Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

UNIT 2

SCALARS, VECTORS AND KINEMATICS

Compiled by: Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal (O, A level teacher)

Contents of this chapter in relation to syllabus 5054.

1. Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement

Content
1.1 Scalars and vectors
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define the terms scalar and vector.
(b) determine the resultant of two vectors by a graphical met hod.
(c) list the vectors and scalars from distance, displacement, length, speed, velocity, time, acceleration, mass and
force.

2. Kinematics
Content
2.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration
2.2 Graphical analysis of motion
2.3 Free-fall
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) state what is meant by speed and velocity.
(b) calculate average speed using distance travelled/time taken.
(c) state what is meant by uniform acceleration and calculate the value of an acceleration using change in
velocity/time taken.
(d) discuss non-uniform acceleration.
(e) *plot and *interpret speed-time and distanc e-time graphs.
(f) *recognize from the shape of a speed-time graph when a body is
(1) at rest,
(2) moving with uniform speed,
(3) moving with uniform acceleration,
(4) moving with non-uniform acceleration.
(g) calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance travelled for motion with uniform speed
or uniform acceleration.
(h) state that the acceleration of free-fall for a body near to the Earth is constant and is approximately
10 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
(i) describe qualitatively the motion of bodies with constant weight falling with and without air resistance
(including reference to terminal velocity)

SCALARS AND VECTORS:

Scalar:
Definition: A scalar is a quantity having magnitude only.

E.g. mass, length, time, volume, density, energy, speed, etc.

Scalars can be added and subtracted simply, e.g. 5 kg + 7 kg = 12 kg.

1|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

Vector:
Definition: A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction.

E.g. force, displacement, moment, acceleration, etc.

Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude. The
arrow head represents its direction.
5N
e.g. A force of 5 N pointing to the right.

S NO Scalars Vectors
1. Mass Displacement
2. Time Velocity
3. Distance Acceleration
4. Length Moment
5. Thermodynamic temperature Force (any type of force, e.g. weight, lift, tension, drag, upthrust,
friction, etc)
6. Energy Momentum
7. Work Pressure
8. Power Torque
9. Area Field and field strength (all types, e.g. gravity, gravitational field
strength, etc)
10. Density
11. Speed
12. Volume
13. Refractive index
14. Charge
15. Current
16. Voltage
17. Electrical Resistance
18. Frequency
19. Period
20. Wavelength
Table 2.1 list of scalars and vectors

Addition of Vectors:
Vectors can be added to form a resultant.

1. Simple algebraic addition when the vectors are parallel:

e.g. 1. 4N 4N
Resultant force = 0 N.

4N
e.g. 2.
4N
Resultant force = 8 N towards right.

e.g. 3. 4N 9N

Resultant force = 5 N towards right.

2. Parallelogram addition when the vectors are not in the straight line:

2|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

The resultant of the two vectors may be represented in both magnitude and direction by the diagonal
of the parallelogram with the two given forces as adjacent sides.
Example:
Figure 2.1 shows two forces 4 N and 5 N acting on a
body with an angle of 45° between them. The resultant
R of the two forces can be determined graphically by
drawing the parallelogram with 4 N and 5 N as the
adjacent sides. Use the scale 1 cm:1 N.
Figure 2.1 Parallelogram rule for
The resultant R is 8.3 N (120° from 5 N). addition of vectors

Another explanation:

Consider two forces 5 N and 3 N acting on a block as shown in figure 2.2. Note that in this case the forces
do not act along the same straight line but an angle to each other.

We shall follow the steps to construct a force parallelogram to find the resultant for the above situation.

Step 1. Choose an appropriate scale and represent the two forces by means of `arrows`. In
figure 2.3, arrow OA represents the 5N force and arrow OB the 3N force.

Step 2. Complete the parallelogram OACB such that AC is parallel to OB and BC is parallel to
OA.

Step 3. The resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram, OC. In this example, OC is
of length 7 cm. This means that the resultant has magnitude 7 N. The direction of the
resultant is 18° to the horizontal.

