of the
Islamic and Oriental world would be
recognised. This effect began to
take place during the nineteenth
century when the Orientalist ideals
were distilled and shifted from
topics of sensuality and deviating
mentalities to what is described by
Edward Said as "unchallenged
coherence."[63] Along with this shift
came the creation of two types of
orientalism: latent, which covered
the Orient's constant durability
through history, and manifest, a
more dynamic orientalism that
changes with the new discovery of
information.[63] The eurocentric
influence is shown in the latter, as
the nature of manifest Orientalism
is to be altered with new findings,
which leaves it vulnerable to the
warping of its refiner's ideals and
principles. In this state,
eurocentrism has used orientalism
to portray the Orient as "backwards"
and bolster the superiority of the
Western world and continue the
undermining of their cultures to
further the agenda of racial
inequality.[63]

With those wanting to represent the

eurocentric ideals better by way of
orientalism, there came a barrier of
languages, being Arabic, Persian,
and other similar languages. With
more researchers wanting to study
more of Orientalism, there was an
assumption made about the
languages of the Islamic world: that
having the ability to transcribe the
texts of the past Islamic world
would give great knowledge and
insight on oriental studies. In order
to do this, many researchers
underwent training in philology,
believing that an understanding of
the languages would be the only
necessary training. This reasoning
came as the belief at the time was
that other studies like anthropology
and sociology were deemed
irrelevant as they did not believe it
misleading to this portion of
mankind.[64] Through this action,
eurocentric researchers'
understanding of Oriental and
Islamic culture was intentionally left
undermined, foregoing the
reasoning behind the actions and
reasoning for the changes in culture
documented by Islamic and Oriental
texts and allowing for further
possible Western influence on
orientalism, and increasing the
difficulty of identifying what is truly
Oriental and what is considered
Oriental by the West.

In the beauty industry

Due to colonialism, Eurocentric
beauty ideals have had varying
degrees impact on the cultures of
non-Western countries. The
influence on beauty ideals across
the globe varies by region, with
Eurocentric ideals have a strong
impact in South Asia, but little to no
impact in East Asia[65] However,
Eurocentric beauty ideals have also
been on the decline in the United
States, especially the success of
Asian female models, may signal
the breakdown in the hegemony of
White American beauty ideals.[66] In
Vietnam, Eurocentric beauty ideals
have been openly rejected, as local
women consider Western women's
ideal of beauty as being overweight,
masculine and unattractive.[67]
Another study question the impact
of Eurocentric beauty ideals in
South Asia, and noted that Indian
women won a relatively high
number of international beauty
pageants, and Indian media tends to
use mostly Indian female models.
These authors cite the dominance
of the Bollywood film industry in
India, which tends to minimize the
impact of Western ideals.[68]

Clark doll experiment

In the 1940s, psychologists Kenneth

and Mamie Clark conducted
experiments called "the doll tests" to
examine the psychological effects
of segregation on African-American
children. They tested children by
presenting them four dolls, identical
but different skin tone. They had to
choose which doll they preferred
and were asked the race of the doll.
Most of the children chose the white
doll. The Clark's stated in their
results that the perception of the
African-American children were
altered by the discrimination they
faced.[69] The tested children also
labelled positive descriptions to the
white dolls.
One of the criticisms of this
experiment is presented by Robin
Bernstein, a professor of African
and African American studies and
women, gender, and sexuality. Her
argument is that "the Clarks' tests
were scientifically flawed. But she
said that the tests did reflect a
negative portrayal of black dolls in
American theater and media that
dates back to the Civil War era...."
Thus, Bernstein said, the choices
made by the subjects of the Clark
doll tests was not necessarily an
indication of black self-hatred.
Instead, it was a cultural choice
between two different toys—one
that was to be loved and one that
was to be physically harassed, as
exemplified in performance and
popular media. According to
Bernstein, this argument "redeems
the Clarks' child subjects by offering
a new understanding of them not as
psychologically damaged dupes, but
instead as agential experts in
children's culture."[70]

