DESCRIPTION

Form and function of prepositions and the prepositional phrase, their structures, and meanings: place, position, time, cause, purpose, means, manner,
accompaniment, instrument, ingredient, and concession.

PURPOSE
Studying prepositions and prepositional phrases and becoming aware of their uses help students to solve difficulties on a topic considered by many
scholars and teachers one of the hardest in learning English as a second language and, consequently, makes them more proficient speakers, writers,
and listeners, as well as more skilled teachers.

PREPARATION
We recommend that you have a dictionary at hand so that you can look for the meaning of unknown words.

GOALS

SECTION 1

To distinguish simple prepositions from complex ones

SECTION 2

To recognize the semantic functions of prepositions

SECTION 3

To identify the functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases

WARM-UP
In 1994, the American singer Mariah Carey released a version of “Without you”, turning this ballad into an international hit song.
Eleven years later, “Because of you” – performed by Kelly Clarkson – was released in 2005 and became a hit song very rapidly worldwide.

Both songs are not only successful in the music industry but also begin with a very special type of word: prepositions. You can hear words like “without”
and “because of” not only in music lyrics but also in most of the sentences people speak and write. In the next sections, you will learn much more about
these necessary and very often tiny words, discovering interesting and amazing features about their form, function, and meaning.

SECTION 1

 To distinguish simple prepositions from complex ones

THE PREPOSITION WORD CLASS: CONCEPTION AND

GRAMMATICAL FEATURES
The words we use to write and speak have different grammatical features, form, meaning, and use. Traditionally they belong to different categories, that
is, different parts of speech. Some words are referred to as open class words because they can change, that is, they can take different morphemes and
there are thousands of them in English. Look at the following ones, for example, that are considered open class words:

MORPHEMES

In the field of morphology, a morpheme is considered the smallest meaningful unit which frequently cannot stand alone. Hence, the unit -ly in the word
"sadly" is an example of a morpheme: it is a dependent morphological unit which indicates the meaning of "manner".

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

And they express most of the meaning of the sentence. Take a look at the following examples:
(1)

a. My best friend gave a box of chocolate to me.

b. *___Best friend gave ___box ___chocolate ___ ___.

 COMMENTS

* is a sign for ungrammatical sentences.

The sentences in (1a-b) illustrate how the open class words are important to the meaning of the sentence, but they are not enough to its grammatical
structure. The (1a) sentence is grammatically and semantically correct. But in (1b) there are only “open class words”, the adjective “best”, the nouns
“friend”, “box”, “chocolate”, and the verb “gave”, which makes the sentence grammatically incorrect in standard English. Even though the (1b) sentence
is a little bit semantically understandable, we have the feeling that something is missing, that some little and tiny words are missing: the “closed” words,
the counterpart of the open ones.

THE CLOSED CLASS WORDS USUALLY CANNOT TAKE MORPHEMES, CANNOT CHANGE THEIR
FORM AND THEIR NUMBERS ARE NOT VAST.
But what kind of words can be considered closed class words? Take a look at the following classes:

Pronouns

Articles

Conjunctions

Prepositions

PEOPLE CANNOT CREATE NEW PREPOSITIONS OR PRONOUNS THE SAME WAY THEY MAKE
NOUNS OR VERBS.
Nevertheless, it does not mean that closed class words are not important. In (1b) sentence, for example, the possessive pronoun “my”, the indefinite
article “a” and the prepositions “of” and “to” are missing, which makes the sentence strange and ungrammatical.

Therefore prepositions, articles, and pronouns are very relevant to make the sentence grammatically correct. Because of their role, prepositions and
other closed class words are called “grammatical words” “function words” or “structure words”. In (1a), the preposition “of” links the nouns
“box” and “chocolate”, while the preposition “to” links the verb “gave” to the pronoun “me”. Based on it, we can state that prepositions are closed class
words, that is, relatively stable and unchanging words that link a word to another, making the sentence grammatical and structured.

SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS

Simple prepositions are monosyllabic elements, usually unstressed in spontaneous speech, especially when they are in the middle of the sentence.
Because of their unstressed feature, it is usually hard for foreign students to listen to them clearly because they are tiny words, composed typically by
only one syllable, and they are not stressed, that is, they are not pronounced with emphasis like in the example below with the simple preposition “of”:

(2)

a. I would like a cup of [ǝv] coffee.

b. We would like a cup of [ǝ] coffee.

In (2a), the simple preposition “of” is pronounced as a schwa sound ([ǝ]), followed by the consonant [v]: [ǝv]. However, the pronunciation of the
preposition “of” in (2b) is even more reduced: it is only composed by the schwa sound: [ǝ].

SCHWA SOUND

A very weak sound with the tongue relaxed and without lip movement.

IF THE SENTENCE ENDS WITH A PREPOSITION – ALSO REFERRED TO AS DEFERRED

PREPOSITION ABOUT WHICH WE ARE GOING TO DISCUSS LATER – THE PRONOUN
PRONUNCIATION IS NOT UNSTRESSED.
(3)

a. What is your friend looking at [æt]?

b. My mother is looking at [ǝt] her children.

