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Food Insecurity

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  1
Introduction

Concepts and Terms

Food security is inherently unobservable and difficult to define, but both

intrinsically and instrumentally important. Humans have a physiological need for the

nutrients supplied by food. Food is therefore a crucial input into performance and well-

being. Many development programs, projects and policies therefore include food security

objectives. But food is also a source of pleasure apart from its physiological necessity.

Since both biological needs for food and psychic satisfaction from food vary markedly

among and within populations, it is difficult to pin down precise, operationalizable

measures of food security. Moreover, the concept of food security encompasses more

than current nutritional status, capturing as well vulnerability to future disruptions in

one’s access to adequate and appropriate food (Barrett 2002). This forward-looking,

uncertainty-based dimension of food security adds further complexity to the concept.

This complexity has given rise to scores, if not hundreds, of different definitions

of the term “food security”. Definitions have evolved with thinking about the proximate

manifestations and direct and indirect causes and consequences of “food insecurity”, the

complement to “food security”. But there remain much variation and imprecision in these

terms as used in practice.

The current prevailing definition, agreed upon at the 1996 World Food Summit, is

“a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic

access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food

preferences for an active and healthy life.” Food insecurity exists when this condition is

not met. Of course, by that standard, the world has only known food insecurity.

  2
 Food security is commonly conceptualized as resting on three pillars: availability,

access, and utilization. As Webb et al. (2006) note, these concepts are inherently

hierarchical, with availability necessary but not sufficient to ensure access, which is in

turn necessary but not sufficient for effective utilization. Availability reflects the supply

side of the food security concept. In order for all people to have “sufficient” food, there

must be adequate availability. But adequate supplies do not ensure universal access to

“sufficient, safe and nutritious food”, nor do they ensure that the food to which people

have access is used to its full potential to advance human health and well-being.

Hence the second pillar of the food security concept: access. Access is most

closely related to social science concepts of individual or household well-being: what is

the range of food choices open to the person(s)? It reflects the demand side of food

security, especially as manifest in the role “food preferences” plays in the definition of

food security. This is meant to capture cultural limitations on what foods are consistent

with a population’s prevailing values. Two people from different traditions with access to

exactly the same diet might not consider themselves equally food secure given variation

in religiously or culturally determined food tastes. Inter- and intra-household

distributional questions also influence access.

Utilization reflects concerns about whether individuals and households make

good use of their food access. Do they acquire nutritionally essential foods that they can

afford or do they forego nutrient intake in favor of consumption of an inadequately varied

diet, of non-food goods and services, or of investment in their future livelihoods? Are the

foods they purchase safe and properly prepared, under sanitary conditions, so as to enjoy

their full nutritional value? Do individuals have adequate access to preventive and

  3
curative health care so as to be free of diseases that can limit their ability to absorb and

metabolize essential nutrients? In particular, over the past generation, widespread

concerns have arisen about micronutrient deficiencies associated with inadequate intake

of essential minerals such as iodine, iron or zinc, and vitamins, in particular A and D.

Some agencies, such as the United Nations Food Agriculture Organization (FAO),

consider stability to be a fourth dimension of food security. Stability captures the

susceptibility of individuals to food security due to interruptions in access, availability or

utilization. Certain individuals within communities or households may be more

vulnerable to instability and are at greater risk of food insecurity. This matters for

targeting of interventions and the design of safety nets intended to safeguard food

security for vulnerable subpopulations.

The temporal aspect of stability links to the oft-made distinction between chronic

and transitory food insecurity. Chronic food insecurity reflects a long-term lack of access

to adequate food, and is typically associated with structural problems of availability,

access or utilization. Transitory food insecurity, by contrast, is associated with sudden

and temporary disruptions in availability, access or, less commonly, utilization. The most

common transitory food insecurity is seasonal, recurring quite predictably, especially

among rural populations during the period preceding harvest, when grain stocks run low

and food prices typically hit annual peaks (Devereux et al. 2008). Some transitory food

insecurity is regular but not periodic, as in the case of regular droughts that routinely

strike semi-arid regions. The most serious episodes of transitory food insecurity are

commonly labeled “famine”, which is itself an elusive concept typically, but not always,

  4
associated with a critical food shortage, mass undernutrition or starvation, and excess

mortality (Devereux 1993).

It is worth briefly noting that although the terms are often used interchangeably,

“hunger”, “undernutrition” and “malnutrition” are distinct, albeit related concepts.

Technically, hunger refers to the physical discomfort caused by a lack of food.

Undernutrition relates to nutritional status – typically evaluated using anthropometric

measures described below – at least two standard deviations below expected levels.

Malnutrition refers to undernutrition and its complement, obesity. In popular discussions,

these terms are often used synonymously with “food insecurity”.

Historical Overview of Food Insecurity

For most of human history, lives were short and unhealthy due in large measure to

insufficient nutrient intake. Thomas Malthus’ well-known explanation for this

predicament was that human population growth routinely overtaxed the capacity of the

Earth to provide sufficient food, leading to routine food insecurity and regular famines.

Since the 18th century, however, a few dozen countries have enjoyed an

unprecedented escape from hunger and premature death due largely to dramatic advances

in food availability and associated income growth broadened access to a satisfactory diet.

Synergistic interactions arise as eating more requires increased food production, which

becomes more feasible as people grow bigger, stronger, healthier and more energetic

because they eat more – of course, only up to a point now commonly exceeded in an era

of exploding obesity. The reinforcing feedback between nutritional status and

productivity points to a nutritional poverty trap. Several scholars argue that the escape

  5
from the nutritional poverty trap helped to catalyze the unprecedentedly rapid and

widespread advance of living standards over the past 300 years (Dasgupta 1993; 1997;

Fogel 2004).

Much of this progress traces back to increased food availability made possible by

agricultural technological change associated with plant breeding, improved agronomic

practices such as intercropping and crop rotations, irrigation, and the emergence of

mechanical implements and chemical fertilizers. As a direct result, food security has

often been equated with food availability indicators, typically measured in terms of

satisfaction of dietary energy requirements, i.e., calories per person per day. Indeed, at

the time of the World Food Conference of 1974, food security was widely viewed as a

problem of insufficient and unstable production. And because domestic food production

represents the overwhelming majority of food availability in virtually every country,

increased variability in domestic food production significantly increases national-level

food consumption instability (Diakosavvas 1989).