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3 Addition of vectors by law of

parallelogram

3. Head to tail rule for vector addition(can be used with more than 2 vectors):

Rule:
Join the head of the last vector with the tail of the next and so on. Then the resultant vector will be the
vector joined from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.

E.g. add 5N 7N
30° 25°
3|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

Let 7 N force to be the 1st vector.

Draw the 7 N force.
Join the 5N force on the head of 7 N force.

Resultant: From the tail of the 7N force to the

head of 5N force. Measure the magnitude and
the angle of the resultant.

Note:
Instead of finding out the resultant of two forces by graphical means, we can apply sine, cosine rules to find out
the resultant force and its direction by calculation method for which we do not need an accurate scale drawing.

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT:

Distance:
Definition: Distance is the total length covered by a moving object irrespective of the direction of
motion, that is, only the magnitude is important.

So, it is a scalar quantity.

Unit: meters (m)

Displacement:
Definition: Displacement is the distance measured in a straight line (i.e. linear distance) and in a
specified direction so both magnitude and direction, are important.

It is a vector quantity.

Unit: meters (m)

If an object is moving in one direction along a straight path, then there is no difference between distance
and displacement.

Q: Give an example when we have covered certain distance but displacement is zero.

- Discuss different scenarios to differentiate between distance and displacement

SPEED:
Definition: Rate of change of distance or speed is the distance moved per unit time.

It tells us how fast or slow and object is moving.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑑
In symbols: 𝑣= where
𝑡

𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 .

4|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑑
In symbols: <𝑣 >=
𝑡

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝑚)
Unit: = 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 (𝑠)

VELOCITY:
Definition: Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.

It is speed in a specified direction. When you are asked for the velocity of an object, you have to state the
speed of the object and the direction it is travelling.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Similarly as in the case of average speed, we have average velocity:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

A body moving at a constant velocity moves at a constant speed in a straight line, (i.e. both speed and
direction are constant.)

The units of velocity are the same as that of speed but we need to mention the direction as well.

e.g. 20 𝑚𝑠 −1 due north.

ACCELERATION:
Definition: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
∆𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝑎= =
∆𝑡 𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑣 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Like velocity, acceleration is a vector quantity since it has direction. The direction of acceleration is the
direction of change in velocity. The SI unit for acceleration is meter per second per second. (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

Examples:
Worked example 2.1
A bus starts from rest and achieves a velocity of 20 𝑚𝑠 −1 (72 𝑘𝑚 𝑕−1 ) in 10 s while moving westwards
from the starting point O. Calculate its average acceleration.

5|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

Figure 2.4

Solution:
𝑣−𝑢
Average acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑡

20−0
= 10

= 2 𝑚 𝑠 −2 due west of point O.

Worked example 2.2

A car travelling eastwards at 30 𝑚 𝑠 −1 (108 𝑘𝑚 𝑕−1 ) suddenly comes to a halt in 5s. Find its average
acceleration.

Solution:

Given:

Initial velocity, 𝑢 = 30 𝑚𝑠 −1
Final velocity, 𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
Time taken, 𝑡 = 5 𝑠.
𝑣−𝑢
Average acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑡
0−30
= 5

= −6 𝑚 𝑠 −2 eastwards.

Note:
The negative sigh in this case means negative acceleration (i.e. velocity decreases with time). It is also called
retardation or deceleration.

Note:
When the candidates are asked to find the deceleration of the body then they must not write negative sigh with the
answer. For example, in the above answer, if they would have been asked to find out deceleration of the body then
answer would be 6 𝑚𝑠 −2. But if the examiner asks to find the acceleration of the body then the answer would be
−6 𝑚𝑠 −2.

Acceleration can be caused by:

1. Change in direction, keeping speed constant.

2. Change in speed, keeping direction constant.
3. Change in speed and direction, both.

Note:
A misconception for acceleration is that many candidates think that the acceleration must be zero if an object is at

6|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

rest. This is wrong. The following is an example of zero velocity but non-zero acceleration.
When an object is thrown upwards, it is momentarily at rest at the highest point. The velocity is zero. However it is a
free falling body as gravity is the only force acting on it. For free falling body, the acceleration is always 10 𝑚𝑠 −2(if
there is no air resistance) no matter whether it is moving downwards, upwards or momentarily at rest.

