Chapter 2: Function series (continued)

Nguyen Thu Huong

School of Applied Mathematics and Informatics

Hanoi University of Science and Technology

April 8, 2023
Power series

Content

3. Power series
3.1 Definition
3.2 Theorems on power series
3.3 Expansion of functions into power series

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Content

3. Power series
3.1 Definition
3.2 Theorems on power series
3.3 Expansion of functions into power series
Power series

Definition
A power series (centered at x0 ) is a function series of the form
∞
X
an (x − x0 )n = a0 + a1 (x − x0 ) + . . . + an (x − x0 )n + . . .
n=0

where an are constants, x is the variable.

Set x − x0 = X , in the following we consider power series of the

∞
an X n .
P
form
n=0

Example
∞
X 1
xn = 1 + x + x2 + . . . = , |x| < 1.
1−x
n=0

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Power series

Theorem (Abel Theorem)

∞
an x n converges at x0 6= 0 then the series converges
P
If the series
n=1
absolutely at all x that |x| < |x0 |.
∞
an x n diverges at x1 6= 0 then the series diverges at
P
If the series
n=1
all x that |x| > |x1 |.

Proof.

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Power series

∞
an x n always converges at x = 0.
P
The series
n=0
There exists R > 0 such that
the power series converges absolutely in (−R, R),
diverges in (−∞, −R) ∪ (R, ∞),
At the end points x = ±R, the series may converge or diverge.

Definition
R is called the radius of convergence of the series.

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Power series

Theorem
∞
an x n is determined by
P
The radius of convergence of the series
n=1

|an | 1
R = lim or R = lim p .
n→∞ |an+1 | n→∞ n
|an |

Example
Find the domain of convergence
∞ ∞ ∞
X xn X X (−1)n x 2n
a) b) n!x n c)
n=1
n+2 n=1 n=1
(2n)!

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Power series

Proposition
∞
an x n = S(x) has the radius of convergence
P
Assume that
n=0
R 6= 0. Then
∞
an x n converges uniformly on [a; b] ⊂ (−R; R).
P
1
n=0
2 S(x) is continuous on (−R, R).
3 S(x) is integrable on [a, b] ⊂ (−R, R).
∞ ∞
an x n+1
Z X X
an x n dx =


+ C.
n+1
n=0 n=0

4 S(x) is differentiable on (a, b) ⊂ (−R, R).

∞ ∞
n 0
X X
nan x n−1 .


an x =
n=0 n=1
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Power series

Remark
These series have the same radius of convergence R. But their
domains of convergence might be different, because of the
convergence at the endpoints x = ±R.

Example
Find the sum
∞ x 2n+1
(−1)n
P
1
n=1 2n + 1
∞
(3n + 1)x n .
P
2
n=0

Example
P∞ (−1)n (3n + 1)
Find the sum .
n=0 8n

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Power series

Taylor series

Definition
Let f (x) be an infinitely differentiable function at x0 .
The Taylor series of f (x) at x0 is the series
∞
X f (n) (x0 )
(x − x0 )n .
n!
n=0

If x0 = 0, the series
∞
X f (n) (0)
xn
n!
n=0

is called the Maclaurin series of f (x).

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Power series

Remark
The Taylor series of f (x) at x0 may converge or diverge. In case it
converges, the sum may not equal f (x).

Example
( 1
e − x2 if x 6= 0
Consider f (x) =
0 if x = 0.
f (x) has derivatives of all orders and f (n) (0) = 0, the Taylor series
of f (x) is 0.

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Power series

Theorem
Let f (x) have the derivatives of all orders in I = (x0 − R; x0 + R).
If there is M > 0 such that |f (n) (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ I , n ∈ N.
∞ f (n) (x )
0
(x − x0 )n converges to f (x) in
P
Then the Taylor series
n=0 n!
(x0 − R; x0 + R).

Example
Expand f (x) = e x into power series.

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Power series

Some important power series

∞ xn
ex =
P
, x ∈ R.
n=0 n!
∞ x 2n+1
(−1)n
P
sin x = , x ∈ R.
n=0 (2n + 1)!
∞ x 2n
(−1)n
P
cos x = , x ∈ R.
n=0 (2n)!
1 ∞
x n , |x| < 1.
P
=
1−x n=0
∞ α(α − 1) . . . (α − n + 1)
(1 + x)α = x n , |x| < 1.
P
n=0 n!

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Power series

Example
Expand the following functions into Maclaurin series
1
1 f (x) = .
2
x − 3x + 2
2 f (x) = ln(1 + x).

3 f (x) = arctan x.
1
4 f (x) = .
(1 − x)2

Example
Expand f (x) = ln x into Taylor series near x = 1.

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