Such measures create an inherent conceptual link to food self-sufficiency, i.e.,

whether a country produced enough food to feed its population adequately. However,

self-sufficiency implies letting the domestic market equilibrate local demand and supply,

which can often lead to high prices. Strictly availability-based measures pay scant

attention to the economic (in)efficiency or environmental consequences of producing

one’s own diet rather than trading internationally for food according to economic laws of

comparative advantage based on natural resource endowments.

Moreover, there must be ample food for all, but distributional problems

commonly lead to food insecurity despite sufficient aggregate food availability. This is

  6
true at the national level as well as the individual level. Although food is plentiful at the

global level, food availability is insufficient in some poor countries, especially without

significant external assistance. International trade is helpful, but of limited use in

relieving aggregate food insecurity in some low-income countries because limited export

earning and international borrowing capacity constrain current account deficits.

Over the past quarter century, the major shift in thinking about food insecurity has

therefore been towards the close linkage between poverty and vulnerability (rather than

low agricultural productivity) and food insecurity, to emphasize consumption rather than

production. This second generation of thinking on food security, focused more on the

demand side and on issues of access by vulnerable people to food, stems directly from the

pathbreaking work of Sen (1981), whose famous opening sentences underscore that

“starvation is the characteristic of some people not having enough food to eat. It is not the

characteristic of there being not enough food to eat. While the latter can be a cause of the

former, it is but one of many possible causes” (Sen 1981:1, emphasis in original).

Ironically, Sen explicitly eschewed the concept of food security, focusing instead on the

“entitlements” of individuals and households. Sen’s seminal work helped shift the focus

from supply side issues associated with aggregate food availability toward the levels of

individual and household access to food, and thus to the role of (perhaps idiosyncratic)

demand failure brought about by lost employment, adverse movement in the terms of

trade, production failure, termination of transfers, or other forms of “entitlement failure”.

Sen’s concept of “entitlements” represents the commodity bundles that a person can

rightfully make her own, through production, trade, or transfers. Sen (1981) explains

hunger as the failure of an individual’s entitlements to provide a commodity bundle

  7
offering sufficient nutrients, and famine as the result of widespread entitlement failures.

Sen thus placed increased emphasis on not only traditional economic variables of

incomes and prices, but equally on human rights and on the legal institutions of the state,

as well as the moral and social norms of cultures.

The entitlements approach has been critiqued by some as apolitical, ahistorical,

excessively legalistic and economistic (de Waal 1990; Baro & Dubel 2006). Recent

analysts have encouraged efforts to incorporate power and vulnerability into

conceptualizations of food insecurity, although these have gained little traction. One

consequence has been increased focus on understanding the proximate threats to food

security in an integrated fashion. The emergent third generation view of food security

builds on food availability and entitlements as a summary of food access. Chambers

(1989, p. 1) identifies two dimensions of food insecurity: “an external side of risks,

shocks and stress to which an individual or household is subject; and an internal side

which is defenselessness, meaning a lack of means to cope without damaging loss”.

Individuals with excessive risk exposure and without access to noninjurious coping

mechanisms are the most food insecure. Both risk exposure and the availability of

noninjurious coping mechanisms depend heavily on structural patterns of control of

(financial, human, and natural) resources and on access to markets, technologies, and

finance. Food security is thus closely related to poverty and to social, economic, and

political disenfranchisement (Drèze & Sen 1989).

Food Insecurity Today

  8
 The United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 923

million people were seriously undernourished in 2007 (FAO 2008). This oft-critiqued

estimate provides only a snapshot of those suffering from insufficient macronutrient

intake at any given moment. Meanwhile, the World Bank estimates that 1.4 billion people

lived on US$1/day or less in 2005 (Chen & Ravallion 2008). The relative proximity of

those two estimates drives home the inextricable relation between extreme poverty and

severe undernourishment. Indeed, the two are directly coupled in the first Millennium

Development Goal - to halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty and

hunger by 2015 - agreed by 189 countries in the United Nations’ 2000 Millennium

Declaration. Food insecurity remains widespread today in large measure because extreme

poverty remains widespread, and vice versa.

Most food insecurity is chronic. FAO (2006) reports that only 8 percent of

hunger-related deaths worldwide in 2004 were caused by humanitarian emergencies,

while 92 percent were associated with chronic hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity

exists in OECD countries. For example, in any given year, the U.S. Department of

Agriculture estimates that roughly ten percent of U.S. households are food insecure, with

approximately one-third of these households experiencing moderate to severe hunger.

Nonetheless, well in excess of 90 percent of the food insecure inhabit developing

countries.

Food insecurity has worsened in some countries during the past fifteen years,

while others have experienced relatively rapid economic growth, but continue to have

high rates of food insecurity (e.g., India). Figure 1 depicts changes in undernutrition for

key countries and subregions between 1990 and 2005. The extraordinary heterogeneity of

  9
experience comes through clearly. In China and Southeast Asia, there are tens of millions

fewer people suffering undernutrition than there were only 15 years ago and rates of

undernutrition have fallen sharply as well. In other regions, including South Asia, east

and southern Africa, undernutrition rates have fallen even while the number of people

suffering undernutrition has increased due to population growth. And in some regions

(e.g., central Africa) both numbers and rates have increased.

Figure 1: Changes in Undernutrition by Sub-region between 1990-92 and 2003-05

Recent volatility in food and fuel prices revived public interest in food insecurity.

A further 105 million people may experience food insecurity due to volatile prices and

erosion of purchasing power (Quisumbing et al. 2008). Such estimates underscore the

difficulty of estimating how many – and which – people suffer food insecurity.