In the first example (3a), the preposition “at” is at the ending of the sentence, an unexpected position for prepositions, but possible in English. In this
case, it is pronounced as a stressed syllable: [æt]. But in (3), the preposition is in the middle of the sentence and, in this case, it is unstressed, produced
with a schwa sound ([ǝ]) followed by the consonant [t]: [ǝt]. In the table below, there are some of the commonest simple prepositions followed by
examples:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Simple preposition Examples Simple preposition Examples

About Tell me about your childhood. Into Put some sugar into the bowl.

Above Birds fly above us. Of I would like a glass of water.

After I’ll surf after the English class. Off I fell off my bike.

Along We walked along the beach. On The book is on the table.

Around He’s known around the country. Over The airplane flies over us.

At Take a look at my drawings. Past I live just past the bakery.

Before I went to bed before midnight. Since I have lived here since my childhood.

Below His name is below the title. Till I’m waiting on you till now.

Beside Come and sit beside us. Through He’s learned English through music.

Between This guy is between us. To I went to school last week.

By It was given by me. Under The doll is under the chair.

Down Bathroom is down the stairs. Until I’ll love you until the end.
 For I will do this favor for you. Up We followed him up the stairs.

From My students are from Brazil. With I am in love with you.

In Britney is in the house. Without I am not lost without you.

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS

Although most prepositions are single words and usually monosyllabic elements like “to” and “for”, other prepositions consist of more than one word or
consist of a group of words: they are referred to as complex prepositions, like “instead of” and “because of” in the following examples:

(4)

a. Instead of staying home, I am going out with you.

b. I haven’t done the homework, because of my brother.

There are two types of complex prepositions:

Two-word sequence

Such as “because of” and “up to”.

Three-word sequence

Like “as far as” and “on top of”.

In two-word sequences, the first element is an adverb, an adjective, or a conjunction. This first element is relatively stressed. The second element is a
simple preposition, usually for, from, of, to, or with. In the table below, there is a list of common complex prepositions composed of two-word
sequences:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Two-word complex prepositions Meaning

According to As stated or reported by sb or sth.

As for / As to Referring to; regarding; concerning.

As of/ As from The time/date from with sth starts.

Aside from Apart from, besides, excluding.

But for Except for.

Due to Because of.

Except for Excluding; if it were not for.

Instead of As an alternative or replacement.

Owing to Because of or on account of sth.

 Prior to Before something.

Regardless of Despite; paying no attention to sb or sth.

Up to Not more than the amount of number mentioned.

Upwards of More than the amount of number mentioned.

Void of Without something.

COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH THE WORDS ON THE BOARD:

COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH THE WORDS ON THE BOARD:

The three-word complex prepositions are usually composed of:

A preposition

A noun

Another preposition

Usually, the noun can be preceded by a determiner, like an article: “as a result of”. This is the biggest category of complex prepositions in terms of
numbers because there is the possibility of combining simple prepositions with nouns word class.

Some three-word complex prepositions can have an adjective or an adverb in their structure, instead of a noun, for example, “as well as” and “as far
as”. However, they are not the most common. In the table below, you can check some of the commonest three-word complex prepositions, their
meaning, and examples:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Three-word complex prepositions Meaning

As far as To a place or point, but not beyond it.

As well as In addition to.

At the expense of With the loss or damage to sb/sth.

By means of Through; by the use of.

In addition to Besides; as well as.

In aid of In order to help sb or sth.

In charge of A position of control or responsibility.

 In respect of With reference to sth.

In spite of Regardless of sth.

On account of Because of; to explain the cause of sth.

On behalf of As the representative of sb.

On top of In addition to; Above/highest point.

With/in regard to Concerning sb or sth.

COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH THE WORDS ON THE BOARD:

COMMON MISTAKES IN LEARNING PREPOSITIONS

Learning prepositions is considered by many teachers one of the hardest tasks in the process of speaking English as a second language.

Let us understand a little bit more why that happens:

Most of the preposition roles are performed by morphemes and not necessarily by prepositions. This happens in languages like German and Latin.


English preposition meanings do not always match the preposition meanings in other languages.


The use of prepositions varies among the natural languages of the world.

Based on it, many students tend to transfer to English the preposition use of their first language.

 EXAMPLE

In Portuguese the verb “gostar” (to like) requires a preposition before its complement, but in English the verb “like” does not.

Because of it (example box), some Brazilian students make the following mistake illustrated in (5a), in contrast to the correct use in (5b):

(5)
a. *My little sister likes of watching Netflix.

b. My little sister likes watching Netflix.

In (5a), it is not necessary to use the preposition “of”, because the verb “like” does not require it.

The opposite also happens. Not using the preposition when it is required.

(6)

a. *Wait me!

b. Wait for me!

Another common mistake is to change the correct preposition to the wrong one, based on the first language. For example, in the current speech of
Brazilian Portuguese, people use the preposition “em” after the verb “ir” (to go).