Mexican doll experiment

In 2012, Mexicans recreated the doll

test. Mexico's National Council to
Prevent Discrimination presented a
video where children had to pick the
"good doll," and the doll that looks
like them. By doing this experiment,
the researchers wanted to analyse
the degree to which Mexican
children are influenced by modern-
day media accessible to them.[71]
Most of the children chose the white
doll; they also stated that it looked
like them. The people who carried
out the study noted that
Eurocentrism is deeply rooted in
different cultures, including Latin
cultures.[72]
Beauty advertisements

In East Asia, the impact of

Eurocentrism in beauty
advertisements has been minimal,
and there have even been anti-
European undercurrents in local
advertisements for female products.
European models are hired for
around half of advertisements made
by European brands such as Estee
Lauder and L’Oreal, while local
Japanese cosmetics brands tend to
use exclusively East Asian female
models.[73]
The use of European female models
has actually declined within Japan,
and some Japanese skincare
companies have discontinued the
use of Western female models
entirely, while others have even
portrayed white women as explicitly
inferior to Asian women.[74] There is
a widespread belief in Japan that
Japanese women's skin color is
"better" than white women's,[75] and
the placement of European female
models in local advertisements is
not perceived as an exaltation of
white women.[76]
Skin lightening

Skin lightening has become a

common practice throughout
different areas of the globe. One
motivation for the use of skin
lightening products is to look more
'European'.[77] In other cases, the
practice began long before
exposure to European beauty
standards – tan skin was
associated with lower-class field
work, and thus constant exposure to
sun, while having pale skin signified
belonging to the upper-class.[78][79]
Many women risk their health using
these products to obtain the
skintone they desire. A study
conducted by Dr Lamine Cissé
observed the female population in
some African countries. They found
that 26% of women were using skin
lightening creams at the time and
36% had used them at some time.
The common products used were
hydroquinone and corticosteroids.
75% of women who used these
creams showed cutaneous adverse
effects.[80] Whitening products have
also become popular in many areas
in Asia like South Korea.[81] With the
rise of these products, research has
been done to study the long term
damage. Some complications
experienced are exogenous
ochronosis, impaired wound healing
and wound dehiscence, the fish
odour syndrome, nephropathy,
steroid addiction syndrome,
predisposition to infections, a broad
spectrum of cutaneous and
endocrinologic complications of
corticosteroids, and suppression of
hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis.[82]
South Korea

Cosmetic surgery is popular in

South Korea, often called "plastic
surgery capital of the world".[83][84]
Prevalence of cosmetic surgery in
South Korea is not rooted in
Western beauty standards,[83] but is
instead primarily due to other
factors, such as more general
dissatisfaction with appearance and
better chances on the job
market.[85][86] According to the
International Society of Aesthetic
Plastic Surgery, South Korea has the
highest rates of plastic surgery
procedures per capita in 2014.[87]
The most requested procedures are
the blepharoplasty and
rhinoplasty.[88] Another procedure
done in Korea is having the muscle
under the tongue that connects to
the bottom of the mouth surgically
snipped. Parents have their children
to undergo this surgery in order to
pronounce English better.[89]

See also
Afrocentrism
Americentrism
Colonial mentality
 The Crest of the Peacock: Non-
European Roots of Mathematics

The Eastern Origins of Western

Civilisation

Hellenocentrism
History of Western civilisation
Orientalism
Pan-Arabism
Pan-European identity
Universalism in geography
Western culture

References
Notes

1 H b J h (2012) Th E ti
1. Hobson, John (2012). The Eurocentric
conception of world politics : western
international theory, 1760-2010. New
York: Cambridge University Press. p. 185.
ISBN 978-1107020207.

2. Eurocentrism and its discontents (https://

www.historians.org/publications-and-dire
ctories/perspectives-on-history/january-2
001/eurocentrism-and-its-discontents) ,
American Historical Association

3. Sheppard, Eric (November 2005). "Jim

Blaut's Model of the World". Antipode. 37
(5): 956–962. doi:10.1111/j.0066-
4812.2005.00544.x (https://doi.org/10.11
11%2Fj.0066-4812.2005.00544.x) .
4. Payne, Anthony (2005). "Unequal
Development". The Global Politics of
Unequal Development. pp. 231–247.
doi:10.1007/978-1-137-05592-7_9 (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-137-05592-
7_9) . ISBN 978-0-333-74072-9.

