EXPERIMENT NO.

1
TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT: Two Stroke and Four Stroke Diesel Engine.

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

Study of cut- sections of 2 stroke and 4 stroke diesel engine.
APPARTTUS REQUIRED:
(i) Cut section of two stroke diesel engine.
(ii) Cut section of four stroke diesel engine.
THEORY:
HEAT ENGINES :
The device which converts heat energy obtained from the combustion of fuel or any sources to
mechanical work is termed as heat engine.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES:
Heat engines are classified into two broad types.
a) External Combustion Engines: In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine
cylinder as in case of steam engines or steam turbines where heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used in piston and cylinder machine.
b) Internal Combustion Engines :
In this case, combustion of fuel occurs within the engine cylinder.
IC ENGINE CLASSIFICATION
1. According to the type of fuel used.
(a) Petrol engines , (b) Diesel engines or oil engines , (c) Gas engines
2. According to the method of igniting the fuel
(a) Spark igniting engines , (b) Compression ignition engines and
(c) Hot spot ignition engines.
3. According to the number of storkes per cycle.
(a) Four storkes cycle engines and (b) Two strokes cycle engines.
4. According to the cycle of operation.
(a) Otto cycle engines (b) Diesel cycle engines (c) Dual combustion cycle engines.
5. According to the speed of the engines.
(a) Slow speed engines (b) Medium speed engines (c) High speed engines.
6. According the cooling system
(a) Air - cooled engines, (b) Water - cooled engines (c) Evaporative colling engines.
7. According to the number of cylinders
(a) Single cylinder engines (b) Multi - cylinder engines

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 Fig 1.1 Different parts of I.C. Engine
(a) Cylinder : In which the piston moves to and fro in order to develop power .For ordinary
engines ,the cylinder is made of ordinary cast iron. It is made of steel alloys or allumunium
alloys.
(b) Cylinder Head: It is fitted on one end of the cylinder and acts as a cover to close the
cylinder bore. The cylinder head contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh charge
and exhausting the burnt gases.
(c) Piston: Whose main function is transmitted the force exerted by the burning of charge
to the connecting rod. The pistons generally made of aluminimum alloys which are
lightin weight .They have good heat conducting property and also greater strength and
higher tempratures.
(d) Piston Rings: These are circular ring and made up special steel alloys which retain elastic
properties even at high temperature. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential
grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston.
(e) Connecting Rod : It is the link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function
is to transmit force from the piston to the crankshaft. The special steel alloys or aluminimum
alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rods.
(f) Crankshaft : Whose function is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the

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 rotary motion with the help of connecting rod.
(g) Crank Case: It is a cast iron case, which hold the cylinder and Crankshaft of an I.C.
(h) Fly wheel: Whose function is to maintain its speed constant?

STANDARD TERMINOLOGY USED IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1. Bore (D) : 
The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder or outer dia of  D2
piston
2. Piston area (A): The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
4
3. Stroke (L): The nominal distance covered when piston moves piston moves
between successive reversals of its direction of motion.
4. Dead Centre : The position of working piston and the moving parts which are
mechanically connected to it at the moment when the direction of piston is motion
is reversed or this is the limiting position, beyond the piston can’t move outward or
inward during its motion.

(a) Bottom dead Centre (B.D.C.) Dead centre when piston is nearest to
crank shaft.
(b) Top dead Centre (TDC). Dead centre when positions is farthest from
crankshaft.
5. Displacement volume or piston swept volume (Vs.) :
The swept volume generated by the piston while moving from one dead centre
toother and as calculated as the product of piston area stroke length.
π
V  A xL  x D2 x L
s
4
6. Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side
of piston above top dead centre.
7. Cylinder Volume (V): The sum of piston swept volume and clearance volume.
V = Vs + Vc
8. Compression ratio (CR): The numerical value of cylinder volume divided by
numerical value of combustion space volume or clearance volume.

V
Compression ratio r = V
c

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 Fig. 1.2 Different parts of four Stroke Diesel Engine

1.4.5a CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of a cylinder in which piston reciprocates. The piston which is connected to the
small end of connecting rod through gudgeon pin which may be either free in piston or
free in connecting rod and fixed in the other counter part. Piston rings are mounted on the
piston that forms a leak proof seal.
b Sequence of operations in a Cycle :
When an engines working continuously, we may consider a cycle starting from any storke.
we know that when engines returns back to the stroke where it started we say that one cycle
has been completed.
(a) Suction stroke: In this stroke the fuel vapor in correct proportion, is supplied to
engine cylinder.
(b) Compression stroke: In the stroke the fuel vapor is compressed in the engine
cylinder.
(c) Expansion or working stroke : In this stroke the fuel vapour is fired before the
compression is completed .It result in the sudden rise of pressure due to expansion
of the combustion products in the engine cylinder. This sudden rise of pressure pushes
the piston with great force and rotate the cranshaft.The crankshaft is turned drive the
machine connected to it.
(d) Exhaust stroke: In this stroke the burnt gases are exhausted from the engine cylinder, so
as to make space available for the fresh fuel vapour.

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 Fig 8.2 Valve Time Diagram of 2 stroke diesel engine

FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

This engine works on diesel cycle. Diesel engine draws only air in the suction stroke. No spark
plug is there in diesel engine. Four strokes of piston are complete in two revolution of
crankshaft.
1.4.6a Basic Components:
This engine consists of a cylinder block in which cylinders are kept. The piston moves to and fro
in the cylinder. Cylinder head is fitted on the end of the cylinder and acts as a cover to close the
cylinder bore. It contains inlet valve and the nozzle for injecting the fuel into the cylinder,
piston are made of aluminum alloys and reciprocates in the cylinder. Circular rings are mounted
on pistons pre- venting leakage of burnt gases into the crankcase. Crank case holds the cylinder
and crankshaft of the engine. Crankshaft acts as a sump for lubricating oil. Flywheel is mounted
on the crankshaft. Flywheel maintains the speed constant by storing excess energy during
power stroke and returning it during other strokes

1.4.6b WORKING:
SUCTION STROKE: only air is inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke intake valve
is open and exhaust valve is closed. In this stroke pure air is sucked into the cylinder as piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
COMPRESSION STROKE: In compression stroke the air is compressed as piston moves from
BDC to TDC. As the result of compression pressure and temperature of air increases in engine
cylinder when the piston reaches at top dead counter, diesel in injected in the form of very fine
spray through nozzle.

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 EXPANSION OR POWER STROKE : Fuel is injected in the beginning of the expansion stroke. In
power stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. The rate of injection is such that the combustion
maintain pressure constant. After the injection of fuel is over the products of combustion expand.
Both valves remain closed during expansion stroke.
EXHAUST STROKE : The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve remains closed. The products of
combustion escape to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve.

1.4.5c INDICATOR DIAGRAM (P-V DIAGRAM)

It is the diagram which represent the amount of work done in one engine cycle by an I.C
engine. Indicator diagram of 2 stroke diesel engine is same as the 2 stroke petrol engine. Only
differences is the ignition of fuel takes place at constant pressure increasing the volume in
case of 2 stroke diesel engine.

1.4.5d VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

In value timing fuel valve opens at 100-150 before TDC and it closes at 150-200 after TDC.Transfer
port opens at 300 – 400 before BDC and closes at 300 –400 after BDC. The exhaust port opens at
350 – 500 before BDC and closes at 350 – 500 after BDC.

1.4.5e PRACTICAL APPLICATION:

Very high power two stroke diesel engine are required for ship propulsion. Other
application of two stroke engines is in electric generating sets, pumping sets and
laboratory testing etc.

1.4.5f PROCEDURE:
We compared the model with the actual engine and draw the figure of 2 stroke diesel engine
models. We have studied its different parts and described the function of each part of engine.

1.4.5g CONCLUSION:
Finally the study of cut - section of 2 - stroke diesel engine is completed.

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 Two strokes Diesel Engine : In two stroke engines the cycle is completed in two
stroke, i.e. one revolution of crankshaft. All the four stages, i.e. suction, compression,
expansion and exhausts are completed in two strokes of piston.

c VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

In valve timing the inlet value opens at 100 – 200 before TDC and closes 250 – 400 after BDC. Fuel
valve opens at 100 – 150 before TDC and closes at 150-200 after TDC. Exhaust valve opens at 39-
500 before BDC and closes at 100-150 after TDC.

814.6d INDICATOR DIAGRAM (P-V DIAGRAM)

Suction stroke is shown by the line 1-2 which is below atmospheric line. Compression stroke is
shown by line 2-3. Due to compression pressure and temperature of air increases. Shortly
before the end of compression the fuel is injected with a very fine spray, combustion of fuel
take place. Then expansion process starts which is shown by line 4-5. Before the end of
expansion exhaust valve opens and burnt gases are exhausted which is shown by line 5.

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 814.6e APPLICATION:
Tractors, Jeeps, Buses, Trucks, Cars

1.4.6f PROCEDURE:
We compared the model with actual engine and draw the sketch of 4 stroke diesel engine
mode. We studied its different parts and described the function of each part of engine.

1.4.6g CONCLUSION:
Finally the study of 4 - stroke diesel engine completed.

QUESTIONS:
1. What are the two general classes of combustion engines.

2.State various types of internal and external combustion engines and their principal uses.

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 3. Define (i) TDC

(ii) Clearance volume

(iii) Compression ratio.

4. Compare relative advantages and disadvantages of four stroke and two stroke engines.

5. What is the range for compression ratio for (a) SI engine (b) CI engine.

Signature of the Faculty: Signature of the Student:

Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Date:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT: Two stroke and four stroke petrol engine.

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: Study of cut sections of 2 stroke and 4-stroke petrol engine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(i) Cut model of two stroke petrol engine

(ii) Cut model of four stroke petrol engine.

TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE

2.4a THEORY

In two-stroke petrol engine the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust takes place during
two strokes of piston. It means that there is one working stroke after every revolution of
crankshaft. It has ports instead of valves. The suction is accomplished by air compressed
in crankcase. The admission of compressed air removes the products of combustion through
exhaust ports. So no piston strokes are required, for these two operations.

b BASIC COMPONENTS :

The main components of this engine are as follows:

(i) CYLINDER: It is the main part of engine, in which the piston moves to and fro in
orderto develop power.
(ii) CYLINDER HEAD: Cylinder head contains spark plug for igniting the air and fuel mixture.
(iii) PISTON: The main function of piston is to compress the charge and to transmit the
form exerted by burning charge to connecting rod. Pistons are generally made of
aluminum alloys.
(iv) CONNECTING ROD: Converts reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft.
(v) CRANK SHAFT: The function is to convert reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary
motion with help of connecting rod.
(vi) CRANK CASE: It is a cast-iron case which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C.
Engine.
(vii) FLY WHEEL: it is a big wheel mounted on the crankshaft whose function is to maintain
its speed fairly constant.
(viii) SPARK PLUG: it is always screwed into the cylinder head for ignition of charge in petrol
engine.

