Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Electric charge .................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Coulomb’s law and Gravitional force ........................................................................... 5
1.4 Electric field ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Electric flux ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Gauss’s law for electricity.............................................................................................. 11
Problems ................................................................................................................................ 13

CHAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Magnetic field.................................................................................................................. 16
2.3 Magnetic force ................................................................................................................ 17
2.4 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.......................................... 20
2.5 Gauss’s law of magnetism.............................................................................................. 21
Problems ................................................................................................................................ 22

CHAPTER 3
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Electromagnetic waves ................................................................................................... 24
3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum ............................................................................................. 25
3.4 Energy carried by electromagnetic waves ................................................................... 26
problems ................................................................................................................................ 29

CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 31
4.2 Sound waves .................................................................................................................... 31
4.3 Doppler effect .................................................................................................................. 35
Problems ................................................................................................................................ 37
Electric Charges and Electric Field
Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electric Charges and Electric Field

1.1 Introduction

T he electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental forces

of nature. We begin this chapter by describing some of the basic properties of one
manifestation of the electromagnetic force, the electric force. We then discuss
Coulomb’s law, which is the fundamental law governing the electric force between any two
charged particles. Next, we introduce the concept of an electric field associated with a charge
distribution and describe its effect on other charged particles. We then show how to use
Coulomb’s law to calculate the electric field for a given charge distribution. We conclude the
chapter with a discussion of the motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field. We
now study the branch of physics concerned with electric phenomena. The laws of electricity
have a central role in the operation of such devices as radios, televisions, electric motors,
computers, high-energy accelerators, and other electronic devices. More fundamentally, the
interatomic and intermolecular forces responsible for the formation of solids and liquids are
electric in origin. Furthermore, such forces as the pushes and pulls between objects and the
elastic force in a spring arise from electric forces at the atomic level.

1.2 Electric Charge

In a series of simple experiments, it was found that there are two kinds of electric charges,
which were given the names positive and negative. We identify negative charge as that type
possessed by electrons and positive charge as that possessed by protons.
The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental forces of
nature. Coulomb’s law which is the fundamental law governing the electric force between
any two charged particles.

Properties of Electric Charges

• Charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs
attract one another.
• Total charge in an isolated system is conserved.
Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. According to the law of
conservation of electric charge, the total charge in an isolated system always
remains constant. But the charges can be transferred from one part of the system to
another.
• Charge is quantized (i.e. multiple of e).
In nature, the electric charge of any system is always an integral multiple of the
least amount of charge. It means that the quantity can take only one of the discrete
set of values. The charge, q = n e where n is an integer.
where e is the smallest unit charge in nature and has the value: e = 1.6 ×10-19 C , the charge
of an electron is − e and of a proton is + e.

A Table shown below lists the charges and masses of the three elementary particles: the
electron, the proton, and the neutron.

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Notice that
No charge smaller than e has yet been detected on a free particle. Recent theories propose
the existence of particles called quarks having charges− − e/3 and + 2e/3 inside nuclear
matter. Although a significant number of recent experiments indicate the existence of quarks
inside nuclear matter, free quarks have not been detected yet.

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1.3 Coulomb’s Law and Gravitational force

The force between two charged bodies was studied by Coulomb in 1785. Coulomb’s law
states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction
of forces is along the line joining the two point charges.

The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two stationary charged particles separated
by a distance r is:

| || | 1
≈ 9 ×109 (N.m2/C2)
4πε
F = Ke Where Ke is coulomb's constant =

The electrostatic forces between two charged particles may be either attractive or repulsive.

the other particle. and the two forces form an action–reaction pair. The quantity ℰo (called the
Coulomb found that each charged particle (point charge) exerts a force of that magnitude on

permittivity constant of free space) has the value: ℰo ≈ 8.858 ×10-12 F/m

Gravitational force
The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The magnitude of the gravitational force between two particles with masses m1 and m2 and
separated by distance r is:
F=G where G is the gravitational constant ≈ 6.67 ×10-11 (N.m2/kg2)

Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition is to calculate the electric force experienced by a charge q1
due to other charges q2, q3 ……. qn. The total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the
forces exerted on it due to all other charges.

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Example 1.1
The nucleus in an iron atom contains 26 protons:

are separated by 4.0 ×10-15 m?

a) What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two of the protons that

How many protons are there, if the nucleus has a charge of 51.2 ×10-19 C?
b) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
c)
Solution
a) q1 = q2 = 1.6 ×10-19 C , r = 4 ×10-15 m.
|q1 | |q2 | . × × . ×
F = Ke = 9 ×109 × = 14.4 N (repulsive force)
r2 ×

b) m1 = m2 = 1.67 ×10-27 kg , r = 4 ×10-15 m.

