05.

Materials Selection in Engineering Modeling II

01. Strength Properties from Penetration Hardness Tests

Penetration hardness tests -
usually Brinell or Rockwell -
provide a convenient and non-
destructive means of estimating
the strength properties of
metals. Basically, penetration
hardness testers measure the
resistance to permanent
deformation of a material when
subjected to a particular
combination of triaxial
compressive stress and steep
stress gradient. Results of the
Brinell hardness test have been
found to correlate well with
ultimate tensile strength, the
relationship being:

Su  K B H B

H B is the Brinell hardness number, K B is a constant of proportionality, and Su is

the tensile strength in psi and for most steels K B  500 . There is a rational basis
for K B being a function of the strain-hardening exponent, m. The illustration
above gives empirical curves representing this relationship.

Hardness Techniques
The illustration above shows details regarding the Brinell, Vickers, Knoop and
Rockwell methods for testing the hardness of materials. Formulas for Hardness
Number calculation are also provided.

The graph below gives approximate relationships between Brinell, Rockwell, and
other hardness numbers. After analyzing extensive data it can be concluded that
reasonably good estimates of the tensile yield strength of stress-relieved - not
cold-worked - steels can be made from the equation:

S y  1.05Su  30000 psi ,

Another option is to substitute Su  K B H B with K B  500 into the above equation:

S y  1.05Su  30000 psi  525 H B  30000 psi

Approximate relationships between hardness scales and ultimate tensile strength of steel

2
02. Use of Handbook Data for Material Strength Properties
Ideally, an engineer would always base strength calculations on actual test data
for the exact material used in the part involved. This would require the use of test
specimens that correspond to the material in the fabricated part not only in
chemical composition but also in all details of mechanical and thermal history.
Because data from such specimens are seldom available, standard test data
reported in handbooks and other sources are frequently used. There are pitfalls
in using handbook data, as evidenced by the fact that one frequently finds
contradictory information in different references. In using this data, the engineer
must be concerned with questions such as the following:

 Do the published values represent the results of a single test, or are they
average, median, typical, or minimum values from several tests?
Depending on the precision with which the variables associated with
composition, thermal history, and mechanical history are controlled, there
will be a statistical scatter in the material strength. In many situations it is
good to consider strength properties in terms of mean values and
standard deviations.
 Do the composition, size, previous heat treatment, and previous
mechanical working of the specimens tested correspond closely enough to
those of the actual part in its final as-fabricated condition?
 Are the published data consistent within themselves, and consistent with
the general pattern of accepted test results for similar materials? In other
words, are the data reasonable?

Many tables of materials properties give values of the tensile elastic modulus and
Poisson’s ratio  . From elastic theory, the torsional or shear modulus can then
be calculated as:

E
G
2 1   

03. Machinability
The cost of producing a machined part is obviously influenced both by the cost of
the material and by the ease with which it can be machined. Empirically
determined ratings of machinability - defined as relative cutting speed for a fixed
tool life under prescribed standard cutting conditions - are published for various
materials. Although often useful, these data are sometimes unreliable and even
contradictory. In an effort to relate machinability to material parameters on a
rational basis, some authors showed that machinability is a secondary material
property that is a function of three primary material physical properties:

3
 1150k
V60  1  Ar
HB

 V60 - cutting speed in ft/min for 60-min tool life under standard cutting
conditions
 k - thermal conductivity in Btu/(h  ft  °F)
 H B - Brinell hardness number
 Ar - area reduction at fracture

Since the value of k is about the same for all metals, the machinability of metal
is essentially a function of hardness and ductility.

04. Cast Iron

Cast iron is a four-element alloy containing iron, carbon between 2% and 4%,
silicon, and manganese. Additional alloying elements are sometimes added. The
physical properties of an iron casting are strongly influenced by its cooling rate
during solidification. This, in turn, depends on the size and shape of the casting
and on details of foundry practice. Because of this cast iron is usually specified
by its mechanical properties rather than by chemical analysis. The distinctive
properties of cast iron result largely from its carbon content:

 The high carbon content makes molten iron very fluid, so that it can be
poured into intricate shapes.
 The precipitation of carbon during solidification counteracts normal
shrinkage to give sound sections.
 The presence of graphite in the metal provides excellent machinability,
damps vibration, and aids boundary lubrication at wearing surfaces. When
heat is removed rapidly from the surface during solidification, virtually all
the carbon near the surface remains combined as iron carbides, giving an
extremely hard, wear-resistant surface.