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 1. Crack Body
2. Crankshaft
3. Connecting rod
4. Piston
5. Cylinder

6. Inlet port
7. Outlet port

8. Carburetors

9. Throttle valve

10. Transfer port

11. Float chamber

12. Float
(Fig. 2.1)
13. Spark Plug

(Fig. 2.2) (Fig. 2.3)

PETROL ENGINE

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 c WORKING :
In two-stroke petrol engine the four process suction, compression, expansion, exhaust take
place during two strokes of piston. There is no separate stroke for suction and exhaust. Suction
and compression in one stroke (upward stroke) and expansion and exhaust in 2nd stroke
(downward stroke) take place.
(i) UPWARD STROKE :
Upward stroke consists of both suction and compression of the charge. In this stroke when
piston moves upwards, it first covers the transfer port and then exhaust port and then inlet port
opens. Vacuum is created inside the crank case due to upward movement of piston. So fresh air
fuel mixture enters into crankcase through inlet port.
(ii) DOWNWARD STROKE:
Before the end of compression, the high temperature and pressure charge is ignited by a spark
plug. Due to combustion of fuel, it expands and pushed the piston with a great force. So piston
moves downwards. It first uncovers the exhaust port and then transfer port. The burnt gases
and products of combustion are exhausted to atmosphere through exhaust per. So expansion
as well as exhaust process occurs in this stroke. Again vacuum is created inside the cylinder due
to downward movement of piston. So fresh charge enters into cylinder from crankcase through
transfer port and cycle is repeated.
2.4d INDICATOR DIAGRAM (P-V DIAGRAM)
At point 1, transfer port opens. Fresh air fuel mixture enters into the cylinder. First half of
suction takes place 1-2. Volume of charge and burnt goes increases as the piston moves to
B.D.C. In second half of suction stage volume of charge and burnt gases decreases as piston
moves upward from 2-3. a little beyond 3, the exhaust port closes at (4). Now the charge inside
the cylinder is compressed which is shown by line 4-5. Due to compression there is an increase
in pressure inside engine cylinder. Shortly before the end of compression ignition takes place
with the help of a spark plug. So suddenly increase in pressure and temperature constant as
shown by the line 5-6. then expansion takes place from 6-7. Suddenly increasing pressure
pushes piston with a great force. So piston moves towards B.D.C. At point 7 exhaust port open,
the burnt gases the exhausted into atmosphere through exhaust port. It reduces pressure, as
piston moves towards B.D.C. Therefore, volume of bunts gases increases from 7 to 1. At point 1
transfer port open and suction starts.

Fig. 2.4 Actual P-V diagram of a 2-stroke petrol engine

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 2.4e VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM:
In expansion or downward stroke piston moves from TDC toward B.D.C. the exhaust port
opens at 350-500 before BDC and closes at 350-500 after B.D.C. the transfer port also opens at
300-400 before BDC and closes 300-400 after BDC. The transfer port and exhaust port are
simultaneously open for some time. So fresh charge entering into cylinder through transfer
port, helps in pushing out the burnt gases.
In upward stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Before the end of compression ignition

take place at 150-200 before TDC. Thus a cycle is completed after 2-strokes of piston or one
revolution of crankshaft.

2.4f APPLICATION :
The two-stroke petrol engine used in scooters, mopeds etc. These may also be used in very

small electric generating sets, pumping sets etc.

g CONCLUSION :

Finally the study of 2 - stroke petrol engine is completed.

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 Fig. 9.6 Different strokes of 4 Stroke Petrol Engine

b BASIC COMPONENTS :
A four stroke petrol engine consists of a cylinder block in which cylinders are provided.
Pistons move in these cylinders. The inlet valve, exhaust valve and passages for flow of
cooling water are incorporated in the cylinder block crank case is attached to bottom face of
cylinder block.

4- STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Fig. 2.7 Different parts of 4- Stroke Petrol Engine

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 WORKING
In four stroke petrol engine the four processes such as suction, compression, expansion and
exhaust are take place during four strokes of piston.

(I) SUCTION STROKE :

When the piston is at TDC and about to move towards BDC. The inlet valve opens and
exhaust valve closes. The fresh air fuel mixture enters into engine cylinder. At end of suction
stroke the inlet valve closes.

(II) COMPRESSION STROKE :

In compression stroke both values closed and charge is compressed as piston move upwards
from BDC to TDC. The pressure and temperature increase in engine cylinder. The suction stroke
and compression stroke complete one revolution of crankshaft.

(III) EXPANSION STROKE :

Just before the end of compression stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark plug. It suddenly
increases the pressure and temperature of products of combustion, but practically volume
remains constant. Due to raise in pressure the piston is pushed down with a great force. The
power is obtained at shaft.

(iv) EXHAUST STROKE:

At the end of expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens. The inlet valve remaining closed and
piston is moving from BDC to TDC pushing burnt gases from cylinder.

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM:

Fig. 9.8 Valve timing diagram for a four stroke petrol engine.

In valve timing the inlet valve opens at 100-200 before TDC. Inlet valve closes 300-400 after
BDC. Ignition takes place at 200-300 before TDC. Exhaust valve opens at 300-500 before BDC and
exhaust valve closes at 100-150 after TDC as shown in figure.

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 Fig. 9210 Real P-V diagram for a four
Fig. 2.9 Ideal P-V diagram for a four stroke petrol
stroke petrol engine.
engine.
Piso
 x100%
I.P

Suction stroke is shown by the line 1.2, which lies below the atmospheric line. So fuel and air
mixture enters into the engine cylinder. The compression stroke is shown by line 2-3, which
shows inlet valve closes a little beyond point 2. At the end of this stroke, there is increases in
pressure inside engine cylinder. Shortly before end of compression stroke, charge is ignited with
help of spark plug. Sparking suddenly increases pressure and temperature or products of
combustion. But volume practically remains constant as shown by line 3-4. Expansion stroke
shown by 4-5 line in which exhaust valve opens a little before 5. Now burnt gases are exhausted
into atmosphere through exhaust valve. Exhaust stroke is shown by line 5-1, which lies above
atmospheric pressure line.
APPLICATION:
The four stroke petrol engine used in automobiles. It is used for cars, Jeeps, pumping sets,
electric generating sets etc.

CONCLUSION: Finally the study of cut - section of 4 - stroke petrol engine is completed.

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 THEORY:

1. Mention the material used for following components of an I.C. Engine. piston, piston
rings, connecting rod, crank and crankshaft, flywheel.

2. Explain the following terms as applied to I.C. Engine : Bore, Stroke, T.D.C, B.D.C, clearance
volume, swept volume, compression ratio and piston speed.

3. Different between petrol & Diesel engines ?

Signature of the Faculty: Signature of the Student:

Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Date:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: Study of steam power plant.

THEORY: A Thermal Power Plant converts the heat energy of coal into electrical energy.
Coal is burnt in a boiler which converts water into steam. The expansion of steam in
turbine produces mechanical power which drives the alternator coupled to the turbine.
Thermal Power Plants contribute maximum to the generation of Power for any country
. Thermal Power Plants constitute 75.43% of the total installed captive and non-captive
power generation in India. In thermal generating stations coal, oil, natural gas etc. are
employed as primary sources of energy

GENERAL LAYOUT OF THERMAL POWER STATION

3.1 Layout plan of Thermal Power Plant

The general layout of thermal power plant consists of mainly four unit
1. Coal and Ash unit
2. Air and Gas unit
3. Feed Water and Steam unit
4. Cooling Water unit
Coal and Ash Unit: In this circuit, the coal from the storage is fed to the boiler through
coal handling equipment for the generation of steam. Ash produced due to combustion
of coal is removed to ash storage through ash-handling system

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 Air and Gas Unit: Air is supplied to the combustion chamber of the boiler either through
forced draught or induced draught fan or by using both. The dust from the air is removed
before supplying to the combustion chamber. The exhaust gases carrying sufficient quantity
of heat and ash are passed through the air-heater where the exhaust heat of the gases is
given to the air and then it is passed through the dust collectors where most of the dust is
removed before exhausting the gases to the atmosphere.

Feed Water and Steam Unit: The steam generated in the boiler is fed to the steam
primemover to develop the power. The steam coming out of the prime mover is condensed
in thecondenser and then fed to the boiler with the help of pump. The condensate is
heated in the feed-heaters using the steam tapped from different points of the turbine.
The feed heaters may be of mixed type or indirect heating type. Some of the steam and
water arelost passing through different components of the system, therefore, feed water
is supplied from external source to compensate this loss. The feed water supplied from
external sourceto compensate the loss. The feed water supplied from external source is
passed throughthe purifying plant to reduce to reduce dissolve salts to an acceptable level.
This purification is necessary to avoid the scaling of the boiler tubes.

Cooling Water Unit: The quantity of cooling water required to condense the steam is
considerably high and it is taken from a lake, river or sea. At the Columbia thermal power
plant it is taken from an artificial lake created near the plant. The water is pumped in by
means of pumps and the hot water after condensing the steam is cooled before sending
back into the pond by means of cooling towers. This is done when there is not adequate
natural water available close to the power plant. This is a closed system where the water
goes to the pond and is re circulated back into the power plant. Generally open systems
like rivers are more economical than closed systems.

Working of Steam power plant:

 Steam is generated in the boiler of the thermal power plant using heat of the fuel
burnt in the combustion chamber.

 The steam generated is passed through steam turbine where part of its thermal
energy is converted into mechanical energy which is further used for generating
electric power.

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  The steam coming out of the steam turbine is condensed in the condenser and the
condensate is supplied back to the boiler with the help of the feed pump and the
cycle is repeated.

 The function of the Boiler is to generate steam. The function of the condenser is to
condense the steam coming out of the low pressure turbine.

 The function of the steam turbine is to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.

 The function of the condenser is to increase the pressure of the condensate from
the condenser pressure to the boiler pressure.

 The other components like economizer, super heater, air heater and feed water
heaters are used in the primary circuit to increase the overall efficiency of the
plant.

Ideal Rankine Cycle

Principles of thermodynamics are useful for power cycle for of electrical power generation
(i.e. net power output) and to study refrigeration & heat pump which requires input of net
power. Classification of thermodynamics power cycles can be done into two types:
 Vapor cycle working fluid exists in liquid phase during one part of the cycle ( i.e.
from condenser outlet to Boiler) and mixed phase wit in the steam boiler and in
vapor phase at the Boiler outlet.
 Gas cycle working fluid during the cycle remains in gas phase.
Steam power generation units run on vapor power cycle using water as the working fluid.
Under this section attempt is made to familiarize the readers with the concepts of Ideal
vapor cycle called Rankine cycle.

Typical Power Plant Cycle

Electrical power is generated by using Vapor cycle power plants by using Coal, Lignite,
Diesel, Heavy furnace oil as fuel depending upon the availability and cost. The flow scheme
of the vapor power cycle is given below:

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 The entire power plant can be broken down into following sub-systems.
 Sub-system A: Classified as main-components of power plant (Turbine,
Condenser, Pump, Boiler) for power generation.
 Sub-system B: Classified as stack/chimney, from where the waste gases are
exhausted to atmosphere.
 Sub-system C: Classified as electric generator for converting the mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
 Sub-system D: Classified as Cooling water system for absorbing the heat of the
rejected steam in the condenser and helping in changing the phase of the steam
to liquid(condensate).
The focus is to study sub-system A which deals Rankine cycle. Many of the
practical limitations related with the Carnot cycle can be conveniently overcome
in Rankine cycle.
Typical Ideal Rankine Cycle

In a vapor cycle if the working fluid in a vapor cycle passes through various components
of the power plant without irreversibility and frictional pressure drop, then the cycle
is called as Ideal Rankine Cycle. The Rankine cycle is the basic operating cycle for all
power plants where an working fluid is continuously changing its phase from liquid to
vapor and vice-versa

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 Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle:
It is given by,

Rankine Cycle Efficiency Improvement Techniques

 Lowering The Condenser Pressure

 Super Heating the Steam To Higher Temperature

 Increasing Boiler Pressure with Sub Critical Parameters
Selection site of Steam power plant:

The following list corers most of the factors that should be studied and considered in
selection of proper sites for power plant construction:

Transportation network: Easy and enough access to transportation network is required

in both power plant construction and operation periods.

Gas pipe network: Vicinity to the gas pipes reduces the required expenses.

Power transmission network: To transfer the generated electricity to the consumers,

the plant should be connected to electrical transmission system

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 Therefore the nearness to the electric network can play a roll.

Geology and soil type: The power plant should be built in an area with soil and rock layers
that could stand the weight and vibrations of the power plant.

Earthquake and geological faults: Even weak and small earthquakes can damage many
parts of a power plant intensively. Therefore the site should be away enough from the
faults and previous earthquake areas

Topography: It is proved that high elevation has a negative effect on production efficiency
of gas turbines. In addition, changing of a sloping area into a flat site for the construction
of the power plant needs extra budget. Therefore, the parameters of elevation and slope
should be considered.

Rivers and floodways: obviously, the power plant should have a reasonable distance from
permanent and seasonal rivers and floodways.

