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DESIGN OF PILE
FOUNDATIONS

By:
Dr. K H S M Sampath

Module Outline

1. Introduction to pile foundations

2. Axial carrying capacity of a single vertical pile
3. Carrying capacity of a pile using pile driving formulae
4. Pile settlement
5. Pile groups
6. Negative skin friction

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Definition of foundation
Foundation is the part of the structure that transmit loads from the structure
to underlying soil or rock (Terzaghi and Peck)

Structure = Foundation + Super Structure

Provision of sufficient Settlement in the

FoS against shear subsoil should be kept
failure of founding soil within tolerable limits

Types of foundations

Shallow foundation Deep foundation

Loads are transmitted to

a harder/stiffer layer at
a depth

Df

B Soft soil

Df < B
(Terzaghi)
Hard soil

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Pile foundations
Piles are used when the soils close to the surface are too weak or too
compressible to allow for shallow foundation
Piles are used to carry either,
High vertical downward loads High uplifting loads High lateral loads

P P
P
Skin Friction, Qs

Skin Friction, Qs

resistance

The movement required

Passive

to mobilize the ultimate

shaft friction is in the
order of 0.3% to 1% of
the pile diameter.

End Bearing, Qb
Relative magnitudes of Qs and Qb depend on the
The movement required to mobilize soil condition and depth
the ultimate base resistance of the If Qb is dominant, the pile is known as end bearing
pile is in the range of 10% to 20% of pile and if Qs is dominant it is known as friction pile
the base diameter 6

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Types of deep foundations

There are number of classifications available for different types of pile
foundations

1. Based on method of construction

Precast piles Cast in place piles

(bored piles)

 Steel  A hole is bored and

 Timber cast with reinforced
concrete
 Reinforced concrete
 Prestressed concrete

Types of deep foundations

2. Based on the effect it has on ground

Displacement piles Non displacement piles

Structural members introduced in Soil is removed from the ground
to the ground by jacking, screwing and a hole is made. The hole should
or vibrating so that the soil is be supported by drilling mud. Then
displaced laterally or upwards the r/c cage is inserted in to the
(heaving) hole and concrete is cast in place to
form the pile

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Types of deep foundations

2. Based on the effect it has on ground

Displacement piles Non displacement piles

• No soil is removed • Less vibration and noise

• Compacts and strengthen the • May loosen the surrounding soil
surrounding soil
• Hole need to be supported
• Significant vibration and noise
• Can cause serious damage to adjacent
building

Types of deep foundations

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Factors affecting the choice of piles

Depth to be reached.
Loading requirements.
Soil conditions regarding strength, corrosion and ground movement, etc.
Environmental restrictions e.g. noise and air pollution control.
Access of site – may limit the use of long precast pile.
Congested or open site – may limit the use of piling rigs.
Headroom restriction e.g. under a bridge flyover.
Effect on adjoining buildings, if adjoining buildings are unstable, excessive vibrations is
to be avoided.
Piling plant and equipment available.
Reliability of types of piles and the expertise and familiarity of the specialist sub-
contractor.
Time available for completion of the piling contract.
Cost per unit length of pile.

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles

 They are preformed at the surface and driven into the ground. These
piles are made of timber, concrete or steel.

 Preformed piles can be inspected for defects at the surface prior to

installation

 However, these piles are susceptible to damage during driving. In

addition, they are subjected to greater stresses during installation and
transportation.

 Length of the pile need to be determined before installation. If there are

any variations, lengthening or cutting is required.

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
1. Timber piles
 Timber piles have been used for many centuries. Roman used timber piles
in 1620 B.C. However, the main problem is its durability as they are
severely affected by rot, fungi and borers

 Fluctuating water table may cause problems

 Timber piles can have lengths up to 12 – 15 m and diameter > 150 mm

 Timber piles can be extended by splicing (joining). However, these joints

are weak

 Pile toe and head should be protected during driving by appropriate shoe
and helmet, respectively.