05. Steel
Steel is the most extensively used material for machine components. By suitably
varying the composition, thermal treatment, and mechanical treatment,
manufacturers can obtain a tremendous range of mechanical properties. Three
basic relationships are fundamental to the appropriate selection of steel
composition:

 All steels have essentially the same modulo of elasticity. Thus, if rigidity is
the critical requirement of the part, all steels perform equally and the least
costly - including fabricating costs - should be selected.

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  Carbon content, almost alone, determines the maximum hardness that
can be developed in steel. Maximum potential hardness increases with
carbon content up to about 0.7 percent. This means that relatively small,
regularly shaped parts can be heat-treated to give essentially the same
hardness and strength with plain carbon steel as with more costly alloy
steels.

 Alloying elements - manganese, molybdenum, chromium, nickel, and

others - improve the ease with which steel can be hardened. Thus, the
potential hardness and strength - controlled by carbon content - can be
realized with less drastic heat treatments when these alloying elements
are used. This means that with an alloy steel parts with large sections can
achieve higher hardness in the center or core of the section, and
irregularly shaped parts, subject to warpage during a drastic quench, can
achieve the desired hardness from a more moderate heat treatment.

06. Nonferrous Alloys

 Aluminum Alloys. Literally hundreds of aluminum alloys are available, in
both wrought and cast forms. Properties of a few of the more common
ones are listed in tables. The chemical composition of aluminum alloys is
designated by four digits for wrought forms and by three digits for cast
alloys. Thermal treatment, mechanical treatment, or both are indicated by
a temper designation that follows the alloy identification number. Temper
designations are ALSO given in tables. The heat treatment of aluminum
alloys to increase hardness and strength is quite different from the heat
treatment of steel. Aluminum alloys are first held at an elevated
temperature long enough to bring the hardening constituents as Cu, Mg,
Mn, Si and Ni into solution, then quenched, and finally age-hardened. The
latter causes some of the hardening elements to precipitate throughout the
structure. Some alloys precipitate at room temperature, while others
require an elevated temperature – artificial aging. Although aluminum is a
readily castable metal serving a host of useful applications, casting
problems do exist. Shrinkage during casting is relatively large - 3.5 to 8.5
percent by volume, and there is no mechanism analogous to the beneficial
carbon precipitation in cast iron to counteract shrinkage. Hot shortness
and gas absorption can be problems unless details of appropriate foundry
practice are specified and controlled.

 Copper Alloys. Copper alloys include a variety of brasses, alloys made

principally of copper and zinc, and bronzes, alloys made principally of
copper and tin. As a class, copper alloys have good electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, and resistance to corrosion, but relatively low ratios
of strength to weight. They can be hot or cold-worked, but they strain-
harden in the process. Ductility can be restored by annealing or by heat

5
 associated with welding or brazing. Specific desired properties, such as
greater strength, resistance to heat softening, and machinability, can often
be markedly improved by adding small amounts of additional alloying
agents. Properties of several common copper alloys are given in tables.

 Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium alloys are the lightest engineering metals.

They are designated by a system established by the American Society for
Testing and Materials, which covers both chemical composition and
tempers. The designation begins with two letters representing alloying
elements of the greatest and second greatest concentration. The letter
designations are: A – Aluminum, K – Zirconium, Q – Silver, E - Rare
earths, L – Lithium, S – Silicon, H – Thorium, M – Manganese and Z –
Zinc. Next are two digits that represent the respective percentages of
these two elements, rounded off to whole numbers. Following these digits
is a serial letter that indicates some variation in composition or minor
alloying constituents or impurities. The temper designations at the end are
identical with those used with aluminum. For example, alloy AZ31B-H24
contains 3 percent aluminum, 1 percent zinc, and is strain-hardened.
Mechanical properties of a few common magnesium alloys are given in
tables.