Food Insecurity Measurement

What one measures and how necessarily heavily influences how or if one

intervenes to support food security objectives. Because food security is an inherently

unobservable and relatively elusive concept, measurement issues preoccupy much of the

academic and “grey” literature. The literature offers quite a range of approaches to

measuring food insecurity. These vary by unit of analysis: individual, household,

community, country, continent, or world. Food insecurity measures can be most

productively grouped based on whether they track availability, access, or utilization.

Availability

  10
 Food security measures at the national level tend to focus on aggregate

availability by estimating production, stock levels and import capacities of countries.

Such figures are commonly summarized in food balance sheets, such as those reported

regularly by FAO. Food availability measures tend to be leading indicators in that they

reflect supply fluctuations that sometimes affect prices and food consumption, especially

by the poor. Barrett and Maxwell (2005) emphasize that these simple indicators

underscore how many countries – about 30 percent – continue to suffer serious shortfalls

in food availability in this world of plenty.

Availability measures necessarily concentrate on relatively macro-scale levels of

analysis, typically countries or international regions. At their most disaggregated scales,

for example as operationalized in emergency needs assessments by agencies responding

to disasters, food availability estimates are made for subnational regions or

agroecological zones. The problem, of course, is that aggregate estimates suppress

variation within the country or region. Because concerns about food insecurity are

typically rooted in the experience of individuals and households, availability measures

alone rarely motivate interventions of any sort today. Further, most of the frontier

research on food security measurement is taking place at more disaggregated levels of

analysis, focusing especially on the access pillar of food security.

Access

Maxwell et al. (2008) argue that the multidimensionality of adequate access to

food makes identifying access indicators difficult. Livelihoods-based measures are one

class of indicators that attempt to holistically identify and monitor the activities, assets,

and capabilities necessary to sustain a means of living. The Southern African

  11
Development Community’s Vulnerability Assessment Committees, Save the Children

UK’s Household Economy Approach, and the Coping Strategy Index monitor livelihoods

and the causes and responses to food insecurity at household levels. Other related

measures of food access include the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale,

expenditure and consumption studies, and dietary diversity measures (Maxwell et al.

2008).

Terms of trade and prices are another class of access indicators. When prices

change far more quickly than incomes, people, especially the poor, face greater risk of

food insecurity. A key challenge of using food prices as indicators is that most of the

world’s food insecure are rural households that depend, to some degree, on agriculture

for their incomes. Yet, most poor farmers are also net buyers of food. Food insecure

agrarian populations commonly benefit in the short run from lower food prices even

though this may harm them in the longer term (Barrett 2002; 2008). Figure 2 shows for a

sample of seven countries that very few households are net food sellers, even in low-

income agrarian nations. Thus the effects of price changes can be difficult to interpret

without understanding who are at risk of food insecurity, how they earn incomes, when

they utilize markets, and what they consume.

Figure 2: Distribution of Poor Net Buyers/Sellers of Staple Foods

Many measures assess household access, yet food insecurity is experienced by

individuals. Measuring food security at aggregate levels of households or districts

suppresses within-group variability and can mask pockets of food insecurity. Of

particular concern, cultural practices and intrahousehold dynamics can result in sharply

differential access to food within households, by gender and/or age, leading to substantial

  12
understatement of undernutrition by measures that rely exclusively on household or

higher-level aggregates (Haddad et al. 1996).

Utilization

Utilization measures capture individual food insecurity through the use of food

intake measures, anthropometric indicators, and assessments of caring practices. Food

intake measures based on recall data tend to underestimate consumption, while direct

observation is extremely time consuming and expensive. Dietary diversity scores are one

common alternative increasingly employed by food security and nutrition analysts.

Another strategy is to employ anthropometric measures such as weight-for-height,

or height-for-age Z-scores – the former indicating “wasting” or short-term nutritional

deprivation, the latter indicating “stunting” or long-term undernutrition – as well as

weight-for-age, body mass index and mid-upper arm circumference. The first three

measures are only intended to assess the nutritional status of children, typically those

under 60 months of age. The virtue of anthropometric measures is that they are quite

easily measured, standardized and interpreted against international benchmarks, as

compared to measures that rely on greater subjectivity during data collection or

interpretation. However, anthropometric data are costly and time consuming to collect,

and are vulnerable to poor field measurement procedures. Furthermore, for all

anthropometric measures, poor status may be the result of poor health (e.g., parasitic

infection, diarrheal disease) and not to nutritional availability, access or utilization

concerns, substantially complicating prescriptive interpretation of such measures (Barrett

2002; Maxwell et al. 2008).

  13
 Measures of village and household cleanliness and sanitation, child caring and

feeding practices, health, food quality, and maternal nutrition education are commonly

used as indicators of effective utilization of food (Reed et al. 1996; Arimond & Ruel

2002). Molds or fungi can affect the quality of foods, such as aflatoxin, a carcinogenic

and immunosuppressive mycotoxin to which as many as 4.5 billion people are routinely

exposed through contaminated food supplies (Williams et al. 2004). Individuals who are

ill or cannot access clean water may not effectively absorb the nutrients they consume.

Feeding practices are a key determinant of infant and young child malnutrition, especially

breastfeeding during the first six months of life (Horton et al. 2008).

Effective utilization of food requires both adequate macronutrients – calories,

energy, and fat – and micronutrients (i.e., essential vitamins and minerals). As the

importance of micronutrients has become better understood, food intake measures have

expanded beyond macronutrients to incorporate measures of micronutrient deficiencies.

Horton et al. (2008) argue that iodine, vitamin A, and iron are the “big three”

deficiencies, although zinc, folate, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3) and vitamin

C deficiencies can also adversely affect nutritional status (Maxwell et al. 2008). The

more nutrients one tries to track, however, the greater the complexity of food insecurity

measures. Further, requiring sufficient intake of each nutrient as necessary for food

security increases the nutrient-level resolution of measurement and necessarily increases

the number of people considered food insecure. For example, oft-cited FAO measures of

hunger are based only on estimates of macronutrient intake; including essential

micronutrients such as iodine, iron and vitamin A commonly doubles or even triples

estimates of the population suffering food insecurity (Barrett 2002).