. × ! × . × !
m1 m2
F=G = 6.67 ×10-11 × = 1.2 ×10-35 N
r2 ×

c) qt = 51.2 ×10-19 C , np = ?
q $ .% ×
np = q t = = 32 protons
p . ×

Example 1.2
Two identical copper coins of mass m = 2.5 g contain about N =2 ×1022 atoms each. A
number of electrons n are removed from each coin to acquire a net positive charge q.
Assume that when we place one of the coins on a table and the second above the first, the
second coin stays at rest in air at a distance of 1m, see Figure. Find the value of q that keeps
the two coins in that equilibrium.
Solution
 m = 2.5 g = 2.5 ×10-3 kg , r = 1 m
Let q1 = q2 = q (same charges)

' ( × )*
For equilibrium: F = mg ⟹ Ke ⟹ q2 =
(
= mg
+,
× %.$ × - × ../
312
q2 = = 2.72 ×10-12 C2 ⟹ q = 02.72 × 10 = 1.65 ×10-6 C
.×

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Example 1.3
Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the resultant electric force on a charge
q3 = 3 μC shown in the figure. Given that q1 = q2 = 1 μC
Solution
 q1 = q2 = 1 μC = 1 ×10-6 C, q3 = 3 μC = 3 ×10-6 C

• Magnitude of force between q3 and q1:

r = 0 0.42 4 0.32 = 0.5 m

|'- | |' | 6× 7 × × 7
F3,1 = Ke = 9 ×109 × = 0.108 N
( .$

• Magnitude of force between q3 and q2:

r = 0.4 m
|'- | |' | 6× 7 × × 7
F3,2 = Ke = 9 ×10 × 9
= 0.169 N
( .

• Vector analysis

Fx = 0.169 + 0.108 cos 37 = 0.255 N

Fy = - 0.108 sin 37 = - 0.065 N
FR = 0FX2 4 Fy2 = 0 0.2552 4 30.065 2
= 0.263 N
Fy = . $
) = - 14.3o (Forth quadrant) ⟹ θ+x = 360 – 14.3 = 345.7o
FX
θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1(
.%$$

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1.4 Electric Field

An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around the source charge. When
another charge (the test charge) enters this electric field, an electric force acts on it. As an
example, consider Figure below, which shows a small positive test charge qo placed near a
second object carrying a much greater positive charge Q. We define the electric field due to
the source charge at the location of the test charge to be the electric force on the test charge
per unit charge.
Note that E is the field produced by some charge or charge distribution separate from the test
charge, it is not the field produced by the test charge itself. Also, note that the existence of an
electric field is a property of its source, the presence of the test charge is not necessary for the
field to exist. The test charge serves as a detector of the electric field.

The electric field E at a point in space is defined as the electric force F acting on a positive
test charge qo placed at that point divided by a magnitude of the test charge.
>
E=
?

• At any point P, the total electric field due to a group of source charges equals the
vector sum of the electric fields of all the charges.
• If qo is positive, the force is in the same direction as the field.
• If qo is negative, the force and the field are in opposite directions.

The rules for drawing electric field lines are as follows:

• The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge.
• The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge
is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
• No two-field lines can cross.

Electric field lines for the field due to a single point charge:

• The electric field lines for a positive point charge are directed
radially outward.

• The electric field lines for a negative point charge are directed
radially inward.

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Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric force
exerted on the charge is q E. If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net
force and causes the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law. Thus,
F = qE = ma

@
The acceleration of the particle is therefore
a=
• If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the acceleration is
constant.
• If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the electric
field.
• If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite the
electric field.

Example 1.4
Determine the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration of a proton in the electric field
of 0.5 kN/C directed along +x.
Solution
 q = + e = 1.6 ×10-19 C , E = 0.5 k N/C = 0.5 ×103 N/C , m = 1.67 ×10-27 kg
F = E × q = 0.5 ×103 × 1.6 ×10-19 = 8 ×10-17 N

F=ma ⟹ a=
/× !
F
= = 4.8 ×1010 m/s2 ( in positive x axis)
m . × !

Example 1.5
Two point charges are arranged as shown in Figure. Find the magnitude of the electric field
at point P and its direction from the positive x-axis.

Solution

 q1 = 6 nC = 6 ×10-9 C , q2 = - 3 nC = - 3 ×10-9 C , r1
= 0.3 m , r2 = 0.1 m
|' | ×
= 9 ×109 ×
( .6
E1 = Ke = 600 N/C

|' | 6×
= 9 × 109 ×
( .
E2 = Ke = 2700 N/C

Ex = - 600 N/C and Ey = - 2700 N/C

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The magnitude: ER = E = 0 EB 2 4 Ey 2 = C 3 600 2

4 3 2700 2
= 2765.9 N/C

DE =%
) = 77.5 o (Third quadrant) ⟹ θ+x = 180 + 77.5 = 257.5o
DF
θ = tan-1( ) = tan-1(
=

1.5 Electric flux

Although Coulomb’s law is the governing law in electrostatics, its form does not always
simplify calculations in situations involving symmetry. In this chapter, we introduce Gauss’s
law as an alternative method for calculating electric fields of certain highly symmetrical
charge distribution systems. We have already shown how electric field can be described by
lines of force. A line of force is an imaginary line drawn in such a way that its direction at
any point is the same as the direction of the field at that point. Field lines never intersect,
since only one line can pass through a single point.

The number of electric field lines penetrating some surface of area A is known as electric
flux.

The field lines penetrate a rectangular surface of area A, whose

plane is oriented perpendicular to the field. that the number of lines
per unit area (in other words, the line density) is proportional to the
magnitude of the electric field. Therefore, the total number of lines
penetrating the surface is proportional to the product EA. This
product of the magnitude of the electric field E and surface area A
perpendicular to the field is called the electric flux

• The number of lines penetrating the surface of area A is proportional to the product of
EA.
ФE = EA (in Nm2/C)
• In the above figure the electric field lines are perpendicular to area A

If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field:

In figure below the normal to the surface of area A is at an angle θ to the uniform electric
field.
ФE = EA cos θ

Where θ is the angle that a normal to the surface area makes

with the filed lines

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 When the surface area is perpendicular to the field lines i.e. normal is at θ = 0o with
the filed lines:
The flux is maximum: ФE = EA (recall that cos 0 = 1)

 When the surface area is parallel to the field lines i.e. normal is at θ = 90o with the
filed lines:
The flux is Minimum: ФE = 0 (recall that cos 90 = 0)

1.6 Gauss’s law for electricity

Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any closed Gaussian surface is equal to
the net charge qin inside the surface divided by εo.

