Chapter 1

Summary

• Data communications are the transfer of data from one device to another via some form of transmission
medium.
• A data communications system must transmit data to the correct destination in an accurate and timely
manner.
• The five components that make up a data communications system are the message, sender, receiver,
medium, and protocol.
• Text, numbers, images, audio, and video are different forms of information.
• Data flow between two devices can occur in one of three ways: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
• A network is a set of communication devices connected by media links.
• In a point-to-point connection, two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link. In a multipoint
connection, three or more devices share a link.
• Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. Devices may be arranged in a mesh,
star, bus, or ring topology.
• A network can be categorized as a local area network or a wide area network.
• A LAN is a data communication system within a building, plant, or campus, or between nearby buildings.
• A WAN is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world.
• An internet is a network of networks.
• The Internet is a collection of many separate networks.
• There are local, regional, national, and international Internet service providers.
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication; the key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
• Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can work together as
expected.
• The ISO, ITD-T, ANSI, IEEE, and EIA are some of the organizations involved in standards creation.
• Forums are special-interest groups that quickly evaluate and standardize new technologies.
• A Request for Comment is an idea or concept that is a precursor to an Internet standard.

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1) Identify the five components of a data communications system.

The five components of a data communication system are the sender, receiver, transmission medium,
message, and protocol.

2) What are the advantages of distributed processing?

The advantages of distributed processing are security, access to distributed databases, collaborative
processing, and faster problem solving.

3) What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
The three criteria are performance, reliability, and security.
4) What are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection?

Advantages of a multipoint over a point-to-point configuration (type of connection) include ease of

installation and low cost.

5) What are the two types of line configuration?

Line configurations (or types of connections) are point-to-point and multipoint.
6) Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.

We can divide line configuration in two broad categories:

a) Point-to-point:
• Mesh
• Star
• Ring
b) Multipoint
• Bus
7) What is the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex transmission modes?

In half-duplex transmission, only one entity can send at a time; in a full-duplex transmission, both entities
can send at the same time.

8) Name the four basic network topologies and cite an advantage of each type.
• Mesh: secure
• Bus: easy installation
• Star: robust
• Ring: easy fault isolation

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9) For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star
topology?

The number of cables for each type of network is:

• Mesh: n (n – 1) / 2
• Star: n
• Ring: n – 1
• Bus: one backbone and n drop lines
10) What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication system is a LAN or WAN?

The general factors are size, distances (covered by the network), structure, and ownership.

11) What is an internet? What is the Internet?

An internet is an interconnection of networks. The Internet is the name of a specific worldwide

network.

12) Why are protocols needed?

A protocol defines what is communicated, in what way and when. This provides accurate and timely
transfer of information between different devices on a network.

13) Why are standards needed?

Standards are needed to create and maintain an open and competitive market for manufacturers, to
coordinate protocol rules, and thus guarantee compatibility of data communication technologies.

14) What is the maximum number of characters or symbols that can be represented by Unicode?
Unicode uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or a character. We can define 232 different symbols or
characters.
15) A color image uses 16 bits to represent a pixel. What is the maximum number of different colors that
can be represented?
With 16 bits, we can represent up to 216 different colors.
16) Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed? How many ports
are needed for each device?
a. Cable links: n (n – 1) / 2 = (6 × 5) / 2 = 15
b. Number of ports: (n – 1) = 5 ports needed per device.

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17) For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a connection fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology

Mesh topology: If one connection fails, the other connections will still be working.

b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub)

Star topology: The other devices will still be able to send data through the hub; there will be no
access to the device which has the failed connection to the hub.
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology

Bus Topology: All transmission stops if the failure is in the bus. If the drop-line fails, only the
corresponding device cannot operate.
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology

Ring Topology: The failed connection may disable the whole network unless it is a dual ring or there
is a by-pass mechanism.
18) You have two computers connected by an Ethernet hub at home. Is this a LAN, a MAN, or a WAN?
Explain your reason.

This is a LAN. The Ethernet hub creates a LAN.

19) In the ring topology in Figure 1.8, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?
Theoretically, in a ring topology, unplugging one station, interrupts the ring. However, most ring
networks use a mechanism that bypasses the station; the ring can continue its operation.
20) In the bus topology in Figure 1.7, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?

In a bus topology, no station is in the path of the signal. Unplugging a station has no effect on the operation
of the rest of the network.
21) Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.

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22) Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.