Water resources: For the construction and operating of power plant different volumes of
water are required. This could be supplied from either rivers or underground water
resources. Therefore having enough water supplies in defined vicinity can be a factor in the
selection of the site.

Environmental resources: Operation of a power plant has important impacts on

environment. Therefore, priority will be given to the locations that are far enough from
national parks, wildlife, protected areas, etc.

Population centers: For the same reasons as above, the site should have an enough
distance from population centers.

Need for power: In general, the site should be near the areas that there is more need for
generation capacity, to decrease the amount of power loss and transmission expenses.

Climate: Parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind direction and speed affect the
productivity of a power plant and always should be taken into account.

Land cover: Some land cover types such as forests, orchard, agricultural land, pasture are
sensitive to the pollutions caused by a power plant. The effect of the power plant on such
land cover types surrounding it should be counted for.

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 Area size: Before any other consideration, the minimum area size required for the
construction of power plant should be defined.>

Distance from airports: Usually, a power plant has high towers and chimneys and large
volumes of gas. Consequently for security reasons, they should be away from airports.

Archeological and historical sites: Usually historical building …are fragile and at same
time very valuable. Therefore the vibration caused by power plant can damage them, and a
defined distance should be considered.

Merits and demerits of Steam power plant

Advantages:

1. The fuel used is quite cheap.

2. Less initial cost as compared to other generating plants.

3. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be
transported to the site of the plant by rail or road.

4. It requires less space as compared to Hydro power plants.

5. Cost of generation is less than that of diesel power plants.

Disadvantages:

1. It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and fumes.

2. It is costlier in running cost as compared to Hydro electric plants.

Present status of power generation in India

India is the world’s fifth largest electricity generator with total installed capacity of 2,28,722
MW. Out of this, 90,062 MW is from state owned utilities, 72,927 MW is from privately owned
utilities and 65,733 MW is from central owned utilities.

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 THEORY:

1. What is Boiler & Boiler efficiency?

2. What are Boiler Mountings & Accessories?

3. What is stoichiometric combustion?

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 4. What is evaporation ratio?

5. What is gross calorific value and net calorific value of coal?

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3.1

TITLE: VAPAUR COMPRSSION REFRIGERATION ANALYSIS

4(A)..1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT : Study of Refrigeration System Vapour Compression

4(A)..2. APPARATUS REQUIRED : Vapour compression refrigeration test rig.

4(A)..3. THEORY:

A vapour compression refrigeration system is improved type of refrigeration system in which

suitable working substance termed as refrigerant is used, it condensates and evaporates at
temperature and pressure close to atmospheric conditions. The refrigerants used for this
purpose are ammonia, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. The refrigerant used does not
leave the system, but alternatively condenses and evaporates. During evaporation, the
refrigerant absorbs latent heat from the fluid (Brine Solution) which is used for circulating
around the cold chamber and during condensation it gives latent heat to the circulating cooling
medium of the condenser. The VCRS is thus a latent heat pump as it pumps latent heat from
brine end and delivers it to the cooling medium. It is generally used for all purposes from small
domestic refrigerator to a big air conditioning plant.

4(A)..3.1. ADVANTAGES:
1. It has smaller size for given capacity of refrigerator.
2. It has less running cost.
3. It is employed for large range of temperature.
4. The COP is quite high.

4(A)..3.2. DISADVANTAGES:
1. The initial cost is higher.
2. The leakage of refrigerant is difficult to avoid.
4(A)..3.3. ESSENTIAL PARTS OF THE SYSTEM:
1. Compressor:
The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator is drawn into the
compressor through suction valve where it is compressed to high pressure and temperature.
Refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through delivery or discharge valve.

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 2. Condenser
It consists of coils of pipe in which high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant gets
cooled and condensed. The refrigerant while running through the condenser gives up its latent
heat to the surrounding condensing medium which is normally air or water.

3. Receiver
The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in vessel known as receiver
from where it is supplied to the evaporator through the expansion valve.

4. Expansion Valve:
It allows the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled
rate after reducing its pressure and temperature. Some of the refrigerants evaporate and pass
through expansion valve but their greater portion is vapourised in the evaporator at low
pressures and temperatures.

5. Evaporator:
It consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid refrigerant at low pressure and temperature get
evaporated and absorbs latent heat of vapourisation from the medium which is to be cooled.

4(A).4 ( ANALYSIS OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM:

The standard Vapour Compress Cycle consists of the following processes.
1-2 Reversible adiabatic compression from saturated vapour to superheated vapour at the
condenser pressure In compressor.
2-3 Reversible heat rejection at constant pressure (de-superheating and condensation.) in
condenser.
3-4 Irreversible constant enthalpy expansion from saturated liquid to wet vapour at the
evaporator pressure in expansion valve.
4-1 Reversible heat addition at constant pressure (Evaporation to saturated vapour)
in evaporator .
It depends upon:
1. Load on refrigeration plant in Tonnes.
2. Temperature of refrigerant.
3. Atmospheric temperature.

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 Fig 4(A).1 - Typical Single- stage vapour compression refrigeration system

Fig. 4(A).2- P-h Diagram of Refrigeration Cycle

Refrigerants such as 134a (CF3CH2F tetrafluoro-ethane) are used as the working medium because
of their properties, which are required for refrigeration cycles.

Performance of standard vapour compression cycle :

Process 1-2 is the compression process wherein mechanical work is to be supplied (usually in
the form of electrical energy to a compressor. This is the quantity to be spent.Process 4-1
represents the useful refrigeration effect. The index of performance is defined as co-efficient
of performance (not as efficiency, as for heat engines).

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 C.O.P. is defined as follows:

Useful refrigeration (output) Refrigeration effect (R E )

C.O.P  
Network Compressor Work (Input) Work Input (WI)

Fig. 4(A).3- P-h Diagram of Refrigeration Cycle with sub-cooling

4.5. FORMULAS FOR CALCULATIONS:

Refrigeration effect(R )  Mw x CPw x ΔT in Kw

e
Time taken for drop in initial to final temperature

In case of mass in chiller

C.O.P actual  Refrigeration effect (R e ) work done

Work done by the compressor (W)

Mw = Mass of Water in Chiller

Cpw = Specific Heat of Water (4.1868 KJ/kg K)
“T = Drop in water temperature (T5 initial and final temperature and time taken to drop)

THEORETICAL C.O.P

Locate 1, 2, 3, 4 on P-h chart for R 134a using (P1 T1 ), (P2 T2 ) T3 and T4 read specific

enthalpyvalues at 1,2,3 and 4.

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 h1 = …………………. kj/kg
h2 = …………………. kj/kg
hf3 = h4 = …………………. kj/kg

4(A).8. PROCEDURE:
 Do not operate charging valve h f3
 Fill measured quantity of water
 P1& P2,indicate suction and discharge pressure in the gauges,
 Provide a single-phase 15 amps 3-pin socket power supply close to the unit.
 Keep main switches in off position
 Now put the main switch on
 Put on the compressor and run the system for 15 min
 Note down the temperature at various points and energy meter reading
 Repeat the experiment by changing the water in the chiller .

[* Internal error: Invalid file format. | In-line.EMF *]

(P-h diagram for refrigerant 134a)

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 4(A).6 CONCLUSION:

4(A).7. QUESTIONS:
What are the advantages of simple vapor compression refrigeration system over air
refrigeration system?
Ans:

What are the four basic thermodynamic processes in the simple vapor compression
refrigeration system?
Ans:

What are the effect of condenser pressure & evaporator pressure on COP of a simple
vapour compression refrigeration system?
Ans:

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 How do superheating & sub cooling increase the COP of vapour
compressionrefrigeration system?
Ans:

Why throttling process is is shown by broken lines?

Ans:

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date: Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3.2
TITLE: VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION ANALYSIS

4(B).1. Study of vapour absorption refrigeration system.

:

4(B).2. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Vapour absorption refrigeration test rig.

4(B).3. THEORY:

An absorption refrigerator is a refrigerator that uses a heat source (e.g., solar, kerosene-fueled
flame, waste heat from factories or district heating systems) to provide the energy needed to
drive the cooling system. In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption
cycle using water-ammonia systems was popular and widely used but, after the development
of the vapor compression cycle, it lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of
performance(about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Nowadays, the vapour
absorption cycle is used only where waste heat is available or where heat is derived from solar
collectors. Absorption refrigerators are a popular alternative to regular compressor
refrigerators where electricity is unreliable, costly, or unavailable, where noise from the
compressor is problematic, or where surplus heat is available (e.g., from turbine exhausts or
industrial processes, or from solar plants).

For example, absorption refrigerators powered by heat from the combustion of liquefied
petroleum gas are often used for food storage in recreational vehicles. Absorptive refrigeration
can also be used to air-condition buildings using the waste heat from a gas turbine or
water heater. This use is very efficient, since the gas turbine produces electricity, hot
water andair-conditioning (called regeneration).

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 Fig 4(B).2 - VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Both absorption and compressor refrigerators use a refrigerant with a very low boiling point (less
than 0 °F (“18 °C)). In both types, when this refrigerant evaporates (boils), it takes some heat
away with it, providing the cooling effect. The main difference between the two types is the
way the refrigerant is changed from a gas back into a liquid so that the cycle can repeat. An
absorption refrigerator changes the gas back into a liquid using a different method that needs
only heat, and has no moving parts other than the refrigerant itself.[1] The other difference
between the two types is the no moving parts other than the refrigerant itself .The other
difference between the two types is refrigerant used. Compressor refrigerators typically use
an HCFC or HFC, while absorption refrigerators typically use ammonia or water.

ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATION SYSTEM:

It is a typical domestic absorption refrigeration system .Ammonia is used as the refrigerant
because it possesses most of the desirable properties. It is toxic, but since the system has
no valves or moving parts, there is very little chance of leak and also the total amount of
refrigerant charge itself is small. Liquid ammonia evaporates in the presence of air or
other gases; the lighter the gas the faster the evaporation. Since hydrogen is the lightest
gas and is also non-corrosive and insoluble in water it is used in the low side of the
system. Water is used as the solvent because of its ability absorb ammonia readily.

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 Fig4(B).3 - ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

If liquid ammonia is introduced at the top of the system as shown in fig it flows into the
evaporator and evaporates. Hydrogen passes upward in the evaporator counter flow to the
liquid ammonia that falls from one level to another. The ammonia vapor and hydrogen leave
the top of the evaporator and pass through the gas heat exchanger where they are warmed by
the hydrogen flowing to the evaporator. Then they flow through the vessel on the left and into
absorber. Weak aqua is introduced at the top of the absorber absorbing ammonia as it passes
counter flow through this unit. The hydrogen leaves the top of the absorber and flows through
the heat exchanger on its way to the evaporator. The strong ammonia solution leaves the
bottom of the absorber and flows into the generator at the lower right.

FIG4(B).4 - COMPONENTS OF VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

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 Heat is supplied at the generator, which drives the ammonia vapor out of the solution. This
vapor would easily rise into the condenser, but some means of elevating the weak aqua so
that it flows into the top of the absorber. The principle of the bubble pump is applied here.
The discharge tube from the generator is extended down below the liquid end in the generator.
As the vapor ammonia bubbles form and rise, they carry slugs of weak ammonia solution with
them up the discharge tube and into the separating vessel. From here the weak ammonia
solution flows to the absorber to repeat the cycle and vapor flows to the air-cooled condenser
to be liquefied and then flows into the evaporator. Note the ‘U’ bends in the weak solution
line to the absorber and in the liquid line to the evaporator. These prevent the hydrogen from
getting into the high side of the system.
The absolute pressure in the condenser is about the same as in the evaporator. Since practically
pure ammonia is in the condenser its vapor pressure there is substantially equal pressure is
much less and in accordance, with Dalton’s Law of partial pressures, is equal to the total
pressure, minus the partial pressure of Hydrogen. Being at a pressure below saturation
pressure, the ammonia readily vaporizes in the evaporator and refrigerates.
Actually several refinements have been added to increase the efficiency and improve the
performance. A liquid heat exchanger is used for the weak solution going to the generator.
The analyzer and rectifier are added to remove the water vapor that may have formed in the
generator so that only ammonia vapors goes to the condenser. The condenser and evaporator
each consist of two sections, to permit extending the condenser below the top of the
evaporator, and to segregate the freezing portion of the evaporator. A reserve hydrogen
vessel is added to give the same efficient operation under variable load condition.
4(B).4. PROCEDURE:
 Connect the equipment to a 230V, 5 amps, 50 Hz electrical source.
 Switch on the toggle knob on to read wattage (V x I).
 Allow the equipment to stabilize and attain steady state.
 Turn the thermocouple selector switch knob clockwise to note down temp. T1 to T5.
 Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.

