MODULE 2 IN SCI 113 – METEOROLOGY

Title
Warming and Cooling Earth and Its Atmosphere
Introduction
Planet Earth is speeding around the sun at thousands of miles per hour while,
at the same time, spinning on its axis. When we look down upon the North Pole, we
see that the direction of spin is counterclockwise, meaning that we are moving toward
the east at hundreds of miles per hour. We normally don’t think of it in that way, but, of
course, this is what causes the sun, moon, and stars to rise in the east and set in the
west. In fact, it is these motions coupled with energy from the sun, striking a tilted
planet, that cause our seasons. However, as we will see later, the sun’s energy is not
distributed evenly over Earth. Tropical regions receive more energy than polar regions.
It is this energy imbalance that drives our atmosphere into the dynamic patterns we
experience as wind and weather.
Student Learning Objectives (SLO)
1) Describe how heat transfer occurs in the atmosphere
2) Explain latent heat
3) Differentiate different mechanisms of heat transfer
4) Find out how radiation affects atmosphere and the planet
5) Determine how Earth acquires different seasons
Content

Temperature and Heat Transfer

Temperature is the measurement that tells us how hot or cold something is

relative to some set standard value. But we can look at temperature in another way.

We know that air is a mixture of countless billions of atoms and molecules. If

they could be seen, they would appear to be moving about in all directions, freely
darting, twisting, spinning, and colliding with one another like an angry swarm of bees.
Close to Earth’s surface, each individual molecule would travel about a thousand times
its diameter before colliding with another molecule. Moreover, we would see that all the
atoms and molecules are not moving at the same speed, as some are moving faster
than others. This is kinetic energy, the energy of motion. The temperature of the air
(or any substance) is a measure of its average kinetic energy. Simply stated,
temperature is a measure of the average speed (average motion) of the atoms and
molecules, where higher temperatures correspond to faster average speeds.

Suppose we slowly cool the air. Its atoms and molecules will move more and
more slowly until the air reaches a temperature of -273°C (-459°F), which is the lowest
temperature possible. At this temperature, called absolute zero, the atoms and

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molecules will possess a minimum amount of energy and theoretically no thermal
motion.

Along with temperature, we can also measure internal energy, which is the total
energy stored in a group of molecules. Heat, on the other hand, is energy in the process
of being transferred from one object to another because of the temperature difference
between them. After heat is transferred, it is stored as internal energy. In the
atmosphere, heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. We will
examine these mechanisms of energy transfer after we look at temperature scales and
the important concept of latent heat.

Temperature Scales
Recall that, theoretically, at a temperature of absolute zero there is no thermal
motion. Absolute zero is the starting point for a temperature scale called the absolute
scale, or Kelvin scale, after Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), the British scientist who first
introduced it. Since the Kelvin scale contains no negative numbers, it is quite
convenient for scientific calculations. Two other temperature scales commonly used
today are the Fahrenheit and the Celsius (formerly centigrade). The Fahrenheit scale
was developed in the early eighteenth century by the physicist G. Daniel Fahrenheit
(1686–1736), who assigned the number 32 to the temperature at which water freezes,
and the number 212 to the temperature at which water boils. The zero point was simply
the lowest temperature that he obtained with a mixture of ice, water, and salt. Between
the freezing and boiling points are 180 equal divisions, each of which is called a degree.
A thermometer calibrated with this scale is referred to as a Fahrenheit thermometer, for
it measures an object’s temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F).

The Celsius scale, named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–
1744), was introduced later in the eighteenth century. The number 0 (zero) on this scale
is assigned to the temperature at which pure water freezes, and the number 100 to the
temperature at which pure water boils at sea level. The space between freezing and
boiling is divided into 100 equal degrees. Therefore, each Celsius degree (°C) is
180/100 or 1.8 times bigger than a Fahrenheit degree. Put another way, an increase in
temperature of 1°C equals an increase of 1.8°F.
Formulas
°C = 5/9(°F – 32) °F = 9/5 (°C +32) K = °C + 273

LATENT HEAT

We know that water vapor is an invisible gas that becomes visible when it
changes into larger liquid or solid (ice) particles. This process of transformation is
known as a change of state or, simply, a phase change. The heat energy required to
change a substance, such as water, from one state to another is called latent heat. But
why is this heat referred to as “latent”? To answer this question, we will begin with
something familiar to most of us—the cooling produced by evaporating water.