 ATTENTION

But it is important to stress that the grammatical form in Portuguese would require the preposition “a”. For instance, “Ir à praia”, instead of *”Ir na praia”.

Well, as some Brazilians relate the preposition “em” to the English preposition “in”, some beginners tend to use “in” after “go”, as we can see in the
following examples:

(7)

a. *I went in the beach yesterday.

b. I went to the beach yesterday.

In (7a), the preposition “in” is incorrectly used after the verb “went” and it represents a mistake, based on the transference of features of the first
language. In English, the verb “to go” requires the preposition “to” to express “movement towards a place”, not “in”, just like in (7b).

IN ORDER TO AVOID THIS AND OTHER TYPES OF MISTAKES, STUDENTS SHOULD NOT TRANSFER
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR MOTHER TONGUE TO ENGLISH.
That’s why it is important to study and research in books, grammars and dictionaries the correct use of prepositions. This way, students can raise their
awareness of the use of prepositions and avoid the grammatical mistakes analyzed above.

THE POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS: THE CASE OF DEFERRED

PREPOSITIONS
The standard position of the preposition is usually before its complement. This notion is even encoded in its etymology: pre + position. Nevertheless, in
some grammatical circumstances, prepositions are at the end of the sentence.
These are the cases of deferred prepositions. First, the deferred preposition is used, when the prepositional complement of an active sentence
becomes the subject of a passive sentence.

In (8a), we have an active construction in which the prepositional complement is the prepositional phrase [for our beach house].


In (8b), we have the passive construction of (8a), in which the subject of the passive corresponds to the prepositional complement of the active
construction.

As subjects cannot be preceded by a preposition, the preposition remains in situ, that is, in its place of origin. Thus, it becomes a deferred preposition.
In the case of (8b), it remains at the end.

(8)

a. We have paid for our beach house. (Active sentence)

b. Our beach house has been paid for. (Passive sentence)

 FRIENDLY REMINDER

Phrases are minimum units of syntax composed of an organized and hierarchical group of words or just a nuclear word. In linguistic studies, phrases
are written inside square brackets. That’s why you will find in this unit this kind of structure, just as seen in the prepositional phrase [for our beach
house] or, ahead, the noun phrase [the Brazilian touristic place].

(9)

a. It is unpleasant to work with John > John is unpleasant to work with.

(9)

b. It is worth talking to Sara > Sara is worth talking to.

In (9a), there are two sentences: in the first one, the prepositional phrase [with John] is the prepositional complement in an infinitive sentence: to work
with John. In the second sentence of (9a), John is thematized, that is, becomes the topic-subject. In consequence, the preposition remains in situ, that
is, in its place of origin.
In (9b), the first sentence has the prepositional complement [to Sara] in an -ing sentence: talking to Sara. In the second sentence, Sara is thematized,
that is, becomes the topic-subject, meanwhile the preposition “to” remains at the end of the sentence.

Deferred prepositions also occur in questions with prepositional complement.

(10)

a. What is your friend looking at?

b. Who are you talking about?

HOWEVER, IN SOME QUESTIONS, THERE IS THE POSSIBILITY OF CHOOSING THE POSITION OF

THE PREPOSITION.
In (11a), we have a deferred preposition at the end of the sentence which is considered informal and more common in spoken language. But in (11b) the
preposition “to” is placed before its complement and it is considered formal and more common in written language: to whom. In informal speech, this
last use may sound strange for some speakers:

(11)

a. Who will you sell your book to? (Common in informal speech)

b. To whom will you sell your book? (Formal in written language)

Deferred prepositions can also be used in relative clauses. In this case, it is more common to place the preposition at the end of the sentence. This use
is by far the commonest in informal speech. But in formal written texts, placing the preposition before the relative pronoun is considered formal. In
(12a), the relative pronoun “which” makes reference to the noun phrase [the Brazilian touristic place] and it is not preceded by the simple preposition
“about” that remains at the end of the relative clause: it is, then, a deferred preposition, very common in informal speech. On the other hand, in (12), we
can see a more formal use of the preposition, not common in informal speech: the simple preposition “about” precedes the relative pronoun “which”:

(12)

a. The Brazilian touristic place which I was telling you about is called Sugar Loaf.

b. The Brazilian touristic place about which I was telling you is called Sugar Loaf.

THE OVERLAP BETWEEN THE PREPOSITION AND OTHER WORD

CLASSES
Some preposition words are identical to other word classes, especially adverbs or conjunctions. Hence, one word can either be a preposition or another
word class, depending on the context of the sentence. The words after, as, before, since, and until can be either a preposition or a conjunction. If
these words are followed by a noun phrase, we consider them as prepositions, but if they are followed by a finite clause, they are interpreted as
conjunctions:

(13)
a. My professor talked to me, after the class. (Preposition)

b. My professor talked to me, after he finished his class. (Conjunction)

c. Before my birthday, I was really excited. (Preposition)

d. Before I went to her house, I was really excited. (Conjunction)

In

On

Up

About

Across

Around

Before

Near

Past

Within

Down

Opposite

Near

Whereas prepositions cannot stand alone, because they need a prepositional complement, usually a noun phrase or an “ing” verb or a “wh” clause, as
we are going to see in Section 3, prepositional adverbs can stand alone. That is why prepositional adverbs are not considered prepositions, but
adverbs:

(14)

a. Last vacations, we were in Brazil. (Preposition)

b. It is raining a lot outside; we are going to stay in. (Prepositional adverb: in = at home)

Let us review the main points of this section!