5. Youngblood Henderson, James (Sákéj)

(2011). "Ayukpachi: Empowering
Aboriginal Thought". In Battiste, Marie
(ed.). Reclaiming Indigenous Voice and
Vision. UBC Press. pp. 259–61.
ISBN 9780774842471.
6. The German adjective europa-zentrisch
("Europe-centric") is attested in the
1920s, unrelated to the Marxist context
of Amin's usage. Karl Haushofer,
Geopolitik des pazifischen Ozeans
(pp. 11–23, 110-113, passim). The
context is Haushofer's comparison of the
"Pacific space" in terms of global politics
vs. "Europe-centric" politics.
7. A Rey (ed.) Dictionnaire Historique de la
langue française (2010): À partir du
radical de européen ont été composés
(mil. XXe s.) européocentrique adj. (de
centrique) « qui fait référence à l'Europe »
et européocentrisme n.m. (variante
europocentrisme n.m. 1974) « fait de
considérer (un problème général,
mondial) d'un point de vue européen » ."
8. Hussein Abdilahi Bulhan, Frantz Fanon
and the Psychology of Oppression
(1985), 63ff (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=z55WPkZpyoYC&pg=PA63) :
"Fanon and Eurocentric Psychology",
where "Eurocentric psychology" refers to
"a psychology derived from a white,
middle-class male minority, which is
generalized to humanity everywhere".

9. "Anciens directeurs" (uneca.org) (http://w

ww.uneca.org/fr/pages/anciens-directeur
s) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20180806090809/https://www.uneca.o
rg/fr/pages/anciens-directeurs) 6
August 2018 at the Wayback Machine
("Samir AMIN (Egypte) 1970-1980").
10. Alexandre A. Bennigsen, S. Enders
Wimbush , Muslim National Communism
in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary
Strategy for the Colonial World (1979), p.
19 (https://books.google.com/books?id=
uKr2O2GBDsQC&pg=PA19) .
11. "pluralistic cultural coexistence as
opposed to Western centrism and Asian
centrism" (unhyphenated) in: Mabel Lee,
Meng Hua, Cultural dialogue &
misreading (1997), p. 53. "our incomplete
perception of Chinese behavior, which
tends to be 'Western-centric.'" (using
scare-quotes) in: Houman A. Sadri,
Revolutionary States, Leaders, and
Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study
of China, Cuba, and Iran (1997), p. 35 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=6IaY-b
1BR3AC&pg=PA35) . "Euro- or western-
centrism" in the context of the "traditional
discourse on minority languages" in:
Jonathan Owens (ed.), Arabic as a
Minority Language (2000), p. 1 (https://bo
 oks.google.com/books?id=dVUiAAAAQB
AJ&pg=PA1) . Use of Latinate occido-
centrism remains rare (e.g. Alexander
Lukin, Political Culture of the Russian
'Democrats' (2000), p. 47).

12. Dussel, Enrique (2011) Politics of

Liberation: A Critical World History
London: SCM Press p.11
ISBN 9780334041818
13. "[German: Obwohl Europa das kleinste
unter allen 4. Teilen der Welt ist, so ist es
doch um verschiedener Ursachen willen
allen übrigen vorzuziehen.... Die
Einwohner sind von sehr guten Sitten,
höflich und sinnreich in Wissenschaften
und Handwerken.] "Europa". In: Zedlers
Universal-Lexicon (http://www.zedler-lexi
kon.de/blaettern/zedlerband.html?bandn
ummer=8&seitenzahl=1127) Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/2011091123
3435/http://www.zedler-lexikon.de/blaett
ern/zedlerband.html?bandnummer=8&sei
tenzahl=1127) 11 September 2011 at
the Wayback Machine, Volume 8, Leipzig
1734, columns 2192–2196 (citation:
column 2195).
14. "[German: [Europa ist seiner]
terrestrischen Gliederung wie seiner
kulturhistorischen und politischen
Bedeutung nach unbedingt der wichtigste
unter den fünf Erdtheilen, über die er in
materieller, noch mehr aber in geistiger
Beziehung eine höchst einflussreiche
Oberherrschaft erlangt hat.] Das große
Conversations-Lexicon für die gebildeten
Stände (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=fK9GAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA373) , 1847.
Vol. 1, p. 373.
15. Daniel Iwerks, "Ideology and
Eurocentrism in Tarzan of the Apes," in:
Investigating the Unliterary: Six Readings
of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan of the
Apes, ed. Richard Utz (Regensburg:
Martzinek, 1995), pp. 69-90.