 In Sri Lanka, Hora, Rubber and Coconut tree trunks are widely used as
timber piles

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
1.1 Timber piles and accessories

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
1.1 Timber piles and accessories

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
1.1 Timber piles and
accessories

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
2. Concrete piles
 There are two types of concrete piles namely, reinforced concrete piles
and prestressed concrete piles. They are usually of square, triangular,
circular or octagonal section

 These piles are manufactured in horizontal position under controlled

conditions.

 Stresses imposed during driving, transporting and lifting are often

significantly greater than the stresses during operation as a foundation
member

 Prestressed concrete piles are ideal for corrosive and marine environments

 Steel shoe is used at the toe of reinforced concrete piles

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
2.1 Concrete piles and accessories

The Hercules type of pile joint

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
3. Steel piles

 Steel piles are available in various cross sections such as, box piles, tube
piles, H piles and screw piles

 Steel has the advantage of being robust, easy to handle, and strong in
bending, tension and compression. Therefore, it is capable of withstanding
hard driving conditions.

 Steel piles can be easily shortened by cutting and lengthened by welding

 Corrosion is the biggest problem in steel piling. Therefore, the pile should
be protected against corrosion or a large section should be selected to
allow for corrosion during the service life.

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
3.1 Steel H piles and accessories

 Since the section is small, H piles are small displacement

piles.
 Ground heaving and damage to adjacent structures can
be minimized
Pile shoe

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
3.1 Steel H piles and accessories

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
3.2 Steel tube piles installation

Driving the
tube open Clean Fill with
ended inside by Finish
concrete
augur

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Displacement piles
Preformed piles
3.3 Screw piles

 Screw piles have large diameter helical screws at the lower end. Piles are
screwed in to the ground using a capstan. Then soil inside is removed and
filled with concrete.

 Since the pile is installed

by means of a capstan, no
noise or vibration is
created.

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Wide range of pile driving hammers are available for different sizes and shapes of
piles and varying ground conditions

The four basic types of hammers are,

 Drop hammers
 Single acting hammers
 Double acting hammers
 Diesel hammers

In addition to the above hammers there are,

 Vibratory drivers
 Hydraulic jacks

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Drop hammers Pile helmet and cusion

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Single acting air or
steam hammers

 Upward stroke is powered

by compressed air or
steam
 Downward stroke is under
gravity

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Double acting differential
air or steam hammers

 Both upward and

downward strokes are
powered by compressed
air or steam

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Differential acting air or
steam hammers
 Both upward and downward
strokes are powered by
compressed air or steam
 Downward stroke is powered by
compressed steam or air at
different levels

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Diesel Hammers

Hammer Parts:
1 - crab
2 - piston
3 - fuel pump
4 - inlet
5 - cylinder
6 - anvil

Stages in Cycle:
I - ram up (start), scavenging
II - termination of scavenging, fuel feed
III - termination of compression stroke,
blow delivered on anvil block, fuel
combustion
IV - termination of fuel combustion,
exhaust, beginning of scavenging

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Vibratory hammers

 Piles are driven by the

vibration caused by
eccentric masses.

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment
Vibratory hammers

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Displacement piles
Hydraulic
Pile driving equipment
hammers

Hydraulic Jacks

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Displacement piles
Pile driving equipment

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Types of deep foundations

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Displacement piles
Partially preformed piles

 A preformed shell made of steel or concrete is driven to the required

depth.

 Then the shell is cleaned and filled with concrete.

 Sometimes the shell is provided with a permanent shoe or plug at the

bottom to keep it clean of soil. Therefore, they are large displacement piles.

 If no shoe is used, it is required to clean inside the shell prior to concreting.

Therefore, they are small displacement piles.

 Tube piles and screw piles which were discussed before are also partially
preformed piles.

