FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CONTRACEPTIVE USE AMONG WOMEN OF

REPRODUCTIVE AGE IN UGANDA.

BY

KOMUJUNI JOSELINE

18/U/BRD/313/GV

SUPERVISOR: DR. MUSHOMI JOHN

SIGNATURE: …………………

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

ATHROPOLOGY AND POPULATION STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DEMOGRAPHY
AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH OF KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

MAY 2022
DECLARATION
I declare that the information and all the views in this research proposal are truthfully my
original work, and has not been submitted to any university or institution therefore I submit it to
Kyambogo University for the award of a degree in demography and reproductive health

Komujuni Joseline

……………………………………..

i
APPROVAL
This is to certify that this research proposal is approved for submission to department of
Sociology, Anthropology and Population studies of Kyambogo University.

Signature…………………………….… Date…………………….…….

Dr. Mushomi John

Lecturer

Department of Sociology, Anthropology and population studies

Kyambogo University

ii
DEDICATION
This report is graciously dedicated to my family especially my parents Mr. Mugisa Mathew and
Mrs. Tinkasiimire Everce, brothers Sabiiti Nelson and Muganyizi Rogers for their continuous
financial, moral, emotional and spiritual support they rendered to me throughout my education.
May the Almighty God reward you abundantly.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special gratitude to those who have been there for me and assisted me in one way or another in
the preparation, compilation and completion of this report.

First and foremost, my sincere gratitude to all my university lecturers for their tireless support
and motivation throughout my academic journey.

Gratitude also goes to my family especially my parents for their continuous support, guidance
and motivation.

Appreciation goes to the almighty God for the gift of life, wisdom and strength in the completion
of this research.

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Contents
DECLARATION..........................................................................................................................................i
APPROVAL...................................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................................................iv
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem statement.............................................................................................................................3
1.3 General objective...............................................................................................................................4
1.4 Specific objectives.............................................................................................................................4
1.5 Hypothesis.........................................................................................................................................4
1.6 scope of the study..............................................................................................................................4
1.6 Significance of the Study...................................................................................................................4
1.7 Theoretical model..............................................................................................................................5
1.8 Conceptual framework.......................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................7
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Socio-demographic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of reproductive age...7
2.2 Economic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of reproductive age in Uganda.8
2.3 Access to media and health facility factors......................................................................................10
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................11
3.3 Sources of data................................................................................................................................11
3.4 Study variables................................................................................................................................12
3.4.1 Dependent variable...................................................................................................................12
3.4.2 Independent variables...............................................................................................................13
3.5 Derivation of the study sample........................................................................................................13
3.6 Data analysis....................................................................................................................................13
3.7 Ethical issues/ considerations..........................................................................................................14
3.8 Challenges.......................................................................................................................................14
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................14

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AIDS : ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME

STI : SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

UBS : UGANDA BUREAU OF STATISTICS

UDHS : UGANDA DEMOGRAPHIC HEALTH SURVEY

WHO : WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION

UNFPGS : UGANDA NATIONAL FAMILY PLANNING GUIDELINES AND

STANDARDS

CPR : CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE RATE

HBM : HEALTH BELIEF MODEL

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction
This chapter includes the background of the study, problem statement, the main and the specific
objectives of the study. In addition, the chapter includes, significance of the study, theoretical
and conceptual frameworks

1.1 Background of the study

Contraceptives are used globally to space or limit pregnancies, and they are categorized into
modern and traditional methods. The use of modern contraceptives can be considered as one of
the most important health interventions that enable women to plan their births and determine the
number of children to have (WHO, 2018).Family planning is defined by World Health
Organization (WHO) as a voluntary and informed decision by an individual or couple on the
number of children to have and when to have them.(Andi et al., 2014).Reproductive age group:
My construct of reproductive age group refers to women who are sexually active and are at risk
of unplanned pregnancy (WHO, 2018).

Data gathered from Uganda and across the globe indicates some knowledge gaps in
understanding the low utilization of modern contraception despite the availability of family
planning services. WHO (2016) reported an estimated 225 million women of reproductive-age in
developing countries are not using any modern contraceptive method despite their desire to delay
or stop childbearing. The contraceptive prevalence rate in sub-Saharan Africa ranged from
23.6% to 28.5% between 2008 and 2015, compared to 66.7% in Latin America and the
Caribbean (WHO, 2016). This was an indication that contraceptive use in sub-Saharan Africa is
low, whereby many women become pregnant without having any previous plans or desire to
increase their family size (Kahsay et al., 2018; Sedgh et al., 2014).