16. Jones, Eric (2003). The European Miracle:

Environments, Economies and
Geopolitics in the History of Europe and
Asia. ISBN 978-0-521-52783-5.

17. de Boer, Karin (6 June 2017). Moyar, Dean

(ed.). "Hegel's Lectures on the History of
Modern Philosophy". Oxford Handbooks
Online. 1.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199355228.0
13.29 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxford
hb%2F9780199355228.013.29) .
18. Iarocci, Michael P. (2006). Properties of
Modernity: Romantic Spain, Modern
Europe, and the Legacies of Empire (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=CuliwYN
yvSUC&q=center+o+Europe+hegel&pg=P
A8) . ISBN 9780826515223.

19. Farmer, Edward L. (1985). "Civilization as

a Unit of World History: Eurasia and
Europe's Place in It". The History Teacher.
18 (3): 345–363. doi:10.2307/493055 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.2307%2F493055) .
JSTOR 493055 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/493055) .
20. Baker, Gideon (2013). "On the Origins of
Modern Hospitality". Hospitality and
World Politics.
doi:10.1057/9781137290007.0006 (http
s://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137290007.
0006) . ISBN 9781137290007.

21. Bendix, Reinhard; Roth, Guenther (1980).

Scholarship and partisanship : essays on
Max Weber (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=ottM0fiTnO8C) (California
Library reprint series ed.). Berkeley:
University of California Press, volume
110. ISBN 978-0520041714.
OCLC 220409196 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/220409196) .
22. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism. 3 July 2017.
doi:10.4324/9781912282708 (https://doi.
org/10.4324%2F9781912282708) .
ISBN 9781912282708. S2CID 166670406
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:166670406) .

23. Marks, Robert (2015). The origins of the

modern world: a global and
environmental narrative from the fifteenth
to the twenty-first century (3rd ed.).
Lanham, Maryland.
ISBN 9781442212398. OCLC 902726566
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9027265
66) .
24. "Ukraine invasion: Arab journalists call
out 'orientalist, racist' double standards
on Ukraine coverage" (https://english.alar
aby.co.uk/news/ukraine-invasion-journali
sts-reject-bias-racist-coverage) . The New
Arab. London. 28 February 2022 [28
February 2022]. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
"Arab journalists have called out the
'racist, orientalist' news coverage on the
war in Ukraine, which they've accused of
Eurocentric bias and ignoring the reality
of conflict for many in the Middle East
and North Africa."

25. Cambridge History of China, CUP,1988

26. McNeill, William (1989). Arnold J.
Toynbee: A Life (https://archive.org/detail
s/arnoldjtoynbeeli00will/page/272) .
New York and Oxford: Oxford University
Press. pp. 272–73 (https://archive.org/de
tails/arnoldjtoynbeeli00will/page/272) .
ISBN 978-0-19-505863-5. "From
Toynbee's point of view, Soka Gakkai was
exactly what his vision of the historical
moment expected, for it was a new
church, arising on the fringes of the 'post-
Christian' world.... Convergence of East
and West was, indeed, what Toynbee and
Ikeda sought and thought they had found
in their dialogue. In a preface, written in
the third person, Toynbee emphasized
and tried to explain this circumstance.
'They agree that a human being ought to
be perpetually striving to overcome his
innate propensity to try to exploit the rest
of the universe and that he ought to be
trying, instead, to put himself at the
service of the universe so unreservedly
that his ego will become identical with an
ultimate reality, which for a Buddhist is
the Buddha state. They agree in believing
that this ultimate reality is not a
humanlike divine personality.' He
explained these and other agreements as
reflecting the 'birth of a common
worldwide civilization that has originated
in a technological framework of Western
origin but is now being enriched
spiritually by contributions from all the
historic regional civilizations.' ... [Ikeda's]
dialogue with Toynbee is the longest and
most serious text in which East and West
—that is, Ikeda and a famous
representative of the mission field that
Ikeda sees before him—have agreed with
each other. In the unlikely event that Soka
Gakkai lives up to its leader's hopes and
realizes Toynbee's expectations by
flourishing in the Western world, this
dialogue might, like the letters of St. Paul,
achieve the status of sacred scripture
and thus become by far the most
important of all of Toynbee's works."
27. Brohman, John (1995). "Universalism,
Eurocentrism, and Ideological Bias in
Development Studies: From
Modernisation to Neoliberalism". Third
World Quarterly. 16 (1): 121–140.
JSTOR 3992977 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/3992977) .