23) Performance is inversely related to delay. When you use the Internet, which of the following
applications are more sensitive to delay?
a. Sending an e-mail:
E-mail is not an interactive application. Even if it is delivered immediately, it may stay in the
mailbox of the receiver for a while. It is not sensitive to delay.
b. Copying a file:
We normally do not expect a file to be copied immediately. It is not very sensitive to delay.
c. Surfing the Internet:
Surfing the Internet is very sensitive to delay. We except to get access to the site we are
searching.
24) When a party makes a local telephone call to another party, is this a point-to-point or multipoint
connection? Explain your answer.
In this case, the communication is only between a caller and the callee. A dedicated line is established
between them. The connection is point-to-point.
25) Compare the telephone network and the Internet. What are the similarities? What are the
differences?
The telephone network was originally designed for voice communication; the Internet was originally
designed for data communication. The two networks are similar in the fact that both are made of
interconnections of small networks. The telephone network, as we will see in future chapters, is mostly a
circuit-switched network; the Internet is mostly a packet-switched network.

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 Chapter 2
SUMMARY
• The International Standards Organization created a model called the Open Systems Interconnection,
which allows diverse systems to communicate.
• The seven-layer OSI model provides guidelines for the development of universally compatible networking
protocols.
• The physical, data link, and network layers are the network support layers.
• The session, presentation, and application layers are the user support layers.
• The transport layer links the network support layers and the user support layers.
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
• The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units from one station to the next without errors.
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet across multiple network
links.
• The transport layer is responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
• The session layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interactions between communicating
devices.
• The presentation layer ensures interoperability between communicating devices through transformation
of data into a mutually agreed upon format.
• The application layer enables the users to access the network.
• TCP/IP is a five-layer hierarchical protocol suite developed before the OSI model. U The TCP/IP application
layer is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI model.
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet following the TCP/IP protocols: physical (link) addresses,
logical (IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific addresses.
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or
WAN.
• The IP address uniquely defines a host on the Internet.
• The port address identifies a process on a host.
• A specific address is a user-friendly address.

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 1. List the layers of the Internet model.

The Internet model, as discussed in this chapter, include physical, data link, network, transport, and
application layers.

2. Which layers in the Internet model are the network support layers?

The network support layers are the physical, data link, and network layers.

3. Which layer in the Internet model is the user support layer?

The application layer supports the user.

4. What is the difference between network layer delivery and transport layer delivery?

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message, whereas the network
layer oversees host-to-host delivery of individual packets.

5. What is a peer-to-peer process?

Peer-to-peer processes are processes on two or more devices communicating at a same layer

6. How does information get passed from one layer to the next in the Internet model?

Each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it using interfaces between each pair of adjacent
layers.

7. What are headers and trailers, and how do they get added and removed?

Headers and trailers are control data added at the beginning and the end of each data unit at each layer of
the sender and removed at the corresponding layers of the receiver. They provide source and destination
addresses, synchronization points, information for error detection, etc.

8. What are the concerns of the physical layer in the Internet model?

The physical layer is responsible for transmitting a bit stream over a physical medium. It’s concerned with

a. physical characteristics of the media

b. representation of bits
c. type of encoding
d. synchronization of bits
e. transmission rate and mode
f. the way devices are connected with each other and to the links

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 9. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer in the Internet model?

The data link layer is responsible for

a. framing data bits

b. providing the physical addresses of the sender/receiver

c. data rate control

d. detection and correction of damaged and lost frames

10. What are the responsibilities of the network layer in the Internet model?

The network layer is concerned with delivery of a packet across multiple networks; therefore, its
responsibilities include:

a. providing host-to-host addressing

b. routing

11. What are the responsibilities of the transport layer in the Internet model?

The transport layer oversees the process-to-process delivery of the entire message. It is responsible for:

a. dividing the message into manageable segments

b. reassembling it at the destination

c. flow and error control

12. What is the difference between a port address, a logical address, and a physical address?

The physical address is the local address of a node; it is used by the data link layer to deliver data from
one node to another within the same network. The logical address defines the sender and receiver at the network
layer and is used to deliver messages across multiple networks. The port address (service-point) identifies the
application process on the station.

13. Name some services provided by the application layer in the Internet model.

The application layer services include file transfer, remote access, shared database management, and
mail services.

14. How do the layers of the Internet model correlate to the layers of the OSI model?

The application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model are represented by the application
layer in the Internet model. The lowest four layers of OSI correspond to the Internet model layers.