According to Blanc et al. (2009), in developing countries, contraceptive use among young
women, whether married or unmarried, involves a lot of experimentation and is inconsistent.
Additionally, young women face many barriers to the use of family planning services, which
include fear, embarrassment, cost, and lack of knowledge (Blanc et al. 2009). In the Ugandan

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context, only 10% of all Ugandan women and 14% of married women age 15-24 are using any
contraceptive method(Asiimwe et al., 2013).furthermore, According to 2011 UDHS, the use of
modern contraceptive methods in the country has increased when compared to the 2000/2001
estimates of 14%. Nevertheless, the estimates point to a low utilization of modern contraceptives
in the country. This situation certainly contributes to the increase in the number of unwanted
pregnancies. In addition, the high unmet need for family planning in the country (34%) worsens
the issue of unwanted pregnancies particularly among the adolescents. To this end, a high
fertility rate of 6.2 children per woman would not be surprising. As a matter of fact, the country
has been cited to have one of the highest total fertility rates worldwide .(Andi et al., 2014).

Despite the wide range of contraceptive methods made available to women, there are still records
of low usage with increasing reports of unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions. The use of
modern contraceptive methods prevents unplanned pregnancies and unsafe abortions, reduce
infant mortality, prevent pregnancy-related health risks in women, and slows population growth,
and promotes the health of the population (Beson et al., 2018; WHO, 2018). In a recent report
WHO (2018) found contraceptive use has increased in many parts of the world, but there are still
over 200 million women of reproductive age in developing countries who are not using a modern
contraceptive method but would want to avoid pregnancy (Sedgh et al., 2014; WHO, 2018).
Despite the gains in contraceptive prevalence rates, indicators are showing slow progress in the
uptake of contraceptives, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Obwoya et al., 2018).

In Uganda as in many other countries, major factors associated with contraceptive use are
women’s age, education, and socioeconomic status. Ugandan women who are more educated and
wealthier are more likely to use contraception compared with illiterate and less wealthy women
(UBOS and Macro International 2007). Similarly, women who use contraceptives tend to have a
better quality of life, higher social status, and greater autonomy. This association has been
highlighted in a study in Nigeria by Osemwenkha, who emphasized that contraceptive use has
the power to reduce fertility considerably and ultimately to improve maternal and child health
(Osemwenkha 2004).Prevention of unplanned pregnancy has been compared with disease
prevention programs and there seems to be a difference in the value or urgency for contraceptive
services. This can be related to the fact that there are women, who do not have the desire to have
children although they are sexually active, but doing nothing to fulfill this desire of avoiding

2
pregnancy or postponing future births (Cleland et al., 2014; Johnson-Mallard et al., 2017).
Approximately 70% of unwanted pregnancy is associated with nonuse or discontinuation in the
use of contraceptives among women wishing to avoid pregnancy (Cleland et al., 2014; Sedgh et
al, 2014). The root cause of the unmet need for family planning has been attributed to lack of
access to services with an emphasis on physical proximity, lack of knowledge or ignorance of
methods, fear of side effects, husband’s disapproval, among many others (Machiyama et al.,
2017).

1.2 Problem statement

Uganda still struggles with a low contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) of 30%, which is lower
than that of her neighbors, Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania, which had a CPR of 46%, 52%, and
34%, respectively, at the time of their last surveys (ICF International 2012).in order to reduce
high fertility Uganda government has implemented the use of contraceptives as an important
strategy for addressing the health of the population, as well as social and economic issues.
Researchers have indicated that a high number of women would want to postpone childbearing
for two or more years but are not using any contraceptive method (Bawah et al., 2019).Due to
numerous challenges encountered by them (Atiglo & Codjoe, 2019) Unsafe abortion is a key
proximate cause of maternal mortality in Uganda, and the associated complications have
serious public health implications for the country. Unintended pregnancy and its related
consequences such as unsafe abortion result from the nonuse of contraceptives. The unmet need
for contraception among married women aged 15-49 years in Uganda was estimated at 35%
whiles contraceptive prevalence rate was 28% in 2016 (UDHS, 2016). There is a decline in the
use of modern contraceptives among reproductive-age women (20-49 years) in Uganda.The
consequences of nonuse of contraceptives include increased maternal mortality rate (Nettey et
al., 2015). This has been identified as a major issue in the Uganda where women often die from
the consequences of unplanned pregnancies and specifically unsafe abortions. The problem to be
addressed by this study is that reproductive-age women (15-49 years) living in the most parts of
the country are not using modern contraceptives despite their availability in the health facilities.
There is limited evidence on perception, threats, benefits, barriers, or challenges in the use of
modern contraceptive methods in Uganda.