28. Sundberg, Juanita (2009). "Eurocentrism".

International Encyclopedia of Human
Geography. pp. 638–643.

29. Green, John. Crashcourse "Eurocentrism"

(2012):

30. Loewen, James "lies My teacher told me"

(1995)
31. Martin Lewis and Kären Wigen in their
book, The Myth of Continents (1997): "In
physical, cultural and historical diversity,
China and India are comparable to the
entire European landmass, not to a single
European country. A better (if still
imperfect) analogy would compare
France, not to India as a whole, but to a
single Indian state, such as Uttar
Pradesh." Lewis, Martin W.; Kären E.
Wigen (1997). The Myth of Continents: a
Critique of Metageography. Berkeley:
University of California Press. pp. ?.
ISBN 978-0-520-20742-4.
32. Hanafi, Hassan. "The Middle East, in
whose world? (Primary Reflections)" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2013101815183
4/http://www.smi.uib.no/pao/hanafi.htm
l) . Nordic Society for Middle Eastern
Studies (The fourth Nordic conference on
Middle Eastern Studies: The Middle East
in globalizing world Oslo, 13–16 August
1998). Archived from the original (http://
www.smi.uib.no/pao/hanafi.html) on 18
October 2013. Retrieved 26 October
2016. ("unedited paper as given at the
Oslo conference. An updated and edited
version has been published in Utvik and
Vikør, The Middle East in a Globalized
World, Bergen/London 2000, 1-9. Please
quote or refer only to the published
 article") "The expression Middle East is
an old British label based on a British
Western perception of the East divided
into middle or near and far".

33. Frank, Andre Gunder (1998). ReOrient :

global economy in the Asian Age.
Berkeley: University of California.
ISBN 9780520921313. OCLC 42922426
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4292242
6) .

34. Toynbee, Arnold (1987). A study of

history. New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0195050813.
OCLC 16276526 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/16276526) .
35. Lang, Michael (2011). "Globalization and
Global History in Toynbee". Journal of
World History. 22 (4): 747–783.
doi:10.1353/jwh.2011.0118 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1353%2Fjwh.2011.0118) .
S2CID 142992220 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:142992220) .

36. Hugill, Peter J. (1995). Review of The

Colonizer's Model of the World:
Geographical Diffusionism and
Eurocentric History (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/216077) . pp. 259–261.
JSTOR 216077 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/216077) .
37. Denzin, Norman K.; Lincoln, Yvonna S.
(2008). "Critical Methodologies and
Indigenous Inquiry: Locating the Field:
Performing Theories of Decolonizing
Inquiry". In Tuhiwai Smith, Linda (ed.).
Handbook of Critical and Indigenous
Methodologies. SAGE Publishing. p. 152.
ISBN 9781412918039.
38. Alison Bailey, "Philosophy and Whiteness"
in Tim Engles (ed.) Towards a
Bibliography of Critical Whiteness Studies
Center on Democracy in a Multiracial
Society (2006), p. 9.: "Philosophical
methods are well suited for unpacking
the political, ontological, and
epistemological conditions that foster
racism and hold white supremacy in
place. However, on the whole, philosophy
as a discipline has remained relatively
untouched by interdisciplinary work on
race and whiteness. In its quest for
certainty, Western philosophy continues
to generate what it imagines to be
colorless and genderless accounts of
 knowledge, reality, morality, and human
nature".

39. Molefi Kete Asante, "The Painful Demise

of Eurocentrism," The World & I, Vol. 7,
No. 4, April 1992, pp. 305-317.

