Database Management System (303105203)

Unit – 2: SQL & its Components

Dr. Rachit Adhvaryu,
Assistant Professor, Computer Science & Engineering
Structured • lets you access and manipulate databases
Query • A language which allows to control the
Language overall database.
(SQL) • Divided into 4 sub parts as follows:
 • For definition and description.
Data • A language in which the storage structure
Definition and access methods used by the database
Language system are specified.
(DDL) • Specification notation for defining the
database schema.
 • CREATE: To create the database or its
objects (like table, index, function, views,
store procedure and triggers).
• DROP: To delete objects from the database.
Data
Definition • ALTER: To alter the structure of the
database.
Language
• TRUNCATE: To remove all records from a
(DDL) table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed.
• RENAME: To rename an object existing in
the database.
 • Language for accessing and manipulating
the data organized by the appropriate data
Data model.
 DML also known as query language.
Manipulation
Language • Two classes of languages
• Procedural – User specifies what data is
(DML) required and how to get those data.
• Declarative (nonprocedural) – User
specifies what data is required without
specifying how to get those data.
 • SELECT – To retrieve data from the a
Data database.
• INSERT – To insert data into a table.
Manipulation
• UPDATE – To update existing data within a
Language table.
(DML) • DELETE – To delete records from a
database table
 • Deals with the rights, permissions and
other controls of the database system.
Data Control • Examples:
Language • GRANT: gives user’s access privileges to
database.
(DCL) • REVOKE: withdraw user’s access
privileges given by using the GRANT
command.
 • Deals with the transaction within the
database
• Examples:
Transaction • COMMIT: commits a Transaction.
Control • ROLLBACK: rollbacks a transaction in
case of any error occurs.
Language • SAVEPOINT: sets a savepoint within a
(TCL) transaction.
• SET TRANSACTION:
-specify characteristics for the
transaction.
operators

Functions
&
Operators
operators

AND operator: allows to create sql statement

based on two or more condition.
E.g. select * from emp
where salary>=40,000 AND
salary<=55,000;
Logical
Functions OR operator: allows to create sql statement
where records are returned when any of the
conditions are met.
E.g select * from emp
where dept=‘I.T’ OR dept=‘C.E’;
continue

Combination of AND + OR:

E.g. Select * form student

Where (branch=‘I.T’ OR branch=‘C.E’)
AND (per>=80)

NOT operator: returns only those records

that do not satisfy the condition.

E.g. select * from student

where NOT per<50;
Pattern matching

LIKE: allows comparison of one string value

with another string value.
1.% allows to match any string of any length.
2._allows to match on single character.

Like E.g.
Operator 1.Select * from Emp
where FNM LIKE ‘Me%’;

2.Select * from emp

where FNM LIKE ‘_a%’ OR FNM LIKE
‘_s%’;
3.Select FNM from student
where FNM LIKE ‘De__’;

4.Select FNM from student

where FNM LIKE ‘%V%’;
 Between: allows the selection of rows
that contains values within a specified
Between lower and upper limit.

Operator E.g select FNM from student

where per BETWEEN 50 AND 80;
 IN:
The IN operator allows you to specify
multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN operator is a shorthand for

multiple OR conditions.
IN
Operator E.g selects all customers that are located
in "Germany", "France" or "UK":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France',
'UK');
 NOT IN:
The NOT IN operator allows you to specify
multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The NOT IN operator is a shorthand for

multiple OR conditions.
NOT IN
E.g selects all customers that are located
Operator in other than "Germany", "France" or
"UK":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany',
'France', 'UK');
Types of single row functions

There are different types of single row

function:

String/Character functions
Aggregate functions
Arithmetic functions
Conversion functions
Date function
String/character function
1.LOWER:- returns char, with all letters in
lowercase

Syntax:-

String or e.g.
lower(char)