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1.3 General objective
To assess the factors associated with contraceptive use among women of reproductive age in
Uganda.

1.4 Specific objectives

To identify the demographic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of
reproductive age in Uganda.

To examine the Socio economic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of
reproductive age in Uganda.

To identify the challenges faced by women of reproductive age in accessing and utilizing
Contraceptive?

1.5 Hypothesis
Mothers with at least primary level of education use any contraception more than mothers with
no education.

Mothers of a higher wealth status use any contraception highly compared to those in poor
households.

1.6 scope of the study

The study was conducted in Uganda which is located in Africa's Eastern region , it is bordered
by Kenya in the east, south Sudan in the north, Democratic Republic of Congo in the west,
Rwanda in the south west and Tanzania in the south.
The emphasis of this research is about the factors associated with contraceptive use among
women of reproductive age in Uganda.

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1.6 Significance of the Study
The research project is very important because it is geared towards identifying the perceptions of
modern contraceptive usage and contributes to ways of improving the acceptance of modern
contraceptives among reproductive-age women (20-49 years) in Uganda, thereby improving
maternal and child health. Improving the reproductive health of women in developing countries
has been linked to the effective practice of fertility control, such as accessibility to modern
contraceptive services (Debebe et al., 2017). There is, therefore, the need to work towards
improving modern contraceptive use in Uganda. The role of the researcher is to identify a
roadmap intended to curtail maternal and neonatal deaths through improvement in reproductive
health programs such as the use of modern contraceptives. Data gathered from research
participants will also present an understanding of the perceptions and obstacles to using modern
contraceptives.
Understanding the perception of contraceptive utilization will contribute to the reformation of
policies and improve interventions for this group of women to increase the use of modern
contraceptives, and subsequently, promote the use of contraceptives in Uganda. Promoting
modern contraceptive usage may result in the creation of healthier families, communities, and
nations (Global Health Program, 2012); which is a key objective in public health. Reproductive-
age women may access contraceptive services to be able to enjoy its numerous benefits
associated with the user. The reproductive-age women may feel empowered to contribute to
improving the use of modern contraceptives, thereby improving the health of other women in
Uganda.

1.7 Theoretical model

The Health Belief Model

The HBM is a health behavior model that helps determine factors influencing the use of modern
contraceptives. Researchers indicated that individual factors account for the use or nonuse of
modern contraceptives, hence the application of the HBM to assess the factors associated with
modern contraceptives utilization (Kahsay et al., 2018). The constructs of the HBM have are also

5
 used to identify the contraceptive behavior of people in a diverse context. One of the studies used
the HBM to describe how women who experience unmet needs for family planning encounter
constraining factors that set a barrier between their preferences on the number and timing of their
pregnancies or births (Kahsay et al., 2018). This HBM framework identifies the potential barriers
and cues to action in the use of contraceptives. When the women are faced with barriers to the
use of contraceptives, their ability to avoid unintended pregnancy is reticent (Kahsay et al., 2018;
Sedgh et al., 2016). For instance, WHO relates the barriers of contraception to health concerns,
as well as social disapproval (WHO, 2018). The HBM is expected to help identify the internal
and external stimuli that trigger a perceived threat to pregnancy and facilitate the decision of
using contraception to address the threat. The description of the HBM is presented below.