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 15. How are OSI and ISO related to each other?

The International Standards Organization, or the International Organization of Standards, (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

16. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:

a. Route determination: network layer

b. Flow control: data link and transport layers

c. Interface to transmission media: physical layer

d. Provides access for the end user: application layer

17. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:

a. Reliable process-to-process message delivery: transport layer

b. Route selection: network layer

c. Defines frames: data link layer

d. Provides user services such as e-mail and file transfer: application layer

e. Transmission of bit stream across physical medium: physical layer

18. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSl model:

a. Communicates directly with user's application program: application layer

b. Error correction and retransmission: data link and transport layers

c. Mechanical, electrical, and functional interface: physical layer

d. Responsibility for carrying frames between adjacent nodes: data link layer

19. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:

a. Format and code conversion services: presentation layer

b. Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions: session layer

c. Ensures reliable transmission of data: data link and transport layers

d. Log-in and log-out procedures: session layer

e. Provides independence from differences in data representation: presentation layer

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20. In Figure 2.22, computer A sends a message to computer D via LAN l, router R l, and LAN2. Show the contents
of the packets and frames at the network and data link layer for each hop interface.

21. In Figure 2.22, assume that the communication is between a process running at computer A with port
address i and a process running at computer D with port address j. Show the contents of packets and frames at
the network, data link, and transport layer for each hop.

22. Suppose a computer sends a frame to another computer on a bus topology LAN. The physical destination
address of the frame is corrupted during the transmission. What happens to the frame? How can the sender be
informed about the situation?

If the corrupted destination address does not match any station address in the network, the packet is lost.
If the corrupted destination address matches one of the stations, the frame is delivered to the wrong station. In
this case, however, the error detection mechanism, available in most data link protocols, will find the error and
discard the frame.

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23. Suppose a computer sends a packet at the network layer to another computer somewhere in the Internet.
The logical destination address of the packet is corrupted. What happens to the packet? How can the source
computer be informed of the situation?

Before using the destination address in an intermediate or the destination node, the packet goes through
error checking that may help the node find the corruption (with a high probability) and discard the packet.
Normally the upper layer protocol will inform the source to resend the packet.

24. Suppose a computer sends a packet at the transport layer to another computer somewhere in the Internet.
There is no process with the destination port address running at the destination computer. What will happen?

Most protocols issue a special error message that is sent back to the source in this case.

25. If the data link layer can detect errors between hops, why do you think we need another checking
mechanism at the transport layer?

The errors between the nodes can be detected by the data link layer control, but the error at the node
(between input port and output port) of the node cannot be detected by the data link layer.

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 Chapter 7
7.5 SUMMARY
• Transmission media lie below the physical layer.
• A guided medium provides a physical conduit from one device to another. Twisted pair
cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are the most popular types of guided media.
• Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Twisted pair
cable is used for voice and data communications.
• Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor and a shield. Coaxial cable can carry signals
of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cable is used in cable TV
networks and traditional Ethernet LANs.
• Fiber-optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded by cladding,
all encased in an outside jacket. Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light.
The signal is propagated along the inner core by reflection. Fiberoptic transmission is
becoming increasingly popular due to its noise resistance, low attenuation, and high-
bandwidth capabilities. Fiber-optic cable is used in backbone networks, cable TV
networks, and Fast Ethernet networks.
• Unguided media (free space) transport electromagnetic waves without the use of a
physical conductor.
• Wireless data are transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation, and line of
sight propagation. Wireless waves can be classified as radio waves, microwaves, or
infrared waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional; microwaves are unidirectional.
Microwaves are used for cellular phone, satellite, and wireless LAN communications.
• Infrared waves are used for short-range communications such as those between a PC and
a peripheral device. It can also be used for indoor LANs.
• (UTP) = unshielded twisted-pair AND (STP) = shielded twisted-pair

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1. What is the position of the transmission media in the OSI or the Internet model?
The transmission media is located beneath the physical layer and controlled by the physical layer.
2. Name the two major categories of transmission media.
The two major categories are guided and unguided media.
3. How do guided media differ from unguided media?

Guided media have physical boundaries, while unguided media are unbounded.