 Nickel Alloys, Including Nickel-Based Super Alloys. Nickel alloys are used
in a variety of structural applications that usually require specific corrosion
resistance, and strength and toughness at temperature extremes as great
as 1093°C and as low as -240°C. The nickel and Duranickel alloys contain
over 94 percent nickel. Monel represents a series of nickel–copper alloys,
based on the mutual solubility of these two elements in all proportions.
They are strong and tough at subzero temperatures, and especially
resistant to stress corrosion cracking. Hastelloy designates a series of Ni–
Mo and Ni–Mo–Cr super alloys. Several Hastelloys resist oxidation and
maintain useful strength and creep properties in the range of 1093°C. The
Inconel, Incoloy, Rene, and Udimet alloys listed in tables are Ni–Cr and
Ni–Cr–Fe alloys.

 Titanium Alloys. Titanium alloys are nonmagnetic and extremely

corrosion-resistant, have low thermal conductivity, and have outstanding
strength–weight ratios. On the negative side, they are very expensive and
difficult to machine. Mechanical properties of some of the more common
alloys are given in tables.

 Zinc Alloys. Zinc is a relatively inexpensive metal with moderate strength.

It has a low melting temperature and so is readily and economically die-
cast. Typical zinc die castings include automotive parts, building
hardware, office machine components, and toys. Limited use is made of
the metal in other forms. Mechanical properties of common zinc die-cast

6
 alloys are listed in tables. Also included is a relatively new alloy, ZA-12,
that can be cast using various methods.

06. Plastics
Plastics constitute a large and varied group of synthetic organic materials. The
basic chemical units of plastic materials are monomers. Under appropriate
conditions, usually involving heat, pressure, or both, polymerization takes place,
combining monomers into polymers. The addition of more and more monomers
to form longer and longer polymer chains increases molecular weight and vastly
alters physical properties. For example, the illustration below shows CH 4 , which
is methane gas. Adding one CH 2 unit gives heavier ethane gas C 2 H 6 .
Continued addition of CH 2 units gives pentane, a liquid with chemical formula
C 5 H 12 , and paraffin wax, C18H38. At approximately C100H202, the material is
tough enough to be a useful plastic, known as low-molecular-weight
polyethylene. The toughest polyethylene, called high-molecular-weight
polyethylene, contains nearly half-million CH 2 units in a single polymer chain.

Polymer chain structures can incorporate side branching. The degree of

branching influences the closeness with which the chains fit together. This, in
turn, influences physical properties. Minimal branching promotes tight packing of
the polymer chains and hence, strong intermolecular attractive forces, giving
relatively high density, rigid crystalline structures, and also relatively extensive
mould shrinkage. Extensive branching produces a more flexible, amorphous
material with less mould shrinkage and distortion. Physical properties of the
finished plastic can also be altered by copolymerization, the building of polymer
chains with two monomers, and by alloying, a strictly mechanical mixing or
blending of constituents which does not involve chemical bonds.

Plastics have traditionally been designated as thermoplastic, softening with heat,

and thermosetting, not softening with heat. A preferred designation is linear and
cross-linked. The polymer chains in linear plastics remain linear and separate
after moulding. The chains in cross-linked plastics are initially linear but become
joined irreversibly during moulding into an interconnected molecular network.
Cross-linking can be initiated by heat, chemical agents, irradiation, or a
combination of these. Some plastics can be either cross-linked or linear. The
cross-linked form is more resistant to heat, chemical attack, and creep. On the
other hand, the linear form is less brittle, more easily processed, and better
adapted to complex shapes.

Glass fiber reinforcement improves the strength of plastics by a factor of two or

more. At substantially increased cost, a further improvement is obtainable by
carbon fiber reinforcement. These relatively new materials with 10 to 40 percent
carbon have tensile strengths as high as 40 ksi. Compared to glass-reinforced
resins, they have less mould shrinkage, lower coefficients of expansion, and

7
improved creep resistance, wear resistance, and toughness. The new fiber-
reinforced plastics are being increasingly used for machine and structural
components requiring light weight and high strength-to-weight ratios.