1.8 Conceptual framework

Here the study looks at socio-demographic factors, economic factors and access to media as the
main potential influencers of contraceptive use among reproductive women in Uganda

SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

 Age
 Number of living children CONTRACEPTIVE USE
 Residence
 marital status

ACCESS TO MEDIA

 Frequency of
reading

 Newspapers

 Listening to radio
ECONOMIC
FACTORS

 Wealth index
 Education
 Husband`s 6
education
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
This chapter, includes review of what has been written about my study topic from the scholarly
articles and other sources such as surveys and books which provide a broader context

2.1 Socio-demographic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of

reproductive age
In the study on contextual influences on modern contraceptive use among women in Kenya,
Malawi, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, and Ghana, (Rob et al. 2007) noted that women in
the younger ages (especially the age group 20-29) were more likely to use modern contraceptive
methods. These findings are supported by studies carried-out in the early 1980s (Bongaarts and
Potter, 1983). Their study noted that age specific contraceptive prevalence rate increase with age
of women until a maximum is reached in the age group 30 – 34 and declines at older ages. With
regards to parity, the consensus is that contraceptive use is more likely among women with
higher number of surviving children (Rutenburg, et al., 1991; Thomas et al., 2000). Also, many
women reject contraception because bearing and raising children is the path to respect and
dignity (Cherkaoui, 2000; Barnett and stein, 2001).

A recent comparative study on the Socio-Demographic Factors Associated with Contraceptive

Use among Young Women in Comparison with Older Women in Uganda found that the key
factors associated with current use of modern contraceptives among younger married women age
15-24 in both 2006 and 2011 were residence and desire for children, while among women age
25-34, the significant factors associated with contraceptive use in both rounds were education
level, household wealth and desire for children and suggested that increasing secondary
education for women and improving the livelihood of the population overall is important. Family
planning programs should be intensified to meet the needs of young married women in rural
areas of the country.(Asiimwe et al., 2014)

A study was conducted in Ethiopia to compare the utilization of modern contraceptives in 2011.
It compared two cohorts; those from urban and those from rural settings. The study found that
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current modern contraceptive use among married women in the urban area was 293 (87.5%) and
243 (72.8%) in rural areas (Bogale et al., 2011).

Findings from rural Lagos, Southwest of Nigeria showed that there was a discrepancy in modern
contraceptive use among married and single women in May of 2015. The overall utilization of
contraceptive use was 51.9% with nonuse of contraceptives among married women being 43%
and 67% among singles (Afolabi et al., 2015).

There is an extensive body of literature concerning modern contraceptive use among women in
Uganda. A questionable aspect however is whether the impact of factors associated with modern
contraceptive use has remained the same in the recent past. Demographic Health Survey (DHS)
data of women in the period 1995-2011 was adopted to establish an understanding of this issue.
The focus in the investigations was none pregnant sexually active women. Variations in patterns
of modern contraceptive use were assessed by socio-economic and demographic characteristics
of women using a logistic regression based on a complex survey design. In the results, an upward
trend in modern contraceptive use - from 11.6% in 1995 to 32.1% in 2011 - shows that progress
has been made in this regard. Increased odds of modern contraceptive use across the study period
were noted among women with primary and post-primary education, those in urban areas,
women in the higher wealth quartiles and those with a higher number of surviving children (p <
0.01) (Gakidou & Vayena, 2013).

2.2 Economic factors associated with contraceptive use among women of reproductive age
in Uganda
The fact that modern contraceptive methods have cost implications, the wealth status of woman
play an important role in enhancing FP utilization. Imposing or raising fees of contraceptive
methods deters poor people from using the services (Creanga, et al., 2011 )In the event that
formal fees on contraceptives are low or non-existent, these study reveals that other costs
associated with the services and related aspects (for example, transport) could hinder women
from seeking contraceptive services. A study of adolescents in Uganda does not reveal otherwise
on this issue (Wangei, et al., 2001).

The major aim of the study was to examine the access and utilization of Contraceptive use
among rural women in Uganda, with special emphasis on Namasuba village, Wakiso District. It

8
focused on both key informants (health care providers) and rural women, combined with a
couple of male respondents incorporated into the study. As per the study findings, a scope of
social and economic components can impact women's access to Contraception. These
circumstances may include segregation or stereotyping, isolation and denial of information on
the availability of contraception provided on the market. These results further revealed that rural
women, who knew about contraceptives and their use, used such learning to care for themselves
and living a safe sexual life. In terms of possible approaches to enhance access and utilization of
Contraceptive use, respondents suggested that modern contraceptives ought to be provided free
of charge and extended out to the household level through community outreaches and dialogues,
changing the undesirable attitudes towards women's access to these contraceptives particularly
the opposing generalizations labeled to them as promiscuous. (Nakirijja et al., n.d.)