LEARNING CHECK

SECTION 2

 To recognize the semantic functions of prepositions

PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS: THE PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

In the following topics, we are going to study the complex semantic meanings expressed by the prepositions in English, starting with the prepositions of
place, which represent a big challenge for foreign students. Then, we will focus on position, time, and other meanings.

In English, many types of words can indicate place: the adverbs here, there, everywhere, and nowhere are some of them. However, the most used
and important word class for indicating place is the preposition, like at, in(to), on(to), off, from, etc.

Among so many prepositions, students have questions about which one they must use in their speech or writing productions. This choice depends on
the way they see an object/place (QUIRK et al., 2003).

THE OBJECT AS A POINT

First, we can see an object as a point, a place without length, width, or height. In this sense, we can move to the object destination, we can be at the
object position, we can move away (from) the object, and, finally, we can be (away) from the object, just like the examples and illustrations below show:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Preposition to at (come) from away from

Visual
dimension

Examples They went to school They stayed at school They came from school They stayed

THE OBJECT AS A LINE

Second, we can see an object as a line, a place with length, but not depth, as the examples and illustrations below show:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Preposition onto on off off

Visual
dimension

(1)

a. She placed the book onto the shelf.

b. Rio de Janeiro is a city on the coast of Brazil.

c. The thieves have just run off the main avenue.

d. My beach house is on an island off the coast of Africa.

e. Many people still try to drive across the frontier between the USA and Mexico.

f. My friends and I have walked along the Copacabana beach.

THE OBJECT AS A SURFACE

Third, we can see an object/place as a surface. The object is conceived as a place with length and width, and it does not need to be flat or horizontal.
Take a look:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Preposition onto on off off

Visual
dimension

a. My boyfriend has fallen on(to) the floor.

b. The French painting is on the wall.

John has taken the English book off the shelf.

d. You should go off the city.

e. They would love to walk across the woods.

f. You must take a look through the window.

THE OBJECT AS AN AREA

Fourth, we can see an object/place as an area enclosed by definite boundaries. The object is interpreted as a place with length and width, and it is
usually an area of ground or territory with boundaries. Take a look:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Preposition into in out of out of

Visual
dimension

(2)

a. Do not enter into the right lane

b. My aunt has a mansion in your neighborhood.

c. They ran out of their country.

d. Last vacation, I stayed out of the city for weeks.

e. Let’s take a walk through the Central Park.

THE OBJECT AS A VOLUME

At last, we can see an object/place as a volume. The object is interpreted as a place with length, width, and depth (height). Take a look:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Preposition into in out of out of

Visual
dimension

(3)

a. As soon as it started to rain, I went into the house.

b. Your books are in my house.

c. He has jumped out of the car.

d. Ashley is out of the classroom.

e. My friends drove fast through the tunnel.

The prepositions “in(to)” and “out of” are often replaced for “inside” and “outside” and the preposition “in” can be replaced for a more formal word: the
preposition “within”. “Within” usually expresses a place with limits and boundaries or a certain distance, like 1 km. Replacing “in(to)”, “out of” and “in” for
“inside”, “outside” and “within” in the examples (3a), (3d), (3b), we have the following sentences in (4a), (4b) and (4c):

(4)

a. As soon as it started to rain, I went inside the house.

b. Ashley is outside the classroom.

c. Your books are within my house.

OVERLAP BETWEEN THE PREPOSITIONS OF POSITION MEANING

Usually, people may use different prepositions with the same word or noun phrase. In this case, the sentence meaning varies, according to the
preposition choice. First, the prepositions “in” and “at” can come before the same noun, but the choice depends on the way the noun (object)
is seen. For example, for towns and villages, both of them can be used.

AT
If you use “at”, you see the town or village as a point or a single place on the map.

IN
If you use “in”, you express a more descriptive or a more “close up” view of the place.

The following examples show the difference between the use of them:

(5)
a. On our way to Colombia from Rio, we stopped at Salvador to fuel the car.

b. In Salvador, Brazil, many African Americans find the historical roots of African people in American continent during colonial period.

In (5a), the city of Salvador is seen as a point (a place) in the map, typically used in a context of worldwide travel, which accounts for the use of “at”
before a big city like “Salvador” in Brazil. However, more frequently, very large cities and towns are seen as big areas, with boundaries, which accounts
for the use of the preposition “in”, as we can see in example (5b). In this case, the city of “Salvador” presents a “close up” point of view from the
speaker. It is seen as a city with streets, houses, historical buildings, etc. The preposition “in” is also used for the parts of a city. In example (6),
Copacabana is treated as a part of Rio de Janeiro city, more specifically a very famous neighborhood of this city:

(6) In Copacabana, there are lots of stores, commercial and residential buildings.