ФE = ∮ @ HHHH⃗ =
H⃗ . JK LM
N?
Notes

• Electric flux is a function of the enclosed charge.

• Electric flux is independent of the shape of the surface.

Application of gausses law

Gauss's law describes a general relation between the net electric flux through a closed surface
and the charges enclosed by it. Gauss’s law is used to determine electric field of eke closed
surface when there is a high degree of symmetry of the charge distribution.

Example 1.6

H⃗ = 5 aPx - 4 aPy + 3 aPz (N/C). Calculate the electric flux of the shaded face in yz plane of the
E
A cube of 60 cm each side length is placed in a region in which the electric field is given by

cube.

Solution

 HE⃗ = 5 Qi - 4 Qj + 3 kS (N/C) , L = 60 cm = 0.6 m

 A = 0.62 = 0.36 m2 ⟹ HA⃗ = 0.36 Qi (m2) yz-plane
H⃗ = ( 5 Qi - 4 Qj + 3 kS ) . 0.36 Qi = 1.8 N.m2/C
H⃗ . A
ФE = E

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Example 1.7

E = 7.8 ×104 N/C as shown in Figure. Calculate the electric flux through
Consider a closed triangular box resting within a horizontal electric field of magnitude

a) the vertical rectangular surface,

b) the slanted surface, and
c) the entire surface of the box.
Solution
a) θ = 180o (the field lines are antiparallel to the normal)
• A = 0.1 × 0.3 = 0.03 m2
ФE = EA cos θ = 7.8 ×104 * 0.03 * cos 180 = - 2340 N.m2/C

b) θ = 60o
. .
cos 60 = ⟹ L= = 0.2 m
U VWX

• A = 0.2 × 0.3 = 0.06 m2

ФE = EA cos θ = 7.8 ×104 * 0.06 * cos 60 = 2340 N.m2/C
c) Total flux = - 2340 + 2340 = 0

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Questions

1- What are the factors affect the magnitude of the electric force between two stationary
charges?
2- What are the types of the electric force when:
i. The two charges having same electric charges
ii. The two charges having opposite electric charges
3- Coulomb’s law is valid only for stationary charges. Explain briefly

Problems
Q1

5.3 ×10-11 m.
The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom (nucleus) are separated by a distance of

b) If the charge of the total electrons is 352 ×10−20 C. Find the total mass of the electrons.
a) Find the magnitudes of the electric force between the two particles.

Q2
Identical balls have charges – 5 ×10−12 C, 25 ×10−12 C and 28 ×10−12 respectively. They
are brought in contact and then separated. Calculate the number of electrons in excess or
deficit on each ball after contact.
Q3
Two-point charges q1=20 μC and q2 = - 2 μ C are 0.2 m apart. Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force on a point charge q3 = 1 μC placed as shown in figure below.

Q4
Two unlike charges equal in magnitude are given as 2 ×10−8 C placed at A and B at a
distance of 6 cm. Calculate the electric force on the charge 1 ×10−8 C placed at P, where P is
4 cm on the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Q5
Charged object of mass 0.2 kg is suspended motionless above the ground when immersed in
a uniform electric field 2 N/C directed downward perpendicular to the ground. What is the
charge of the object? (Take g = 10 m/s2)
Q6
In Figure shown below, where may a third charge be located so that no force acts on it?

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Q7
If F = Ke |e2|/r2 (N), q1 = e , q2 = - e and q3 = - 2e. Find the magnitude and the direction of the
resultant force on q1 placed at middle.

Q8
Calculate the resultant of the electric field at point P as shown in the figure and its direction
from the positive x- axis.

A uniform electric field HE⃗ = - Qi - 4 Qj + 2 kS (N/C) through a surface area 2 m2 as shown. Find
Q9

a) The vector area

b) The electric flux

Q10
A charge Q is enclosed by cube as shown in figure. If Q = 26.55×10-12 C. Determine the
electric flux of the right and top faces of the cube (shaded area)

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Magnetic Field

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2.1 Introduction

M any historians of science believe that the compass, which uses a magnetic needle,
was used in China as early as the 13th century B.C., its invention being of Arabic
or Indian origin. The early Greeks knew about magnetism as early as 800 B.C.
They discovered that the stone magnetite (Fe3O4) attracts pieces of iron. Legend ascribes the
name magnetite to the shepherd Magnets, the nails of whose shoes and the tip of whose staff
stuck fast to chunks of magnetite while he pastured his flocks. In 1269 a Frenchman named,
Pierre de Mari court found that the directions of a needle near a spherical natural magnet
formed lines that encircled the sphere and passed through two points diametrically opposite
each other, which he called the poles of the magnet. Subsequent experiments showed that
every magnet, regardless of its shape, has two poles, called north (N) and south (S) poles,
that exert forces on other magnetic poles similar to the way that electric charges exert forces
on one another.
That is, like poles (N–N or S–S) repel each other, and opposite poles (N–S) attract each
other. Although the force between two magnetic poles is otherwise similar to the force
between two electric charges, electric charges can be isolated (witness the electron and
proton) whereas a single magnetic pole has never been isolated. That is, magnetic poles are
always found in pairs. All attempts thus far to detect an isolated magnetic pole have been
unsuccessful. No matter how many times a permanent magnet is cut in two, each piece
always has a north and a south pole.
Note that the Earth’s geographic North Pole is magnetically a
south pole, whereas its geographic South Pole is magnetically a
north pole. Because opposite magnetic poles attract each other, the
pole on a magnet that is attracted to the Earth’s geographic North
Pole is the magnet’s north pole and the pole attracted to the Earth’s
geographic South Pole is the magnet’s south pole.