4(B).5. FORMULAS FOR CALCULATIONS:

Heat supplied to Heater = QH
QH = V x I =............... K w
Where V = Voltage input to heater
I = Ampere consumed
Refrigerating Effect = QR
QR = Mw. C pw. (T6 initial water temp –T6 final water temp) Kw
Where
C pw = specific heat of water at the mean temperature
Mw = mass of water in container

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38 | P a g e
 4(B).8. CONCLUSION:

4(B).9. QUESTIONS & ANSWERS:

What is vapour absorption refrigeration system?
Ans:

What is the function of absorber in vapour absorption refrigeration system?

Ans:

What is the difference between vapour compression refrigeration & vapour absorption
refrigeration cycle?
Ans:

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 What is the function of regenerator in vapour absorption refrigeration system?
Ans:

Why is water used as the only absorbent in vapour absorption refrigeration system?
Ans:

What is Electrolux refrigeration system?

Ans:

Analyse the COP of a vapour absorption refrigeration system?

Ans:

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

40 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT : Study of gas turbine power plant.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

THEORY :

INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE

A gas turbine is also known as combustion turbine. It is an internal type of combustion engine.
In the downstream turbine upstream rotating compressor is coupled in-between combustion
chamber also.

Gas Turbine power plant:

It is defined as the principal prime mover which is of the turbine type and the medium of
working is permanent gas”.

GENERAL LAYOUT OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT:

A gas turbine is also known as combustion turbine. It is an internal type of combustion

engine. In the downstream turbine upstream rotating compressor is coupled in-between
combustion chamber also.

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 Components present in the gas turbine power plant:

· Compressor
· Intercooler
· Regenerator
· Combustion chamber
· Gas turbine
· Reheating unit

Compressor
In most of the cases centrifugal and axial turbines are used in the gas turbine power plants.
Two compressors are used in the gas turbine power plant. In that one of them is low pressure
compressor and the other one is high pressure compressor. Through the filer the atmospheric
air must be drawn into the compressor by using the low pressure compressor. The developed
power must be used to run the compressor. It uses nearly 66% of the power source. With the
help of the intercooler low pressure air, and is moved into the high pressure compressor.
Then immediately the high pressure air must be moves in to the regenerator.

Intercooler:

The main aim of the intercooler is to reduce the compressor work and it is to be placed
between the low pressure and high pressure compressors. Where the pressure ratio must
be high then intercoolers are used. The energy required to compress the air must be
proportional to the inlet air pressure. The compressed air cooling in the intercooler is
complete by water.

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 Regenerator:

When the air is entering to the regenerator then preheating is doen to reduce the fuel
consumption in the combustion chamber, where the efficiency needs to be increased. This is
done by heat of hot exhaust gases coming out of the turbine.

Combustion chamber:

From the regenerator hot air must be allowed to flow into the combustion chamber. The fuel
like natural gas, coal and kerosene are inserted into the combustion chamber. So the high
temperature and high pressure products of combustion must be passes through the turbine.

Working of gas turbine power plant:

From the atmosphere the air must be drawn into the low presser compressor with the help of
the air filter and then it must be compressed.

The compressed low pressure air must come out into the compressor which contains high
pressure through the intercooler. So the heat compressed air must be removed. Then the
compressed air which consists of high presser must be allowed to go into the combustion
chamber with the help of the regenerator. The fuel must be added to the compressor air with
the help of the combustion chamber, and then the fuel combustion needs to takes place. So
the products obtained from the combustion must be allowed into the high pressure turbine.
The exhaust present the high pressure turbine must be enters in to another combustion
chamber. In which the additional fuel must be added then it moves through the low pressure
turbine. In the low pressure turbine after completion of expansion the exhaust must be used
as heat the sir coming out with high pressure. Then it moves to the combustion chamber
followed by the regenerator. Then the exhaust must be released in to the atmosphere.

GAS TURBINE OPERATING CYCLE

Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by the Bray ton cycle, in which air is compressed
isentropic ally, combustion occurs at constant pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs
isentropic ally back to the starting pressure.
P-v diagram and T-S diagrams were given above.

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 The four steps of the cycle are:
 (1-2) Isentropic Compression
 (2-3) Reversible Constant Pressure Heat Addition
 (3-4) Isentropic Expansion
 (4-1) Reversible Constant Pressure Heat Rejection
CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINES
Gas turbines are classified as follows:

1. According to path of working fluid:

a) Open-cycle gas turbine
b) Closed-cycle gas turbine
c) Semi-closed cycle gas turbine

2. According to basis of combustion process:

a) Constant pressure type gas turbine
b) Constant volume type gas turbine

OPEN-CYCLE GAS TURBINE

The rotary compressor takes in air from atmosphere and raises the pressure to required level.
The compressed air from compressor enters combustion chamber where it mixes with fuel,
and ignition takes place at constant pressure. The hot gases expand through turbine blades
producing power, after expansion gases are exhausted into atmosphere. Part of the turbine
power is used to drive the compressor and remaining is utilized to generate electricity. Open
gas turbine cycle is the most basic gas turbine unit. The working fluid does not circulate through
the system, therefore it is not a true cycle. It consists of a compressor, a combustion chamber
and a gas turbine. The compressor and the gas turbine are mounted on the same shaft. The
compressor unit is either centrifugal or axial flow type.

CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE

In this case the same working fluid (air) is continuously circulated. Air is first compressed
adiabatically in a compressor and high compressed air enters the heat exchanger where air is
heated at high pressure by external source. Here air is not in direct contact with fuel i.e., air is
not in contact with products of combustion. Hot air is now expanded adiabatically through
turbine blades producing power. The air leaving the turbine enters the coolers where it is

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 cooled to initial temperature by circulating cooling water. Cooled air is recirculated to the
compressor and the cycle is repeated.

Advantages of gas turbines:

 Comparatively small weight and size.
 Due to absence of reciprocating parts, frictional losses are minimum. Thus mechanical
efficiency is high.
 Torque produced is uniform and continuous.
 Balancing is perfect.
 Poor quality of fuels can be used.
 Small working pressures are required.
 Much higher speeds may be developed.
 Combustion is continuous.
Disadvantages include:
 Part of power produced is utilized for driving the compressor.
 Not a self starting unit.
Fuels used in gas turbine:
 Liquid fuels- oil and refined kerosene.
 Gaseous fuels- blast furnace gas, coal gas.
 Solid fuels - pulverized coal.

Applications of gas turbine:

The gas turbine is used in a wide range of applications.
1. Power generation in plants
2. Military and commercial aircraft.
3. Jet Engine

CONCLUSION:

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 QUESTION :
1. Compare the working process in reciprocating I.C engines and gas
turbines.

2. Closed cycle gas turbine plants are akin to steam turbine plants,
comment.

3. Is it always useful to have regenerator in gas turbine power cycle? Why?

4. Why the performance of a real gas turbine cycle differs from that of an
ideal cycle?

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 5. What are the advantage & disadvantage of a gas turbine plant?

6. What are the applications of Gas turbine?

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

47 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT- 5
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT :
To conduct a performance test on a two stage two cylinder reciprocating air compressor
& to determine the volumetric efficiency, isothermal efficiency at various delivery pressure.

THEORY :
During the down ward motion of the piston the pressure inside the cylinder falls below the
atmospheric pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to its pressure difference. The air is
sucked into the cylinder until the piston reaches BDC (Bottom dead centre).As the piston starts
moving upwards the inlet valve closes and pressure starts building up continuously until the
pressure inside the cylinder is above the pressure of the receiver. Then the delivery valve
opens and air is delivered during the remaining upward motion of the piston to the receiver.
At the end of the delivery stroke, small volume of high pressure air is left in the clearance
space. The high pressure air is left in the clearance space expands as the piston moves
downwards and the pressure of the air falls, until the pressure is just below atmosphere and
then the inlet valve opens and fresh air is sucked in and the whole process repeats.The suction,
compression and delivery of air takes place within two strokes of the piston or one
revolution of the crank shaft. The compression of air from initial pressure to the final
pressure in more than one cylinder is known as multistage compression.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : 1. Two stage air compressor test rig.

2. Testing manometer
3. Digital temperature indicator
4. Starter 5. Stop watch

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS :

The apparatus basically consists of an electric motor (prime mover), two cylinder viz.HP cylinder
and LP cylinder. The system is with intercooler. Pressure gauges are provided at the both of the
HP cylinder and LP cylinder outlets to read the pressures. The foot motor gives the input power
to the compressor. The testing rig consists of a base on which the tank (air reservoir) is mounted.
the electrical safety valve is provided for safety. A mechanical safety valve is also provided for
additional safety. The suction is connected to the air tank with a calibrated orifice plate through
the water manometer. an energy meter records the input to the motor. the temperature &
pressure can be measured by temperature 7 pressure indicators respectively.

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 ( Fig. 6.1. Reciprocatory Air-compressor)

PROCEDURE:
1. The water present, if any in the receiver is drained out using the drainage cock

2. The outlet valve of the receiver is kept open to facilitate starting and then the motor is
switched on.

3. When the compressor reaches its normal speed, the outlet valve of the receiver is closed
and the compressor is allowed to build the required pressure.

4. When the pressure reaches the desired valve, the outlet valve is adjusted so that the
delivery pressure remains constant at that pressure. At this point manometer reading,
speeds of the motor and energy meter readings are noted down.

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 5. The experiment is repeated for different values of pressures and the above sets of
readings are noted down.

6. After completing the experiment, switch of the motor and release the air from the receiver.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

SL. Particulars Notations Unit Observation

No.
1 2 3
1. Intake gauge pressure P1 Kgf / cm2

2. Intercooler/ Intermediate
P2 Kgf / cm2
gauge pressure

3 Intake Temp. T1 o C

4. Temp. before intercooler T2 o C

5. Temp. after intercooler T3 o C

6. Delivery Temp. T4 o C

7. Motor speed N RPM

8. Time for 10 rev. of energy t sec.

meter disc.

9. Difference in monometer h1 cm
reading h2 cm

FOR MULAS FOR CALCULATIONS OF OVERALL EFFICIENCY :

No. of Rev x 3600  .................................. kw

1. INPUT To COMP. = Time x E  c

EC = Energy meter constant in rev / kw -hr

⎛ ρw ⎞
⇒ H = hm x ⎜ ⎜ x 1000 m of air
2. Total Head H NTP
  ρa ⎠
ρ w = Density of water = 1000 kg / m3
ρ a = Density of air = 1.283 kg / m3 at NTP
hm = Manometer reading in mm of water

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 3. DENSITY OF AIR AT N.T.P
 x 273
Air density at NTP  a
kg/m3
 273  room temp. 
4. ACTUAL VOLUMN OF AIR DRAWN AT NTP CONDITION

Va  Cd x A x 2
2gHRTP m /sec

where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.62


Area of orifice
 d2
4
d = Dia of orifice = 12 mm (0.012 m)

5. SWEPT VOLUMN = Vs
V s = ( π D2 x 4 ) x L x (N / 60)
C
in m3 / sec D
is dia of Piston = 0.070 in mtr

L is stroke length = 0.085 in mtr.