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Displacement piles
Driven Cast Insitu Piles
Advantages
 Length of pile can be easily varied

 Storage and handling problems does not exist

 Quick construction process

Disadvantages

 Cannot directly inspect the completed pile. Dynamic testing can be used for
this purpose

 Sometimes it is very difficult to withdraw casings

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Types of deep foundations

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Displacement piles
Partially preformed piles, Some examples (eg:2a) – Steel shell and cast
Insitu Concrete Piles when the casings are made of steel plates

A. A plug of sand / stone is placed in the piling tube and compacted with a
hammer
B. The tube is driven by applying blows of the internal drop hammer to the plug
which arches in the tube and draws the tube into the ground. Internal drop
hammer gives less vibration
C. On reaching the founding level the tube is held by the extracting gear while
the plug is expelled using blows of the hammer.
D. Measured quantities of relatively dry concrete are expelled from the toe of
the tube thus forming an enlarged base.
E. The reinforcing cage is placed in the tube which is then filled with high slump
concrete.
F. The tube is extracted by means of the extraction gear. On deeper piles the
concrete level may have to be topped up during extraction.

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Displacement piles
Partially preformed piles, Some examples
(eg:2b) – Steel shell and cast Insitu
Concrete Piles when the casings are made
of corrugated steel plates
Steel
expandable
A steel expanding mandrel should be mandrel
used to support the thin walled
corrugated casing.
Steel
corrugated
Then the mandrel and casing is driven
pile
together to the required depth

Once the required depth is

reached, the mandrel is
removed and the casing is filled
with concrete

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Types of deep foundations

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Displacement piles
Driven Cast Insitu Piles

 Temporary steel casing

sealed at the base by a
detachable plug or shoe
is driven

 Once the required depth

is reached, the
reinforcement cage is
inserted.
 Then the bottom shoe or
plug is filled with
concrete and casing is
gradually withdrawn with
the progress of Detachable shoe
concreting

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Concreting cast in situ bored piles (contd..)

Initial charge of concrete should be given in the funnel using a flap valve or plug. Total
concrete quantity in the funnel should be more than the volume of the entire pipe plus free
space below the tremie. This will ensure a water tight concrete pouring through tremie.

During concreting, the tremie tip must always be immersed 1.50 m below concrete surface
for piles less than 1200 mm diameter and 2.50 m for piles greater than 1200 mm.

The concreting of pile is to be done up to minimum of 300 mm above the cut off level
(overcast) to get good and sound concrete at cut off level.

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Concrete casting tolerances above cut-off levels for specified conditions

Allowable tolerances for installed piles

Tolerances
Description
Land Piles Marine Piles
Deviation from specified position in plan, 75mm (15mm for 150mm
measured at cut-off level mini-piles)
Deviation from vertical 1 in 75
1 in 100 for mini-piles
Deviation of raking piles from specified batter 1 in 25 1 in 25

Deviation from specified cut-off level 25mm

The diameter of cast-in-situ piles shall be at least 97% of the specified diameter.

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Non displacement piles

Rotary Bored Piles

 First a hole is created in the ground either by using a continuous flight augur
or a bucket augur/short flight augur connected to a kelly bar

 In most of the cases where bucket or short flight augur is used, a side
support system is required to prevent collapsing of soil in to the hole

 Once the hole is drilled up to the required depth, the base is cleaned

 Then the reinforcement cage is inserted and high slump concrete is placed in
the hole.

 Casings and /or drilling mud is used to support the sides

 Due to the difficulty in withdrawing casings, sometimes casings are only used
in the upper levels

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Non displacement piles

Rotary Bored Piles - equipment

Continuous
flight augur

Kelly bar

Bucket
augur

Short flight
augur

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Non displacement piles

Rotary Bored Piles

Small diameter Bored Piles Large diameter Bored Piles

 Pile diameter varies between 300  Pile diameter varies between

mm – 750 mm 750 mm – 3000 mm or more

 Loads up to 1500 kN  Loads up to 20000 kN for

straight piles and 30000 kN
 Can construct piles of lengths up for undereamed piles
to 25 m. Usual length is about
12 m  Can construct piles of lengths
70 m or more

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Non displacement piles

Small diameter Bored Piles

The percussion tool, consisting of the tripod or shear leg, a winch and the cutter,
are set up. A starter hole is then made by dropping the cutter from the raised
position.