2.2 Magnetic field

The region surrounding any magnetic substance or surrounding a moving charge
• Magnetic field is a vector quantity (has magnitude and direction).
• Magnetic fields are similar to electric fields, but they are produced only by moving
charges while electric fields are produced by both moving charges or stationary

• The direction of the magnetic field BH⃗ at any point is the direction of the north pole.
charges.

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Magnetic Field Units

r
• The SI unit of magnetic field B is:
The Newton per coulomb-meter per second, which is called the Tesla (T):
N
1T = 1
C .m / s
• Because a coulomb per second is defined to be an ampere, we see that:
N N
1T = 1 =1
C .m / s A .m
2.3 Magnetic Force
Magnetic force on a moving charge
When a charged particle is moving in the magnetic field, the particle will be affected by a

>B = q ν
H⃗ × [
force which is given by
HHH⃗ HH⃗ ⟹ FB = qνB sin\
Where
• FB is the magnetic force.
• q is the charge moving.
• B is the magnetic field.

• θ is the smaller angle between ν and B.

• ν is the velocity of the charged particle moving.

The properties of the magnetic force on a charge moving in a magnetic field

• The magnitude FB of the magnetic force exerted on the particle is proportional to the
charge q and to the speed ν of the particle.
• The magnitude and direction of FB depend on the velocity of the particle and on the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field B.
• When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the magnetic
force acting on the particle is zero

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• A magnetic force is perpendicular to the direction of the velocity and the magnetic
field.

• A magnetic force on a positive charge is opposite to the magnetic force on a negative

charge.

.
×) represents a direction toward a paper (out of the viewer)
• A dot ( ) represents a direction out of a paper (toward the viewer)
• A cross (×

Right Hand Rule

In this rule, the vector v is in the direction of your thumb and B

in the direction of your fingers. The force FB on a positive
charge is in the direction of your palm, as if you are pushing
the particle with your hand.

The differences between the electric force and magnetic force

• The electric force is always in the direction of the electric field, whereas the magnetic
force is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
• The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the particle is
moving, whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged particle only when the particle
is in motion.
• The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle, whereas the magnetic
force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work when a particle is
displaced.

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Example 2.1

A proton travels with a speed of 3 ×106 m/s at an angle of 37° with the direction of a
magnetic field of 0.3 T in the y direction. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force on the
proton?
Solution

 q (proton) = 1.6×10 -19 C , B = 0.3 T , ν = 3 x 10 6 m/s , θ = 37o .

FB = qνB sin θ = 1.6 ×10 -19 × 3 ×10 6 × 0.3 × sin 37 = 8.67 ×10 -14 N

Example 2.2

A proton moving with a velocity of νH⃗ = 4 Qi - 8 Qj + 2 kS (m/s) in a region in which the

magnetic field

 H⃗ = 2 Qi + 4 Qj - 6 kS (T). What is the magnitude of the magnetic force?

B
Solution

 q (proton) = 1.6 ×10-19 C , ν

H⃗ = 4 Qi - 8 Qj + 2 kS (m/s) , B
H⃗ = 2 Qi + 4 Qj - 6 kS (T)

iQ jQ k
_
^ ^
νH⃗ × BH⃗ = 4 −8 2 = Qi (48 - 8) - Qj (-24 - 4) + kS (16 + 16)
^ ^
2 4 −6

νH⃗ × BH⃗ = 40 Qi + 28 Qj + 32 kS ⟹ │ν
H⃗ × HB⃗│ = √402 + 282 + 322 = 58.378
|HF⃗B| = q│νH⃗ × HB⃗│= 1.6 ×10-19 × 58.378 = 93.405 ×10 -19 N

Magnetic Force Acting on a Current carrying Conductor

A straight segment of wire of length L and cross-sectional area A, carrying a current I in a

uniform magnetic field B, as shown in Figure

HHH⃗
>B = I HH⃗
b×[ HH⃗
FB = I LB sin \

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Example 2.3

A wire carries a steady current of 2.4 A, a straight section of the wire is 0.075 m long and

B = 1.6 kS (T). If the current is in x –axis direction, what is the magnetic force on the section of
lies along the x-axis within a uniform magnetic field

the wire?

H⃗ = 1.6 kS (T), HH⃗

H⃗ = 0.075 Qi (m) , B
Solution
 I = 2.4 A , L = 0.075 m ( x - axis ) ⟹ L FB = ?
H⃗ = 2.4 * ( 0.075 Qi × 1.6 kS ) = - 0.288 Qj (N)
HF⃗B = I HL⃗ × B

Notice that Qi × kS = - Qj

Example 2.4

A wire 2.80 m in length carries a current of 5.00 A in a region where a uniform magnetic
field has a magnitude of 0.390 T. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force on the wire
assuming the angle between the magnetic field and the current is (a) 60.0°, 120°.
Solution

 L = 2.8 m, I = 5 A, B = 0.39 T

ILB = 5 × 2.8 × 0.39 = 5.46 N

θ = 60o ⟹ FB = ILB sin θ = 5.46 * sin 60 = 4.73 N
b) θ = 120o ⟹ FB = ILB sin θ = 5.46 * sin 120 = 4.73 N
a)

2.4 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

The magnetic force acting on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field is perpendicular
to the velocity of the particle and that consequently the work done by the magnetic force on
the particle is zero. Now consider the special case of a positively
charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field with the
initial velocity vector of the particle perpendicular to the field. Let
us assume that the direction of the magnetic field is into the page,
as in Figure. As the particle changes the direction of its velocity in
response to the magnetic force, the magnetic force remains
perpendicular to the velocity. if the force is always perpendicular
to the velocity, the path of the particle is a circle Figure shown
below shows the particle moving in a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The particle moves in a circle because the magnetic force
FB is perpendicular to ν and B and has a constant magnitude qνB. As in Figure, the rotation
is counterclockwise for a positive charge. If q were negative, the rotation would be
clockwise.