Properties of common plastics are given in tables. A comparison of properties of

thermoplastics with and without glass reinforcement is also provided.
Thermosetting plastics benefit similarly from glass reinforcement, the most
commercially important being polyester and epoxy resins. Published values
reflect values obtained from standardized molding conditions that are simple,
economical, and readily reproduced. Strength values corresponding to actual
moulding conditions may differ significantly. Furthermore, temperature and rate
of loading influence the strength of plastics to a greater extent than they do the
strength of metals, thus requiring additional effort for the proper selection of a
plastic. Recall that thermoplastics are generally impact resistant and thermosets
are generally heat resistant.

08. Composites
A composite is formed from two or more constituent materials each dissimilar
and having different properties. Within the composite, the materials remain
distinct and separate on a macroscopic level. Composite materials are not
uniform throughout the matrix and are not macroscopically homogeneous.
Composite materials are therefore not isotropic nor do they possess uniform
directional properties like metals. Since a composite is made from combinations
of materials they can be designed to improve thermal and mechanical properties.
One major advantage of some composites is their high strength-to-weight ratio,
which can be four times that of high-strength metals. The stiffness-to-weight
ratios can be seven times that of high-strength metal. As common examples,
engineering composites are combinations of strong fibers such as glass, carbon,
and boron bonded together in a material like nylon, epoxy, or polyester.

The constituents of a composite material are comprised of matrix materials and

reinforcement materials. Various plastic resins and sometimes even metals are
used as matrix materials. Common reinforcement materials are glass, carbon,
SiC, and Kevlar - aramid, which can be in the form of short fibers, long fibers,
continuous fibers, randomly oriented fibers, woven fibers, or particulates - fillers.
Particulates can act as reinforcement although they are usually added to a matrix
to reduce costs or achieve specific material properties. Examples would be glass
beads added to a thermoplastic matrix to reduce cost or mica added to a
phenolic matrix to improve electrical properties and/or material processing.

As the names suggest, reinforcement materials provide improved physical and

mechanical properties - strength and stiffness - and the matrix material supports,
surrounds and maintains the position of and transfers load to the reinforcement
material. Because reinforcing material is often made from fibers of larger pieces
of the material, the composite benefits from the size effect. The fibers of smaller

8
diameter have higher tensile strengths than the parent material. Glass, for
example, has a relatively low tensile strength, yet the glass fiber has a much
higher strength than glass in sheet form.

The directionality and orientation of the composite material determines its

properties and behavior. The orientation of reinforcement fibers within the
composite such as parallel, woven, random, wound, and angled can be used to
take best advantage of the directional properties of the material. Where a single
layer has strong directionality properties, structures of multiple plies or laminates
are employed where each ply is arranged to provide improved strength and
stiffness. In general, because of the influence of directionality of the composite
material, a minimum of at least two Young’s moduli, a shear modulus, and a
Poisson ratio are needed for the analysis of stiffness.

09. Materials Selection Charts

The information contained in this section is a brief overview of Ashby’s materials
selection charts that graphically present information concisely to assist in
selecting types of materials based on properties such as stiffness, strength, and
density. The information contained in the charts is for rough calculations and not
for final design analysis. Actual properties of a material selected should be used
in final design followed by experimental verification and testing.

 Strength-Stiffness Chart
Various materials are plotted in the next illustration for strength versus Young’s
modulus. The plotted values for strength are: yield strength for metals and
polymers, compressive strength for ceramics and glasses, tensile strength for
composites, and tear strength for elastomers. Design requirements for values of
strength or Young’s modulus suggest materials to select. For design
requirements that are bounded by elastic design or a ratio of strength versus
Young’s modulus, the proper materials can be selected or compared by:

S2
 Energy storage per volume as in springs, C
E
S
 Radius of bending as in elastic hinges, C
E
3
2
S
 Deflection under load as in diaphragm design, C
E

For example, if we want to maximize energy storage per volume before failure,
S2
we want to maximize the value of  C . Without other design limitations,
E
inspection of the chart shows that engineering ceramics have the highest

9
 S2
allowable , followed by elastomers, steels, composites, polymers, woods, and
E
polymer foams having decreased values.