Character select lower(‘IVAN BAYROSS’)”Lower”

from dual;
functions
Output
Lower
--------------
ivan bayross
2.INITCAP:- returns a string with the first
letter of each word in upper case.
Syntax:-
initcap(char)
e.g.
select initcap(‘IVAN BAYROSS’)”Title
case” from dual;
Output
Title case
------------------
Ivan Bayross
3.UPPER:- returns char, with all letters in
uppercase.
syntax:-
upper(char)
e.g.
select upper(‘ivan bayross’)”capitalized”
from dual;
Output
Capitalized
----------------
IVAN BAYROSS
4.SUBSTR:-returns a portion of characters
beginning at character m, and going up to
character n.
if n is omitted the result returned is up to
the last character in the string. The first
position of char is 1.
Syntax:-
substr(<string>,<start_position>,[<length
>])
e.g.
select substr(‘SECURE’,2,4) “Substring”

from dual;
output:
Substring
--------------
CURE
5.ASCII:-returns the number code that
represents the specified character.
If more than one character is entered, the
function will return the value for the first
character and ignore all the characters after
the first.
syntax:-
ascii(character)
e.g.
select ascii(‘a’) “Ascii 1”, ascii(‘A’) “Ascii 2”,
ascii(‘cure’) “Ascii3” from dual;
output:
Ascii1 Ascii2 Ascii3
-------------------------------
97 65 99
6. LENGTH:- returns a length of a word.
Syntax:-
length(word)
e.g.
select length(‘sharanam’) “length of
string” from dual;
Output
length of string
--------------
8
7.LTRIM:- returns characters from the left of
char with initial characters removed upto
the first character not in set.
Syntax:-
ltrim(char[,set])
e.g.
select ltrim(‘nisha’,’n’) “LTRIM” from dual;
Output
LTRIM
---------
isha
8.RTRIM:- returns char, with final characters
removed after the last character not in set.
‘set’ is optional, it defaults to spaces.
Syntax:-
rtrim(char[,set])
e.g.
select rtrim(‘sunila’,’a’) “RTRIM” from
dual;
Output
RTRIM
-------------
sunil
9. TRIM:- remove all specified character either from beginning or
the ending of a string.
Syntax:-
trim([leading|trailing|both[<trim_character>from]]<string>)
e.g.
select trim(‘ hansel ’) “trim both side” from dual;
Output
trim both side
-------------------
hansel
e.g.
select trim(leading ‘x’ from ‘xxxhanselxxx’) “remove prefixes” from
dual;
Output:
remove prefixes
---------------------
hanselxxx
e.g.
select trim(both ‘x’ from ‘xxxhanselxxx’) “remove both” from dual;
Output:
remove both
--------------------
hansel
10.LPAD:- returns char1, left-papped to
length n with the sequence of character
specified in char2.
Syntax:-
lpad(‘char1,n[,char2])
E.g.
select lpad(‘page1’,10, ‘*’) “lpad” from dual;
Output
lapad
---------------
*****page1
11. RPAD:- returns char1, right papped to
length n with the character specified in
char2.
Syntax:-
rpad(char1,n[,char2])
e.g.
select rpad(ivan,10,’x’) “RPAD” from dual;
Output
RPAD
----------------
ivanxxxxxx
 NUMERIC FUNCTIONS…..
1. ABS:- returns the absolute value of ‘n’.
syntax:- ABS(-15)
e.g. Select ABS(-15) “absolute” from dual;
output: absolute
------------
15
Arithmetic 2.POWER:- returns m raised to the nth power.
functions n must be an integer else an error is
returned.
syntax:-power(m,n)
e.g. Select power(3,2)”raised” from dual;
output: raised
---------
9
3.Round:-returns n, rounded to m places to
the right of the decimal point. If m is omitted,
n is rounded to 0 places.
syntax:-round(n,[m])
e.g.: select round(15.91,1) “round” from
dual;
output round
-----------
15.9
4.SQRT:- returns square root of n.
syntax:-sqrt(n)
e.g. select sqrt(25) “square root” from dual;
output square root
--------------
5
5. GREATEST :- returns a greatest value in a
list of expressions.
Syntax:-greatest(expr1,expr2,expr3…expr n)
e.g.:-
select greatest(4,5,17) “num”,

greatest(‘4’, ‘5’, ‘17’) “text” from dual;

output
num text
----------------
17 5
6.LEAST:- returns the least value in a list of
expressions.
Syntax:- least(expr1,expr2,…..,exprn);
e.g. select least(4,5,17)”num”,

least(‘4’,’5’,’17’)”text” from dual;