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 Suppose we microscopically examine a small drop of pure water. At the drop’s
surface, molecules are constantly escaping (evaporating). Because the more energetic,
faster-moving molecules escape most easily, the average motion of all the molecules
left behind decreases as each additional molecule evaporates. Since temperature is a
measure of average molecular motion, the slower motion suggests a lower water
temperature. Evaporation is, therefore, a cooling process. Stated another way,
evaporation is a cooling process because the energy needed to evaporate the water—
that is, to change its phase from a liquid to a gas—may come from the water or other
sources, including the air.

The energy lost by liquid water during evaporation can be thought of as carried
away by, and “locked up” within, the water vapor molecule. The energy is thus in a
“stored” or “hidden” condition and is, therefore, called latent heat. It is latent (hidden) in
that the temperature of the substance changing from liquid to vapor is still the same.
However, the heat energy will reappear as sensible heat (the heat we can feel and
measure with a thermometer) when the vapor condenses back into liquid water.
Therefore, condensation (the opposite of evaporation) is a warming process.

The heat energy released when water vapor condenses to form liquid droplets
is called latent heat of condensation. Conversely, the heat energy used to change liquid
into vapor at the same temperature is called latent heat of evaporation (vaporization).
Nearly 600 calories are required to evaporate a single gram of water at room
temperature. With many hundreds of grams of water evaporating from the body, it is no
wonder that after a shower we feel cold before drying off.

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 Latent heat is an important source of atmospheric energy. Once vapor molecules
become separated from Earth’s surface, they are swept away by the wind, like dust
before a broom. Rising to high altitudes where the air is cold, the vapor changes into
liquid and ice cloud particles. During these processes, a tremendous amount of heat
energy is released into the environment.

Other Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

• CONDUCTION
➢ The transfer of heat from molecule to molecule within a substance is called
conduction.
➢ Heat transfer always flows from warmer to colder regions. Generally, the
greater the temperature difference, the more rapid the heat transfer. When
materials can easily pass energy from one molecule to another, they are
considered to be good conductors of heat. How well they conduct heat
depends upon how their molecules are structurally bonded together.
➢ Conversely, air is an extremely poor conductor of heat, which is why most
insulating materials have a large number of air spaces trapped within them. Air
is such a poor heat conductor that, in calm weather, the hot ground only warms
a shallow layer of air a few centimeters thick by conduction.

• CONVECTION
➢ The transfer of heat by the mass movement of a fluid (such as water and air)
is called convection. This type of heat transfer takes place in liquids and gases
because they can move freely, and it is possible to set up currents within them.
➢ Convection happens naturally in the atmosphere. On a warm, sunny day,
certain areas of Earth’s surface absorb more heat from the sun than others; as
a result, the air near Earth’s surface is heated somewhat unevenly. Air
molecules adjacent to these hot surfaces bounce against them, thereby gaining
some extra energy by conduction. The heated air expands and becomes less
dense than the surrounding cooler air. The expanded warm air is buoyed
upward and rises. In this manner, large bubbles of warm air rise and transfer
heat energy upward. Cooler, heavier air flows toward the surface to replace the
rising air. This cooler air becomes heated in turn, rises, and the cycle is
repeated.
➢ The rising air expands and gradually spreads outward. It then slowly begins to
sink. Near the surface, it moves back into the heated region, replacing the
rising air. In this way, a convective circulation, or thermal “cell,” is produced in
the atmosphere. In a convective circulation, the warm, rising air cools. In our
atmosphere, any air that rises will expand and cool, and any air that sinks is
compressed and warms.
➢ The horizontally moving part of the circulation (called wind) carries properties
of the air in that particular area with it. The transfer of these properties by
horizontally moving air is called advection.