Strength S versus modulus E. Strength S is yield strength for metals and polymers, compressive
strength for ceramics, tear strength of elastomers, and tensile strength for composites. From
Ashby, M. F., Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon Press, 1992.

10
  Strength-Density Chart
For a wide variety of materials, strength ranges from 0.1 MPa to 10,000 MPa
while density ranges from 0.1 to 20 Mg/m3. The next chart illustrates strength-to-
S
density relationships for various materials. The guide lines of constants  C ,

23 12
S S
 C and  C are used respectively in minimum weight design of rotating
 
disks, beams or shafts, and plates. The value of the constants increase as the
guide lines are displaced upward and to the left. Materials with the greatest
strength-to-weight ratios are located in the upper left corner.

Strength S versus density  . Strength S is yield strength for metals and polymers, compressive
strength for ceramics, tear strength for elastomers, and tensile strength for composites. From
Ashby, M. F., Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon Press, 1992.

11
  Strength-Temperature Chart
Only ceramics have strength above 1000°C, metals become soft at 800°C, and
polymers have little strength above 200°C. The next chart presents an overview
of high temperature strength for various materials. The inset figure explains the
shape of the lozenges. Strength at temperature, S(T), is yield strength at
temperature for metals and polymers, compressive strength at temperature for
ceramics, tear strength at temperature for elastomers, and tensile strength at
temperature for composites. For engineering alloys, the strength is short-term
yield strength for one hour loading. The strengths are lower for long loading times
like 10,000 h, and would involve design for creep and/or creep rupture.

Strength at temperature, S(T), versus temperature, T. Strength at temperature S(T), is yield

strength at temperature for metals and polymers, compressive strength at temperature for
ceramics, tear strength at temperature of elastomers, and tensile strength at temperature for
composites. The inset figure explains the shape of the lozenges. From Ashby, M. F., Materials
Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon Press, 1992.

12
10. Engineering Material Selection Process
As already stated, the selection of materials and the processes used in
fabrication are integral parts of the design of a system component. The goal of
this section is to give the engineering student an introduction to the process of
making an intelligent choice when selecting materials. Although material
selection is based on experience and know-how, this section presents a rational
method for selection of materials. The table below presents a list of general
performance characteristics for a machine component application. Once the
characteristics of the application and the function of the component are
understood, the material selection is based on availability of the material in the
form and shape desired, total cost of the material including initial and future cost,
material properties as they relate to service performance requirements, and the
processing of the material into a finished part. Other factors to be considered in
the selection of a material include: the limits of the materials properties,
pressures to reduce cost, increased product/machine energy efficiency through
weight reduction, material shortages, ease of recovery and recycling, disposal,
legal and health issues.

General Characteristics of the Application

 Capacity: power, load, thermal

 Motion: kinematics, vibration, dynamics, controllability
 Interfaces: appearance, space limits, load types, environmental
compatibility
 Cost: initial, operating
 Life
 Reliability
 Safety and Health
 Noise
 Producibility
 Maintainability
 Geometry: size, shape
 Rigidity
 Elastic stability
 Weight
 Uncertainties: load, environment, cost

In the design process, system performance specifications are established, then

components are identified and specifications for their performance are developed
from the overall design concept of the system. The specification of selection of
materials typically takes place when the detailed drawings of the components are
prepared. The next image illustrates a material selection and evaluation process
for a component. The material selection process typically involves satisfying
more than one service performance requirement.

13
 Material selection for a component

The material selection process can be accomplished by weighing the various

performance requirements with respect to the significant material properties that
control performance. The specifications are then transformed into material
properties, and materials that have the desired properties and can meet the
performance specifications are identified. Performance, cost, and availability are
considered to arrive at a single or small set of materials for the component. The
smaller group of materials becomes the candidate materials for further evaluation
and possible testing in the detail design phase. Tests may be conducted to
eliminate or rank the materials. Extensive testing may be required to establish
the integrity and variability of the materials, the effect of manufacturing
processes, and the effect of mating parts.