40. Molefi Kete Asante, "Afrocentricity:

Toward a New Understanding of African
Thought in the World," in Molefi Kete
Asante, Yoshitaka Miike, and Jing Yin
(Eds.), The Global Intercultural
Communication Reader, New York:
Routledge, 2014, pp. 101-110.

41. Molefi Kete Asante, "Afrocentricity," In

Reiland Rabaka (Ed.), Routledge
Handbook of Pan-Africanism, London:
Routledge, 2020, pp. 147-158.
42. "Eurocentrism and Academic
Imperialism" (http://www.zarcommedia.c
om/index.php/research-documents/669
1.html) . ZarCom Media. 27 October
2011. Retrieved 14 October 2015.

43. E. C. Eze, Race and the Enlightenment: A

Reader (Blackwell, 1997)

44. Alam, M. Shahid (2003). "Articulating

Group Differences: A Variety of
Autocentrisms". Science & Society. 67
(2): 205–217. JSTOR 40404071 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/40404071) .

45. Clossey, Luke; Guyatt, Nicholas (2013).

"It's a Small World After All" (http://small
worldhistory.org) . Small World History.
Simon Fraser University. Retrieved
24 December 2015.
46. Kuru, Deniz (April 2016). "Historicising
Eurocentrism and anti-Eurocentrism in IR:
A revisionist account of disciplinary self-
reflexivity" (https://www.cambridge.org/c
ore/journals/review-of-international-studi
es/article/abs/historicising-eurocentrism
-and-antieurocentrism-in-ir-a-revisionist-a
ccount-of-disciplinary-selfreflexivity/C239
F2085228DD3E92418586A2D089BA) .
Review of International Studies. 42 (2):
351–376.
doi:10.1017/S0260210515000315 (http
s://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0260210515000
315) . ISSN 0260-2105 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/issn/0260-2105) .
S2CID 143069651 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:143069651) .
47. Duzgun, Eren (1 June 2020). "Against
Eurocentric Anti-Eurocentrism:
International Relations, Historical
Sociology and Political Marxism" (https://
doi.org/10.1057/s41268-018-0146-0) .
Journal of International Relations and
Development. 23 (2): 285–307.
doi:10.1057/s41268-018-0146-0 (https://
doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41268-018-0146-
0) . ISSN 1581-1980 (https://www.worldc
at.org/issn/1581-1980) .
S2CID 149655538 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:149655538) .
48. ALEJANDRO, AUDREY (2020). WESTERN
DOMINANCE IN INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS? : the internationalisation of
ir in brazil and india (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/1145913401) . [Place of
publication not identified]: ROUTLEDGE.
p. 164. ISBN 978-0-367-54010-4.
OCLC 1145913401 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/1145913401) .
49. Hobson, John M.; Sajed, Alina (1
December 2017). "Navigating Beyond the
Eurofetishist Frontier of Critical IR Theory:
Exploring the Complex Landscapes of
Non-Western Agency" (http://academic.o
up.com/isr/article/19/4/547/4056212) .
International Studies Review. 19 (4):
547–572. doi:10.1093/isr/vix013 (https://
doi.org/10.1093%2Fisr%2Fvix013) .
ISSN 1521-9488 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/issn/1521-9488) .

50. Alejandro, Audrey (10 October 2018).

Western Dominance in International
Relations?: The Internationalisation of IR
in Brazil and India (https://dx.doi.org/10.4
324/9781315170480) . Routledge.
p. 163. ISBN 978-1-315-17048-0.
51. Quijano, Aníbal (29 June 2016).
"Coloniality of Power and Eurocentrism in
Latin America". International Sociology.
15 (2): 215–232.
doi:10.1177/0268580900015002005 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1177%2F0268580900015
002005) . S2CID 144941229 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14494122
9) .