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• RADIATION
➢ Energy can be transferred from one object to another without the space
between them necessarily being heated.
➢ All things (with a temperature above absolute zero), no matter how big or small,
emit radiation.
➢ The wavelengths of radiation that an object
emits depend primarily on the object’s
temperature. The higher the object’s
temperature, the shorter are the
wavelengths of emitted radiation.
➢ Objects that have a high temperature emit
radiation at a greater rate or intensity than
objects with a lower temperature.

SELECTIVE ABSORBERS AND THE

ATMOSPHERIC GREENHOUSE EFFECT

There are many selective absorbers in our

environment. Snow, for example, is a good absorber
of infrared radiation but a poor absorber of sunlight.
Objects that selectively absorb radiation usually
selectively emit radiation at the same wavelength.
Snow is therefore a good emitter of infrared energy.
At night, a snow surface usually emits much more
infrared energy than it absorbs from its surroundings.
This large loss of infrared radiation (coupled with the
insulating qualities of snow) enables the air above a
snow surface on a clear, calm winter night to become
extremely cold.
Both water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) are strong absorbers of infrared radiation and
poor absorbers of visible solar radiation. Other, less

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important, selective absorbers include nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone
(O3), which is most abundant in the stratosphere. As these gases absorb infrared
radiation emitted from Earth’s surface, they gain kinetic energy (energy of motion). The
gas molecules share this energy by colliding with neighboring air molecules, such as
oxygen and nitrogen (both of which are poor absorbers of infrared energy). These
collisions increase the average kinetic energy of the air, which results in an increase in
air temperature. Thus, most of the infrared energy emitted from Earth’s surface keeps
the lower atmosphere warm.

Besides being selective absorbers, water vapor and CO2 selectively emit
radiation at infrared wavelengths. This radiation travels away from these gases in all
directions. A portion of this energy is radiated toward Earth’s surface and absorbed,
thus heating the ground. Earth, in turn, radiates infrared energy upward, where it is
absorbed and warms the lower atmosphere. In this way, water vapor and CO 2 absorb
and radiate infrared energy and act as an insulating layer around Earth, keeping part
of Earth’s infrared radiation from escaping rapidly into space. Consequently, Earth’s
surface and the lower atmosphere are much warmer than they would be if these
selectively absorbing gases were not present. In fact, as we saw earlier, Earth’s mean
radiative equilibrium temperature without CO2 and water vapor would be around -18°C
(0°F), or about 33°C (59°F), lower than at present.

The absorption characteristics of water vapor, CO2, and other gases (such as
methane and nitrous oxide) were at one time thought to be similar to the glass of a
florist’s greenhouse. In a greenhouse, the glass allows visible radiation to come in, but
inhibits to some degree the passage of outgoing infrared radiation. For this reason, the
absorption of infrared radiation from Earth by water vapor and CO 2 is popularly called
the greenhouse effect. However, studies have shown that the warm air inside a
greenhouse is probably caused more by the air’s inability to circulate and mix with the
cooler outside air than by the entrapment of infrared energy. Because of these findings,
some scientists suggest that the greenhouse effect should be called the atmosphere
effect.

Clouds can enhance the atmospheric greenhouse effect. Tiny liquid cloud
droplets are selective absorbers in that they are good absorbers of infrared radiation
but poor absorbers of visible solar radiation. Clouds even absorb the wavelengths
between 8 and 11 μm, which are otherwise “passed up” by water vapor and CO 2. Thus,
they have the effect of enhancing the atmospheric greenhouse effect by closing the
atmospheric window. Clouds—especially low, thick ones—are excellent emitters of
infrared radiation. Their tops radiate infrared energy upward and their bases radiate
energy back to Earth’s surface where it is absorbed and, in a sense, radiated back to
the clouds.