4. What are the three major classes of guided media?

The three major categories of guided media are twisted-pair, coaxial, and fiberoptic cables.
5. What is the significance of the twisting in twisted-pair cable?
Twisting ensures that both wires are equally, but inversely, affected by external influences such as noise.
6. What is refraction? What is reflection?
Refraction and reflection are two phenomena that occur when a beam of light travels into a less dense
medium. When the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, refraction occurs. The beam crosses
the interface into the less dense medium. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
reflection occurs. The beam changes direction at the interface and goes back into the denser medium.
7. What is the purpose of cladding in an optical fiber?
The inner core of an optical fiber is surrounded by cladding. The core is denser than the cladding, so a
light beam traveling through the core is reflected at the boundary between the core and the cladding if
the incident angle is more than the critical angle.
8. Name the advantages of optical fiber over twisted-pair and coaxial cable.
1) noise resistance
2) less signal attenuation
3) higher bandwidth.
9. How does sky propagation differ from line-of-sight propagation?
In sky propagation radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere and are then reflected to earth. In
line-of-sight propagation signals are transmitted in a straight line from antenna to antenna.
10. What is the difference between omnidirectional waves and unidirectional waves?
Omnidirectional waves are propagated in all directions; unidirectional waves are propagated in one
direction.

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 Chapter 8
SUMMARY

• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Traditionally' three
methods of switching have been important: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching.

• We can divide today's networks into three broad categories: circuit-switched networks, packet-
switched networks, and message-switched. Packet-switched networks can also be divided into two
subcategories: virtual-circuit networks and datagram networks.

• A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which each link
is divided into n channels. Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer. In circuit switching, the
resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the entire
duration of data transfer phase until the teardown phase.

• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no reserved
bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. Resources are
allocated on demand.

• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Packets in this approach are
referred to as datagrams. There are no setup or teardown phases.

• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has
some characteristics of both.

• Circuit switching uses either of two technologies: the space-division switch or the time-division switch.

• A switch in a packet-switched network has a different structure from a switch used in a circuit-switched
network. We can say that a packet switch has four types of components: input ports, output ports, a
routing processor, and switching fabric.

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1. Describe the need for switching and define a switch.
Switching provides a practical solution to the problem of connecting multiple devices in a
network. It is more practical than using a bus topology; it is more efficient than using a star topology
and a central hub. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or
more devices linked to the switch.
2. List the three traditional switching methods. What are the most common today?
1) circuit switching
2) packet switching
3) message switching.

The most common today is circuit switching and packet switching.

3. What are the two approaches to packet-switching?

1) Datagram approach
2) Virtual circuit approach.
4. Compare and contrast a circuit-switched network and a packet-switched network.
In a circuit-switched network, data is not packetized; data flow is somehow a continuation of
bits that travel the same channel during the data transfer phase.
In a packet-switched network data are packetized; each packet is somehow an independent
entity with its local or global addressing information.
5. What is the role of the address field in a packet traveling through a datagram network?

The address field defines the end-to-end (source to destination) addressing.

6. What is the role of the address field in a packet traveling through a virtual circuit network?

The address field defines the virtual circuit number (local) addressing.

7. Compare space-division and time-division switches.

In a space-division switch, the path from one device to another is spatially separate from other
paths. The inputs and the outputs are connected using a grid of electronic microswitches. In a time-
division switch, the inputs are divided in time using TDM. A control unit sends the input to the correct
output device.
8. What is TSI and its role in a time-division switching?
TSI (time-slot interchange) is the most popular technology in a time-division switch. It used
random access memory (RAM) with several memory locations. The RAM fills up with incoming data

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 from time slots in the order received. Slots are then sent out in an order based on the decisions of a
control unit.
9. Define blocking in a switched network.
In multistage switching, blocking refers to times when one input cannot be connected to an
output because there is no path available between them—all the possible intermediate switches are
occupied. One solution to blocking is to increase the number of intermediate switches based on the Clos
criteria.
10. List four major components of a packet switch and their functions.
1) Input ports: performs the physical and data link functions of the packet switch.
2) Output ports: performs the same functions as the input port, but in the reverse order.
3) The routing processor: performs the function of table lookup in the network layer.:
4) The switching fabric: responsible for moving the packet from the input queue to the output
queue.

13. Transmission of information in any network involves end-to-end addressing and sometimes local
addressing (such as YCI). Table 8.2 shows the types of networks and the addressing mechanism used in each
of them.

Network Setup Data Transfer Teardown

Circuit-switched End-ta-end End-ta-end

Datagram End-ta-end

Virtual circuit End-to-end Local End-to-end

Answer the following questions:

a. Why does a circuit-switched network need end-to-end addressing during the setup and teardown
phases? Why are no addresses needed during the data transfer phase for this type of network?