Using in-depth interviews (N = 41), this qualitative study investigated major sources of
knowledge about contraception and perceptions of contraceptive side effects among married
Ugandan men. Men primarily reported knowledge of contraceptives based on partner’s
experience of side effects, partner’s knowledge from health providers and mass media
campaigns, and partner’s knowledge from her peers. Men were less likely to report contraceptive
knowledge from health care providers, mass media campaigns, or peers. Men’s concerns about
various contraceptive methods were broadly associated with failure of the method to work
properly, adverse health effects on women, and severe adverse health effects on children. Own or
partner’s human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status did not impact on contraceptive
knowledge.(Thummalachetty et al., 2017)

Qazi and Hashmi compared the methods of contraceptive use among women in 2010 and they
found that most women preferred modern methods as compared to traditional ones; Modern
contraceptive method was used by 216 (75%) and traditional method by 72 (25%) (Qazi,
Hashmi, Raza, Soomro, & Ghauri, 2010).

2.3 Access to media and health facility factors

Further, reduced odds of modern contraceptive use across the study period were noted among
married women and those in cohabiting relationships (p < 0.05). The study however
demonstrates variations in the impact of these factors across the study period. All the same,

9
efforts towards enhancing modern contraceptive use in the near future should focus on
enhancing: (i) literacy levels of woman particularly, (ii) access to and affordability of the
services, and (iii) awareness campaigns on family planning use targeting both men and women.
(Andi et al., 2014)

Utilization of modern contraceptives is low especially in developing countries where the burden
of unplanned and ill-spaced pregnancies together with morbidity and mortality that result from
sexually transmitted infections, the HIV/AIDS scourge included, is unacceptably high , reports
that have also been supported by (Igbodekwe et al., 2014).

In 2015, a finding of a study that was conducted in 2008 assessing contraceptive use among
adolescents (15 – 19 years) in Ghana was published in the BMC women’s health journal. It was
found out that the overall contraceptive utilization in the sample of 1037 women was 18.3 %
comprising 14.6 % of modern methods and 3.7 % of traditional methods (Nyarko, 2015).

10
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction

This chapter explains the various methods and procedures through which my research will be
carried out. It presents the sources of data, variable selection data analysis, ethical considerations
and challenges.

3.1 Area of Study

The study covered the whole of Uganda including West Nile, North, Karamoja, Eastern Central
2, East Central, Kampala, Central 1 and South Western regions of Uganda according to the
coverage by the UDHS 2016.

3.2 Population of the Study

The target population was women of the reproductive age in Uganda. The number of women of
reproductive age was obtained from the Uganda Demographic Health Survey of 2016.

3.3 Sources of data

The study was based on the analysis of data obtained from the 2016 Uganda Demographic and
Health surveys. The DHS (now DHS+) program has conducted over 170 nationally
representative surveys in about 70 countries throughout Africa, Asia, the Near East, Latin
America, and the Caribbean. (Palamuleni, 2011) The DHS program is funded by USAID and
implemented by Macro International; Inc. DHS typically have large sample sizes of between
5000 and 30,000 households. These surveys provide data for a wide range of monitoring and
impact evaluation indicators in the areas of population, health, and nutrition.

The UDHSs involves the use of three basic questionnaires .First a questionnaire on households
that records information on all household members. Second, a questionnaire on individual
women that recorded detailed information on eligible women who were identified from the
household questionnaires. The 2016 UDHS identified a total of 20,880 households and collected

11
data for over 18,506 women aged 15-49.(Uganda 2016 Demographic and Health Survey - Key
Findings, 2008) The questionnaires on individuals collected information on the respondent's
background characteristics, reproductive history, knowledge and practice of family planning,
breast-feeding practices, marriage, fertility preferences etc., as well as on her husband's
background characteristics. The 2016 UDHS had broader objectives and specific objectives.
(Uganda 2016 Demographic and Health Survey - Key Findings, 2008) One of the broader
objectives and one that is of interest in this study are to provide up-to-date estimates of basic
demographic and health indicators.

The Woman’s Questionnaire collected information from all eligible women age 15-49. These
women were asked questions on:

 Background characteristics: age, education, and media exposure

 Reproduction: children ever born, birth history, and current pregnancy

 Family planning: knowledge and use of contraception, sources of contraceptive methods,

and information on family planning.

In particular, this study is meant to asses factors associated with contraceptive use among
women of reproductive age in Uganda. It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute
towards the successful implementation of the national population program in Uganda, including
efforts to improve the status of women in the country.