  14
Research on Measurement

Food insecurity can be triangulated by employing multiple indicators to capture

access, availability and utilization across time and across levels of aggregation. However,

triangulation may not be operationally feasible due to the time sensitive nature of food

insecurity response and resource constraints. The optimal food security measures to

employ depend on the type of food insecurity – chronic or transitory – the likely affected

populations, and the stability of the situation, among other considerations. Measures

requiring careful and expensive data collection may be less appropriate when responding

to rapid onset food transitory insecurity associated with sudden natural disasters (e.g.,

earthquakes, hurricanes) as compared to situations of chronic or recurring food

insecurity.

Consistent interpretation of data emerging from a variety of sources poses an

additional challenge in food security measurement (Maxwell et al. 2008). The Integrated

Food Security and Humanitarian Phase Classification system was developed to aid in

cross-context comparisons by synthesizing and mapping findings from multiple data

sources. Research on the tradeoffs across accuracy, time, and cost and on refining and

streamlining data collection and analysis remains valuable not only for identifying rapid

and effective indicators but also for the insight such research can provide into

intervention options.

A particularly important area for additional research concerns improvements to

early warning systems (EWS), which aim to track key food security indicators and

provide months-ahead warning to decision-makers of possible impending food crises.

  15
The primary clients for EWS are governments and international humanitarian agencies.

The use of information and communication technologies is rapidly changing EWS

practice, including greater dissemination of early warning information directly to

vulnerable or food insecure households. Emergent EWS tools include months-ahead

statistical forecasting of nutritional status so as to cue interventions (Mude et al. in press).

Threats to Food Security

Understanding of the threats to food security – i.e., the causes of food insecurity –

has become steadily more refined as thinking about food security has advanced from a

first generation focus on aggregate food availability, through a second generation

emphasizing individual- and household-level access to food, toward a third generation

conceptualization that places food security in a broader framework related to risk, access

to health care and a broader range of micronutrients, and other factors that affect the

ability of food intake to ensure a healthful existence. Food insecurity has multiple causes

which coexist at the individual, household, community, and national levels. A solid

understanding of the (“covariate”) causes of food insecurity that are common to a broad

subpopulation (due, for example, to crop yields, food prices, wages, civil unrest) is

essential to generalized interventions (e.g., food aid, famine early warning systems) and

to long-term, aggregate improvement in food security at the level of communities,

countries and regions. Meanwhile, an understanding of the individual-level

(“idiosyncratic”) causes of food insecurity is essential to successful targeting of

interventions to particular food insecure persons. For this reason, we divide the remainder

of this section between covariate and idiosyncratic threats to food security.

  16
Covariate threats to food security

A large majority of the world’s population depends on markets for access to food.

Adverse movements in the terms of trade between purchased food and the goods or

services they produce and sell (including wage labor) can cause entitlements failures. On

the other hand, many net food sellers are poor themselves, and declining relative food

prices hurt them. This is the essence of the “food price dilemma” (Timmer et al.

1983): higher food prices are necessary to induce increased local food production and to

increase the incomes of poor, net seller food producers, yet high food prices threaten the

food security of low-income consumers. The dilemma is complicated further by the

observation that a large proportion of smallholder food producers are net food buyers, as

shown in Figure 2.

In fact, most people in any country – even highly agrarian ones – are net food

buyers. Urbanization is steadily reinforcing this pattern. As a direct consequence, perhaps

the gravest covariate threat to food security arises due to food price spikes. Price spikes

can emerge from sharp, adverse movement in global markets, as occurred during the

2007-8 global food price crisis, and affect many people in multiple countries

simultaneously. The nature of food storage – that speculators buy and hold stocks when

prices are low, sell those stocks when prices rise, and stocks can never go negative –

means that the prices of storable food commodities are prone to occasional upward

spikes, but not to opposing plunges (Williams & Wright 1990). Price spikes can be

catastrophic for poor populations, who commonly spend half or more of their total

income on food.

  17
 Over the past several decades, global increases in food productivity have far

outstripped demand expansion, leading to declining real food prices, i.e., favorable

changes in the terms of trade for most net food purchasers. Nevertheless, over the past

decade or so agricultural productivity growth rates have been declining, such that

significant increases in demand arising from income growth (largely in Asia) and from

the growing use of crops for biofuels production has outpaced supply growth recently,

leading to declining grain stocks worldwide and rising prices.

Episodically, food prices can increase sharply, especially where markets are

poorly integrated or noncompetitive. Then a local supply shock – including a shock

caused by speculative storage that removes commodity from the market temporarily

(Ravallion 1987) – can precipitate price spikes that can trigger acute, widespread food

insecurity. Those most at risk lack reliable access to markets, impairing their ability to

smooth consumption. Market access is impeded primarily by excessive transactions costs,

including the absence of good market information, hence the disproportionate

concentration of the food insecure in areas with rudimentary communications, storage,

and transport infrastructure. Macroeconomic problems such as binding foreign exchange

constraints or trade barriers often exacerbate more localized problems. When current

production fails and markets do not function well, those with sufficient stocks of liquid

assets or directly consumable foods can persevere; the asset poor cannot. Rapid asset

depreciation – whether grain stored interseasonally by peasants, shelters that deteriorate

rapidly in city slums, or cash that loses value in a hyperinflationary economy –

effectively renders people asset poor unless their net savings rates are high. Consumable

or liquid assets offer individuals the ability to smooth consumption over time, thus

  18
guarding against both life cycle changes in productivity and transitory shocks to real

income or food availability. This is also true at the aggregate level, where a nation’s grain

stocks and foreign exchange reserves play a central role in maintaining food availability

and stable domestic food prices in the face of global market price fluctuations.

The possibility of price spikes caused by localized supply shortfalls returns

attention to the question of food availability. Many places that suffer widespread chronic

food insecurity due so because the high costs of food marketing make food locally

nontradable (Barrett 2008) and local agricultural production is relatively unproductive.