Indeed the entire system, subassembly, product, or component may be

evaluated in simulated or actual service conditions tests. Also, it is not
uncommon that components placed into service are monitored as operational
experience begins to accumulate and if service failures occur, material selection
and/or design corrections are implemented and replacement parts are readied for
scheduled maintenance and replacement. Material selection - like the design
itself - is an iterative decision-making process of synthesis requiring experience,
training, and engineering know-how combined with the art to select a material
that will be suitable for the task. Past experience with material selection yields an
understanding of material systems, familiarity with specific engineering materials,
an understanding of the properties of a small repertoire of materials. This
experience is helpful when the prior learning is applicable to a new selection
problem. Experience allows the designer to rely less on the materials engineer
and metallurgist.

11. Material Selection Factors

The principal selection factors that have a bearing on the selection of a material
and fulfill a design requirement are:

 Availability
 Cost
 Material properties—mechanical, physical, chemical, dimensional

14
  Manufacturing processes—machining, formability, joinability, finishing and
coatings

The table below lists sub-factors related to these important selection parameters.
Not using the proper material selection factors and choosing an inappropriate
material can compromise function of the material, service life, and cost of the
component and product.

Characteristics of Material

 Properties, mechanical - strength, elasticity, hardness, Poisson’s ratio,

damping, tensile, compression, impact, toughness, fatigue, creep, wear,
stiffness, shear
 Properties, physical - density, electrical, magnetic, optical, conduction,
expansion, flammability, melting point, specific heat, emissivity,
absorptivity
 Properties, chemical - corrosion resistance, degradation, composition,
bonding, structure, oxidation, stability, embrittlement, environmental
factors
 Properties, dimensional - size, shape, flatness, profile, surface finish,
stability, tolerances
 Manufacturing Processes - castability, coatability, heat treatability,
hardenability, formability, machinability, joinability, weldability
 Availability - in stock, order elsewhere, order requirements, suppliers,
special manufacturing processing required
 Cost - raw material, quantity required, predicted service life, additional
fabrication required
 Legal - code compliance, environmental, health, recyclability, disposability,
product liability

Service Performance Specifications

Once the general characteristics of the application are known, they can be
reduced to service performance requirements. Examples of service performance
conditions would be fluctuating loads, high temperatures, and a highly oxidizing
atmosphere. The service performance, also called performance specifications or
functional requirements, for a machine component needs to be related to the
properties of the material. This is because the properties of materials are
indicators of service performance, i.e., wear is related to hardness, stiffness is
related to modulus of elasticity, weight is related to density. The designer must
be able to translate the service performance requirements into select material
properties.

Another view of this is that the general service performance characteristics and
described specifically by stresses, motions, and applied forces need to be
translated into mechanical properties of the material. That is, the material must

15
have the characteristics - properties, cost, and availability - suited for the service
conditions, loads, and stresses.

Availability

Even though the potential material candidates have the required material
properties, they must also be available. Answering the following questions can
assist the designer in whether the material candidates meet availability criteria:

 What is the total time to obtain the material?

 Is there more than one supplier that can provide the material?
 Is the material available in the geometry configuration required?
 What is the limit on the amount of material available?
 What is the probability of the material being available in the future?
 Is special processing required?
 Will special processing limit the availability of the material?

It is the designer’s responsibility to establish a timeline for procurement of

materials. The time to obtain a material needs to coincide with the time dictated
by the schedule.

Economics

Cost should be used as an initial factor in screening materials, yet true prices of
materials for a component can only be obtained through quotes from vendors as
the pricing structure of many engineering materials is complex. Relative costs of
some engineering materials are presented in the graph below, which pictures
costs of various materials in dollars per pound and dollars per cubic inch. The
most appropriate cost to consider is the total life-cycle cost. Total cost includes:

 Initial material cost

 Cost of processing and manufacturing
 Cost of installation
 Cost of operation and maintenance.

Other factors to consider include:

 Anticipated service life

 Shipping and handling expense
 Recyclability
 Disposal

16
 Cost of materials in bulk quantities

Manufacturing Processes

It is important to recognize the links between material properties and uses of the
materials. Although related to material properties, the manufacturing process will
influence the type of material that can be used and the material will dictate the
type of manufacturing process that can be employed. Also, the material may
impose limitations on the design and manufacturability of the component. In other
words, the methods of manufacturing, forming, joining, and fastening are dictated

17
by the material choice, and likewise if a certain manufacturing process will be
used to fabricate a component then the material choice may be limited.