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Non displacement piles

Large diameter Bored Piles

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Non displacement piles

Rotary Bored Plies- Construction sequence
1. Centering
2. Starting drilling
3. Inserting casing
4. Continue drilling and feeding bentonite
5. Drilling till the specified depth
6. Insert the undereaming tool
7. Undereamin bore hole bottom
8. Measuring depth
9. Setting up iron-reinforcement cage
10. Inserting tremie tube
11. Cleaning the pile bottom by an air-lift
12. Concreting
13. Removal of temporary casing
14.Completing cast-in-place concrete underremed pile

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Underreaming Tools

Underreaming cannot be done in sandy soils

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Specifications for bentonite slurry

Concreting shall not proceed if the bentonite density at the bottom of the borehole
exceeds 1250 kg/m3.

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Specifications for bentonite slurry

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Concreting cast in situ bored piles

The time interval between the final cleaning-up and placing concrete should not exceed 6
hours. If there is any delay the depth of the pile bottom should be checked against the
measured drilled depth before placing the concrete to ensure that no soil has fallen into
the hole.

The internal diameter of tremie must be 6 times the maximum size of the aggregate or 150
mm whichever is the greater. The maximum outside diameter of the pipe including joints
should be less than 0.35 times the pile diameter or inner diameter of the casing.

The tremie pipe must be clean and Types of pile Slump

lowered to the bottom of the pile and
1 Driven cast-in-situ piles 140  40
lifted slightly (by 75 mm – 100 mm) to
start concrete flow. A flap valve should be 2 Cast-in-situ bored piles
used on the end of the tremie pipe rather
a) Water free unlined bore with
than a plug or polyethylene. wide space reinforcement
140  40

Self compacting concrete with high slump b) Tremie concreting 165  15

is used for concreting piles. Concrete 3 Under reamed piles
grade 30 or above is usually used.
Minimum cement content shall be 400 a) Water free unlined holes 125  25
kg/m3. b) Tremie concreting 175  25

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Concreting cast in situ bored piles (contd..)

Initial charge of concrete should be given in the funnel using a flap valve or plug. Total
concrete quantity in the funnel should be more than the volume of the entire pipe plus free
space below the tremie. This will ensure a water tight concrete pouring through tremie.

During concreting, the tremie tip must always be immersed 1.50 m below concrete surface
for piles less than 1200 mm diameter and 2.50 m for piles greater than 1200 mm.

The concreting of pile is to be done up to minimum of 300 mm above the cut off level
(overcast) to get good and sound concrete at cut off level.

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Concrete casting tolerances above cut-off levels for specified conditions

Allowable tolerances for installed piles

Tolerances
Description
Land Piles Marine Piles
Deviation from specified position in plan, 75mm (15mm for 150mm
measured at cut-off level mini-piles)
Deviation from vertical 1 in 75
1 in 100 for mini-piles
Deviation of raking piles from specified batter 1 in 25 1 in 25

Deviation from specified cut-off level 25mm

The diameter of cast-in-situ piles shall be at least 97% of the specified diameter.

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Advantages of Wood piles

 The piles are easy to handle

 Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
 Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.

Disadvantages of Wood piles

 The piles will rot above the ground water level.

 Have a limited bearing capacity.
 Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
 The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.

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Advantages of Pre- cast concrete Piles

 Are easy to splice.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material can
be inspected before piling.
 Can be driven in long lengths.
 Can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum.

disadvantages of Pre- cast concrete Piles

 Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.
 Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.
 Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited headroom.