The wide range of reasons for low crop and animal productivity in developing country

agriculture are well known, ranging from depleted soil nutrients, lack of reliable water

supplies, high pest and disease incidence, lack of improved cultivars well-adapted to local

agroecological stressors, poor input distribution systems, etc. (Sanchez 2002). Because

domestic food production dwarfs cross-border commercial food trade or international

food aid shipments (Figure 3), domestic agricultural productivity arguably remains the

primary cause of chronic food insecurity in low-income countries.

Figure 3: Global Annual Cereal Flows

While low productivity often triggers price spikes, multiple factors, including

“herd psychology” can turn a price spike based on demand and supply fundamentals into

a price bubble. In 2007-08, increased food and biofuel demand, high fuel prices, US

dollar depreciation, and adverse weather all fed rising international food prices. But

governments, individuals and investors, reacting to rising prices, purchased more,

creating a “positive feedback loop” causing a price bubble (Robles et al. 2009).

Governments restricted exports, built or held stocks, and controlled prices, thereby

  19
decreasing the flow of commodities into international markets and fueling international

price spikes. Additionally, precautionary storage by individuals, farmers and traders to

protect against further price increases and the speculative behavior of investors drove

price increases even higher (Robles et al. 2009; Timmer 2009).

The number of natural disasters annually worldwide has roughly quadrupled in

the past 25 years, while the number of persons affected by disasters has roughly tripled

over the same period, according to data available in the International Emergency

Disasters Database (http://www.emdat.be/). As a direct consequence, the number of food

emergencies worldwide has doubled, on average, over the past two decades, from 15 to

30 per year, with most of the increase occurring in Africa, where they have tripled (FAO

2006). As scientists increasingly predict more frequent extreme climate events due to

anthropogenic climate change, the prospect of more frequent, severe, local supply

disruptions raises concerns in much of the developing world.

Disaster affected peoples routinely depend on transfers. But unrequited transfers

are generally not enforceable rights, so transfer-dependent populations constantly face the

threat of inadvertent or intentional disruption of entitlements. Transfer dependence is the

principal reason why food insecurity is disproportionately concentrated among children

and the elderly, especially children. Because labor productivity is low at either end of the

life cycle, and because children’s asset holdings are typically negligible, these groups

commonly lack capacity to self-provision in food. Social security systems that guarantee

entitlements – whether formal, state-sponsored ones, or informal familial and social

reciprocity arrangements – may affect remedies to food insecurity among the transfer

dependent. But few if any schemes provide full insurance against food insecurity.

  20
 Food insecurity is also inversely related to sociopolitical stability. The security of

property rights against confiscation or theft is an important determinant of the value of

one’s assets. Poverty is often associated with weak states, and civil disruption that creates

added risks, including greater market risk since weak markets commonly accompany

weak states. Dramatic political transitions leave many people vulnerable, as has been true

in recent years in countries such as Afghanistan, Haiti and Zimbabwe. Such transitions

often lead to devastating disruption of marketing channels, production systems, and

traditional social security systems, particularly when accompanied by civil strife.

Indeed, conflict displaces huge numbers of people and was a primary cause in

nearly half of the 20th century famines in Africa (Devereux & Maxwell 2001). According

to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2008), in 2008

there were 36.7 million refugees (persons seeking refuge in another country) or internally

displaced persons (driven from their homes to temporary settlements within their

country). As Collier (2007) emphasizes, nearly three-quarters of the poorest billion

people on Earth live in countries that have recently endured, or are still in the midst of, a

civil war. Conflict not only destroys lives and livelihoods, it disrupts markets, production

cycles and humanitarian operations. The resulting misery and desperation too often

begets a vicious circle; as Collier points out, the best predictor of suffering civil conflict

is having experienced it previously. Chronic food insecurity is thus all too commonly the

result of conflict.

Idiosyncratic threats to food security

  21
 While some situations – price spikes, civil war, etc. – may cause food insecurity

for many individuals, even in communities that are food secure in aggregate, inevitably

some individuals are food insecure for idiosyncratic reasons. Perhaps the biggest factor

driving individual and household-level food insecurity is relative poverty. Meager asset

holdings and earnings leave people disadvantaged in the marketplace, both for earning an

income and for affording food that better endowed individuals are likewise demanding.

As Jayne et al. (2003) document, land holdings are becoming more concentrated

throughout Africa and the developing world, and most variation in per capita farm sizes

occurs within-village rather than between-village. Thus, it is the heterogeneity within

communities that accounts for a large share of poverty and food insecurity.

Relative poverty is commonly associated with individual characteristics that are

associated with social exclusion that likewise causes individual level food insecurity.

Ethnicity, religion, gender, caste or recent in-migration often lead to individuals suffering

worse terms of trade, having poorer access to common property resources, such as land or

water, essential to achieving self-sufficiency in food, or simply falling through the holes

in incomplete social solidarity networks (Barrett 2005a). Whether by virtue of

discrimination or marginalization, those with less voice and power within communities

are typically more vulnerable to suffering hunger and food insecurity (Chambers 1989).

Disparities in wealth and immutable individual characteristics are not the only

reason for within-community, idiosyncratic variation in food security. Using detailed

household history detail for tens of thousands of households across multiple countries,

Krishna (2007) finds that ill health and high healthcare costs constitute overwhelmingly

the most important reason for households’ descents into poverty and food insecurity. Of

  22
course, the misfortune of ill health is related to poverty and exclusion, which limit one’s

ability to invest in preventive or curative health care, one’s access to health care and to

informal assistance, and thus magnify the effects of health shocks on food security.

Poverty and Food Insecurity Traps

Whether the shocks are covariate or idiosyncratic, a sudden, dramatic collapse of

food availability or access can cause permanent problems – in the extreme case, death –

even if the underlying disruption – of food prices, local agricultural production,

employment, etc. – is short-lived. The permanent consequences of transitory phenomena

arise due to the existence of poverty traps (Dasgupta 1997; Barrett 2005b; Carter &

Barrett 2006). As a burgeoning literature on poverty dynamics emphasizes, there is a

fundamental difference between opening up a pathway out of poverty and blocking a

slide into poverty, between “cargo net” interventions that people can use to climb or be

lifted over obstacles, and ‘safety net” interventions that preserve productive assets – not

least of which human capital – so as to enable independent recovery once the shock has

passed (Barrett 2005b; Carter & Barrett 2006). Cargo nets relate to asset accumulation

and productivity improvement, while safety nets revolve around asset protection.