GRAPHS:
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

To find the gradient of a graph:

1. Straight line graph:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
(𝑥 2,𝑦,𝑦2))
(𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
2 2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

(𝑥1, ,𝑦𝑦1))
(𝑥 1 1

 Gradient of a straight line remains constant. It does not change. Take any two points on the line and
calculate the gradient.
 Gradient of a horizontal line is zero as there is no change in vertical axis. No rise, only run.
 Gradient of a vertical line is undefined (infinity) as there is no change in horizontal axis. Only rise, no
run.
2. Curve:
Draw tangent at that point on the graph where we need to find out the gradient. Then find out the
gradient of that tangent as discussed earlier. The gradient of the tangent is the gradient of the
curve at that point.

(𝑥 2 ,𝑦2 )
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 =
A 𝑥 2 −𝑥 1

(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS:
The body is at rest at the starting point as no
s (m) displacement is being covered and the time is
running.
The velocity of the body is zero.(gradient is
zero)
t(s)

7|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

The body is at rest but the body has some

s (m)
initial displacement when the timer was
started as the graph is not at x-axis.
The velocity of the body is zero.(gradient is
zero)
t(s)

Both the bodies A and B are moving with

s (m) A constant (positive) velocity but the velocity of
body A is greater than that of the body B as
B the gradient is greater for body B (slope is
steeper).
t(s)

The body has constant (negative) velocity as

s (m) the gradient is negative.
Body is returning to its original (starting) point.

t(s)

The body`s velocity is zero at the starting point

s (m) and it is increasing during the motion of the
body (as gradient is increasing)

t(s)
The body`s velocity has a maximum value
s (m) initially but gradually its decreasing (as
gradient is decreasing) and finally it comes to
rest (as gradient is zero.)

t(s)

Instantaneous velocity:
Definition: The velocity of the particle at that particular instant.

 It is calculated by drawing a tangent to the displacement-time curve at that point and then
calculating the gradient of that tangent (as discussed earlier)

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS:
 Area under the velocity-time graph gives us the DISPLACEMENT of the particle.
 Gradient of the velocity-time graph gives us the ACCELERATION of the particle.

8|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

The body is at rest at the starting point as no

𝑚
v( ) displacement is being covered and the time is
𝑠
running.

The velocity of the body is zero.

t(s)
The acceleration of the body is zero as gradient is
zero.
𝑚 The body is moving with constant velocity (as the
v( ) graph is a horizontal line).
𝑠

The acceleration of the body is zero as the gradient

of the cure is zero.
t(s)

Both the bodies are moving with linearly increasing

𝑚
v( ) A velocities in the positive direction.
𝑠

B The acceleration of both the bodies is constant

(graph is a straight line) but A`s acceleration is
t(s) greater than that of B. (graph of body A is steeper
than that of B.)
The body has constant (negative) acceleration
𝑚
v( ) known as deceleration as the gradient is negative.
𝑠
Body is coming to rest from some positive value.

t(s)

The body`s velocity is zero at the starting point and

𝑚
v( ) it is increasing non-linearly.
𝑠

The acceleration of the body is increasing (graph is

becoming steeper with the passage of time.)

t(s)

𝑚
The velocity of the body is increasing non-linearly.
v( ) The body`s acceleration has a maximum value at
𝑠
the beginning but gradually its decreasing (as
gradient is decreasing) and finally it becomes zero.
At this point the body is moving with constant
velocity.
t(s)

Some Velocity – Time Graphs and Their Explanations

9|P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

For graph (i) of figure 2.5

(a) The velocity remains the same as the time
increases. This means the object has the
constant velocity of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 .

𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
(b) Since 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = therefore,
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 20𝑚𝑠 −1 × 5 𝑠
= 100𝑚.
Which can also be obtained by finding the
shaded area from 𝑡 = 0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 5 𝑠. Figure 2.5
Thus in general, the area under the velocity time graph gives the linear distance
travelled by the object in the given time interval.
For graph (ii) of figure 2.5
(a) The velocity has only positive values. This means that the object is moving in only one
particular direction.
(b) The velocity increases uniformly with time since it has a straight line graph.
(c) Its average acceleration is constant for different time intervals; in other words, it has
uniform or constant acceleration.
(d) The distance travelled by the object can also be found by finding the area under the
𝑣 − 𝑡 graph fro whatever time interval that is required. For example, distance travelled
from 𝑡 = 0𝑠 to 𝑡 = 5𝑠
1
= 2 5 (50) (area of triangle)
= 125 𝑚

For graph (iii) of figure 2.6

(a) For equal time intervals ∆𝑡, from A to B, the
change in velocity ∆𝑣1 and ∆𝑣2 increases
since ∆𝑣2 > ∆𝑣1 .
∆𝑣
(b) Since acceleration 𝑎 = ∆𝑡 , therefore
∆𝑣2
instantaneous acceleration 𝑎2 = is
∆𝑡
greater than the instantaneous acceleration
∆𝑣
𝑎1 = ∆𝑡1 . This means that the average
acceleration of the object increases with
time.
Figure 2.6
For graph (iv) of figure 2.6
(a) For equal time intervals ∆𝑡, from C to D, the change in velocity ∆𝑣3 and ∆𝑣4 increases
since ∆𝑣3 > ∆𝑣4 .
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
(b) Since acceleration 𝑎 = ∆𝑡 , therefore instantaneous acceleration 𝑎4 = ∆𝑡4 is smaller than
∆𝑣3
the instantaneous acceleration 𝑎3 = . This means that the average acceleration of
∆𝑡
the object decreases with time.
(c) At point E, the velocity stops increasing and the object from then on moves with
constant velocity.

Note:
For both graphs (iii) and (iv), the distance travelled by the object can be obtained from the area under
the 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph.

10 | P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

Worked Example 2.3

A bullet train starts from rest from a station and travels
along a straight horizontal track towards another station.
The graph in figure 2.7 shows how the velocity of the
train varies with time over the whole journey. Using the
graph, determine the total distance covered by the train.
Figure 2.7
Solution:
Total distance travelled, 𝑑 = area under the v − t graph
1
= 2 10 + 16 40 = 520 𝑚

Tips to remember (important stuff):

Gradient:
Divide the unit on the vertical axis by the unit on the horizontal axis and then look at the units and
compare them with known quantities` units.
e.g. 1. displacement-time graph:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑚) 𝑚
= = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑠

e.g. 2. Velocity-time graph:

𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( ) 𝑚
𝑠
= = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠 𝑠2

Area:
Multiply the units on the vertical axis to the units on the horizontal axis and check wha t the resulting
units are. Compare them with the known quantities` units.

e.g. 1. Displacement-time graph:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑠. No known (common) quantity has this unit. Hence area under
the displacement-time graph gives us NOTHING.

𝑒.g. 2. Velocity-time graph:

𝑚
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠 = 𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑠

THE ACCELERATION OF FREE FALL, 𝐠:

A very important acceleration that affects our daily lives is the acceleration of free fall (or acceleration due
to gravity). It is given a special symbol g. For objects close to the Earth(less than 1 km away from the
surface), the acceleration of free fall, g can be taken to be constant. Any object falling from rest, at a height
of less than 1 km, is said to be under the influence of a uniform gravitational field. The object is said to
experience the force of gravity which is commonly referred to as the weight of the object. (See unit 3 on
Forces.)

If there is no air resistance or friction, all objects will fall with the same acceleration which is always
pointing downwards.

11 | P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

The acceleration due to gravity is 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 .

Coin and feather example:

Figure 2.8 shows the setup of the experiment. Hold the tube containing the coin and the feather vertically
and quickly invert it. The coin falls faster than the feather because the coin is less influenced by air
resistance. The experiment is repeated with the air inside the tube evacuated. The coin and the feather
now fall at the same rate. They reach the bottom at the same time. The velocity – time graph for the coin
and feather is shown in figure 2.9.