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59

Estimation of Carrying
Capacity of Pile

60

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile

A structurally intact pile can fail due to.
1. Shear failure of soil surrounding the pile
2. Excessive settlement of the pile

Therefore, the task of the foundation designer is to find an economical pile to

carry the working load with a sufficient safety margin against shear failure of
soil while keeping the resultant settlement within the allowable limits.

In designing a single pile it is customary to estimate the maximum load that can
be applied to a pile without causing shear failure. This load is referred to as the
ultimate load of the pile (Pu).

There are two design approaches for piles.

1. Allowable Stress Design method (ASD)
2. Load Resistance Factor Design method (LRFD)

ASD method is detailed in the following sections.

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile

The Allowable Stress Design method requires the following condition.

Pu where, Pu = Ultimate carrying capacity of pile

 Qall Qall = Allowable carrying capacity of pile
FS FS = Factor of Safety

Load carrying mechanisms of piles subjected to different loads

Vertical downward loads Uplifting loads Lateral loads
Pu Pu Pu
Skin Friction, Qs

Skin Friction, Qs

resistance
Passive

Relative magnitudes of Qs and Qb depend on the soil condition and

End Bearing, Qb depth
If Qb is dominant, the pile is known as an end bearing pile and if Qs is
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dominant it is known as a friction pile

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End bearing and friction piles

63

Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile

Therefore, for piles subjected to vertical downward loads.

Pu Qsu  Qbu where, Qsu = Ultimate skin friction capacity of pile

Qall   Qbu = Ultimate end bearing capacity of pile
FS FS
There are two methods available to estimate the ultimate carrying capacity of
piles

Static methods Dynamic methods

1. Using strength parameters of soil 1. Using pile driving equations ( for driven
and/or rock piles)
2. Using empirical correlations based on 2. Using the wave equation method.
in situ test results such as SPT, CPT, etc 3. Dynamic testing of piles.
3. Using static pile load tests

• Only static methods 1 and 2 can be used to estimate the carrying capacity of pile before
the pile is installed.
• Pile driving equations (dynamic method 1) can only be used to estimate the carrying
capacity of driven piles when the pile is being installed.
• Other methods can be used to estimate the carrying capacity of piles after the pile is
installed.

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Load transfer curve for a pile

With the increase in load on a pile initially the

resistance is offered by side friction and when
the side resistance is fully mobilized to the
shear strength of soil, the rest of the load is
supported by pile end.

At certain load the soil at the pile end fails,

usually in punching shear, which is defined as
the ultimate carrying capacity of pile.

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Load transfer mechanism of a pile

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using soil strength

parameters
Estimation of skin friction
tsu = ca + Kss/v tand
where, tsu = Ultimate skin friction per unit area
d = interface friction angle between
z soil and pile
ca = adhesion between pile and soil
Ks = Lateral earth pressure coefficient
Kss/v Skin friction per Note:
unit area, ts Lateral earth pressure coefficient is a function
(lateral earth of soil type, stress history and the amount of
pressure disturbance caused to the surrounding by the
acting on pile) pile installation process.

Therefore,
L

Qsu   C ca  K ss v/ tan d dz 
0

where, C = Perimeter length of the pile

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using soil strength

parameters
Estimation of skin friction
For clayey soils (fu = d = 0),
L L where,
Qsu   C ca dz   C acu dz a method a = adhesion factor
0 0 cu or su= undrained cohesion of clay

Adhesion factor a accounts for the disturbance during installation (i.e.

loosening of soil during the installation of bored piles and increase of p.w.p.
during installation of driven piles). The following figure (Bowles,1996) can be
used to determine a for both bored and driven piles.