Formability and Joinability

The ability of forming, joining, and fastening materials is an important

consideration in material selection. The material must be able to be formed,
joined, or fastened into the desired shape by shearing, blanking, piercing,
bending, spinning, drawing, peening, welding, brazing, soldering, threading,
riveting, stapling, or adhesive bonding.

Finishing and Coatings

The finishing and/or coating ability of a design material is another factor in the
selection of a component material. For example, low carbon steel trencher teeth
when hard faced results in a wear-resistant and lower cost part. Table below lists
heat treatments, surface treatments, and coatings.

A methodology of materials selection is based on the engineering performance

considerations for a given application, the relative importance of the required
material properties, and the availability and final cost of the component. The goal
is to select an appropriate material to best meet the demands of the design
requirement. For a given application, the approach is to identify the connection
between the functional requirements and the material requirements and thus
reduce the number of candidate materials from which to select. When selecting
among candidates the choice in some cases can be unambiguous or the reason
for difficulties of choosing may be revealed.

Although material selection involves iterative decision making, when we have a

description or definition of the part or component, we recognize that the steps in
selecting a material for a component follows a typical path:

 Determine the purpose of the component. Establish the service

performance requirements for the part. The service performance or
operational conditions for the component need to be well understood as
these conditions influence the material selection. For example, a gear
operating under heavy load and high speed at an elevated temperature
would probably require a different material than a low-speed, low-torque
gear operating at room temperature. This first step may require an
analysis of the material requirements a determination of the conditions of
operation and the environment that the product must withstand, so that the
service performance conditions can be translated into corresponding
critical material properties.

 Select a material that appears suitable for the purpose. This second step
may initially involve screening and ranking candidate materials before a
candidate material is selected. Knowledge of the material groups—

18
 plastics, metals, ceramics, and composites—and the type of component in
which the material has previously been used, allows the designer to
compare materials knowing what heat treatment and other processes to
use when specifying the material. Availability, cost, and fabrication should
be considered at the onset of the material selection process even though
a detailed cost is not possible to attain. Besides experience, a rational
method of selecting materials is to utilize failure analysis of similar parts
that have failed in service. Materials unlikely to fail based on the
knowledge gained from a failure analysis for the component should be
selected. Since service performance conditions are complex, usually more
than one material property is required to identify the properties important
in a mode of failure. When selecting materials, it should be kept in mind
that the useful life of most machines and components ends with fatigue
failure or surface deterioration. After listing material considerations, select
a few candidate materials that best match the critical material properties,
cost, and availability constraints. Reconsider formability, fabrication,
fastening and joining, availability, and cost of the material as well as the
cost due to the production process.

 Make a final evaluation of the candidate materials including manufacturing

processes and finishing methods if necessary and make a final
recommendation. Select the best material for the application. The best
material for a particular application is the one that provides the best value,
defined as the ratio of overall performance over total cost, and defined by
Availability  Performance
the material selection index SI  . The higher the
Cost
value of SI, the better the choice. The selection index can be used to rank
order materials. Unfortunately, in many cases, the best engineering
solution and the best economic solution for a given design do not usually
match, and the final material will be a compromise that yields an optimal
selection that combines sets of requirements.

 Test. Once a material candidate has met the material properties,

availability, and cost criteria, it is recommended that the candidate
selected be tested. The tests should simulate the product operating
conditions. If the selected materials satisfy all the requirements, then there
is no need to select an alternate candidate. As a final step, the product
itself may need to be tested and the material selections re-evaluated.
Whether or not an extensive testing program is required depends on total
cost, service conditions, and experience with the material and the
application. The degree of uncertainty in the material selection with
respect to performance and risk needs to be weighed..

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12. Materials Selection for Modeling and Simulation with SolidWorks
Before running any Modeling and Simulation study, we must define all the
necessary material properties required by the corresponding analysis type. All
material properties are defined through the Material dialog box. For example, the
modulus of elasticity is required for static, frequency, and buckling studies, while
thermal conductivity is needed for thermal studies.