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Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect

Observations indicate that during the past 110 years or so, Earth’s surface air
temperature has warmed about 1.0°C (about 1.8°F). Scientific computer models that
mathematically simulate the physical processes of the atmosphere, oceans, and ice,
predict that should global warming continue unabated, we would be irrevocably
committed to major effects from climate change, such as a continuing rise in sea level
and a shift in global precipitation patterns.

The main cause of this climate change is the greenhouse gas CO2, whose
concentration has been increasing primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels and to
deforestation. However, increasing concentration of other greenhouse gases, such as
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), has collectively
been shown to have an effect approaching that of CO2. In addition, as temperatures
warm, more water vapor is added to the air from the world’s oceans. Overall, water
vapor accounts for about 60 percent of the atmospheric greenhouse effect, CO2
accounts for about 26 percent, methane about 7 percent, and the remaining
greenhouse gases about 7 percent.

Presently, the concentration of CO2 in a volume of air near the surface is just
over 0.04 percent, and it is increasing each year. Climate models predict that a
continuing increase of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will cause Earth’s current
average surface temperature to rise an additional 1°C to 3°C (1.8°F to 5.4°F) or more
by the end of this century. How can increasing such a small quantity of CO2 and adding
miniscule amounts of other greenhouse gases bring about such a large temperature
increase?

Mathematical climate models predict that rising ocean temperatures will cause
an increase in evaporation rates. The added water vapor—the primary greenhouse
gas—will enhance the atmospheric greenhouse effect and roughly double the
temperature rise in what is known as a positive feedback. But there are other feedbacks
to consider.

The two potentially largest and least understood feedbacks in the climate system
are the clouds and the oceans. Clouds can change area, depth, and radiation properties
simultaneously with climatic changes. The net effect of all these changes is not totally
clear. Oceans, on the other hand, cover 70 percent of the planet. The response of
ocean circulations, ocean temperatures, and sea ice to global warming will determine
the global pattern and speed of climate change. Unfortunately, it is not now known how
quickly each of these feedbacks will respond. Satellite data and computer simulations
suggest that clouds overall appear to cool Earth’s climate, as they reflect and radiate
away more energy than they retain. (Earth would be about 5°C [9°F] warmer if no clouds
were present.) An increase in global cloudiness (if it were to occur) might therefore
offset some of the global warming brought on by an enhanced atmospheric greenhouse
effect. If clouds were to act on the climate system in this manner, they would provide a

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negative feedback on climate. The actual result would depend on what types of clouds
were present, because some clouds are more reflective and have a stronger cooling
effect than others. The most recent models tend to show that changes in clouds as a
whole would most likely allow for more heat to be retained, thus providing a small
positive feedback on the climate system.

Warming the Air From Below

The atmosphere does not
readily absorb radiation with
wavelengths between 0.3 and 1.0
μm, the region where the sun emits
most of its energy. Consequently,
on a clear day, solar energy
passes through the lower
atmosphere with little effect upon
the air. Ultimately it reaches the
surface, warming it. Air molecules
in contact with the heated surface
bounce against it, gain energy by conduction, then shoot upward like freshly popped
kernels of corn, carrying their energy with them. Because the air near the ground is
very dense, these molecules only travel a short distance before they collide with other
molecules. During the collision, these more rapidly moving molecules share their
energy with less energetic molecules, raising the average temperature of the air. But
air is such a poor heat conductor that this process is only important within a few
centimeters of the ground.

As the surface air warms, it actually becomes less dense than the air directly
above it. The warmer air rises and the cooler air sinks, setting up thermals, or free
convection cells, that transfer heat upward and distribute it through a deeper layer of
air. The rising air expands and cools, and, if sufficiently moist, the water vapor
condenses into cloud droplets, releasing latent heat that warms the air. Meanwhile,
Earth constantly emits infrared energy. Some of this energy is absorbed by greenhouse
gases (such as water vapor and carbon dioxide) that emit infrared energy upward and
downward, back to the surface. Since the concentration of water vapor decreases
rapidly above Earth, most of the absorption occurs in a layer near the surface. Hence,
the lower atmosphere is mainly heated from the ground upward.

Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Sun

As the sun’s radiant energy travels through space, essentially nothing interferes
with it until it reaches the atmosphere. At the top of the atmosphere, solar energy
received on a surface perpendicular to the sun’s rays appears to remain fairly constant
at nearly two calories on each square centimeter each minute, or 1361 W/m2— a value
called the solar constant.

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 When solar radiation enters the atmosphere, a number of interactions take place.
For example, some of the energy is absorbed by gases, such as ozone, in the upper
atmosphere. Moreover, when sunlight strikes very small objects, such as air molecules
and dust particles, the light itself is deflected in all directions—forward, sideways, and
backward. The distribution of light in this manner is called scattering. (Scattered light
is also called diffuse light.) Because air molecules are much smaller than the
wavelengths of visible light, they are more effective scatterers of the shorter (blue)
wavelengths than the longer (red) wavelengths. Hence, when we look away from the
direct beam of sunlight, blue light strikes our eyes from all directions, turning the
daytime sky blue. At midday, all the wavelengths of visible light from the sun strike our
eyes, and the sun is perceived as white. At sunrise and sunset, when the white beam
of sunlight must pass through a thick portion of the atmosphere, scattering by air
molecules removes the blue light, leaving the longer wavelengths of red, orange, and
yellow to pass on through, creating the image of a ruddy or yellowish sun.

Sunlight can be reflected from

objects. Generally, reflection differs from
scattering in that during the process of
reflection much light is sent backward.
Albedo is the percent of radiation
returning from a given surface compared
to the amount of radiation initially striking
that surface. Albedo, then, represents
the reflectivity of the surface. On the
average, the albedo of clouds is near 60
percent. When solar energy strikes a
surface covered with snow, up to 95
percent of the sunlight may be reflected.
Most of this energy is in the visible and
ultraviolet wavelengths. Consequently,
reflected radiation, coupled with direct sunlight, can produce severe sunburns on the
exposed skin of unwary snow skiers, and unprotected eyes can suffer the agony of
snow blindness.

Water surfaces, on the other hand, reflect only a small amount of solar energy.
For an entire day, a smooth water surface will have an average albedo of about 10
percent. Averaged for an entire year, Earth and its atmosphere (including its clouds)
will redirect about 30 percent of the sun’s incoming radiation back to space, which gives
Earth and its atmosphere a combined albedo of 30 percent.

WHY EARTH HAS SEASONS

Earth revolves completely around the sun in an elliptical path (not quite a circle)
in about 365 days and six hours (one year, plus a Leap Day every four years in

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February). As Earth revolves around the sun, it spins on its own axis, completing one
spin in 24 hours (one day). The average distance from Earth to the sun is 150 million
km (93 million mi). Because Earth’s orbit is an ellipse instead of a circle, and is slightly
off-center from the sun, the actual distance from Earth to the sun varies during the year.
Earth comes closer to the sun in January (147 million km) than it does in July (152
million km). We might conclude from this fact that our warmest weather should occur
in January and our coldest weather in July. But, in the Northern Hemisphere, we
normally experience cold weather in January when we are closer to the sun and warm
weather in July when we are farther away. If nearness to the sun were the primary
cause of the seasons then, indeed, January would be warmer than July. However,
nearness to the sun is only a small part of the story.

Our seasons are regulated by the amount of solar energy received at Earth’s
surface. This amount is determined primarily by the angle at which sunlight strikes the
surface and by how long the sun shines on any latitude (daylight hours). Let’s look more
closely at these factors. Solar energy that strikes Earth’s surface perpendicularly
(directly) is much more intense than solar energy that strikes the same surface at an
angle. Think of shining a flashlight straight at a wall—you get a small, circular spot of
light. Now tip the flashlight and notice how the spot of light spreads over a larger area.
The same principle holds for sunlight. Sunlight striking Earth at an angle spreads out
and must heat a larger region than sunlight impinging directly on Earth. Everything else
being equal, an area experiencing more direct solar rays will receive more heat than
the same size area being struck by sunlight at an angle. In addition, the more the sun’s
rays are slanted from the perpendicular, the more atmosphere they must penetrate.
And the more atmosphere they penetrate, the more they can be scattered and
absorbed. As a consequence, when the sun is high in the sky, it can heat the ground
to a much higher temperature than when it is low on the horizon.