NC is speed of the motor in rpm

6. VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY IN %
η VOL
= (Va / V S) X 100

FOR MULAS FOR CALCULATIONS OF ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY :

1. Intake Pressure P1 (abs) = P atm + P1 gauge

2. Intermediate Pressure P2 (abs) = P atm + P2 gauge

3. Delivery Pressure P3 (abs) = P atm + P3 gauge

4. Compression Ratio for 1st stage compressor r 1 = P2 /P1

5. Compression Ratio for 2nd stage compressor r2 = P3 /P2

6. Overall compressiuon ratio = r = (P2 /P1 ) x (P3 /P2 ) = ( P3 / P1)

7. Index of compression

PVν = C

P1V 1ν = P2V2 ν

T1 P1 r (1-ν / ν ) = T2 P2 r (1-ν / ν ) Or T1 / T2 = (P2 /P1) (1-ν / ν )

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 or Log ( T 1 / T 2 ) = (1- ν /ν ) Log (P 2/P )1

or (1- ν / ν ) = Log ( T / T ) / Log (P /P )

1 2 2 1

8. Work Input to compressor , W in = _ (watts)

9. Actual work consumed

W LP = (1- ν /ν ) x  P
1
V1 (P2 /P1 ) ν /ν ) - 1
(1-
 Joule / cycle

W HP = (ν / 1- ν) x  P V1 1(P /2 P )1 (1-ν / ν )
-1  Joule / cycle W

ac / cycle = W LP + W HP =...........................................Joule

10. Indicated power

(W LP + W HP ) Joule / cycle x ( N cycle / 60 (s) ) = ................. watt

11. Isothermal work (W iso)

W iso = P1V 1 Log (P3 / P1 ) = ................... Joule / cycle

12. Isothermal Power (W iso)

W iso (Joule / cycle ) X ( N cycle / 60 (s) ) = ................. watt

13. Isothermal Efficiency

Piso
η  x 100 %
= ( Isothermal Power / Indicated power ) X 100
iso
I.P
14. Overall Isothermal Efficiency

(η over all iso

) = ( Isothermal Power / work input to compressor )

15. Heat rejected in intercooler

2 Q3 = Na X Cp (T2 – T3)

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 CALCULATION :

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 CONCLUSION :

QUESTION :

Write down the energy equation of a single stage reciprocating air compressor without
having clearance volume?
Ans:-

Why intercooling is required for multistage compression?Ans:-

What is the effect of clearance ratio on volumetric efficiency?Ans:

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 Draw the indicator diagram for for a two stage single acting reciprocating air
compressor?
Ans:-

What is free air delivery?Ans:-

Which process Isothermal or adiabatic compression requires more work input ? Ans:-

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

55 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To determine efficiency of Centrifugal Compressor at various speeds. To draw curves of
efficiency Vs speeds

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Centrifugal compressor test rig 2. Stop watch

THEORY:

A centrifugal compressor is a ‘‘dynamic’’ machine. It has a continuous ûow of ûuid which receives
energy from integral shaft impellers. This energy is transformed into pressure—partly across
the impellers and partly in the stator section, i.e., in the diffusers. This type of machine is
composed (see Fig. 3.1) of an outer casing (A) which contains a stator part, called a diaphragm
bundle (B), and of a rotor formed by a shaft (C), one or more impellers (D), a balance drum (E),
and thrust collar (F).

(F i g . 7.1. Centrifugal Compressor)

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 The rotor is driven by means of a hub (G) and is held in position axially by a thrust bearing (I),
while rotating on journal bearings (H). The rotor is fitted with labyrinth seals (L) and, if necessary,
oil film end seals (M). Gas is drawn into the compressor through a suction nozzle and enters an
annular chamber (inlet volute), flowing from it towards the center from all directions in a
uniform radial pattern (see Fig. 3.2). At the opposite side of the chamber from the suction
nozzle is a fin to prevent gas vortices. The gas flows into the suction diaphragm and is then
picked up by the first impeller (see Fig.). The impellers consist of two discs, referred to as the
disc and shroud, connected by blades which are shrunk onto the shaft and held by either one or
two keys. The impeller pushes the gas outwards raising its velocity and pressure; the outlet
velocity will have a radial and a tangential component for further details). On the disc side, the
impeller is exposed to discharge pressure (see Fig.) and on the other side partly to the same
pressure and partly to suction pressure. Thus a thrust force is created towards suction. The gas
next ûows through a circular chamber (diffuser), following a spiral path where it loses velocity
and increases pressure (similar to ûuid ûow through conduits). The gas then flows along the
return channel; this is a circular chamber bounded by two rings that form the intermediate
diaphragm, which is fitted with blades (see Fig. 3.5) to direct the gas toward the inlet of the
next impeller. The blades are arranged to straighten the spiral gas flow in order to obtain a
radial outlet and axial inlet to the following impeller. The gas path is the same for each impeller.
Labyrinth seals are installed on the diaphragms to minimize internal gas leaks (see Fig). These
seals are formed by rings made in two or more parts. The last impeller of a stage (the term stage
refers to the area of compression between two consecutive nozzles) sends the gas into a
diffuser which leads to an annular chamber called a discharge volute (see Fig. ). The discharge
volute is a circular chamber which collects the gas from the external boundary of the diffuser
and conveys it to the discharge nozzle. Near the discharge nozzle there is another fin which
prevents the gas from continuing to flow around the volute and directs it to the discharge
nozzle (see Fig. ).

( Fig. 7.2. Centrifugal Compressor Principle )

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 ( Fig. 7.3. Centrifugal compressor Nomenclature)

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS TYPES:

1. Compressors with Horizontally-split Casings.
2. Compressors with Vertically-split Casings.
3. Compressors with Bell Casings.
4. Pipeline Compressors.
5. SR Compressors.

BASIC THEORITICAL ASPECTS:

58 | P a g e
 The term turbo machinery is used to indicate systems in which energy is exchanged between a
fluid, evolving continuously and in a clearly determined quantity, and a machine equipped with
fluid blading.

Turbo machines can be classified as:

✶ Process machines, in which the machine transfers energy to the fluid

✶ Drivers, in which the machine receives energy from the fluid

✶ An initial classification of turbo machines may be made on the basis of the predominant
direction of the ûow within the machine:

✶ Axial machines, in which the predominant direction is parallel to the axis of rotation
✶ Radial machines, in which the predominant direction is orthogonal to the axis, although
portions of the flow may have an axial direction
✶ Mixed machines, where the situation is intermediate between the described above.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

Entire set up is mounted on a strong frame. It has table cum panel. Compressor, motor

control, indicators are all mounted. It is a compact unit.

A. COMPRESSOR : Centrifugal type ,single stage, volute casing

01. Suction : acrylic, circular, 140 mm diameter,250 mm long

02. Discharge : 70 mm diameter, about 600 mm long

03. Bearings : specially designed pairs, to allow 15,000 rpm
04. Shaft : 30 mm

05. Impeller : specially designed, turbo charger type, balanced,

stainless steel.

06. Max speed : 12200 rpm

07. Frequency : 50 Hz
08. Pulley : V double groove, 2 inches

B. MOTOR : 3 phase, 440 V AC, Induction motor, air cooled

Speed : 2880 rpm

Frequency: 50 Hz

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 Pulley: V double groove, 10 inches
V belt: 2 Nos

C. FREQUENCY DRIVE :
Reputed make, facility to change frequency and hence speed of motor.

D. MANOMETERS : U tube, glass ,300 mm

01. For Static Head : filled with mercury: connected to Simple pitot tube, made from
copper, fitted at delivery end of compressor

02. For suction head: filled with water connected at suction pipe of compressor.
03. For discharge measurement : filled with mercury Connected to orifice meter – two limbs
all are connected through tubes to appropriate locations

E. ORIFICE : 34 mm diameter

F. VALVE : 2 ½ inch to regulate discharge of air

G. SPEED INDICATOR : Digital RPM meter,with PNP sensor

H. ENERGYMETER : Electronic , 1600 pulses / kwh, 3 phase

I : Switches, and cables,connectors

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 OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr. Speed Suction Static head Discharge Time for

No N Manometer Manometer Manometer 5 pulses
Rpm H1 H2 H5 H6 H3 H4 of EM
cm cm cm cm cm cm T sec

PROCEDURE :

1. Check all electrical connections

2. Connect earthing properly
3. Ensure 440 V supply to the motor
4. Fill water, and mercury for manometers
5. Connect required tubings from pitot tube, orifice, suction to manometers
6. Initially close discharge valve
7. Frequency drive has to be started with slow speed, gradually increase frequency to max
50 Hz ( maximum speed)

61 | P a g e
 TEST WITH MAXIMUM CONSTANT SPEED & VARIABLE DISCHARGE
1. Close discharge valve

2. Slowly start motor, with the help of frequency drive attain maximum speed of about
12000 rpm
3. Note down speed N in rpm
4. Note down all manometer readings

5. Note down time required 5 pulses of energy meter

6. Slowly open discharge valve

7. Note down all above readings

8. Note down all readings for different opening of valve, upto full opening of valve
( about 5 readings)
TEST WITH VARIABLE SPEED & MAXIMUM DISCHARGE
1. Here fully open discharge valve
2. Slowly start motor, with the help of frequency drive attain speed of about 3000 rpm
3. Note down all manometer readings
4. Note down time required 5 pulses of energy meter
5. Slowly increase motor speed to say 5000 rpm
6. Note down all above readings
7. Note down all readings for different speeds say 7000,9000, 11,000,12000 rpm,
upto full frequency of 50 Hz.

FORMULAS FOR CALCULATIONS :

π  2
01. Area of Orifice = Area of Orifice A  d sq.m
o  
4 

where d = orifice diameter = 34 mm = 0.034 mt

02. Suction Head : Hs in mts

r 
H  H H / 100 x  m  1  mts.
 ra
s 1 2


Where H1 a nd H2 : manometer levels in cm

rm : density of water =1000 kg/cu.m
ra : density of air = 1.2 kg/cu.m

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 03. Static Head : HT in mts

r 
H   H H  / 100  x   1  mts.
m

 ra
T 1 2

Where H5 and H6 : manometer levels in cm

rm : density of mercury =13600 kg / m3

ra : density of air = 1.2 kg/cu.m
04. Head across orifice meter : Ho in mts
r 
 1mts.
m

 ra 
Where H3 and H4 : manometer levels in cm

rm : density of mercury =13600 kg / m3

ra : density of air = 1.2 kg/cu.m

05. Discharge of Air : Q m³/ sec

Q  A 0 x C dx 2 g H 0 m /sec.
3

Where Cd = 0.65
g = 9.81 m/sec²
Ao = area of orifice in m²
06. Power Output : Po in K.watts
ρ a gQH T
P = KW
0 1000
07. Input Power : Pi in kw
Pi = (5 x 3600 x η m x η T ) / (K x T) kw
Where 5 = number of pulses in energymeter
η m = Motor efficiency = 0.8 (80%)
η T = Transmission efficiency = 90% = 0.9
08. Efficiency of compressor : η c %
η c = (Po / Pi ) x 100 %
09. Calculate above for both the test

10. Plot graph of Q Vs Efficiency for constant speed.

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 CALCULATION:

64 | P a g e
 CONCLUSION :

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

65 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT - 7

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT :

To study the performance of a gear oil pump at a particular speed & determine
performance characteristics between 1. head 2. Discharge 3. Power 4. efficiency

APPARATUS REQUIRED : 1. Gear oil pump setup

2. Meter scale
3. Stop watch

DESCRIPTION:
The gear oil pump consists of two identical intermeshing spur wheels working with a fine
clearance inside the casing. The wheels are so designed that they form a fluid tight joint
at the point of contact. One of the wheels is keyed to driving shaft and the other revolves
as the driven wheel. Fill the reservoir tank to about 3/4th capacity with standard lube oil
(SAE 40/ SAE 50)
As the gear rotates, the oil is trapped in between their teeth and is flown to the discharge
end round the casing. The rotating gears build-up sufficient pressure to force the oil in to
the delivery pipe. At the normal working speed the total head on the pump may varied up
toa maximum of 5 kgf/cm2
PROCEDURE :
1. Start the gear oil pump .
2. The delivery gauge reading is adjusted for the required value.
3. The corresponding suction gauge reading is noted.
4. The time taken for ‘N’ revolutions in the energy meter is noted with the help of a stop
watch.
5. The time taken for ‘h’ rise in oil level is also noted down after closing the gate valve.
6. With the help of the meter scale the distance between the suction and delivery gauge
is noted.
7. For calculating the area of the collecting tank its dimensions are noted down.
8. The experiment is repeated for different delivery gauge readings.
9. Finally the readings are tabulated.