The preposition “in” is also preferred for referring to states, countries, continents, and other large areas, such as “in America”, “in Ceará”, and “in
Fortaleza”. However, if you are moving away from these large areas, you use the simple preposition “from” and if you are moving towards them, you use
the simple preposition “to” as we can observe in the following examples. In (7), someone is moving away from one place (Brazil, the departure country)
and going to another one (Mexico, the target country):

(7) My best friends have traveled from Brazil to Mexico.

The prepositions “in” and “at” can also be used for referring to buildings or groups of buildings. If the building is seen as an institution, instead of a mere
physical place, the simple preposition “at” is preferred rather than “in” and many nouns, such as school, usually do not take any definite article before
them (at school). In (8a), UFRJ is seen as a public institution, a public university, but in (8b), it is seen as a physical place, a university city, rather than
an institution:

(8)

a. My boyfriend has studied at UFRJ since 2010.

b. My boyfriend is lunching in UFRJ.

The prepositions “at” and “to” can be used before the same noun, but their choice depends on the meaning of the sentence. If we see an object as a
target, we use “at”, instead of “to”. In (9a), the sentence suggests the player was angry and he or she has thrown the ball against the crowd to hit them.
On the other side, in (9b), the player has thrown the ball for the crowd to catch:

(9)

a. The player threw the ball at the crowd in the last match.

b. The player threw the ball to the crowd in the last match.

The prepositions “in” and “on” may be used with the same noun and the choice between them depends on how we see the object:
ON
If we see the place as a surface.

IN
If we see the object as a “volume”, with length, width, and depth (height).

In (10a), the grass is short and represents a surface without high (depth), but in (10b), the grass is long, has depth (height):

(10)

a. My friends and I have sat on the grass to make a picnic.

b. My friends and I have laid down in the grass to hide us from everyone.

 SUM UP

As we could see, there is an overlap process among the meanings of the prepositions of place (in, at, to, on) and the choice of one of them depends on
how the place is seen by the speaker.

THE SEMANTIC MEANING OF POSITION

Position is conceived as a relation between two objects. In this sense, one object can be in front of or behind the other; an object can be
above/over, or below/under another object, etc. The following illustration can clarify the position meaning conveyed by prepositions:

The difference between over/under and above/below lies in the meaning of nearness.

Over and under

Indicate a near position.


Above and below

Indicate a higher or a lower level.

Underneath means that one object is directly below the other, while “on the top of” means the object is directly above the other, it is, then, at a high
position.

The prepositions between, among, and amid also convey the idea of position. Between typically indicates the position of one object in relation to two
other objects, whereas the preposition among indicates the position of one object in relation to more than two. In (11a), there are only two soccer balls,
and the object (Tom’s toy) is between them. In (11b), there are more than two soccer balls and Tom’s toy is among them.

(11)

a. In the garden, Tom’s toy is between two soccer balls.

b. In the garden, Tom’s toy is among soccer balls.

HOWEVER, THE PREPOSITION BETWEEN CAN ALSO INDICATE THE POSITION OF ONE OBJECT IN
RELATION TO MORE THAN TWO, IF THE NUMBER IS DEFINITE.
In (12a), the number of states is definite, it is five states, so we can use between, instead of among. The preposition amid means “in the midst of” and
it is a formal preposition. It refers to an indefinite number of objects and, unlike among, it can also precede a mass noun (noncount nouns). In the first
example of (12b), the number of trees is indefinite; in the second example of (12b) the preposition amid precedes the noncount noun “smoke”:

(12)

a. The Brazilian state of Goiás is between the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Bahia, Tocantins, Mato Grosso, and Mato Grosso do Sul.

b. Our house is amid trees/ your friend has disappeared amid the smoke.

TIME MEANING

The preposition at is used for points of time: at midnight; at 1:00 pm; at the weekend; at Easter day.

If the time is seen as a period, we use the preposition in: in the morning; in my adulthood; in October; in 1991; in the old age.

For days of the week or parts of the day, we use the preposition on: on Monday, on Wednesday, on Sunday morning. The noun night is usually used
with the preposition at: at night.

But if we see it as a period, we can use the preposition in: in the night.

All the uses above are answers for “when” questions. But for answering the questions “how long?” other prepositions are used.

The most prototypical preposition for time duration is for (for one year, for the summer, for the next semester).

OTHER MEANINGS CONVEYED BY PREPOSITIONS

The prepositions because of, on account of, for, and out of can express the meaning of cause, reason, and motive, as we can see in the examples
below:

(13)

I did this, because of you/ I did this on account of life necessity/ I did it for love.

Moreover, the simple preposition for can also express the meanings of purpose, goal, and target. If the prepositional complement is animate, the
preposition for expresses the meaning of beneficiary, whereas the simple preposition to is used to express the meaning of the actual recipient.

(14)

I have bought a present for you/ I am going to show my work to the whole world.