Acutely food insecure poor people must often liquidate productive assets

compromising future well-being in order to survive today, although considerable and

growing evidence on coping strategies demonstrates the lengths to which they commonly

go to protect assets (Barrett 2002). The most vulnerable members of shock-affected

populations – children and women, in particular – typically suffer disproportionately

from food consumption shortfalls during episodes of acute food insecurity, often

  23
suffering even when other members of the household are able to cushion themselves

against shocks (Hoddinott 2006). Short-term deprivation, especially among very young

children in formative stages of cognitive and physiological development, too often leads

to permanent impairment of performance and earning potential. A child’s permanent

impairment commonly means that his or her suffering is transmitted later to his or her

own children, fostering intergenerational transmission of poverty and chronic food

insecurity.

The various threats to food security we have identified – low labor productivity,

adverse terms of trade, limited market access, asset poverty, restricted borrowing

capacity, the absence of a reliable safety net to provide transfers, living with conflict –

point to four stylized groups that are extraordinarily food insecure (chronically or

transitorily). The first group is workers (urban and rural), who suffer when food prices

increase or money wages or employment rates decrease precipitously. The second group

is smallholder farmers, particularly in rainfed agriculture, who face the threat of harvest

failure or of adverse movements in the terms of trade between those commodities they

sell and those they purchase. The third is pastoralists in arid and semiarid regions, whose

livestock are not only their primary sources of food and income but also their main store

of wealth in an environment of thin or missing financial markets that is especially prone

to violence. Livestock productivity and value both fall precipitously in times of disease,

drought or flood, leading to considerable seasonal and regular food insecurity among

almost all pastoralists, even those not chronically food insecure. The fourth group is

children and pensioners threatened by the simultaneous dismantling of preexisting safety

  24
nets and food subsidies, as occurred in many formerly socialist states following the fall

and dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Interventions aimed at enhancing food security are commonly targeted at one or

more of those groups. We now turn to discussion of the wide range of mechanisms

employed by governments, charitable organizations and others in an effort to address

food insecurity, whatever its cause.

Mechanisms to Promote Food Security

Just as the causes of food insecurity are varied, so are the available responses.

There is increasing recognition that the underlying causes of food insecurity can rarely be

addressed by a single intervention (Pinstrup-Andersen & Herforth 2008). Yet, reaching

consensus on the most effective and efficient combinations of external responses is

elusive. Understanding under what conditions certain responses fail or succeed, whether

interventions reach intended populations, what unintended consequences may result,

which activities are complementary or competing, and what the costs, benefits and

timeliness of interventions are remain core topics of ongoing research on food insecurity.

Individual Responses to Food Insecurity

Food insecure individuals facing constraints choose between consumption of food

and other necessities while simultaneously choosing between food security now and in

the future. These tradeoffs can result in behaviors that adversely affect current food

security. To ensure the viability of their future livelihoods, individuals may choose food

insecurity rather than sell productive assets. Similarly, individuals may sell their food aid

  25
rations in order to buy other necessities, or spend less time on childcare in order to

generate income (Reed & Habicht 1998; Paolisso et al. 2001). Uncertainty and exposure

to risk can also impact individuals’ livelihood strategy choices. Food insecure individuals

often choose less risky, but lower reward, strategies that keep them vulnerable (Barrett

2002).

Various subpopulations are also affected by food insecurity differently. Women

have different resources to draw from than men (Quisumbing et al. 2008). Chronic or

severe acute food insecurity can result in irreversible cognitive or physical damage,

leading to increased health expenditures, lost labor productivity, or even mortality

(Barrett 2002). These irreversible effects of food insecurity can lead to negative feedback

loops or poverty traps of the sort just described: low-level equilibria from which

households cannot escape without external assistance.

Understanding and accounting for individuals’ responses to food insecurity can

enhance the efficacy of interventions. The Coping Strategies Index, a food security

measure, monitors households’ responses to declining food security, finding that coping

strategies (e.g., from rationing food intake to selling productive assets) can be grouped

consistently across countries by severity (Devereux et al. 2008; Maxwell et al. 2008). A

systems approach can clarify the connections between agricultural productivity,

ecosystems, food insecurity and behaviors in the face of food insecurity (Barrett 2002;

Pinstrup-Andersen & Herforth 2008). Dynamic systems modeling may provide insights

into households’ responses to food insecurity threats, and may be especially useful for

understanding the effects of climate change on household food security.

  26
Increasing Availability: Agricultural Development

Food availability is a necessary condition to food security and remains

distressingly limited in many countries. A common approach to improving availability is

increasing agricultural productivity, which can improve food security for rural producers,

landless laborers, and consumers. Historically, interest in and funding for agricultural

development has been fickle. And even within the domain of agricultural development,

substantially different approaches exist – e.g., those rooted in policy reform or in

technology development or in improved natural resources management – and are driven

by differing assessments of the binding constraints to increasing productivity and the

appropriate responses to these constraints. Most commonly, agricultural development

interventions focus on stimulating technical change in agricultural production. There are,

however, parallel efforts at improving smallholder organization, decreasing transactions

costs of marketing, and improving access to appropriate technologies and productive

assets so as to stimulate smallholder market participation (Barrett 2008). Securing

property and water rights, developing infrastructure, minimizing storage loss, ensuring

quality, aligning marketing incentives and trade policies, and providing extension

services or financial services such as microinsurance or credit are other interventions

intended to improve food availability.

Promoting Access: Economic Growth and Markets

Economic growth is associated with improved food security. Yet, the benefits of

growth can be distributed unevenly across households, with many facing continued food

insecurity (Ahmed et al. 2007). Figure 4 presents a cross-sectional scatterplot of national

  27
level child wasting and stunting rates against 2006 per capita gross national product,

along with the fitted logarithmic regression line representing the best statistical

approximation of the relation between income and child nutritional status. In almost

every country, stunting rates are approximately double the wasting rates, reinforcing the

point that most food insecurity is chronic in nature. Further, rates of child undernutrition

fall rapidly with increases in average income, reflecting the strong relation between

poverty and food insecurity. Finally, compared to 1995 (see Barrett 2002), children living

in middle-income and upper-income countries are faring dramatically better, likely

reflecting improved healthcare, sanitation, and caring practices.