In a circuit-switched network, end-to-end addressing is needed during the setup and teardown phase
to create a connection for the whole data transfer phase. After the connection is made, the data flow
travels through the already-reserved resources. The switches remain connected for the entire
duration of the data transfer; there is no need for further addressing.

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 b. Why does a datagram network need only end-to-end addressing during the data transfer phase, but
no addressing during the setup and teardown phases?

In a datagram network, each packet is independent. The routing of a packet is done for each
individual packet. Each packet, therefore, needs to carry an end-to-end address. There is no setup and
teardown phases in a datagram network (connectionless transmission). The entries in the routing
table are somehow permanent and made by other processes such as routing protocols.

c. Why does a virtual-circuit network need addresses during all three phases?

In a virtual-circuit network, there is a need for end-to-end addressing during the setup and teardown
phases to make the corresponding entry in the switching table. The entry is made for each request
for connection. During the data transfer phase, each packet needs to carry a virtual-circuit identifier
to show which virtual-circuit that particular packet follows.

14. We mentioned that two types of networks, datagram and virtual-circuit, need a routing or switching table
to find the output port from which the information belonging to a destination should be sent out, but a circuit-
switched network has no need for such a table. Give the reason for this difference.

A datagram or virtual-circuit network handles packetized data. For each packet, the switch needs to
consult its table to find the output port in the case of a datagram network, and to find the combination
of the output port and the virtual circuit identifier in the case of a virtual-circuit network. In a circuit-
switched network, data are not packetized; no routing information is carried with the data. The whole
path is established during the setup phase.

15. A datagram or virtual-circuit network handles packetized data. For each packet, the switch needs to
consult its table to find the output port in the case of a datagram network, and to find the combination of the
output port and the virtual circuit identifier in the case of a virtual-circuit network. In a circuit-switched
network, data are not packetized; no routing information is carried with the data. The whole path is
established during the setup phase.

In circuit-switched and virtual-circuit networks, we are dealing with connections. A connection needs to
be made before the data transfer can take place. In the case of a circuit-switched network, a physical
connection is established during the setup phase and the is broken during the teardown phase. In the
case of a virtual-circuit network, a virtual connection is made during setup and is broken during the
teardown phase; the connection is virtual, because it is an entry in the table. These two types of networks
are considered connection oriented. In the case of a datagram network no connection is made. Any time

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 a switch in this type of network receives a packet, it consults its table for routing information. This type
of network is considered a connectionless network.

16. The minimum number of columns in a datagram network is two; the minimum number of columns in a
virtual-circuit network is four. Can you explain the reason? Is the difference related to the type of addresses
carried in the packets of each network?

The switching or routing in a datagram network is based on the final destination address, which is
global. The minimum number of entries is two; one for the final destination and one for the output port.
Here the input port, from which the packet has arrived is irrelevant. The switching or routing in a
virtual-circuit network is based on the virtual circuit identifier, which has a local jurisdiction. This means
that two different input or output ports may use the same virtual circuit number. Therefore, four pieces
of information are required: input port, input virtual circuit number, output port, and output virtual
circuit number.

17. Figure 8.27 shows a switch (router) in a datagram network. Find the output port for packets with the
following destination addresses:

Packet 1: 7176

Packet 2: 1233

Packet 3: 8766

Packet 4: 9144

Ans:

Packet 1: 2

Packet 2: 3

Packet 3: 3

Packet 4: 2

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18. Figure 8.28 shows a switch in a virtual circuit network. Find the output port and the output VCI for packets
with the following input port and input VCI addresses:

Packet 1: 3, 78

Packet 2: 2, 92

Packet 3: 4, 56

Packet 4: 2, 71

Ans:

Packet 1: 2, 70

Packet 2: 1, 45

Packet 3: 3, 11

Packet 4: 4, 41

19. Answer the following questions:

a. Can a routing table in a datagram network have two entries with the same destination address? Explain.

In a datagram network, the destination addresses are unique. They cannot be duplicated in the routing
table.

b. Can a switching table in a virtual-circuit network have two entries with the same input port number? With
the same output port number? With the same incoming VCls? With the same outgoing VCls? With the same
incoming values (port, VCI)? With the same outgoing values (port, VCI)?