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 sin θ = sin 90 = 1
FB = q ν B eq. 1

)ν
(
)ν mν
FB = eq. 2

⟹ qνB =
( 'B
From the equality of eq.1 = eq.2 and r = , Where r is the radius
of the circular path.

ν
• Angular velocity is given by

ω=
'e
( )
= " rad /s"

⟹ ω=
%f ( %f %f %f
• And the periodic time is given by

ν ν g h
T= = = "second"
r

Example 2.5
A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 21 cm in a uniform magnetic field of a
magnitude 0.42 T directed perpendicular to the velocity of the proton, Determine the time
required to complete one cycle.
Solution
 r = 21 cm = 0.21 m , B = 0.42 T , q ( For proton ) = 1.6 ×10-19 C .

ω=
' e . × . %
= 40.24 ×106 rad/s
×
) . × !
=

=
%f %f
= 1.56 ×10-7 s
ω .% × 7
T=

2.5 Gauss’s law of magnetism

Either of two statements describing electric and magnetic fluxes. Gauss’s law
for electricity states that the electric flux across any closed surface is proportional to the
net electric charge enclosed by the surface. The law implies that isolated electric charges
exist and that like charges repel one another while unlike charges attract. Gauss’s law
for magnetism states that the magnetic flux across any closed surface is zero; this law is
consistent with the observation that isolated magnetic poles (monopoles) do not exist.

Gauss’s law of magnetism states that:

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero

ФB = ∮ [ HHHH⃗ = 0
HH⃗ . JK
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Questions

1- Why does a magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field do no work when a
particle is displaced?
2- A current-carrying conductor experiences no magnetic force when placed in a certain
manner in a uniform magnetic field. Explain.

3- Why the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero?
Problems

Q1
An electron moves at a speed of 106 m/s at +z direction in a uniform magnetic field of
magnitude of 0.3 T in +x direction. Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the
magnetic force on the electron.
Q2
The magnetic force of 12 N in +y axis acting on 2 C charge moving in 2 T magnetic field
directed along +z axis. Determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity.
Q3
Determine the direction of the magnetic force on a charged particle as it enters the magnetic
fields in each part as shown the figure below.

Q4

Current carrying conductor having mass per unit length of 0.02 kg/m carries a current of 2 A
placed in magnetic field as shown in figure. Determine the magnetic field required to make
the conductor stable above the ground.

A magnetic field of 0.42 T is directed to the right. A proton of velocity of 2 ×106 m/s enters
Q5

that field at 30o to +x. Find the distance travelled in +x during one cycle.

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Electromagnetic Waves

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3.1 Introduction

T he phenomenon of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction concludes that a changing

magnetic field at a point with time produces an electric field at that point. Maxwell in
1865, pointed out that there is a symmetry in nature (i.e) changing electric field with
time at a point produces a magnetic field at that point. It means that a change in one field
with time (either electric or magnetic) produces another field. This idea led Maxwell to
conclude that the variation in electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other,
produces electromagnetic disturbances in space. These disturbances have the properties of a
wave and propagate through space without any material medium. These waves are called
electromagnetic waves.
The waves that consist of electric and magnetic fields, which are at right angle to each other
and at right angle to the direction of the propagation

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is all around us and takes many forms,
such as radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays. Sunlight is also a form of EM
energy, but visible light is only a small portion of the EM spectrum, which contains a broad
range of electromagnetic wavelengths.
3.2 Electromagnetic waves
According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge is a source of electromagnetic radiation. In an
electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are at right angles to each other
and both are at right angles to the direction of propagation. They possess the wave character
and propagate through free space without any material medium. These waves are transverse
in nature.

The above figure shows the variation of electric field E along y direction and magnetic field
B along z direction and wave propagation in + x direction.

Characteristics of the electromagnetic waves

The electromagnetic waves propagate in a speed of light “ c = 3 ×108 m/s ".

• The electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillating charges.
•
• The energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves depends on the frequency of the wave.
• The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
• The electromagnetic waves being chargeless, i.e. they are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.

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3.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

After the demonstration of electromagnetic waves by Hertz, electromagnetic waves in
different regions of wavelength were produced by different ways of excitation.
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their wavelength or
frequency is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide
range of wavelengths (or) frequencies. The whole electromagnetic spectrum has been
classified into different parts and sub parts, in order of increasing wavelength and type of
excitation. All electromagnetic waves travel with the velocity of light. The physical
properties of electromagnetic waves are determined by their wavelength and not by their
method of excitation.

The various types of electromagnetic waves are listed in the Figure which shows the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Spectrum Diagram

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Prepared by Eng. Ala'a Nabil Electromagnetic Waves

• Radio waves:
They are generating by electronic device as LC oscillators. These waves are used in radio
and television communication systems. Television waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
FM band is from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Cellular phones use radio waves in ultra-high
frequency (UHF) band.