Figure 4: Child Stunting and Wasting, by National Income

Economic growth thus is one strategy for reducing food insecurity. The drivers of

economic growth remain hotly contested, however (Collier 2007). Macroeconomic and

sociopolitical stability, rates of investment in productive assets – not least of which

human capital – and effectively functioning financial markets all appear to be important

components in achieving economic growth. Just as the drivers of economic growth are a

subject of widespread dispute, so is the effectiveness of different policies intended to

support economic growth, such as international trade policies and structural adjustment

programs (Ahmed et al. 2007).

Economic growth is clearly not a sinecure. Timmer (2005) finds that economic

growth in tandem with food price stabilization polices led to improved food security,

particularly in East and Southeast Asia. Many governments routinely intervene in food

markets to try to influence prices and ensure food access, in part for humanitarian and

food security reasons, in part to safeguard their political support. Yet, food market

  28
interventions through price controls, subsidies, tariffs, strategic grain reserves, or trade

restrictions remain contentious. Such interventions tend to be both expensive to sustain

and can have adverse effects on markets, although the extent of the adverse effects

continues to be debated (Knudsen & Nash 1990; Timmer 2005; WFP 2009). Alternatives

to direct intervention in food markets focus on decreasing the price gap between

consumers and producers, for example by lowering transactions costs and enhancing

private competition by improving infrastructure, information, access to credit, and

storage.

Sharply fluctuating prices suggest weak underlying food storage and marketing

systems and can be a proxy indicator of food insecurity (Timmer 1989; Barrett 2002).

While higher prices harm access and lower prices hinder availability, volatile prices

cause economy-wide disincentives. Unstable prices discourage human and physical

capital investment by producers, impose transactions costs on consumers, and increase

the riskiness of investments throughout the market chain (Timmer 1989).

Macroeconomic stabilization programs can encourage investments in productivity and

protect poor households from price spikes.

Findings from the 2007-08 food price crisis suggest that international

coordination to end speculative hoarding, such as releasing reserve stocks, may help

discourage international price speculation. For example, the 2007-08 rice price bubble

was “pricked” when Japan, with international encouragement, announced in June 2008

that it would sell surplus rice. By late August 2008, rice prices were half of what they had

been in April of that same year (Timmer 2009).

  29
Promoting Access: Assistance Programs

Assistance programs, intended to alleviate immediate food insecurity through

transfers, range from cash distribution, to food stamps or vouchers, to food aid delivery,

to food banks, to ration cards, to delivery of agricultural inputs, to school lunch programs,

to supplementary and therapeutic feeding programs. Barrett (2002) reviews a wide range

of these food assistance programs, the theory behind them, and the empirical evidence on

their performance.

In developing countries, a traditional response to food insecurity has been food

aid donated to low-income, food-deficit countries by high-income, typically agricultural

surplus nations. Since the mid-1950s, the United States has consistently donated more

than half of global food aid in any given year. Food aid volumes are, however, tiny

compared to domestic food production in developing countries, or even to international

commercial food trade, as reflected in Figure 3. And food aid volumes have been falling

over the past twenty years as donor countries increasingly find more flexible and efficient

means of responding to food insecurity in low-income countries (Barrett & Maxwell

2005).

Food aid has been critiqued as outdated and inefficient. One problem is that food

aid is budgeted in monetary, not physical units. Therefore, the amount of food provided

depends on food prices and transportation costs, resulting in aid volumes that vary

inversely with need. Less aid is available during poor production years, when prices are

higher, which typically coincides with greater need. Perhaps most importantly, food aid

deliveries from the United States, the main donor, average five months, often arriving too

  30
late to respond effectively to rapid onset emergencies or arriving after recovery has

begun, potentially contributing to price volatility (Barrett & Maxwell 2005).

More recently, some donors have decoupled their food security work from

domestic agricultural policies, distributing more cash and less food aid. Humanitarian

agencies and governments are increasingly demonstrating the successful use of transfers

other than transoceanic food aid when responding to food insecurity (Barrett et al. 2009).

Some agencies also advocate for a flexible portfolio of responses including cash, locally

or regionally procured food, food vouchers, agricultural inputs, or financial instruments

such as microfinance, microinsurance for households, and index insurance and forward

contracting for donors (Chantarat et al. 2007; Barrett et al. 2009).

The relative merits of various transfers depend on local context: for example,

market functioning, intrahousehold bargaining, leakages, the populations at risk, and

program objectives all influence the relative efficacy of transfer types. To identify the

most appropriate form of transfer requires analyses of the situation, the needs, and

responses as well as greater donor flexibility (Maxwell et al. 2008; Barrett et al. 2009).

Perhaps the most important factor in determining the efficacy of food security

interventions is the quality of targeting: do instruments reach intended beneficiaries

(Lentz & Barrett 2008)? Good targeting is exceedingly difficult. For example, labor

constrained households may not be able to participate in food-for-work programs, and the

neediest, socially excluded individuals might not be easily identified, even in

participatory or community-based targeting efforts. Targeting is usually based on a

mixture of indicators, such as geographic location, observable individual or household

characteristics, income, assets, program restrictions (such as work requirements), or

  31
through consultations with community members or key informants. Identifying who

should be targeted for assistance and what form of assistance will be most effective

involves trade-offs across time, efficacy, and cost (Barrett 2002; Barrett & Maxwell

2005).