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Example 1 Estimate the ultimate skin friction

capacity of the pile
L
Solution: Qsu   C acu dz
0

From the following Figure, a = 0.9

Stiff clay 9.0 m
cu = 50 kN/m2

400 mm square
driven pile

Exercise
Qsu = (0.4× 4)×(0.9×50)×9
Soft clay = 648 kN
4.0 m
cu = 25 kN/m2

Stiff clay
cu = 50 kN/m2
5.0 m
400 mm square
driven pile

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using soil strength

parameters
Estimation of skin friction
For sandy soils (c/ = ca = 0),
L
 
Qsu   C K ss v/ tan d dz Method
0 (Kstand term is defined as )

Interface friction angle d varies between 0.5f/ to 0.8f/ for driven piles. For bored
piles d ≈ f/

Alternatively, the following tables can also be used to obtain Ks tand values.

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Figures for critical depth(Zc) and Kstand for sand

71

Variation of effective overburden pressure closer to the pile with

depth
It was observed that vertical effective stress s/v near a pile increases with depth up to a certain
depth (critical depth) and remains constant afterwards.

zw
z gwet Figure 3.10 (a) in the
previous slide can be
Zc (Critical Depth) used to determine Zc
g wetzw  (Zc  zw)(g sat g w) gsat
L

g wetzw  (L  zw)(g sat g w)

Effective overburden Effective overburden

pressure distribution pressure distribution
near the pile away from the pile

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Example 2
A driven 400 mm square pile, 9.0 m long is installed in sandy soil layer having an angle of
internal friction f/ = 320. The water table is present at a depth of 1.0 m. The unit weight of
soil above and below water table 16 kN/m3 and 17 kN/m3, respectively. Use d = 0.75f/ and Ks
= 1-sinf/.
I. Determine the skin friction distribution along the pile
II. Estimate the total ultimate skin friction capacity of the pile.

1m gwet = 16 kN/m3

gsat = 17 kN/m3
8m f/ = 320

400 mm × 400 mm pile

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Solution: 1m gwet = 16 kN/m3

L

Apply, 
Qsu   C K ss tan d dz
/
v 
0
gsat = 17 kN/m3
Vertical effective overburden pressure (s/v) increases up to 8m f/ = 320
the critical depth (Zc) and remains constant afterwards.
400 mm × 400 mm pile
In order to obtain the critical depth, the modified internal
friction angle (fdes) should be used to read the Figure.
3 3
fmod  f /  100   320  100  340
4 4
The equivalent diameter (d) of the pile can be obtained as,

400  400  d2 d  451mm
4
Then by referring to the corresponding Table, Zc/d can be
obtained as = 6.
Therefore, Zc = 451× 6 = 2.70 m
 = Kstand  (1-sinf/)×tan(0.75f/)
 (1-sin320)×tan(0.75 × 320) = 0.21
Now lets find the vertical effective overburden pressure up to Zc
at Z = 1 m, s/v = 16 ×1 = 16 kN/m2
Z = 2.7 m, s/v = 16 ×1 + 17 ×1.7 – 9.81 × 1.7 = 28.2 kN/m2

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for skin friction based on CPT

Correlations for ultimate end bearing capacity based on CPT

a zone of about 8B above to 3B below the pile point

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Estimation of skin friction in rock socketed region

William et al. (1981) suggested that for piles installed in sandstone, mudstone or shale, the
ultimate skin friction (fs) in the rock socket length is related to the unconfined compressive
strength of rock (quc) as given in the following equation.

This is same as
ICTAD guidelines

The  factor is related to the mass factor, j, which is the ratio of the elastic modulus of rock to
that of the intact rock. If the mass factor is not known from the loading tests or seismic
velocity measurements, it can be obtained approximately from the relationships with the RQD
or the discontinuity spacing as quoted by Hobbs as follows.

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using soil strength

parameters
Estimation of end bearing capacity
As the failure pattern is different from the ones observed for shallow foundations, the same
bearing capacity equation used for the estimation of ultimate carrying capacity of shallow
foundations may be used with modified bearing capacity factors.