• Microwaves:
Due to their short wavelengths, they are used in radar communication system. Microwave
ovens are an interesting domestic application of these waves.
• Infrared waves
They are produced by a hot bodies and molecules, they are absorbed by substance and
appears as heat. They are used in Electronic communication device such as Mobile phone,
Remote control.
• Visible light
It is a part of electromagnetic spectrum that a human eye can detect, they generated
rearrangement of electron in the atoms. They are used in many human applications such as
home lamps.

• Ultraviolet light
The sun is the most common source of the Ultraviolet light. They produce harmful effects on
human.
Most of the UV radiation is absorbed by the Ozone "O3" molecules in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere, in
a layer called the stratosphere. This ozone shield converts lethal high-energy UV radiation to
IR radiation" heat", which in turn warms the stratosphere.
• X-ray
They are produced from the declaration of the high electron speed. They are used in a
medical field.
• Gamma ray
They produced from the emitting of the radiation from the nucleus. they are highly
penetrating and produce a serious damage when the absorbed by living tissues.

3.4 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they propagate
through space they can transfer energy to objects placed in
their path. The rate of flow of energy in an electromagnetic
wave is described by a vector S, called the Poynting vector,

HH⃗ = HHHH⃗
j @ × HHHHH⃗
k = HHHH⃗
@ × HHHH⃗
[
which is defined by the expression

µ
These equations for S apply at any instant of time and represent the instantaneous rate at
which energy is passing through a unit area.

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Example 3.1
The electromagnetic wave travelling in free space in z-axis has an electric field amplitude of
300 V/m directed in x-axis. Calculate the amplitude of the magnetic field for
i) Free space
ii) In a medium in which the speed is 80% of the speed of light
Solution

Dmno Dmno 6
 Emax = 300 V/m
⟹ Bmax =
emno V 6× p
i) In free space: c = = = 10-6 Tesla

In medium: ν
/
= × 3×108 = 2.4 ×108 m/s

ν=
ii)
Dmno Emax 6
⟹ Bmax = = 1.25 ×10-6 Tesla
emno ν %. × p
=

Example 3.2

A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave of frequency 40 MHz travels in free space in the x

direction, as in Figure. Determine the wavelength and the amplitude of the magnetic field
and its direction.
Solution
 Emax = 750 V/m (y direction)), f = 40 MHz = 40 ×106 Hz
V 6× p
λ=
s × 7
= = 7.5 m

Dmno $
⟹ Bmax = = 2.5 ×10-6 T ( in z direction)
Dmno
emno V 6× p
c= =

Example 3.3

Ey = (0.6 kV/m) sin (1×107 x – ω t), where x is in meter and t is in second. Write down the
The electric field in electromagnetic wave propagated in free space is described by

magnetic field equation.

Solution
 Emax = 0.6 kV/m = 0.6 ×103 V/m
Dmno Dmno . × -
⟹ = 2 ×10-6 T = 2 µT
emno V 6× p
c= Bmax = =

Magnetic field density equation: Bz = (2 µT) sin (1×107 z – ωt)

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Example 3.4

E = 20 Qi + 10 Qj- 30 kS (V/m) and magnetic field density is HHHH⃗

B = 0.1 Qi + 0.4 Qj + 0.2 kS (T)
In a region of free space, the electric field at an instant of time is
HHHH⃗
Show that the two fields are perpendicular to each other.
Solution
HHHH⃗ B = (20 Qi + 10 Qj - 30 ) . ( 0.1 Qi + 0.4 Qj + 0.2 kS) = 2 + 4 – 6 = 0
E . HHHH⃗

The two fields are perpendicular to each other

Example 3.5

A microwave source produces pulses of 20 GHz radiation, with each pulse lasting 1.00 ns. A
parabolic reflector with a face area of radius 6.00 cm is used to focus the microwaves into a
parallel beam of radiation.
(a) What is the wavelength of these microwaves?
(b) What is the total energy in each pulse if the average power during each pulse is 25 kW?
Solution
 f = 20 GHz = 20 ×109 Hz, t = 1 ns = 1 ×10-9 s , Power = 25 kW = 25 ×103 W
V 6× p
a) λ = = = 0.015 m
s % ×

b) Energy = Power × t = 25 ×103 × 1 ×10-9 = 2.5 ×10-5 J

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Questions

1- What is happen to the speed and energy of light if the frequency is doubled?
2- Why do all electromagnetic waves have the same speed in free space?

Problems

Q1

E = 80 Qi + 32 Qj - 64 kS (V/m) and magnetic field density is

In a region of free space, the electric field at an instant of time is
HHHH⃗
B = 0.2 Qi + 0.08 Qj + 0.29 kS (T)
HHHH⃗
a) Show that the two fields are perpendicular to each other.
b) Determine the magnitude of the Poynting vector for these fields.

Q2
A radar pulse returns to the receiver after a total travel time of 4 ×10-4 s. How far away is the
object that reflected the wave?

Q3
A dish antenna having a diameter of 20.0 m receives a radio signal from a distant source. The
radio signal is a continuous sinusoidal wave with amplitude
Emax = 0.2 µV/m. What is the amplitude of the magnetic field in this wave?