The simple preposition by can express the meaning of means and the preposition with can express the meaning of instrument as we can see in (15a).
However, the simple preposition by can also indicate the meaning of the agent of an action in passive sentences, in which the prepositional complement
corresponds to the subject of an active sentence. In the first sentence of (15b), the preposition by precedes the proper noun Jonas, the agent of the
action, because he is the person who made the dish, and it corresponds to the subject of the active sentence.

(15)

a. I’d like to go to work by bike/ my little sister cannot write with a pen yet.

b. This dish was made by Jonas (passive) > Jonas made this dish (active).

The simple preposition with can also express the idea of accompaniment, that is, in the company of, especially if the prepositional complement is
animate like we can see in (16a). But with can also indicate manner, the way something is done, like in the example (20b). Besides, the simple
preposition with can also indicate the meaning of ingredients (16c):

(16)

a. I am going to visit my parents’ house with my boyfriend. (In his company).

b. My boyfriend and I came inside the house with joy and a smile in our faces.

c. This beautiful cake was made with white chocolate and strawberries.

The meaning of concession is conveyed by the complex preposition in spite of and the simple preposition despite (more formal). This notion can also
be expressed by the informal preposition for all or with all:

(17)

a. I am going to study Latin, in spite of/ despite/ for all/ with all your disapproval.

The meaning of exception is commonly conveyed by the following prepositions: except for, with the exception of, apart from (common in British
English), aside from (common in American English) and but:

(18)

Everyone is cold, except for/with the exception of/apart from/aside from/but me.

How to use prepositions of place and time: Professor Tatiana Massuno will give us some tips!

LEARNING CHECK

SECTION 3
 To identify the functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases

THE “GLUE” OF THE WORDS IN A SENTENCE: THE SYNTACTIC

FUNCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are grammatical or structure words because they link different elements in a sentence. They determine the relationship between the words
and also convey varied semantic meanings.

PREPOSITIONS CAN LINK WORDS INSIDE A NOUN PHRASE.

In the following example, we can see how the preposition “of” is important to structure the noun phrase [a whole box of chocolate]. In (1a), the sentence
may sound strange, because it is missing the preposition “of” to link [a whole box] and the noun [chocolate]. In (1b), the preposition is used inside the
noun phrase and it conveys the content of the box, making the sentence adequate and grammatical:

(1)

a. Sara has eaten a whole box __ chocolate in Easter day.

b. Sara has eaten a whole box of chocolate in Easter day.

Prepositions can also link clauses (sentences), establishing the syntactic and semantic nexus among them, especially in adverbial clauses. In (2a), the
sentence sounds strange because it is missing the complex preposition “in spite of”, which establishes the syntactic and semantic nexus between the
first and the second clause. In (2b), the use of the complex preposition makes the whole sentence grammatical and structured.

(2)

a. You must never give up on your dream, ________ how hard it could be.

b. You must never give up on your dream, in spite of how hard it could be.

They are also relevant to link a verb to its complement or its modifiers. In (3a), the preposition “on” is necessary to link the verb “depend” to its
complement “how he is feeling”. In this case, the preposition “on” is classified as a dependent preposition, a type of preposition that we are going to
study next. In (3b) the preposition “on” comes before “Monday” and represents an adverbial adjunct, a modifier of the verb “went”. It expresses “when”
(the day of the week) the kids went to school and it is not a complement of the verb.

(3)

a. All of his professional decisions depend on how he is feeling.

b. The kids went to school all alone on Monday.

 SUM UP
Prepositions function like a grammatical “glue” of the sentence, once they link the words and determine the syntactic and semantic relationships among
them.

THE STRUCTURE OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Prepositional phrases consist of two parts:

A preposition

A complement

Complement is also referred to as prepositional complement that is usually, but not only, a noun phrase.

 ATTENTION

It is important to state that prepositional phrases are non-headed constructions because both elements above (preposition and prepositional
complement) are obligatory. This grammatical feature is different from a noun phrase or an adjective phrase, in which a noun or an adjective is,
respectively, the head and other elements are optional.

In (4a), the prepositional phrase is composed by the simple preposition “on” and the prepositional complement “his neighbor’s roof”. In (4b) the
prepositional phrase is composed by the complex preposition “instead of” and the prepositional complement “a yellow banana”:

(4)

a. John’s soccer ball is on his neighbor’s roof.

b. I’d rather eat a big red apple, instead of a yellow banana.

In the examples above, all the prepositional complements are noun phrases: [his neighbor’s roof] and [a yellow banana], in which the head is,
respectively, the nouns “roof” and “banana”. However, other constituents can be a prepositional complement, besides noun phrases: (i) an “ing” nominal
clause or (ii) a “wh” nominal clause.