1
qend  cN c  qN q  Bg Ng This term is neglected if B is not large
2
Where,
Nc, Nq, Ng = Bearing capacity factors
B = width of the pile
q = Effective overburden pressure at the toe of the pile
g = unit weight of the material below the pile toe

The third term of the equation (0.5BgNg) is small compared to other two terms. Therefore, the
third term of the above equation is neglected if the width of the foundation is small.

77

Skempton (1951) suggested the following Figure to obtain the bearing capacity factor Nc

It is evident from the Figure that for

a circular of square pile the
maximum value of Nc value is 9 for
L/B ratio greater than 4

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Estimation of skin friction in rock socketed region

Wyllie (1991) suggested that the use of Bentonite during drilling reduces the skin friction.
Therefore, if Bentonite is used during drilling the allowable skin friction should be taken as
25% of the ultimate skin friction obtained from the above equation.

93

Estimation of allowable end bearing capacity in rock

These are the

allowable bearing
capacity values

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Example 5
A driven 400 mm square pile, 9.0 m long is installed in sandy soil layer having an angle of
internal friction f/ = 320. The water table is present at a depth of 1.0 m. The unit weight of
soil above and below water table 16 kN/m3 and 17 kN/m3, respectively.

I. Estimate the ultimate end bearing capacity of the pile.

1m gwet = 16 kN/m3

gsat = 17 kN/m3
8m f/ = 320

400 mm × 400 mm pile

81

Solution: Apply, qend  cN c  qN q 1m gwet = 16 kN/m3

c/ = 0 for sandy soil. Therefore, qend  qN q

gsat = 17 kN/m3
Vertical effective overburden pressure (s/v)
increases up to 8m f/ = 320
the critical depth (Zc) and remains constant afterwards.
400 mm × 400 mm pile

In order to obtain the critical depth, the modified internal

friction angle (fdes) should be used to read the Figure.
3 3
fmod  f /  100   320  100  340
4 4
The equivalent diameter (d) of the pile can be obtained as,

400  400  d2 d  451mm
4
Then by referring to the corresponding Table, Zc/d can be
obtained as = 6.
Therefore, Zc = 451× 6 = 2.70 m
Now lets find the vertical effective overburden pressure up to Zc
at Z = 1 m, s/v = 16 ×1 = 16 kN/m2
Z = 2.7 m, s/v = 16 ×1 + 17 ×1.7 – 9.81 × 1.7 = 28.2 kN/m2
Therefore, q = 28.2 kN/m2

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Solution (contd..):
The f/ angle should be modified to read the Nq value from the Figure.

f0 = (f/ + 40)/2 = 360

From the figure, Nq = 90

Therefore,
Qend = (0.4× 0.4)×(90×28.2)
= 406 kN

83

Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using soil strength

parameters
Estimation of end bearing capacity (Hansen and Terzaghi equations)
Coyle and Casetello (1981) reported that Hansen bearing capacity equation can be used to
obtain the end bearing capacity of piles with an accuracy as good as any other method.

Hansen Bearing Capacity Equation

For general case When f = 0 (undrained condition)

q u  cN c sc d c  qN q s q d q 
1
B ' g eff N g sg d g  
q u  5 .14 su 1  sc'  d c'  q
2
The Terzaghi bearing capacity equation is often used to estimate the ultimate end bearing
capacity of piles even though it is strictly valid only for L≤ B. Terzaghi equation seem to give the
same end bearing capacity as the Hansen equation for pile depths in the order of 10 m – 20 m.

Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Equation

For a square foundation For a circular foundation

q u  1 . 3cN c  qN q  0 . 4 B g N g q u  1 .3 cN c  qN q  0 .3 B g N g
Note: B is the diameter

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Bearing capacity factors for

Terzaghi equation Hansen equation

85

Shape and depth factors for Hansen equation

≥ 0.6

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for skin friction based on SPT N
Mayerhof (1956, 1976) proposed the following correlation for the estimation of ultimate skin
friction (fus).

f us   m N 55 Where, X m = 2.0 for piles with large volume displacement

= 1.0 for small volume displacement piles
N55 = statistical average of corrected SPT N in the stratum

Shioi and Fukui (1982) proposed the following correlation for the estimation of ultimate skin
friction (fus).