Rights-based advocates, such as La Via Campesina’s food sovereignty movement,

India’s Right to Food Campaign, and the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Voluntary

Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the

Context of National Food Security, are leading a resurgent interest in developing social

protection programs to provide regular, continued support to those facing chronic food

insecurity. Social protection advocates argue that some households need long-term, state-

sponsored support (e.g., elderly individuals, disabled individuals, orphans, households

with HIV-AIDS positive members, communities facing seasonal hunger). Several

developing countries implement social protection programs, such as the Productive

Safety Net Program in Ethiopia, the Hunger Safety Net Program in Kenya, Bolsa Familia

in Brazil and Oportunidades in Mexico. Most OECD countries have similar, targeted

social protection programs.

Devereux (2009) argues that governments and agencies routinely suffer ‘response

failures’ in halting or incompetent attempts to respond to food insecurity resulting from

supply or demand crises; such failures commonly result in worsening food insecurity.

Poorly conceptualized or implemented assistance programs can adversely affect

communities, leaving them more vulnerable to food insecurity by displacing commercial

trade, affecting local prices, fostering undesirable dependency, or distorting incentives

and behaviors. These adverse consequences of assistance are often linked to poor

  32
targeting, inappropriate responses, or lags in delivery. Improving the efficacy of

assistance programs remains a critically important step in addressing “response failures”.

Improving Utilization

Delivery of micronutrients and improving caring practices, particularly through

breastfeeding promotion, appear to be among the most cost effective approaches to

reducing undernutrition and food insecurity, especially for young children (Horton et al.

2008). Micronutrients can be delivered through several mechanisms. Fortifying

complementary foods, such as iodizing salt, can effectively address micronutrient

deficiencies common across large populations (Horton et al. 2008). Diets can be also be

supplemented with the delivery of additional rations or specific micronutrients, such as

iron supplements for pregnant or lactating women. With varying success, some social

protection programs have mainstreamed utilization initiatives by providing fortified

complementary foods and/or nutrition education (Horton et al. 2008; Leroy et al. 2008).

Supplementary feeding programs provide supplemental foods to moderately

malnourished individuals either as take home-rations or in on-site feeding programs.

Distributions of ready-to-use-therapeutic food (RUTF) – calorie-dense, micronutrient rich

foods such as “Plumpy-nut” – and blanket distributions of special foods during pre-

harvest or lean seasons can be effective at addressing moderate malnutrition although the

success of these programs has been mixed (Devereux et al. 2008; Navarro-Colorado et al.

2008).

Therapeutic feeding programs provide in-patient medical and feeding services for

severely undernourished individuals. In the innovative community-based management of

  33
acute malnutrition (CMAM) models, communities screen their own members and most

acutely malnourished individuals are treated in an outpatient environment. In-patient

services are typically restricted to individuals with medical complications or infants less

than six months old. CMAM lowers detection and implementation costs and decreases

opportunity costs for families who would otherwise travel to centralized in-patient

facilities (Devereux et al. 2008).

Access to nutrition education may reduce vulnerability to hunger. Maternal

nutrition education can influence child nutritional status, but the effects differ by

socioeconomic status (Reed et al. 1996). Good caring practices related to child feeding

and the use of preventative health services can compensate for poverty and low maternal

schooling (Ruel et al. 1999). The many health benefits of breastfeeding are well known.

Yet only slightly more than one-third of infants in developing countries are exclusively

breastfed for the first six months of life, in part because of competing demands on

mothers’ time in low-income households (Horton et al. 2008). Therefore, research on

breastfeeding promotion uptake is ongoing (Horton et al. 2008)

Other interventions can support utilization and micronutrient delivery. Improving

storage and post-harvest handling can improve food safety and quality. Biofortification,

the breeding of staple crops for higher nutritional content, is a potential longer-term, cost-

effective solution to chronic micronutrient deficiencies. Improving access to sanitation

and clean water, and providing health care are two common interventions that can

improve utilization of food. In turn, good nutrition can decrease the risks of infection and

illness. Kadiyala and Gillespie (2003) find that better nutrition improves the health status

  34
of individuals infected with HIV, and decreases the likelihood of mothers transmitting

HIV to their children.

With billions of people worldwide currently or prospectively suffering shortfalls

in their ability to access and use sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their

dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life, food insecurity remains

a serious global challenge. Research in this area cuts across disciplinary lines and

international boundaries. At this point in time, understanding of the causes of food

insecurity is reasonably advanced. The biggest current research challenges surround the

measurement of food insecurity and the identification and evaluation of which

interventions work best and under what circumstances.

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the purposes of humanitarian action at national and international levels by helping

improve disaster preparedness by providing an objective base for vulnerability

assessment and priority setting. Accessed February 2009. 

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). At http://www.ifpri.org/. A

member of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, IFRPI’s

mission is to provide policy solutions that reduce poverty and end hunger and

malnutrition. The site includes policy recommendations, program evaluations, data sets

and profiles of current and completed research programs. Accessed December 2008. 

  42
 IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis: Food Security theme. At

http://www.irinnews.org/Theme.aspx?theme=FOO. IRIN is run by the UN Office for the

Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and regularly provides news and analysis about

sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia for the humanitarian community.

Accessed December 2008. 

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD): Comprehensive Africa

Agriculture Development Program (CADDP). At

http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/caadp.php. NEPAD is a program of the African Union.

It advocates for a holistic and continent-wide approach to sustainable development in

Africa. CADDP’s third pillar for priority investment is “Increasing Food Supply and

Reducing Hunger.” Accessed January 2009. 

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). At

http://www.unicef.org/index.php. UNICEF advocates for children to help them to meet

their basic needs. Their work focuses on early childhood, health, immunization, nutrition,

water, sanitation and hygiene, and life skills. Accessed November 2008. 

The United Nations World Food Programme (WFP). At http://www.wfp.org/. The

WFP is the food assistance agency in the United Nations. In 2007, it fed 86.1 million

people in 80 countries. Includes descriptions of current projects and programs, policy

papers, evaluations of past interventions, and mission statement and strategic plan.

Accessed December 2008. 

Acknowledgments 

  43
 Kelsey Mitchell and Veronica Palladino provided excellent research 

assistance.  An anonymous referee made useful suggestions. Any remaining errors 

are the authors’ alone. 

Keywords 

Access, availability, famine, food aid, food insecurity, hunger, poverty traps, 

undernutrition, utilization. 

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