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

Note:
A free falling body can move upwards. As long as the object is experiencing gravity but no other force, it is a free
falling body. When a free falling body is moving upwards, its direction of motion is upwards but the acceleration
𝑚
is 10 2 downwards. The free falling body will slow down because the acceleration is opposite to its direction of
𝑠
motion. It is actually decelerating. When the velocity is reduced to zero, it will stop at that position momentarily
and then start falling down. Since the acceleration is in the same direction as the motion, the free falling body is
now accelerating.

TERMINAL VELOCITY:
Have you noticed that when you run, you can feel the air pushing against you? This opposing force to your
motion is called air resistance. Air resistance is a form of frictional force. It has the following
characteristics.

1. It always oppose the motion of moving objects.

2. It increases with the speed of the object.
3. It increases with the area (or size) of the object.

As mentioned earlier, all objects if allowed to fall freely will accelerate towards the center of the earth.
Small, heavy and round objects such as steel balls will accelerate in the same way and hit the ground at the
same time if the air resistance is small. However if you release the piece of paper which is light and have a
large surface area, the motion of the paper can be described in figure 2.10.

12 | P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.10
The following can be observed:

1. From 𝑡 = 0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 1 𝑠, the velocity of the paper increases from 0 to 𝑣1 rapidly, i.e. with large
acceleration.
2. From 𝑡 = 1 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 2 𝑠, the velocity of the paper continues to increase from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 (𝑣2 > 𝑣1 ).
However the rate of increase of velocity from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 is smaller than that from zero to 𝑣1 over the
same time interval of 1s. I.e. with smaller acceleration.
3. From 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 4 𝑠 and even beyond, the velocity of the paper does not increase any more but
remains at a constant, i.e. 𝑣4 = 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 = maximum constant velocity reached. Such a maximum
constant velocity is called the terminal velocity. The acceleration is zero.
4. The velocity- time graph shown in figure 2.11 can be used to represent the type of motion. Note
that the areas 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 and 𝐴4 represents the displacements 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑠3 and 𝑠4 respectively.

Note:
 Typically, terminal velocity for a diver is 60 𝑚𝑠 −1 but it depends on conditions, size, and shape of
the diver.
 Weight of the freely falling body remains constant. It will not vary throughout the motion.
Whereas air resistance changes due to the factors mentioned above.

Worked Example 2.4

Figure 2.12 shows the motion of a parachutist from the
instant he jumps out of the aircraft to the time he hits the
ground. Describe the motion of the following time intervals.

a) 𝑡 = 0𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3 𝑠 b) 𝑡 = 3 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 10 𝑠
c) 𝑡 = 10 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 20 𝑠 d) 𝑡 = 20 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 22 𝑠
e) 𝑡 = 22 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 35 𝑠 f) 𝑡 = 35 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 38 𝑠
Figure 2.12
Solution:

Time: Motion:
0 𝑠 to 3 𝑠 Velocity increases almost uniformly when he first leaves the aircraft. The
13 | P a g e
 Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594

31
acceleration a is about = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 , close to g.
3

3 𝑠 to 10 𝑠 Velocity increases from 30 𝑚𝑠 −1 to 50 𝑚𝑠 −1 over ∆𝑡 = 7𝑠. i.e. average

acceleration 𝑎 = 2.9 𝑚𝑠 −2 which is smaller than that from 𝑡 = 0𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3 𝑠

10 𝑠 to 20 𝑠 Velocity is constant. i.e. terminal velocity is reached (acceleration is zero.)

20 𝑠 to 22 𝑠 Velocity decreases rapidly from 50 𝑚𝑠 −1 to 10 𝑚𝑠 −1 in ∆𝑡 = 2 𝑠, i.e. rapid

deceleration (caused by large air resistance when the parachute opens).

22 𝑠 to 35 𝑠 Constant velocity again but smaller than the first terminal velocity before the
opening of the parachute.

35 𝑠 to 38 𝑠 Velocity decreases from 10𝑚𝑠 −1 to 0 𝑚𝑠 −1 in ∆𝑡 = 3𝑠 , i.e. large deceleration as

he hits the ground and comes to a halt.

NOTE:
When candidates are asked to describe the motion of an object, they need to describe the changes in
speed and acceleration of the object. The marks allocation will tell how many points are required in
your answer.

14 | P a g e