ICTAD guidelines
For sands, the ultimate skin friction (fu) is taken as 1.3N with a limiting value of 100 kN/m2.
For completely weathered rock fu is taken as 2.0N with a limiting value of 200 kN/m2.

87

Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for ultimate end bearing capacity based on SPT N

ICTAD guidelines
For piles end bearing in sands, Net ultimate
end bearing resistance (i.e. qult(net)) is taken
as 40N. “N” is the SPT N value averaged
Lb Point bearing stratum within the zone of influence of pile (8 times
the diameter above pile base to 3 times the
diameter below pile base).

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for ultimate end bearing capacity based on SPT N

89

Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for skin friction based on CPT

90

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Estimation of carrying capacity of a single pile using empirical

correlations based on SPT and CPT tests
Correlations for skin friction based on CPT

Correlations for ultimate end bearing capacity based on CPT

a zone of about 8B above to 3B below the pile point

91

Estimation of skin friction in rock socketed region

William et al. (1981) suggested that for piles installed in sandstone, mudstone or shale, the
ultimate skin friction (fs) in the rock socket length is related to the unconfined compressive
strength of rock (quc) as given in the following equation.

This is same as
ICTAD guidelines

The  factor is related to the mass factor, j, which is the ratio of the elastic modulus of rock to
that of the intact rock. If the mass factor is not known from the loading tests or seismic
velocity measurements, it can be obtained approximately from the relationships with the RQD
or the discontinuity spacing as quoted by Hobbs as follows.

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Estimation of skin friction in rock socketed region

Wyllie (1991) suggested that the use of Bentonite during drilling reduces the skin friction.
Therefore, if Bentonite is used during drilling the allowable skin friction should be taken as
25% of the ultimate skin friction obtained from the above equation.

93

Estimation of allowable end bearing capacity in rock

These are the

allowable bearing
capacity values

94

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Estimation of allowable
end bearing capacity in
rock

ICTAD guidelines

95

Estimation of ultimate end bearing capacity in rock

Goodman (1980) proposed the following equation to determine the ultimate end bearing
capacity of piles on rock.

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Estimation of ultimate end bearing capacity in rock

Kulhawy and Goodman showed that the ultimate base resistance (qub) can be related to the
RQD of the rock mass as shown in Table 4.14.

It is important to note that to mobilize the maximum base resistance, the settlement of
the pile toe is likely to be of the order of 20% of its diameter. Therefore, an ample safety
factor, at least 2.5 should be applied against the ultimate end bearing capacity to ensure
that settlements at the working load are within allowable limits

97

Recommendations for allowable skin friction and end bearing

Central Expressway Design Criteria

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Recommendations for allowable skin friction and end bearing

Port city Access Elevated Highway (PAEH) Design Criteria
Description Properties Allowable skin Net allowable end
friction (fa) (kPa) bearing capacity
(qall(net)) (kPa)
Completely weathered rock SPT N > 50 35 800
Highly weathered rock 50 - 75 1000 - 1500
Moderately weathered rock TCR < 40% 100 1750
Moderately weathered rock TCR > 40% 100 2000
Moderately weathered rock TCR > 80% 100 2500
RQD > 10%
UCS > 10 MPa
Moderately weathered rock TCR > 90% 100 3500
10% < RQD < 40%
UCS > 10 MPa
Moderately weathered rock/ TCR > 90% 100 4000
Slightly weathered rock 40% < RQD < 50%
UCS > 10 MPa
Slightly weathered rock/Fresh TCR > 90%
rock 50% < RQD < 75% 175 5000
50 MPa > UCS > 30 MPa 275 5500
UCS > 50 MPa
Slightly weathered rock/Fresh TCR > 90%
rock 75% < RQD < 100% 275 6000
UCS > 30 MPa

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