52. "His parents urged him to keep their

'dodgy' family history quiet. Now Benedict
Cumberbatch could pay" (https://www.ab
c.net.au/news/2023-01-04/benedict-cum
berbatch-slavery-reparations/10182236
8) . ABC News. 3 January 2023.
53. Liebelt, Claudia; Böllinger, Sarah; Vierke,
Ulf (24 August 2018). Beauty and the
Norm: Debating Standardization in Bodily
Appearance (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=MMFqDwAAQBAJ&dq=mixed+ra
ce+beauty+ideal+brazil&pg=PA229) .
Springer. p. 229. ISBN 978-3-319-91174-
8. "In Brazil and Jamaica, national
discourses of race mixture shaped
alternative beauty ideals. For example,
the morena (mixed race brown woman) is
the quit-essential icon of a longstanding
ideology of racial democracy in Brazil,
portrayed in eroticized images of carnival,
samba, and football. The morena
supposedly embodies the positive
characteristics of each race in Brazil."
54. Edmonds, Alexander (2010). Pretty
Modern: Beauty, Sex, and Plastic Surgery
in Brazil. Duke University Press. p. 142.

55. Edmonds, Alexander (2010). Pretty

Modern: Beauty, Sex, and Plastic Surgery
in Brazil. Duke University Press. p. 141.

56. Goldstein, Donna (2013). Laughter Out of

Place: Race, Class, Violence, and
Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown. Univ of
California Press. p. 133.
57. Vartabedian, Julieta (22 May 2018).
Brazilian 'Travesti' Migrations: Gender,
Sexualities and Embodiment Experiences
(https://books.google.com/books?id=_rV
cDwAAQBAJ&dq=white+women+unattra
ctive+in+brazil&pg=PA77) . Springer.
p. 77. ISBN 978-3-319-77101-4. "A purely
African appearance with no mixture of
white characteristics is perceived as ugly
in Brazil (Goldstein 2003; Wade 2009)."

58. Williams, Erica Lorraine (2013). Sex

Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous
Entanglements. University of Illinois
Press. p. 45.
59. Williams, Erica Lorraine (2013). Sex
Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous
Entanglements. University of Illinois
Press. pp. 50–52.

60. Amin, Samir (1989). Eurocentrism. New

York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 124–
125. ISBN 9781583672075.

61. Burney, Shehla (2012). "Erasing

Eurocentrism: 'Using the Other as the
Supplement of Knowledge' ".
Counterpoints. 417: 143–172.
JSTOR 42981703 (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/42981703) .
62. Heraclides, Alexis (2015). Humanitarian
Intervention in the Long Nineteenth
Century: Setting the Precedent.
Manchester, United Kingdom:
Manchester University Press. pp. 31, 37.
ISBN 9781526133823.

63. Said, Edward (2000). Orientalism. New

York, New York: New York University
Press. pp. 111–112.
ISBN 9780394740676.
64. Lockman, Zachary (2009). Contending
Visions of the Middle East: the History
and Politics of Orientalism (https://archiv
e.org/details/isbn_9780521133074/pag
e/68) . Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 68 (http
s://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521133
074/page/68) . ISBN 9780521133074.

65. Laboratory, International Socioeconomics

(28 December 2020). Across the
Spectrum of Socioeconomics: Issue II (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=pkERE
AAAQBAJ&dq=european+beauty+standar
d+asia&pg=PA33) . International
Socioeconomics Laboratory. p. 33.
66. Hune, Shirley; Nomura, Gail M. (August
2003). Asian/Pacific Islander American
Women: A Historical Anthology (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=XD1BR4Npp
WcC&dq=european+beauty+standard+asi
a&pg=PA201) . NYU Press. p. 201.
ISBN 978-0-8147-3633-3. "The dawning
of the new millennium may signal a shift
in the cultural importance of racialized
gendered bodies. On October 14, 2000, a
Filipina American, Miss Hawaii Angela
Perez Baraquio, was crowned Miss
America for 2001. A few years earlier
another Miss Hawaii, a mixed-race part-
Asian American woman named Brook
Antoinette Mahealani Lee, won not only
the Miss USA competition but the title of
1997 Miss Universe. Such victories do
not necessarily mean full acceptance for
Asian Americans into the American body
politic. However they do signal a
breakdown in the hegemony of European-
American cultural standards of beauty."
67. Drury, Benjamin (2 February 2021). SAGE
Readings for Social Problems (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=ZBYZEAAAQB
AJ&dq=european+beauty+standard+asia
&pg=PA58) . SAGE Publications. p. 58.
ISBN 978-1-0718-4163-1. "In fact, the
women made it very clear to me that they
considered Western and Viet Kieu
(overseas Vietnamese) women's ideals of
beauty unattractive, overweight and
masculine." "Dai describes a regional
standard of beauty that is much more
nuanced than a simple aspiration to
Western ideals. Indeed, the tone of Dai's
comments illustrates how sex workers
use distinctly Asian standards of beauty
to resist the ideals of the West. Women's
deliberate rejection of Western standards
illustrates how local, regional, and global
ideals converge in their practices."
68. Li, Eric P. H.; Min, Hyun Jeong; Belk,
Russell W. (2008). "Skin Lightening and
Beauty in Four Asian Cultures" (http://acr
website.org/volumes/13415/volumes/v3
5/NA-35) . ACR North American
Advances. NA-35. "One reason for this
may be the recent globalization of Indian
beauty as affirmed by a number of Indian
winners of such global beauty contests
as Miss World and Miss Universe. From
1990-2006 Indian models won 11 of
these titles. The dominance of Bollywood
film in India also diminishes the impact
of Hollywood ideologies in Indian culture.
Indian celebrities appear to be the
dominant body ideals for Indian women."
69. "Brown at 60: The Doll Test | NAACP LDF"
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54647/http://www.naacpldf.org/brown-at
-60-the-doll-test) . naacpldf.org. Archived
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g/brown-at-60-the-doll-test) on 13
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70. "Professor Revisits Clark Doll Tests" (http