3.4 Study variables

3.4.1 Dependent variable

The outcome variable of this study was contraceptive use. Data on contraceptive use was
obtained through the women’s questionnaire. Women were asked this question: “Are you or your
partner currently doing something or using any method to delay or avoid getting pregnant?”
Women who reported current use of either modern or traditional contraceptive methods were
considered as current users of contraceptives and those who responded with a ‘no’ were regarded
as non-users.

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3.4.2 Independent variables
The variables were grouped into three categories; socio– demographic variables which included
age , marital status (in three categories; never married, currently married, formerly married),
religion (in four categories; catholic, other Christian, Muslim, no religion), region (in five
categories; northern, Eastern, western, central, south), residence (urban/rural); social-economic
variables which included education (in three categories; none, primary school, secondary school
or above), wealth index (in three categories; poor, medium, rich) and work status/paid work
(working/not working). The other independent factors were participant’s knowledge of ovulatory
cycle (yes/no) and woman’s visit to a health facility.

3.5 Derivation of the study sample

The sampling frame used for the 2016 UDHS was provided by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics.
The sampling frame contains information about EA location, type of residence (urban or rural),
and the estimated number of residential households. (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2016)Since I
am using a secondary data source, I will automatically adopt this study sample.

3.6 Data analysis

My study will use the following data files from the 2016 UDHS in analysis;

At the bivariate level of analysis, there will be cross tabulation (chi-square) of religion, type of
residence, education level, wealth quintile, religion and marital status variable. This is in order to
determine whether the independent variables are actually responsible for contraceptive use.

At the uni-variate level: frequency distributions of religion, type of residence, education level,
wealth quintile, and ethnicity.

3.7 Ethical issues/ considerations

To obtain the 2016 UDHS data set, I shall go through the right procedure of seeking permission
from Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) and observe all the copyright restrictions as permitted

3.8 Challenges
While using secondary data for analysis of findings there is a likelihood of errors since the data

13
was collected some time back and there might be changes in the current situation now.

REFERENCES
Afolabi, B. M., Ezedinachi, E., Arikpo, I., Ogunwale, A., Ganiyu, D. F., Abu, R., & Ajibade, A.
(2015). Knowledge, non-use, use and source of information on contraceptive methods among
women in various stages of reproductive age in rural Lagos, Southwest Nigeria. Open Access
Journal of Contraception, Volume 6, 65. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJC.S80683

Andi, J. R., Wamala, R., Ocaya, B., & Kabagenyi, A. (2014). Europe PMC Funders Group
Modern contraceptive use among women in Uganda : An analysis of trend and patterns ( 1995-
2011 ). 28(2), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.11564/28-0-553.Modern

Asiimwe, J. B., Ndugga, P., & Mushomi, J. (2013). with Older Women in Uganda. February.

Asiimwe, J. B., Ndugga, P., Mushomi, J., Patrick, J., & Ntozi, M. (2014). Factors associated
with modern contraceptive use among young and older women in Uganda ; a comparative
analysis.

Bongaart, J.; Potter, RP. Fertility, Biology and Behavior: An analysis of the proximate
determinants. Academic press; New York: 1983.

Creanga AA, Gillespie D, Karklins S, Tsui AO. Low use of contraception among poor women in
Africa: an equity issue. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2011; 89:258–266. doi:
10.2471/BLT.10.083329. [PubMed: 21479090]

Nakirijja, D. S., Rut, G., & Habaasa, G. (n.d.). Socio-economic Determinants of Access to and
Utilization of Contraception among Rural Women in Uganda : The Case ... among Rural Women
in Uganda : The Case of Wakiso District. https://doi.org/10.21767/1791-809X.1000608

Qazi, H. A.,Hashmi, A., Raza, S. A., Soomro, J. A., & Ghauri, A. (2010). Contraceptive methods
and factors associated with modern contraceptive in use. Journal of Family and Reproductive
Health, 4(1), 41–46. Retrieved from http://jfrh.tums.ac.ir/index.php/jfrh/article/view/88/88

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Thummalachetty, N., Mathur, S., Mullinax, M., Decosta, K., Nakyanjo, N., Lutalo, T.,
Brahmbhatt, H., & Santelli, J. S. (2017). Contraceptive knowledge , perceptions , and concerns
among men in Uganda. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4815-5

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