In a virtual-circuit network, the VCIs are local. A VCI is unique only in relationship to a port. In other
words, the (port, VCI) combination is unique. This means that we can have two entries with the same
input or output ports. We can have two entries with the same VCIs. However, we cannot have two entries
with the same (port, VCI) pair.

20. It is obvious that a router or a switch needs to do searching to find information in the corresponding table.
The searching in a routing table for a datagram network is based on the destination address; the searching in a
switching table in a virtual circuit network is based on the combination of incoming port and incoming VCI.
Explain the reason and define how these tables must be ordered (sorted) based on these values.

When a packet arrives at a router in a datagram network, the only information in the packet that can help
the router in its routing is the destination address of the packet. The table then is sorted to make the
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searching faster. Today’s routers use some sophisticated searching techniques. When a packet arrives at
a switch in a virtual-circuit network, the pair (input port, input VCI) can uniquely determine how the packet
is to be routed; the pair is the only two pieces of information in the packet that is used for routing. The
table in the virtual-circuit switch is sorted based on this pair. However, since the number of port numbers
is normally much smaller than the number of virtual circuits assigned to each port, sorting is done in two
steps: first according to the input port number and second according to the input VCI.

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 Chapter 10
SUMMARY

• Data can be corrupted during transmission. Some applications require that errors be detected and corrected.
• In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has changed. A burst error means that two or more bits in the
data unit have changed.
• To detect or correct errors, we need to send extra (redundant) bits with data.
• There are two main methods of error correction: forward error correction and correction by retransmission.
• We can divide coding schemes into two broad categories: block coding and convolution coding.
• In coding, we need to use modulo-2 arithmetic. Operations in this arithmetic are very simple; addition and
subtraction give the same results. we use the exclusive OR operation for both addition and subtraction.
• In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant bits
to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.
• In block coding, errors be detected by using the following two conditions:
• The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
• The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.
• The Hamming distance between two words is the number of differences between corresponding bits. The
minimum Hamming distance is the smallest Hamming distance between all possible pairs in a set of words.
• To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a block code must
be dmin = s + 1. To guarantee correction of up to t errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a block
code must be dmin = 2t + 1.
• In a linear block code, the exclusive OR (XOR) of any two valid codewords creates another valid codeword.
• A simple parity-check code is a single-bit error-detecting code in which n = k + 1 with dmin = 2. A simple parity-
check code can detect an odd number of errors.
• All Hamming codes discussed in this book have dmin = 3. The relationship between m and n in these codes is
n= 2m - 1.
• Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra property. In a cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically
shifted (rotated), the result is another codeword.
• A category of cyclic codes called the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is used in networks such as LANs and WANs.
• A pattern of O’s and I’s can be represented as a polynomial with coefficients of 0 and 1.
• Traditionally, the Internet has been using a I6-bit checksum, which uses one's complement arithmetic. In this
arithmetic, we can represent unsigned numbers between o and 2n -1 using only n bits.

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Questions
1. How does a single-bit error differ from a burst error?

In a single bit error only one bit of a data unit is corrupted; in a burst error more than one bit is
corrupted (not necessarily contiguous).

2. Discuss the concept of redundancy in error detection and correction.

Redundancy is a technique of adding extra bits to each data unit to determine the accuracy of
transmission.
3. Distinguish between forward error correction versus error correction by retransmission.
In forward error correction, the receiver tries to correct the corrupted codeword; in error
detection by retransmission, the corrupted message is discarded (the sender needs to retransmit
the message).
4. What is the definition of a linear block code? What is the definition of a cyclic code?
A linear block code is a block code in which the exclusive-or of any two codewords results in
another codeword. A cyclic code is a linear block code in which the rotation of any codeword
results in another codeword.
5. What is the Hamming distance? What is the minimum Hamming distance?
The Hamming distance between two words (of the same size) is the number of differences
between the corresponding bits. The Hamming distance can easily be found if we apply the XOR
operation on the two words and count the number of 1s in the result. The minimum Hamming
distance is the smallest Hamming distance between all possible pairs in a set of words.
6. How does the simple parity check related to the two-dimensional parity check?
The single parity check uses one redundant bit for the whole data unit. In a two-dimensional
parity check, original data bits are organized in a table of rows and columns. The parity bit is then
calculated for each column and each row.
7. In CRC, show the relationship between the following entities (size means the number of bits):
a. The size of the dataword and the size of the codeword
The only relationship between the size of the codeword and dataword is the one based on the
definition: n = k + r., where n is the size of the codeword, k is the size of the dataword, and r is
the size of the remainder.
b. The size of the divisor and the remainder
The remainder is always one bit smaller than the divisor.
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 c. The degree of the polynomial generator and the size of the divisor
The degree of the generator polynomial is one less than the size of the divisor. For example, the
CRC-32 generator (with the polynomial of degree 32) uses a 33-bit divisor.
d. The degree of the polynomial generator and the size of the remainder
The degree of the generator polynomial is the same as the size of the remainder (length of check
bits). For example, CRC-32 (with the polynomial of degree 32) creates a remainder of 32 bits.
8. What kind of arithmetic is used to add data items in checksum calculation?
One’s complement arithmetic is used to add data items in checksum calculation. In this arithmetic,
when a number needs more than n bits, the extra bits are wrapped and added to the number. In this
arithmetic, the complement of a number is made by inverting all bits.
9. What kind of error is undetectable by the checksum?