In (5a), the prepositional complement is “feeling terribly bad”, that is, an “ing” nominal clause. But in (5b) the prepositional complement is “what my
friend has said”, that is, a “wh” nominal clause. They are called “nominal” clause because their nature is nominal and they can be replaced by a
nominal element, like “it” or “this”:

(5)

a. In spite of feeling terribly bad, he went to school yesterday. (In spite of feeling it/this)

b. I do not believe in anything of what my friend has said. (In anything of it/this)

The table below summarizes the structure of the prepositional phrase:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Prepositional Phrase Structure

Preposition Prepositional complement Examples

Noun Phrase on his neighbor’s roof

Simple or complex Preposition “ING” nominal clause In spite of feeling terribly bad

“WH” nominal clause of what my friend has said

THE SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

The prepositional phrases can perform four syntactic functions in the sentence:

Postmodifier in a noun phrase.

Adverbial.

Complementation of a verb.
Complementation of an adjective.

In English, the prepositional phrase is the commonest way for postmodifying a noun phrase. In (6a) the noun phrase [several books], whose head is the
noun “books”, is postmodified by the prepositional phrase [on linguistics and language studies]. In (6b), the noun phrase [the origin], whose head is the
noun “origin”, is postmodified by the prepositional phrase [of the word samba]:

(6)

a. Nowadays there are several books on linguistics and language studies.

b. The origin of the word “samba” may not be Brazilian.

 COMMENTS

If the prepositional phrase modifies a verb (verb phrase), instead of a noun, it functions as an adverbial adjunct, or simply referred to as adverbial, a
constituent that is not required by the verb. In this case, the prepositional phrase as an adverbial expresses several meanings to construct the semantic
of the sentence.

In (7a), the prepositional phrase [at school] functions as an adverbial, because it modifies the verb phrase [was studying]. It expresses the meaning of
place, “where” the subject was studying, but it is a constituent required by the verb: it is an adverbial that expresses the meaning of place. In (7b), the
prepositional phrase [on Wednesday] modifies the verb predicator “came” and expresses the meaning of time, more specifically, a point in time. Once
more it is an adverbial because it is not required by the verb predicator:

(7)

a. When you came to my house, I was studying at school.

b. My boyfriend came to my house on Wednesday.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES CAN ALSO FUNCTION AS COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS. IN

ENGLISH, SOME VERBS REQUIRE PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENTATION, WHICH IS A REQUIRED
CONSTITUENT.
In (8a), the prepositional phrase [at me] is an oblique complement, also referred to as prepositional complement, of the verb “look”. In (8b), the
prepositional phrase [to me] is the oblique complement of the ditransitive verb “given” inside the verb phrase [has given]. In these examples, they are
required functions by the verb and they are not modifiers:

(8)

a. The people on the bus were looking at me.

b. My mother has given this computer to me.

Prepositional phrases can also be the complementation of an adjective. In (9a), the prepositional phrase [for their loss] is a complementation of the
adjective “sorry” and, in (9b), the constituent [for his career] is a complementation of the adjective “responsible”:

(9)

a. My family is really sorry for their loss.

b. His family is not responsible for his career.

 FRIENDLY REMINDER

Again, prepositional phrases have four different syntactic functions:

Postmodifier;

Adverbial;

Complementation of a verb;

Complementation of an adjective.

In many of these cases, we can observe that some words (nouns, verbs, or adjectives) require a certain preposition.

In the next topic, we will focus on the prepositions that come after certain words.

THE DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS IN PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Some prepositions inside the prepositional phrase are classified as dependent prepositions. This means that some prepositions always come after
certain words (nouns, adjectives, and verbs) or expressions and sometimes this represents a barrier for some students of English to achieve
proficiency.

THEREFORE, IT IS SO IMPORTANT TO STUDY THIS TOPIC WITH ATTENTION IN ORDER TO MASTER

THE DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS.
For example, the preposition “to” is dependent on the noun “ability”, because we have to say I’ve got the ability to speak French”. We also have to say
“clever at”, “good at” and “bad at”, using the dependent preposition “at” after these words. In the table below, we present some dependent prepositions
after certain words or expressions:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Word + dependent preposition Example

Angry with/at a person for something I am so angry with (at) you for yelling at me yesterday.

Angry about/at something I am extremely angry about being disappointed by your lies.

Anxious about (worried about) My sister is getting anxious about her marriage.

Anxious for (eager for, wanting) They are anxious for finishing their homework.

Astonished/shocked/surprised at/by My friends are astonished/shocked/surprised at/by my success.

Bad/good/clever/skilled/terrible at I am bad/good/clever/skilled/terrible at soccer.

Different from I am so different from my sister.

Disgusted with somebody/with, at something I am disgusted with John/ I am disgusted at the way he speaks.

Effect on/ influence on Romantic music has a good effect on me.

 Explanation of or for something Can you give me an explanation of linguistic variation?

Impressed/pleased/disappointed with My aunt is impressed with my ability at dancing.

Wrong with/ the matter with What’s the matter with him?