GRAPH :
With this test data the fallowing characteristics can be studied & necessary graphs can be
drawn.
1. Head Vs. Discharge
2. Head vs. Power input
3. Head vs Overall efficiency
The above charactestics can be drawn for the four operating speeds of the pump.

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 ( Fig. 8.1. Gear oil Pump )

( Fig. 8.2. Gear oil Pump Test Rig )

67 | P a g e
 OBSERVATION TABLE :
Thus the performance characteristics of gear oil pump were studied and maximum efficiency
was found to be .......... %.

Sl. Pressure Vaccum Difference Total Time Dis- Time Input Output Overall
No. gauge gauge in gauge
Head in sec charge for 5 power power
level efficiency
in IPM rev. of
EM

FORMULAS FOR CALCULATION :

Output
1. Efficiency = x 100 %
Input

ρ gQH KW
2. Output =
1000

3. Total Head (H) = suction head + delivery head

mm Hg (gauge reading)
Suction head = = ....................... n kgf /cm2
760
Absolute suction head = ( 1 - suction head) = in meters

68 | P a g e
 1.032 + (Pressure gauge reading) x 10
Delivery head = = ........................ in meters
900

Density of oil used ( ρ ) = 900 kg/m3

Axh
4. Discharge (Q) = = ..................... in m3 / sec
T
Where
A = Area of the measuring tank in m2
h = Rise of oil level (say 10 cm) in meters
T= Time in seconds for raise of water level 9say 10 cm)

5. Input = X /t X 3600 x 1 / Ec
Where
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc (say 5 rev.)
t = Time for energy meter revolution disc (say 5 rev.)
Ec = Energy meter consant

GRAPHS
The fallowing graphs can be drawn :
a) Discharge Vs Total head
b) Discharge Vs Power input
c) Discharge Vs Efficiency

CALCULATION :

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70 | P a g e
 CONCLUSION:

QUESTION :

Write down the equation for vol. of oil discharge in 1 rev. of a gear pump?Ans:-

Write down the working principle of gear pump? Ans:-

71 | P a g e
 State the physical significance of a positive displacement pump?
Ans:-

What is the max. Pressure that can be generated by a single stage gear pump?Ans:-

What is the actual discharge by a single stage gear pump?Ans:-

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

72 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
MEASUREMENT OF STEAM QUALITY USING CALORIMETER
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT : To find dryness fraction of steam by separating and throttling
calorimeter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
a) Steam boiler plant
b) Separating and throttling calorimeter
c) Measuring
d) Beaker

THEORY:
The separating calorimeter is a vessel used initially to separate some of the moisture from the
steam, to ensure superheat conditions after throttling. The steam is made to change direction
suddenly; the moisture droplets, being heavier than the vapor, drop out of suspension and are
collected at the bottom of the vessel.
The throttling calorimeter is a vessel with a needle valve fitted on the inlet side. The steam is
throttled through the needle valve and exhausted to the condenser. Suppose M kg of wet
steam with a dryness fraction of x (state A) enters the separating calorimeter. The vapor part
will have a mass of xM kg and the liquid part will have a mass of (1-x)M kg. In the separating
calorimeter part of the liquid, say M1 kg will be separated from the wet steam. Hence the
dryness fraction of the wet steam will increase to x1 (state B) which will pass through the
throttling process valve. After the throttling process the steam in the throttling calorimeter
will be in superheated state (state C).

73 | P a g e
 Figure. T-S diagram of the separating and throttling calorimeter.
From the steady flow energy equation;
Q – W = hC - hB
Since throttling takes place over a very small distance, the heat transfer is negligible, i.e., Q =
0. Then the steady flow energy equation for the throttling process becomes,
hC = hB
Hence, enthalpy after throttling = enthalpy before throttling
hC = hf1 + x 1 h fg1
If the pressure of the steam before throttling, the pressure and temperature of the steam after
throttling, are known the value of x1 can be calculated using steam tables.
Dryness Fraction = Mass of dry steam
Mass of mixture

Therefore, X = (x1 * M2)/(M1 + M2)

Where, M2 is the mass of condensate.

Steam generator separating & throttling calorimeter:

In separating & throttling calorimeter are used. The steam passing from a calorimeter may be
steam containing some water particle in it. This method is basically for a wet steam. In this case
it is necessary to dry the steam partially before throttling. This is done by passing the steam
sample from the main through a operating calorimeter.
In separating calorimeter the steam is made to change its direction suddenly & water as heavy
then steam separate out there due to inertia. The quantity of water separate out is measured,
then the steam is passed through the throttling calorimeter. After that steam from calorimeter
is collected and condensed & measure the condensate X2=(h3-h2)/hfg2

74 | P a g e
 PROCEDURE:
1. Start the boiler and supply steam to the separating and throttling calorimeter unit.
2. Start the cooling water flow through the condenser.
3. Open steam valve and allow the steam to flow through the calorimeters to warm
through the steam.
4. Open the throttle valve and adjust to give a pressure at exhaust of about 5cm Hg
measured on the manometer.
5. Drain the separating calorimeter.
6. Start the test and take readings at 2-3 minutes intervals.
7. When a reasonable quantity of condensate is collected measure the quantity of
separated water and the quantity of condensate.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Using the average values, obtain the specific enthalpy of steam at (state C) hence calculate
the dryness fraction of incoming steam. Also calculate the specific enthalpy of incoming
steam.

CONCLUSION: Hence the dryness fraction of steam is_ _.

75 | P a g e
 QUESTIONS :
1. What is meant by dryness fraction of steam? State its value for dry saturated steam.

2. What is superheated steam?

3. What is critical & triple point? Show it on phase diagram

4. What are the experimental methods of determining the dryness fraction of steam?

5. What are limitations of throttling calorimeter?

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

76 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

VERIFICATION OF JOULE THOMSON CO-EFFICIENT:

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: Measurement of joule Thomson co-efficient.

APPARTUS REQUIRED: Joule-Thomson apparatus

THEORY: The Joule-Thomson Coefficient

The temperature behavior of a fluid during a throttling (h = constant) process is described

by the Joule-Thomson coefficient, defined as

The Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure of the change in temperature of a substance

with pressure during a constant-enthalpy process, and it can also be expressed as

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78 | P a g e
 91

79 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

The Joule-Thomson apparatus will be set up in fig 1 for

80 | P a g e
 93

81 | P a g e
 QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the Joule Thomson effect.

2. What is inversion curve?

3. Define throttling process?

82 | P a g e
 4. Write the expression for Joule-Thomson co-efficient

5. Determine Joule-Thomson co-efficient for an ideal gas.

Signature of Faculty Student Name :

Date : Regd. No. :
Branch :
Roll No. :

83 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO: 10
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
To conduct Load test or performance test on 4-stroke single cylinder of C.I.Engine

DESCRIPTION :
The Rope brake Dynamometer is fixed along with the additional flywheel to the Engine
and the engine is mounted on an MS. Channel Frame. Panel board is used to fix burette
with 3-way cock, digital temperature indicator with selector, loading device, Digital Speed
indicator and ‘U’ tube manometer.
INSTRUMENTATION:
1. Digital Temperature Indicator to measure different temperatures sensed by
respective thermocouples.
2. Manometer to measure the quantity of air drawn into the engine cylinder.
3. Burette to measure the rate of fuel consumed.
4. Digital speed indicator to measure the speed of the engine.

Fig. - C.I. Engine Test Rig

ENGINE SPECIFICATION:
MAKE : Kirloskar
BHP : 5.0
SPEED : 1500 RPM
NO. OF CYLINDER : ONE

84 | P a g e
 BORE : 80 mm
STROKE : 110 mm
ORIFICE DIA : 20 mm
TYPE OF IGNITION : COMPRESSION IGNITION
METHOD OF LOADING : ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETER
METHOD OF STARTING : HAND START
METHOD OF COOLING : WATER COOLED

TO DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING:

5. Specific Fuel Consumption : SFC
6. Brake Horse Power : BP
7. Brake Thermal Efficiency : hBth
8. Volumetric Efficiency : hVol

LOADING SYSTEM

The engine test rig is directly coupled to a brake drum and a rope is wound around the
drum. One end of the rope is connected to a dial balance with hand wheel and the other αm
1
d
C
a

α 2 W 1 Sa
I W

H
1 f

T 1
3

T 4

end to a weight hanger. Please see to that the platform is above the base (hanging)
4
H  H H

while the engine is loaded. This can be achieved by using the hand wheel provided on
loading frame. The load of the engine can be varied by adding or removing of dead
weights provided.

2 N T
B. P.  KW
60000

Where, T = (W1 - W2 ) x Re Re = D+d / 2

T = Torque in Kgm.
W1 = Dial Balance (with hand wheel) reading in kg
W2 = Dial Balance (without hand wheel) reading in kg
Re = Effective radius of the brake drum with rope in metre.
D = Diameter of Brake drum in mts (0.30 m)
d = Diameter of rope in mtrs (0.015 m)
N = Speed of the engine in RPM

85 | P a g e
 FUEL MEASUREMENT
The fuel is supplied from the main fuel tank through a measuring burette with 3 way
manifold system. To measure the fuel consumption of the engine, fill the burette by
opening the cock from tank. When the burette is filled with fuel, close the cock from
the tank. By starting a stop clock measure, the time is taken to consume 10 cc of fuel.
Weight of fuel W  10 x Specific gravity of diesel x 3600 ( kg / hr)
f
time 1000

AIR FLOW MEASUREMENT:

An air drum is fitted on the panel frame and is connected to the engine through an air
hose. The air drum facilitates an orifice. The pressure pickup point is connected to “U’
tube manometer limb. The difference in manometer reading is taken at different loads
and the air sucked by the engine is calculated by.

w
Va C dA0 2gh w  x 3600m3/hr , ρw = density of water,
a = 1000kg/m3

Where, Ao = Area of orifice = π d2 / 4 m2 ρa = density of air,

Cd of orifice = 0.62 = 1.293kg/m3

Dia. of orifice(d) = 20 mm

weight of fuel W  10 x Specific gravity of diesel x 3600 (kg / hr)

f
time 1000
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
A digital temperature indicator with selector switch is provided on the panel to read the
temperature in oc, directly sensed by thermocouples located at different places on the
engine test rig.
T 1 : Inlet water temperature to engine jacket
T 2 : Outlet water temperature of engine jacket
T 3 : Exhaust gas temperature.
T 4 : Room temperature.

DIGITAL SPEED INDICATOR

A Digital speed indicator is provided with proximity sensor to measure the speed of
the engine.

86 | P a g e
 PROCEDURE:

i. Connect the water inlet to a constant head water source.

ii. Open the inlet gate valves of the engine jacket to suitable flow rate by adjusting
the gate valve which is provided before the flow meter.
iii. Connect the instrumentation power input plug to a 230V, single-phase power
source. Now the digital temperature indicator displays the respective readings.
iv. Fill up the Diesel into the tank.
v. Check the lubricating oil level in the sump with the dipstick provided.
vi. Open the Diesel cock provided from the Diesel tank.
vii. De-compress the engine by decompression lever provided near the fuel pump.

viii. Insert the starting handle and Crank the engine slowly by rotating in clockwise and
ascertain proper flow of fuel into the pump and in turn through the nozzle into the
engine cylinder. When maximum cranking speed is attained, pullout the decompression
lever, now the engine starts. Allow the engine to run and stabilize. (Approximately
1500 RPM. The engine is a constant Speed engine fitted with centrifugal governor).
ix. Open the cooling water gate valve and set it for required flow, Now load the engine by
applying weights, load the engine in steps of ¼, ½, ¾, full load. Allow the engine to
stabilize on every load change.
x. Before taking the reading allow the engine to run at the set load and speed for few
minutes. Note down the readings. Then increase the load by repeating the same
procedure up to maximum load.
xi. To stop the engine after the experiment is over remove all the weights applied and
close the cooling water gate valve, then pull the governor lever towards the engine
cranking side.