s://www.thecrimson.com/article/2011/1
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ns-recreate-black-doll-white-doll-experime
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h-of-the-bor/) . theGrio. 6 January 2012.
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72. "Mexicans Recreate 'Black Doll-White

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ollingout.com/2012/01/03/mexicans-recr
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73. Li, Min & Belk 2008

74. Jones, Geoffrey (25 February 2010).
Beauty Imagined: A History of the Global
Beauty Industry (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=rqc6YQnSQzcC&dq=%22asi
ence&pg=PA314) . OUP Oxford. p. 314.
ISBN 978-0-19-160961-9. "Pola
discontinued the use of foreign models in
2000. Kao undertook a successful launch
of Asience shampoo with television
advertisements of Zhang Ziya, who
became the first Chinese Miss World in
2007, showing off her long black hair to
the jealous gasps of Western women. In
2007 Shisedo launched the blockbuster
shampoo brand Tsubaki with a $40
million advertising campaign which
featured famous Japanese women and
the slogan "Japanese women are
beautiful"."
75. Mire, Amina (4 September 2019).
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white+skin+japan+symbolizes&pg=PT11
4) . Routledge. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-351-
23412-2. "My informants, mainly women
insisted that Japanese skin was superior
to Caucasian skin. Although many of my
informants had little personal contact
with Westerners, they all made more or
less identical negative comments about
Caucasian women's skin, saying, for
example, that it was rough, aged quickly
and had too many spots. ashikari (2005)
p.82" [...] "When my informants look at a
beautiful young Caucasian model in an
advertisement with a slogan, such as, 'for
making your skin beautiful and young',
they can simply see 'young' and 'beauty'
in the model's face. They are looking at a
beautiful woman in the advertisement,
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woman. p,82"
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Identities: An Historical & International
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0. "The partial dethroning of European-
heritage people as representatives of a
superior 'white race' does not necessarily
imply the abandonment of whiteness as
an ideal or model in Japan." [...] "The
ugliness of European whiteness as
compared with Japanese whiteness was
mentioned by several of his informants.
More specifically it was argued that
European-heritage people do not possess
white skin but transparent skin." "Three
respondents' views are cited below: This
may be completely unscientific but I feel
that when I look at the skin of a Japanese
woman I see the whiteness of her skin.
When I observe Caucasian skin, what I
see is the whiteness of the fat
underneath the skin, not the whiteness of
the skin itself." I have seen Caucasians
closely only a few times but my
impression is that their skin is very thin,
almost transparent, while our skin is
thicker and more resilient. The Caucasian
skin is something like the surface of a
pork sausage, while the skin of a
Japanese resembles the outside of
'kamaboko' [a white, spongy fish cake]
(cited by Wagatsuma, 1968, pp. 142-3)"
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79. Yeung, Evelyn (19 April 2021). "White and

Beautiful: An Examination of Skin
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ul?article=white-and-beautiful&post_type
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