See other dependent prepositions:

 Attention! Use the horizontal scroll bar to see the whole table

Congratulations on
Congratulations on your new journey.
(not *for)

Dependent on; dependence on

He is very dependent on his mother.
(not *from/*for)

Idea of… ing

I love the idea of speaking different languages.
(not *to…ing)

Ill with
My math teacher has been ill with the flu since last week.
(not *of)

Interest in/ interested in

She is really interested in language change through time.
(not *for)

Kind/nice/polite/rude to
Dr. Banner is very kind to all his clients.
(not *with)

Married to
Ashley has been married to Tommy since 1995.
(not *with)

Proof of
He wants proof of their love.
(not *for)

Responsible for; responsibility for

I am not responsible for your failure.
(not *of)

Superlatives + in (reference to place)

She is the most intelligent woman in the world.
(not *for)

Success in (or at); successful in (or at) I wish you success in all your tasks/he is successful at his job.

Thought of… ing clause

I love the thought of going out again after this crisis.
(not *to)

Typical of
Your behavior is typical of a confident person.
(not *for)
INDIRECT OBJECT AND PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
Ditransitive verbs select three arguments, that is, three syntactic functions.

Two of them are subject and direct object.


The third argument can be expressed either by an indirect object, in the form of a noun phrase, or by a prepositional complement (oblique complement),
in the form of a prepositional phrase.

The unmarked order, that is, the commonest order is indirect object followed by the direct object, just like we can verify in (10a), in which the pronoun
“me” functions as an indirect object, whereas the noun phrase [a birthday present] functions as a direct object. However, if we want to focus on the
recipient/beneficiary, we change the unmarked order, placing a prepositional phrase at the end of the sentence, functioning as an oblique complement.
In (10b), the prepositional phrase [to me] is placed at the end of the sentence and it is not an indirect object; instead of this, it functions as a
prepositional (oblique) complement:

(10)

a. My friend gave me a birthday present.

b. My friend gave a birthday present to me.

If the ditransitive verb selects two pronouns as its complements, the prepositional (oblique) complement is preferred, rather than the indirect object. In
(11a), the ditransitive verb “send” selects two pronouns as its complements: the pronoun “it”, in reference to the noun “text” in the previous clause, and
the recipient “you”. In this case, it is preferred to use “to you”, a prepositional complement, rather than an indirect object, as we can see in (11b), in
which the unmarked order is not preferred:

(11)

a. I have just written a text and I am about to send it to you. (More preferred)

b. I have just written a text and I am about to send you it. (Less preferred)

Besides, prepositional complements in the form of prepositional phrases can also be placed at the beginning of the sentence, in the position of a topic,
the subject-matter of the sentence. On the other hand, indirect objects cannot be placed at the beginning of the sentence. In (12a), the prepositional
phrase [to my best friend Eduardo] functions as a prepositional complement and it can be placed at the beginning, in the position of a topic. However,
we cannot a place an indirect object such as the pronoun “him” and the proper name “Eduardo” in (12b), which function as indirect objects required by
the verb “to give” at the beginning of the sentence.
(12)

a. To my best friend Eduardo, I am going to give a box of chocolate.

b. *Him I going to give a box of chocolate/ *Eduardo I going to give a box of chocolate.

Let us review some points of this section!

LEARNING CHECK

CONCLUSION

FINAL ISSUES
We have learned that prepositions are interpreted as a closed word class because their number is finite and they cannot take morphemes like nouns,
adjectives, verbs, and adverbs can. Prepositions are considered grammatical or structure words because they are essential for making a sentence
grammatical, linking different elements inside the sentence, like nouns, clauses, and verbs to their complement.

In addition, we have learned the different meanings conveyed by prepositions, focusing on the meaning of place and position, since it is one of the
hardest features of prepositional meaning for many foreign students. Besides, other semantic functions of the preposition, like the expression of time,
manner, accompaniment, instrument, ingredient, concession, etc. were learned.

At last, we have focused on the syntactic functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases, also learning that prepositional phrases have no head
because both the preposition and its complement are necessary. And also, that prepositional phrases have four different syntactic functions: (i)
postmodifier of a noun phrase; (ii) adverbial; (iii) verb complement, and (iv) adjective complement.

 PODCAST
Now, Professor Tatiana de Freitas Massuno summarizes this unit.
 UNIT RATING:

REFERENCES
CELSE-MURCIA, Marianne; LARSEN-FREEMAN, Diane. The Grammar book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course. 2. ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.

QUIRK, Randolph et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language. London: Longman, 2003.

SWEET TOOTH. In: Collins English Dictionary [on-line]. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved March 19, 2020

GO FURTHER
Besides the grammar books in references, there are many other books on the description and use of English. So, if you want to learn more and go
beyond, you can read and research more topics about the English language in the following books:

BIBER, Douglas; CONRAD, Susan; LEECH, Geoffrey. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman, 1999.

BIBER, Douglas; CONRAD, Susan; LEECH, Geoffrey. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson education,
2002.

On the internet, there is also a very efficient and funny tool for learning English: the website BBC Learning English. This site is a department of BBC
World Service dedicated to English teaching and it provides many free activities and recourses (podcast, radio programs, etc.) not only for students but
also for teachers.

CONTENT AUTHOR
Antonio Anderson Marques de Sousa

 CURRÍCULO LATTES