FORMULA:

9. Brake Power (BP)

2 NT
B. P.  KW
60000

87 | P a g e
 10.Mass of fuel consumed (Mf ) in kg/hr.

Xcc x Specific gravity of fuel x 60 x 60

mf 
Tsec x 1000

Where Xcc is volume of fuel consumed in T secs.

Specific gravity (Diesel) is 0.838

11. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) in Kg/ Kw hr.

mf
SFC 
BP

12. Brake Thermal Efficiency hBth

BP x 3600
x 100 in %
C v x mf
Where calorific value of fuel (Diesel) Cv = 43961.4 KJ/kg

13.Actual Volume (Va) of air drawn into the cylinder at RTP in m3/hr is calculated by

w
Va  CdA0 2gh w  x 3600 m3/hr
a
Where, Cd = 0.62
Ao= Area of orifice in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity [ 9.81 m/sec2 ]
hw = Manometric head in meters of water.
ρw = Density of water [ 1000 kg/ m3 ]
ρw
= Density of air [ 1.293 kg/ m3 ]
ρa
14.Swept Volume (Vs) in m3 /hr
ALN 1
Vs  x x3600
2 60
Speed of the
V  Area of Cylinder x Stroke length x x 60
engine
s
2( 4 stroke engine )
15.Volumetric efficiency

BP  2xπ x N x (W1  W2 ) x Re Kw
60x1000

88 | P a g e
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

SL.No: -

Load in Kg. (W1 - W2 )

Time taken for 10cc of

fuel consumption in
sec

Manometric difference in metres

Speed in m/sec

B.P. in Kilo Watts

Total fuel consumption in Kg /Hr

Specific fuel consumption in Kg/Kwhr

Brake thermal efficiency

T1 [ Water inlet temperature to the engine ]

T2 [ Water outlet temperature from the engine ]

T3 [Exhaust gas temperature]

T4 [Room temperature]

CALCULATION:

89 | P a g e
 CONCLUSION:

90 | P a g e
 QUESTIONS:

What is mean effective pressure? Explain about brake mean effective pressure
& indicated mean effective pressure?
Ans.

What do you mean by Calorific Value of Fuel?

Ans.

What is length to bore ratio? What are the engine classification depending onL
/ D ratio?
Ans.

What are the types of piston rings & what are their uses?
Ans.

91 | P a g e
 What is the function of injector in a C.I engine?
Ans.

Differentiate between Flywheel & Governor?

Ans.

Signature of Faculty: Signature of Student:

Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Group:
Date:

92 | P a g e
 EXPERIMENT NO - 11

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To conduct load test or performance test on a single cylinder
S.I. engine.

DESCRIPTION
The Rope Brake Dynamometer is coupled to the Engine and the engine is mounted on
an MS. Channel Frame. Panel board is used to fix burette with 3-way cock, digital
temperature indicator with selector, Digital Speed indicator and ‘U’ tube manometer.
INSTRUMENTATION:
1. Digital Temperature Indicator to measure different temperatures sensed by
respective thermocouples.
2. Manometer to measure the quantity of air drawn into the engine cylinder.
3. Burette to measure the rate of fuel consumed.
4. Digital speed indicator to measure the speed of the engine.

Fig. - S.I Engine

93 | P a g e
 ENGINE SPECIFICATION

MAKE : HONDA
BHP : 3
SPEED : 3000 RPM
NO. OF CYLINDER : ONE
BORE : 67 mm
STROKE : 56 mm
ORIFICE DIA : 20 mm
TYPE OF IGNITION : SPARK IGNITION
METHOD OF LOADING : ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETER
METHOD OF STARTING : ROPE
METHOD OF COOLING : AIR COOLED

TO DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING:

5. Specific Fuel Consumption : SFC

6. Brake Horse Power : BP
7. Brake Thermal Efficiency : hBth
8. Volumetric Efficiency : hVol

LOADING SYSTEM.
The engine test rig is directly coupled to a brake drum through a shaft and a rope is wound
around the drum. One end of the rope is connected to a balance and the other end to a
linear balance. The load on the engine can be varied by rotating the hand wheel. Allow
cooling water to the brake drum while applying the load.
2 N T
B. P.  KW
60000

T = Torque = W x Re
Where, W = Net load applied in Kg = W1 – W2
W1 = Dial balance reading in Kg.
W2 = Linear Balance reading in kg (pocket type)
Re = Effective radius of the brake drum = D+d /2 = 0.115m
D = Diameter of the brake drum = 0.217m.
d = Diameter of rope in m (0.015 m)
N = Speed of the engine

94 | P a g e
 FUEL MEASUREMENT
Thefuel is suppliedfrom the main fueltank througha measuring burette with 3 way manifold
system. To measure the fuel consumption of the engine, fill the burette by opening the cock
from tank. When the burette is filled with fuel, close the cock from tank. By starting a stop
clock measure the time taken to consume 10 cc of fuel.

Weight of fuel, W  10 x Specific gravity of petrol x 3600 kh/hr

f
Time 1000

AIR FLOW MEASUREMENT:

An air drum is fitted on the panel frame and is connected to the engine through an air
hose.The air drum facilitates an orifice. The pressure pickup point is connected to “U’
tube manometer limb. The difference in manometer reading is taken at different loads
and theair sucked by the engine is calculated by

2gh w ρw x 3600 m / hr
3
Va  Cd Ao
ρa
Where, Ao = Area of orifice =  d2 / 4 m2
Cd of orifice = 0.62
d = Dia of orifice = 20 mm
ρw = Density of water [1000 kg/m3]
ρa = Density of air [1.293 kg/m3]

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
A digital temperature indicator with selector switch is provided on the panel to read the
temperature in 0c, directly sensed by thermocouples located at different places on the engine
test rig.
T 1 : Exhaust gas temperature .
T 2 : Temperature of air passing through engine head.
T 3 : Room temperature.

DIGITAL SPEED INDICATOR

A Digital speed indicator is provided with proximity sensor to measure the speed of
the engine (Readable only when the dynamometer is coupled).

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 PROCEDURE:
i. Connect the instrumentation power input plug to a 230V, single-phase power source.
Now the digital temperature indicator displays the respective readings.
ii. Fill up the Petrol into the tank.
iii. Check the lubricating oil level in the sump.
iv. Open the Petrol cock provided underneath the Petrol tank and. Also ensure the
accelerator knob is in cut off position (idle condition).
v. Start the engine by pulling. Now the engine is running at idling speed.
vi. Increase the speed by turning the accelerator knob clockwise until the speed reaches
approx. 3000 RPM.
vii Now apply the load by rotating the hand wheel of rope brake dynamometer. The load W1
is indicated on a dial type spring balance in terms of Kg and W2 is linear balance reading. Net
load W = W1 - W2. Now the engine speed decreases due to the application of load.
Operate the acceleration knob simultaneously with the rope brake dynamometer hand
wheel and set the load to ¼ of the full load i.e. 1.5 kg [approx.] on the spring balance.
viii. Allow the engine to run at the set load and speed for few minutes. Note down the
readings. Then increase the load by repeating the same procedure up to maximum
load i.e: 6.2 kg.
FORMULA’S
1. Brake Power (B.P)

2 NT
B. P.  KW
60000

2. Mass of fuel consumed ( mf ) in kg/hr

Xcc x Specific gravity of fuel x 60 x 60

mf 
Tsec x 1000
Where: Xcc is volume of fuel consumed in T sec.
Specific gravity ( Petrol) is 0.780

3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) in kg/kw hr

mf
SFC 
BP

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 4. Brake Thermal Efficiency

BP x 3600
x 100 in %

Cv x mf Vol
Where calorific value of Petrol, CFV = 62802 KJ / kg

5. Actual Volume (Va) of air drawn into the cylinder at RTP in m 3/hr is calculated by

Va  Cd Ao 2gh w ρw x 3600 m3 / hr
ρa

Where, Cd= 0.62

Ao = Area of orifice in m
g = Acceleration due to gravity [9.81 m/sec2]
hw = Manometric head in meters of water.
ñw= Density of water [ 1000 kg/ m3 ]
ña= Density of air [ 1.293 kg/ m3 ]

8. Swept Volume (Vs) in m3 /hr

ALN 1
Vs  x x 3600
2 60
Where, A = Area of Cylinder in m
L = Stroke length in m
N = Speed of the engine in rpm

Actual Volume
9. Volumetric efficiency , d   x 100 in 100 %
Swept Volume

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

OBSERVATIONS 1 2 3 4 5
Load in Kg.
Time taken for 10cc of
fuel consumption in sec

Manometric difference in metres

Speed

B.P. in Kilo Watts

Total fuel consumption in Kg /Hr

Specific fuel consumption in Kg/Kwhr

Brake thermal efficiency

T1 [exhaust gas temperature]

T2 [ Temperature of air passing

through the engine head ]

T3 [room temperature]

CALCULATION:

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 CONCLUSION:

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 QUESTIONS:

What are the two general classes of combustion engines & how do they basically differ in
principle?
Ans.

Define Volumetric Efficiency & Relative Efficiency.

Ans.

Give classification of S.I.engine by valve location?

Ans.

What are the methods used for measuring engine speed?

Ans.

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 What is the purpose of performance test on load test?
Ans.

What are the various methods used for measurement of BP?

Ans.

Signature of Faculty: Signature of Student:

Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Group:
Date:

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 EXPERIMENT NO - 12

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To conduct Performance Test & Morse Test on multi-cylinder S.I.engine
DESCRIPTION
The Rope brake Dynamometer is fixed to the Engine and the engine is mounted on an MS.
Channel Frame. Panel board is used to fix burette with 3-way cock, digital temperature
indicator with selector, Digital Speed indicator and ‘U’ tube manometer.
INSTRUMENTATION:
1. Digital Temperature Indicator to measure different temperatures sensed by respective
thermocouples.
2. Manometer to measure the quantity of air drawn into the engine cylinder.
3. Burette to measure the rate of fuel consumed.
4. Digital speed indicator to measure the speed of the engine.

Fig. - Multi cylinder engine for Morse Test

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 ENGINE SPECIFICATION:
MAKE : HM (ISUZU)
BHP : 10 (Derated)
SPEED : 1500 RPM (Derated)
NO. OF CYLINDER : FOUR
BORE : 84 mm
STROKE : 82 mm
ORIFICE DIA : 25 mm
TYPE OF IGNITION : SPARK IGNITION
METHOD OF LOADING : ROPEBRAKE DYNAMOMETER
METHOD OF STARTING : SELF START
METHOD OF COOLING : WATER COOLED
TO DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING:

5. Specific Fuel Consumption : SFC

6. Brake Horse Power : BP
7. Indicated Horse Power : IP
8. Brake Thermal Efficiency : ηBth
9. Indicated Thermal Efficiency : ηIth
10. Volumetric Efficiency : ηVol
11. Mechanical Efficiency : ηMech
LOADING SYSTEM: The engine test rig is directly coupled to a brake drum and a rope is
wound around the drum. One end of the rope is connected to a dial balance with hand wheel
and the otherendtoa weight hanger. Please see that the platform is above the base (hanging)
while the engine is loaded; this can be achieved by using the hand wheel provided on loading
frame. The load of the engine can be varied by adding or removing of dead weights provided.
12. 2 x π x N x (W1  W2 ) x Re
BP  Kw
60x1000

Re = D+d / 2 in m
T = Torque in Kgm.
W1 = Dial Balance (with hand wheel) reading in kg
W2 = Dial Balance (without hand wheel) reading in kg
Re = Effective radius of the brake drum with rope in m.
D = Diameter of Brake drum in m (0.45 m)
d = Diameter of rope in m (0.020 m)
N = Speed of the engine in RPM

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 FUEL MEASUREMENT: The fuel is supplied from the main fuel tank through a measuring
burette with 3 way manifold system. To measure the fuel consumption of the engine, fill the
burette by opening the cock from tank. When the burette is filled with fuel close the cock
from tank. By starting a stop clock measure the time taken to consume 10 cc of fuel.
Xcc x Specific gravity of fuel x 60 x 60
mass of the fuel= mf 
Tsec x 1000

AIR FLOW MEASUREMENT : An air drum is fitted on the panel frame and is connected
tothe engine through an air hose. The air drum facilitates an orifice. The pressure
pickup point is connected to “U’ tube manometer limb. The difference in manometer
reading istaken at different loads and the air sucked by the engine is calculated by.