Output
num text
---------------
4 17
8. FLOOR:- return a largest integer value that
is equal to less than a number.
Syntax:-floor(n)
e.g. select floor(24.8) “flr1”,
floor(13.15)”flr2” from dual;
Output=24 13

9.CEIL:-return the smallest integer value that

is greater than or equal to a number.
Syntax:-ceil(n)
e.g. select ceil(24.8)”ceil”,
ceil(13.15)”ceil2” from dual;
Output= 25 14
 1.AVG :- returns the average value
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS.....
e.g.:- Select avg(sal) from emp;
output: 25000

2.MIN :- return the minimum value of expr.

Aggregate e.g. :-select min(sal) from emp;
output:20000
Functions
3.COUNT :- returns the no. of rows where
expr. Is not null
e.g.:-select count(acct_no) “no.of
accounts” from acct_mstr;
output: No.of accounts
--------------------
100
4.MAX:- Returns the maximum value of expr.
e.g.:-select max(curbal) “max” from acct_mstr;
output: max
----------
120000
5.SUM:-Returns the sum of the value of ‘n’
e.g.:-select sum(curbal) “total” from acct_mstr;
output: Total
----------
1350000
  TO_CHAR(n [,fmt])
Converts a value of number datatype to character datatype and date
datatype.

Example:
SELECT SYSDATE, TO_CHAR(‘Oct-05-2020’,’mon’) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

CONVERSION SYSDATE TO _CHAR(S

-------------- ------------- ----------------------------------------
FUNCTIONS Oct-05-2020 Oct

 TO_DATE(Date [,fmt])
Converts a date to any date format.

Example:
SELECT SYSDATE, TO_CHAR(‘Oct-05-2020’,’mm/yy’) FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO _CHAR(S
-------------- ------------- ----------------------------------------
Oct-05-2020 10/2020
  SYSDATE
SYSDATE is a pseudo-column that returns the system’s current date
and time of type DATE.
The SYSDATE can be used just as any other column name. it takes no
arguments.
Example:
SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;

Date output: Oct-03-2020

Functions  ADD_MONTH(d,n)

This function adds months to date, it returns a date as result.

Example:
SELECT SYSDATE, ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,4) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE ADD_MONTHS
------------ ------------------
Oct-03-2020 Feb-03-2021
MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1,d2)
This function returns the number of months
between two dates, d1and d2. if d1 is later than d2, then
the result is positive. If d1 is earlier than d2, then the
result is negative. The output will be a number.
Example
SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(“25-DEC-81’,25-DEC-79’) AS DATE1,
MONTHS_BETWEEN(‘25-DEC-79’,’25-DEC-81’) AS DATE2 FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
DATE1 DATE2
--------- ----------
24 -24

NEXT_DAY(DATE,DAY)
THIS FUNCTION RETURNS THE DATE OF NEXT SPECIFIED DAY
OF THE WEEK AFTER THE ‘DATE’.
EXAMPLE
SELECT SYSDATE, NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’FRIDAY’) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
SYSDATE NEXT_Day(
------------- ---------------
03-OCT-20 09-oct-20
LAST_DAY(d)
This function returns the date of the last day
of the month specified. The result will be a date.

Example:
SELECT SYSDATE, LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM
DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE LAST_DAY(
------------ ---- -------------------
03-SEP-13 30-SEP-13
Thanks