At least three types of error cannot be detected by the current checksum calculation. First, if two
data items are swapped during transmission, the sum and the checksum values will not change.
Second, if the value of one data item is increased (intentionally or maliciously) and the value of
another one is decreased (intentionally or maliciously) the same amount, the sum and the checksum
cannot detect these changes. Third, if one or more data items is changed in such a way that the
change is a multiple of 216 − 1, the sum or the checksum cannot detect the changes.

10. Can the value of a checksum be all Os (in binary)? Defend your answer. Can the value be all Is (in binary)?
Defend your answer.
The value of a checksum can be all 0s (in binary). This happens when the value of the sum (after
wrapping) becomes all 1s (in binary). It is almost impossible for the value of a checksum to be all 1s.
For this to happen, the value of the sum (after wrapping) must be all 0s which means all data units
must be 0s.
11. What is the maximum effect of a 2-ms burst of noise on data transmitted at the following rates?
a. 1500 kbps: vulnerable bits = (1,500) × (2 × 10−3) = 3 bits
b. 12 kbps: vulnerable bits = (12 × 103) × (2 × 10−3) = 24 bits
c. 100 kbps: vulnerable bits = (100 × 103) × (2 × 10−3) = 200 bits
d. 100 Mbps: vulnerable bits = (100 × 106) × (2 × 10−3) = 200,000 bits
12. Apply the exclusive-or (XOR) operation on the following pair of patterns:
a) (10001) XOR (10000) = 00001
b) (10001) XOR (10001) = 00000 (What do you infer from the result?)
c) (11100) XOR (00000) = 11100 (What do you infer from the result?)
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 d) (10011) XOR (11111) = 01100 (What do you infer from the result?)
Comment: The above shows three properties of the exclusive-or operation. First, the result of XORing
two equal patterns is an all-zero pattern (part b). Second, the result of XORing of any pattern with an all-
zero pattern is the original non-zero pattern (part c). Third, the result of XORing of any pattern with an
all-one pattern is the complement of the original non-one pattern.
13. In Table 10.1, the sender sends dataword 10. A 3-bit burst error corrupts the codeword. Can the receiver
detect the error? Defend your answer.
The codeword for dataword 10 is 101. This codeword will be changed to 010 if a 3-bit burst error
occurs. This pattern is not one of the valid codewords, so the receiver detects the error and discards
the received pattern.
14. In Table 10.2, the sender sends dataword 10. If a 3-bit burst error corrupts the first three bits of the codeword,
can the receiver detect the error? Defend your answer.
The codeword for dataword 10 is 10101. This codeword will be changed to 01001 if a 3-bit burst
error occurs. This pattern is not one of the valid codewords, so the receiver discards the received
pattern.
15. What is the Hamming distance for each of the following codewords?

a. d (10000, 00000) = 1

b. d (10101, 10000) = 2

c. d (11111,11111) = 0

d. d (000, 000) = 0

Comment: Part c and d show that the distance between a codeword and itself is 0.

16. Find the minimum Hamming distance for the following cases:

a. Detection of two errors: → dmin = s + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3

b. Correction of two errors: → dmin = 2t + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5

c. Detection of 3 errors or correction of 2 errors.

For error section → dmin = s + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4

For error correction → dmin = 2t + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5

Therefore, dmin should be 5.

d. Detection of 6 errors or correction of 2 errors.

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 For error detection → dmin = s + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7

For error correction → dmin = 2t + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5 Therefore, dmin should be 7.