Va  Cd Ao 2gh w ρw x 3600 m3 / hr
ρa

Where, Ao = Area of orifice = p d2/ 4 m2

Cd = Cd of orifice = 0.62
Dia of orifice = 25 mm
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT :
A digital temperature indicator with selector switch is provided on the panel to read the
temperature in c, directly sensed by thermocouples located at different places on the
engine test rig.

T1 : Inlet water temperature to engine jacket

T2 : Outlet water temperature of engine jacket
T3 : Exhaust gas temperature.
T4 : Room temperature.

DIGITAL SPEED INDICATOR

A Digital speed indicator is provided with proximity sensor to measure the speed of the
engine (Readable only when the dynamometer is coupled).
PROCEDURE:
i. Connect the water inlet to a constant head water source.

ii. Open the inlet gate valves of the engine jacket to suitable flow rate by adjusting
thegatevalve which is provided before the rotameter. Connect the battery terminals
to a well-charged 12 V battery with the terminals marked (+) (-) respectively to the
engine cable terminals.

iii. Connect the instrumentation powerinput plug to a 230V, single-phase powersource.

Now the digital temperature indicator displays the respective readings.
iv. Fill up the Petrol into the tank.

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 v. Check the lubricating oil level in the sump with the dipstick provided.
vi. Open the Petrol cock provided underneath the Petrol tank and. Also ensure the
accelerator knob is in cut off position (idle condition).
vii. Insert the ignition key into the starter switch and turn in clockwise, check there is
no load on brake drum. Turn the key further clockwise to start the engine. Now the
engine is running at idle speed. (Approx. 750 - 1000 RPM).
viii. Increase the speed by turning the accelerator knob clockwise until the speed reaches
approx. 1500 RPM.
ix. Open the cooling water gate valve and set it for required flow, Now load the engine
by applying weights, load the engine in steps of ¼, ½, ¾, full load. Allow the engine
to stabilize on every load change.
x. Before taking the reading allow the engine to run at the set load and speed for few
minutes. Note down the readings. Then increase the load by repeating the same
procedure up to maximum load.
xi. To stop the engine after the experiment is over, remove all the weights applied and
close the cooling water gate valve, then pull the governor lever towards the engine
cranking side.
MORSE TEST
In the Morse test, which is applicable for both petrol and diesel engines, the individual
cylinders are successively cut off and the brake horse power is determined. This gives the
indicated power developed by each cylinder and hence by the full engine from which B.P.
is subtracted. F.P. can be obtained. Morse test is applicable to multi cylinder engines only.
The engine is first run at a. required speed and the oip is measured, then one cylinder is
cut off by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the case may
be under this condition all other cylinders of motor are running except cut out cylinder. The
output of this condition can be measured by keeping the speed constant at its original
value. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of the cutout
cylinder. This technique is used for every cylinder one by one, thus for each cylinder, the
I.P. is obtained is added together to find the total I.P. of the engine.
The I.P. 'n' cylinders is given by.
I.Pn = B.Pn + F.P ......................(1)
I.P. for (n-1) cylinders is given by,
I.Pn-1 = B.Pn-1 + F.P .................. (2)
Since the engine is running at same speed it is quite reasonable to assume that F.P. remains
constant
subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), we get,
I.Pn - I.P(n-1) = B.Pn - B.P(n-1)
I.Pnth = B.Pn - B.P(n-1)

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 Similarly, we can find out the I.P. for each cylinder putting the values of all variables in eqn
(1) we can obtain valve of F.P.
This method gives reasonably accurate results is liable to errors clue changes in mixture
distribution and other conditions by cutting out one cylinder. In gasoline engines, where
there is common manifold for two or more cylinders, the mixture distribution as well as the
volumetric efficiency both changes. Again all the engines have a common exhaust
manifold. For all cylinders and cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the
pulsations (system) in exhaust system which may significantly change the engine
performance by imposing different back pressures.
For a four cylinder engine, we can write eqn as,

IP1 + IP2 + IP3+IP4 = BP1234 + FP (I)

IP2 + IP3+ IP4 = BP234 + FP ..................... (2)
IP1 + IP3+ IP 4 = BP134 + FP ........... (3)
IP1 + IP2+ IP4= BP124 + FP ............ (4)
IP1 + IP2+ IP3 = BP123 + FP ........... (5)

Subtracting Eqn (2) from Eqn (I) We get,

IP1 = BP1234 - BP234

Similarly, values of IP2, IP3 & IP4 can be found out. By putting all the values we can get the
Value of F.P.

PERFORMANCE TEST

1. Brake Power (BP)

2πN w w  R
B.P. 1 2 e
KW
60 x1000

2. Mass of fuel consumed (mf) in kg/hr.

Xcc x Specific gravity of fuel x 60 x 60

mf 
Tsec x 1000
Where: Xcc is volume of fuel consumed in T sec.,
Specific gravity (Petrol) is 0.780 gm/cc

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 3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) in Kg/Kw hr.
m
SFC  f
BP
4. Brake Thermal Efficiency :

BP x 3600
ηbth C x m x 100in%
v f

Where calorific value of Petrol, Cv = 62802 KJ / kg

5. Indicated Thermal Efficiency :

IPx 3600
ηIth C xm x 100 in %
v f

Where calorific value of Petrol, Cv = 62802 KJ/kg

6. Mechanical Efficiency :

BP
ηmech  x 100 in %
IP

7. Actual Volume (V a ) of air drawn into the cylinder at RTP in m3/hr is calculated by

Va  CdAo 2ghw ρw x 3600 m3/ hr

ρa
Where,
Cd = 0.62
Ao = Area of orifice in m
g = Acceleration due to gravity [ 9.81 m/sec2 ]
hw = Manometric head in meters of water.
ñw = Density of water [ 1000 kg/ m3 ]
ña = Density of air [ 1.293 kg/ m3 ]

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 8. Swept Volume (Vs) in m3 /hr

ALN 1 3 ALN 1
Vs  x x 3600 m / hr  x x 3600 x n
2 60 2 60
Speed of the engine 3600
V  Area of the cylinder x Stroke length x x 4(No. of cylinders) x
s
2( 4 stroke engine) 60

9. Volumetric efficiency :

η vol  Actual Volume x 100

Swept Volume

OBSERVATION TABLE:

SL.No: 1 2 3 4 5

Load in Kg.

Time taken for 10cc of

fuel consumption in sec

Manometric difference in metres

Speed

B.P. in Kilo Watts

Total fuel consumption in Kg /Hr

Specific fuel consumption in Kg/Kwhr

Brake thermal efficiency

T1 [Water inlet temperature to the engine ]

T2 [Water outlet temperature from the engine]

T3 [exhaust gas temperature ]

T4 [room temperature]

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 CALCULATION:

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 CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

Differentiate between HCV & LCV.Ans.:

What is Morse test?Ans.:

What are the engine classifications depending upon cooling & engine position?Ans.:

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 In performance testing which parameters can be calculated?Ans.:

What do you mean by Efficiency Ratio? Ans.:

Signature of Faculty: Signature of Student:

Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Group:
Date:

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 EXPERIMENT 13
LOAD TEST ON 4- STROKE, SINGLE CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE TEST RIG WITH
VARIABLE COMPRESSION RATIO

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - To conduct a load test on a single cylinder, 4-stroke variable

compression ratio petrol engine and study its performance undervarious compression ratios

APPARATUS USED: - 1. Single cylinder petrol engine with electrical loading.

2. Stop watch
SPECIFICATIONS:
Make : Crompton Greaves
Stroke, L : 66.7mm
Bore, D : 70mm
Swept volume, V : 256 cm3
Rated R.P.M : 3000rpm
Out put : 2.2KW
Compression ratio, CR : 4.67:1
Orifice Diameter : 15mm
Fuel : Petrol
Sp. Gr. Of petrol : 0.716
Calorific Value of petrol: 47100 KJ/Kg
Staring : By rope
Loading : Electrical, Air heater connected to
AC Generator
Cooling : Air cooling
THEORY:
Internal combustion engines develop varying brake power depending on the compression
ratio, while the other parameters held constant. For compression ignition engines, the
compression ratio is brought to be above certain value for ignition to take place, but the
spark ignition engines can be operated at lower compression ratios. The ignition being
controlled by spark strength and advance.
DESCRIPTION:
The Test Rig consists of Four-Stroke Petrol Engine (Air Cooled) to be tested for performance
is coupled to AC Generator .To facilitate the change in compression ratio, an auxiliary head-
piston assembly above the main head has been provided. The auxiliary piston is operated

112 | P a g e
 up-down by hand wheel-screw rod assembly to fix the required compression ratio. When the
piston is in the bottom most position, the compression ratio is at its maximum value, and in
the top most position it is at minimum value of 2s. The minimum clearance volume is 35 cc
when the piston it is at bottom most position. The charge from this initial volume of clearance
is determined by the displacement of the piston and thus used for calculation of the
compression ratio.

Swept Volume  Clearance Volume

Compression Ratio 
Clearance Volume

Swept Volume : 250 cc (Fixed)

Clearance Volume: Initial clearance volume + Additional clearance volume

Due to auxiliary piston movement

Where, d is the diameter of auxiliary piston = 70 mm, l is the axial movement of piston.

The hand wheel which operates the screw holding the auxiliary piston is provided with holes
circumferentially along the locking plate. The bolts used for locking the movement of screw
are loosened and the hand wheel is operated. A scale with the compression ratio directly
marked is provided for indicating this. After adjusting to the required compression ratio, all
the bolts are tightened well before conducting experiment. The rate of fuel Consumption is
measured by using Volumetric Pipette. Air Flow is measured by Manometer, connected to air
box.
The different electrical loading are achieved by loading the Electrical generator in steps
which is connected to the Air Heaters (Resistance Load)The engine speed & AC Alternator
speed are measured by electronic digital counter. Temperatures at air inlet and engine exhaust
gas are measured by electronic digital temperature indicator with thermocouple. The whole
instrumentation is mounted on a self-contained unit ready for operation.

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Loosen the locking bolt of the auxiliary piston screw rod assembly
2. Rotate the hand wheel and bring the indicator to the required compression ratio
3. Lock the screw rod assembly before conducting the experiment for the compression
ratio selected.
4. Open the 3-way cock. So that fuel flows into the engine.
5. Supply the cooling water to engine head.
6. Start the engine and allow it to run on no load condition for few minutes.
7. Apply the load on the engine by switching ON the heater switch which is provided on
the control panel loading the AC generator by switching
8. Allow the engine to run at this load for few minutes.
9. Note the following readings.
a) Engine Speed
b) Energy meter
c) Manometer
d) Time for 10cc of fuel consumption
10. Repeat the procedures 8 & 9 at different loads.
11. Stop the engine after removing load on the engine
12. Change the compression ratio and repeat the above procedure.

PRECAUTIONS:
13. Before stating the engine check all the systems such as cooling , lubrication and fuel
system
14. Ensure oil level is maintained in the engine upto recommended level always. Never run
the engine with insufficient oil.
15. Neverrunthe engine with insufficient engine cooling water and exhaust gas calorimeter
cooling water.
16. For stopping the engine, load on the engine should be removed
17. Don’t increase the compression ratio beyond 8.

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 OBSERVATIONS:

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 CALCULATIONS:

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 CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

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 Signature of Faculty: Signature of Student:
Date: Registration No:
Branch:
Group:
Date:

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