29
Sound Waves

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4.1 Introduction

I n physics, a wave is a disturbance or oscillation that travels through space-time,

accompanied by a transfer of energy. Waves are described by a wave equation, which
sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The mathematical form of this equation
varies depending on the type of wave. The world is full of waves, the two main types of
which are mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
Mechanical waves require a physical medium to propagate (air molecules, water molecules).
Some examples of mechanical waves are sound waves, and water waves. For the mechanical
waves, the amount of the energy transmitted depends on:
Source of disturbance.
The physical nature of the medium.
The mechanical waves divided into two kinds travelling waves and standing waves
Travelling waves have the following types:
• Transverse Wave

It causes the elements of the medium to move perpendicularly to the direction of the wave
motion. As example of transverse wave is a water wave.

• Longitudinal Wave
It causes the elements of the medium to move in parallel to the direction of the wave motion.
As example of longitudinal wave is a sound wave.

4.2 Sound waves

Sound waves are the most common example of longitudinal waves. They travel through any
material medium with a speed that depends on the properties of the medium. As the waves
travel through air, the elements of air vibrate to produce changes in density and pressure
along the direction of motion of the wave. If the source of the sound waves vibrates
sinusoidally, the pressure variations are also sinusoidal. Sound waves are divided into three
categories that cover different frequency ranges. Sound waves are divided into three
categories that cover different frequency ranges.
1. Audible waves lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear.
2. Infrasonic waves have frequencies below the audible range.
3. Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above the audible range.

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t
Speed of sound waves
• Speed of sound in strings: ν =0
µ
[
• Speed of sound in liquids: ν =0
u
v
• Speed of sound in solid materials: ν =0
u
Where
T is string Tension (in N)
B is Bulk modulus (in N/m2)

ρ is density of a medium (in kg/m3)

Y is Young’s modulus (in N/m2)

μ is the mass per unit length of a string (in kg/m)

In above equations, the wave speed depends on an elastic property of the medium, bulk

μ or ρ. In fact, the speed of all mechanical waves follows an expression of the general form
modulus B, string tension T or Young's modulus Y and on an inertial property of the medium

Elastic property
ν =0Internal property , In general, sound waves travel more slowly in liquids than in solids

TC
because liquids are more compressible than solids.
• Speed of sound in air: ν = 331 01 + 273

Where 331 m/s is the speed of sound in air at 0 °C, and TC is the air temperature in degrees
Celsius. Using the above equation, one finds that at 20°C the speed of sound in air is
approximately 343 m/s.
Example 4.1

Find the speed of sound in water, which has a bulk modulus of 2.1 ×109 N/m2 and density of
1000 kg/m3
Solution
 B = 2.1 ×109 N/m2, ρ = 1000 kg/m3
B 0 2.1 ×10 9
ν =0 =
ρ 1000
= 1449.1 m/s

Example 4.2

A wave is transmitted along a string that has a linear density of 40 g/m and is under 100 N of
tension. What is the wave speed?

 µ = 40 g/m = 40 ×10−3 kg/m , T = 100 N

Solution

T 100
ν =0 µ =0
40 × 10−3
= 50 m/s

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Intensity of sound waves

Now consider a point source emitting sound waves equally in all directions. From everyday
experience, we know that the intensity of sound decreases as we move farther from the
source. We identify an imaginary sphere of radius r centered on the source. When a source
emits sound equally in all directions, we describe the result as a spherical wave. The average
power Pav emitted by the source must be distributed uniformly over this spherical surface of

„…†
area 4πr2. Hence, the wave intensity at a distance r from the source is

‡ˆ
I=
This inverse-square law states that the intensity decreases in proportion to the square of the
distance from the source.

Example 4.3

A point source emits sound waves with an average power output of 80 W.

b) Find the distance at which the intensity of the sound is 1 ×10-8 W/m2.
a) Find the intensity 3 m from the source.

Solution
 Pav = 80 W
a) r = 3 m , I = ?
PnŠ 80
4π r 2
4π × 32 = 0.707 W/m
2
I= =

b) I = 1 ×10-8 W/m2 , r = ?
PnŠ P 80
⟹ r2 = nŠ =
4π r2 4π I 4π × 1 × 10−8
I= = 6.366 ×108 m2

r = C6.366 × 108 = 2.52 ×104 m

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Sound Level in Decibels

The decibel (dB) is a unit used to measure sound intensity and other physical quantities. A
unit named after Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone. Its logarithmic scale is
convenient to represent the entire range of human hearing.

convenient to use a logarithmic scale, where the sound level β (Greek beta) is defined by the
The wide range of intensities the human ear can detect. Because this range is so wide, it is

Œ
β = 10 log (
equation

•
)

(Io = 1 ×10-12 W/m2), and I is the intensity in W/m2 to which the sound level β corresponds,
The constant Io is the reference intensity, taken to be at the threshold of hearing

where β is measured in decibels (dB).

• Threshold of hearing I = 1 ×10-12 W/m2 corresponds to β = 0 dB

• Threshold of pain I = 1 W/m2 corresponds to β = 120 dB

Example 4.4

When the human auditory system experiences a sound intensity of 1.2 W/m2 it results in
pain. Represent this amount in decibels.
Solution

I 1.2
β = 10 log (
 I = 1.2 W/m2

10 10
) = 10 log ( ) = 120.8 dB

Example 4.5

When a person speaks loudly, the sound level produced is 70 dB. When that person speaks
normally, the sound level generated is at 40 dB. Find the ratio of the intensities of the two
sounds.