17. Using the code in Table 10.2, what is the dataword if one of the following codewords is received?
a. 01011
01
b. 11111
Error
c. 00000
00
d. 11011
Error
18. Prove that the code represented by Table 10.8 is not a linear code. You need to find only one case that violates
the linearity.

We show that the exclusive-or of the second and the third code-words.
(01011) ⊕ (10111) = 11100, which is not in the code. Therefore, the code is not linear.

19. Although it can mathematically be proved that a simple parity check code is a linear code, use manual testing
of linearity for five pairs of the codewords in Table 10.3 to partially prove this fact.

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We show the dataword, the codeword, the corrupted codeword, and the interpretation of the receiver for each case:

a. Dataword: 0100 → Codeword: 0100011 → Corrupted: 0010011 This pattern is not in the table. → Correctly discarded.

b. Dataword: 0111 → Codeword: 0111001 → Corrupted: 1111000 This pattern is not in the table. → Correctly discarded.

c. Dataword: 1111 → Codeword: 1111111 → Corrupted: 0101110 This pattern is in the table. → Erroneously accepted as
0101.

d. Dataword: 0000 → Codeword: 0000000 → Corrupted: 1101000 This pattern is in the table. → Erroneously accepted as
1101.

Comment: The above result does not mean that the code can never detect three errors. The last two cases show that it
may happen that three errors remain undetected.

We show the dataword, codeword, the corrupted codeword, the syndrome, and the interpretation of each case:

a. Dataword: 0100 → Codeword: 0100011 → Corrupted: 1100011 → s2s1s0 = 110 Change b3 (Table 10.5) → Corrected
codeword: 0100011 → dataword: 0100 The dataword is correctly found.

b. Dataword: 0111 → Codeword: 0111001 → Corrupted: 0011001 → s2s1s0 = 011 Change b2 (Table 10.5) → Corrected
codeword: 0111001→ dataword: 0111 The dataword is correctly found.

c. Dataword: 1111 → Codeword: 1111111 → Corrupted: 0111110 → s2s1s0 = 111 Change b1 (Table 10.5) → Corrected
codeword: 0101110→ dataword: 0101 The dataword is found, but it is incorrect. C(7,4) cannot correct two errors.

d. Dataword: 0000 → Codeword: 0000000 → Corrupted: 1100001 → s2s1s0 = 100 Change q2 (Table 10.5) → Corrected
codeword: 1100101→ dataword: 1100 The dataword is found, but it is incorrect. C(7,4) cannot correct three errors.
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22) We need a dataword of at least 11 bits. Find the values of k and n in the Hamming code C (n ,k) with dmin =3.

We need to find k = 2m −1 − m ≥ 11. We use trial and error to find the right answer:

a. Let m = 1 k = 2m −1 − m = 21 −1 − 1 = 0 (not acceptable)

b. Let m = 2 k = 2m −1 − m = 22 −1 − 2 = 1 (not acceptable)

c. Let m = 3 k = 2m −1 − m = 23 −1 − 3 = 4 (not acceptable)

d. Let m = 4 k = 2m −1 − m = 24 −1 − 4 = 11 (acceptable)

Comment: The code is C(15, 11) with dmin = 3.

23) Answer the following questions:

a. What is the polynomial representation of 10111O?

101110 → x5 + x3 + x2 + x

b. What is the result of shifting 101110 three bits to the left?

101110 → 101110000 (Three 0s are added to the right)

c. Repeat part b using polynomials.

x3 × (x5 + x3 + x2 + x) = x8 + x6 + x5 + x4

d. What is the result of shifting 101110 four bits to the right?

101110 → 10 (The four rightmost bits are deleted)

e. Repeat part d using polynomials.

x−4 × (x5 + x3 + x2 + x) = x (Note that negative powers are deleted)

24) Which of the following CRC generators guarantee the detection of a single bit error?
a. x3 + x + 1 → It meets both criteria.

b. x4 + xl → It meets the first criteria, but not the second

c. 1 → It meets the second criteria, but not the first.

d. x2 + 1 → It meets both criteria.

25) Assuming even parity, find the parity bit for each of the following data units.

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26) Given the dataword 1010011110 and the divisor 10111,

a. Show the generation of the codeword at the sender site (using binary division).

b. Show the checking of the codeword at the receiver site (assume no error).

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27) Repeat Exercise 30 using polynomials.

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