Use the Material dialog box to create and edit custom materials or libraries, to
apply materials from the SolidWorks material library, or to establish material
favorites.

In the Material dialog box, the properties are highlighted to indicate the
mandatory and optional properties. A red description indicates the property is
mandatory based on the active study type and the material model. A blue
description indicates an optional property.

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You can define material properties at any time before running the analysis.
Defining materials in Simulation does not update the material assigned to the
CAD model in SolidWorks.

 Material Properties in Simulation

 Elastic Modulus E . Elastic Modulus in the global X, Y, and Z directions.
For a linear elastic material, the elastic modulus in a certain direction is
defined as the stress value in that direction that causes a unit strain in the
same direction. Also, it is equal to the ratio between the stress and the
associated strain in that direction. Elastic Moduli are used in static,
nonlinear, frequency, dynamic, and buckling analyses. The modulus of
elasticity was first introduced by Young and is often called Young’s
Modulus.

 Shear Modulus, G . The shear modulus, also called modulus of rigidity, is

the ratio between the shearing stress in a plane divided by the associated
shearing strain. Shear Moduli are used in static, nonlinear, frequency,
dynamic and buckling analyses.

 Poisson’s Ratio,  . Extension of the material in the longitudinal direction is

accompanied by contractions in the lateral directions. If a body is
subjected to a tensile stress in the X-direction, then Poisson’s Ratio is
defined as the ratio of lateral contraction in the Y-direction divided by the
longitudinal strain in the X-direction. Poisson’s ratios are dimensionless
quantities. For isotropic materials, the Poisson’s ratios in all planes are
equal. Poisson ratios are used in static, nonlinear, frequency, dynamic and
buckling analyses.

 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion,  . The Coefficient of Thermal

Expansion is defined as the change in length per unit length per one
degree change in temperature - change in normal strain per unit
temperature. You specify the average coefficient of thermal expansion that
is based on the reference temperature T0 associated with the stress-free
1 lT  lT0
condition    . Coefficients of thermal expansion are used in
l T  T0
static, frequency, and buckling analyses if thermal loading is used.
Frequency analysis uses this property only if you consider the effect of
loads on the frequencies in-plane loading.

 Thermal Conductivity. The Thermal Conductivity indicates the

effectiveness of a material in transferring heat energy by conduction. It is
defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material
per unit temperature difference. The units of thermal conductivity are

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 Btu/in sec oF in the English system and W/m K in the SI system. Thermal
conductivity is used in steady state and transient thermal analyses.

 Density,  . The Density is mass per unit volume. Density units are lb/in3
in the English system and kg/m3 in the SI system. Density is used in static,
nonlinear, frequency, dynamic, buckling, and thermal analyses. Static and
buckling analyses use this property only if you define body forces - gravity
and/or centrifugal.

 Specific Heat. The Specific Heat of a material is the quantity of heat

needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the material by one
degree of temperature. The units of specific heat are Btu in/lbf oF in
English system and J/kg K in the SI system. This property is used in
transient thermal analysis only.

 Material Damping Ratio. The material damping ratio allows the definition
of damping as a material property. This property is used in dynamic
analysis to calculate equivalent modal damping ratios.

Summary
In this lecture we start discussing the selection of materials in engineering
modeling and simulation, fundamental engineering modeling principles, including:

 Strength Properties from Penetration Hardness Tests

 Use of Handbook Data for Material Strength Properties
 Machinability
 Cast Iron, Steel, Nonferrous Alloys, Plastics and Composites
 Materials Selection Charts
 Engineering Material Selection Process
 Material Selection Factors
 Materials Selection for Modeling and Simulation with SolidWorks

References
 Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Fundamentals, Concord, Massachusetts,
United States, 2012

 Engineering Modeling and Simulation in SolidWorks – Tutorials

 Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Simulation, Concord, Massachusetts,

United States, 2014

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  Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Flow Simulation, Concord,
Massachusetts, United States, 2014

Readings and Resources:

 Cook, R. – Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1995

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