 β1 = 70 dB , β2 = 40 dB
Solution

I1 = 10-12 × 10 β /
= 10-12 × 10 /
= 10-5 W/m2
I2 = 10-12 × 10 β%/ = 10-12 × 10 /
= 10-8 W/m2

Ratio of β1 to β2 : β1 / β2 = p = 1000

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4.3 Doppler Effect

If a car or truck is moving while its horn is blowing, the frequency of the sound you hear is
higher as the vehicle approaches you and lower as it moves away from you. This
phenomenon is one example of the Doppler Effect.
Doppler Effect is the change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source and the
observer move relative to the medium.

• General case: When both the source and the observer are in motion
ѵ + ѵo
f‘ = f ×
ѵ − ѵs
(approaching – toward)

ѵ − ѵo
f‘ = f ×
ѵ + ѵs
(recede – away)

• Case 1: When the source is moving and the observer is stationary ѵo = 0

ѵ
f‘ = f ×
ѵ − ѵs
(approaching – toward)

ѵ
f‘ = f ×
ѵ + ѵs
(recede – away)

• Case 2: When the observer is moving and the source is stationary ѵs = 0

ѵ + ѵo
f‘ = f ×
ѵ
(approaching – toward)

ѵ − ѵo
f‘ = f ×
ѵ
(recede – away)

Where

ν is the speed of sound

νo is the speed of the observer
νs is the speed of the source

f‘ is the observed or detected frequency

f is the true frequency

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Example 4.6

A train moving at a speed of 40 m/s sounds its whistle with a frequency of 500 Hz.
Determine the frequency heard by a stationary observer as the train
i) approaches the observer
ii) recedes the observer
Take the speed of sound in air as ѵ = 340 m/s
Solution

Case: The source is moving and the Observer is stationary

Source: f = 500 Hz , ѵs = 40 m/s
ѵ
i) Approach: f‘ = f ×
6
ѵ − ѵ“ = 500 × ( 6 =
) = 566.67 Hz
ѵ
ii) Recedes: f‘ = f ×
6
ѵ − ѵ“ = 500 × (
6 ”
) = 447.37 Hz

Example 4.7

An ambulance travels down a highway at a speed of 35 m/s, its siren emitting sound at a
frequency of 400 Hz. What frequency is heard by a passenger in a car traveling at 20 m/s
in the opposite direction as the car and ambulance
a) Approach each other
b) Pass and move away from each other?
Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m/s.
Solution

Case: The source and the Observer both are moving

Source: f = 400 Hz , ѵs = 35 m/s
Observer: ѵo = 20 m/s , ѵ = 340 m/s.
ѵ + ѵ?
a) Approach: f‘ = f ×
6 ”%
= 400 × (
ѵ − ѵ“ 6 = 6$
) = 450 Hz

ѵ − ѵ?
b) Away: f‘ = f ×
6 =%
= 400 × (
ѵ + ѵ“ 6 ” 6$
) = 341.33 Hz

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Questions

1. Show that doubling the intensity of sound will increase its level by 3 dB.
And halving the intensity of sound will decrease its level by 3 dB.
2. List down three applications of Doppler effect.
3. A stationary source emits sound with frequency f. the observer is moving towards
a source with a ѵo = ѵ/2. Prove that, f = 2∆f, where ∆f is the frequency shift.

Problems

Q1
Find the speed of sound in a steel rod that has a Young’s modulus Y = 2 ×1011 N/m2 and
density ρ = 7.8 ×103 kg/m3.
Q2
Find the speed of sound in air when the temperature is 35 oC

A steel rod that has a Young’s modulus Y = 2 ×1011 N/m2, density ρ = 7.8 ×103 kg/m3, and
Q3

length L = 100 m is struck at one end. A person at the other end hears two sounds as a result
of the propagation of two longitudinal waves, one that travelled through the rod and the other
that travelled through the air at 20 ◦C. What is the time interval between the two sounds?

Tension is maintained in a string as in Figure. The observed wave speed is ν = 24 m/s when
Q4

the suspended mass is m = 3 kg.

a) What is the mass per unit length of the string?
b) What is the wave speed when the suspended mass is m = 2 kg?
Take the gravity as g = 10 m/s2

Q5
A source emits sound waves with an average power output of 88 W. Calculate the level of
sound in dB at 2 m away from the source.

Q6
While a bat is flying toward a wall at a speed of 5 m/s, it emits an ultrasonic sound of
35 kHz. What frequency does the bat receive from the reflected wave?
Take the speed of sound in air as 343 m/s

37
Answers to the Problems

CHAPTER 1
1. a) 8.2 ×10-8 N (attractive force) , b) 200.42 ×10-31 kg
2. 1 ×108 electrons
3. 0.2 N, θ = 0o
4. 8.64 ×10-4 N
5. -1 C
6. 1.82 m left of the charge -2.5 µC
7. 4F, 180o

9. a) HA⃗ = - Qi + √3 kS (m2) , b) 4.46 N.m2/C

8. 1113.6 N/C , θ+x = 279o

10. 1 N.m2/C

CHAPTER 2
1. 4.8 ×10 -14 N (in - y direction)
2. ν = 3 m/s (–x direction)
3. a) Up, b) Out of page, c) No deflection and d) Into the page
4. 0.098 T
5. 0.27 m

CHAPTER 3
1. 30.8 MW/m2

3. 6.67 ×10-16 T
2. 60 km

CHAPTER 4
1. 5063.7 m/s
2. 351.6 m/s
3. 0.272 s
4. a) 0.052 kg/m and b) 19.61 m/s
5. 122.4 dB
6. 36 kHz

References

1. Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th & 8th editions.

2. UniversityPhysicsVolume2.
3. Principles of Physics for Scientist and Engineer.