The second important factor determining how warm Earth’s surface becomes is
the length of time the sun shines each day, the number of daylight hours. Longer
daylight hours, of course, mean that more energy is available from sunlight. In a given
location, more solar energy reaches Earth’s surface on a clear, long day than on a day
that is clear but much shorter. The longer the day, the more surface heating takes place.

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 From a casual observation, we know that summer days have more daylight hours
than winter days. Also, the noontime summer sun is higher in the sky than is the
noontime winter sun. Both of these events occur because our spinning planet is inclined
on its axis (tilted) as it revolves around the sun. The angle of tilt is 23½° from the
perpendicular drawn to the plane of Earth’s orbit. Earth’s axis points to the same
direction in space all year long; thus, on one side of Earth’s orbit the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun in summer (June), and on the other side of Earth’s
orbit it is tilted away from the sun in winter (December).

Seasons in the Northern Atmosphere

Notice that on June 21, the northern half of the world is directed toward the sun.
At noon on this day, solar rays beat down upon the Northern Hemisphere more directly
than during any other time of year. The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky,
directly above 23½° north (N) latitude (Tropic of Cancer). If you were standing at this
latitude on June 21, the sun at noon would be directly overhead. This day, called the
summer solstice, is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.

Study the picture above closely and notice that, as Earth spins on its axis, the
side facing the sun is in sunshine and the other side is in darkness. Thus, half of the
globe is always illuminated. If Earth’s axis were not tilted, the noonday sun would
always be directly overhead at the equator, and there would be 12 hours of daylight
and 12 hours of darkness at each latitude every day of the year. However, Earth is
tilted. Since the Northern Hemisphere faces toward the sun on June 21, each latitude
in the Northern Hemisphere will have more than 12 hours of daylight. The farther north
we go, the longer are the daylight hours. When we reach the Arctic Circle (66 ½°N),
daylight lasts for 24 hours, as the sun does not set. Notice how the region above 66½°N

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never gets into the “shadow” zone as Earth spins. At the North Pole, the sun actually
rises above the horizon on March 20 and has six months until it sets on September 22.
No wonder this region is called the “Land of the Midnight Sun”!

Even though in the far north the sun is

above the horizon for many hours during the
summer the surface air there is not warmer than
the air farther south, where days are
appreciably shorter. When incoming solar
radiation (called insolation) enters the
atmosphere, fine dust, air molecules, and
clouds reflect and scatter it, and some of it is
absorbed by atmospheric gases. Generally, the
greater the thickness of atmosphere that
sunlight must penetrate, the greater the
chances that it will be either reflected or
absorbed by the atmosphere. During the
summer in far northern latitudes, the sun is
never very high above the horizon, so its radiant
energy must pass through a thick portion of atmosphere before it reaches Earth’s
surface. Some of the solar energy that does reach the surface melts frozen soil or is
reflected by snow or ice. That which is absorbed is spread over a large area. So, even
though northern cities may experience long hours of sunlight, they are cooler than cities
farther south, because overall, they receive less radiation at the surface. What radiation
they do receive does not heat the surface as effectively.

Notice that, by September 22, Earth will have moved so that the sun is directly
above the equator. Except at the poles, the days and nights throughout the world are
of equal length. This day is called the autumnal (fall) equinox, and it marks the
astronomical beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere. At the North Pole, the sun
appears on the horizon for 24 hours, due to the bending of light by the atmosphere.
The following day (or at least within several days), the sun disappears from view, not
to rise again for a long, cold six months. Throughout the northern half of the world on
each successive day, there are fewer hours of daylight, and the noon sun is slightly
lower in the sky. Less direct sunlight and shorter hours of daylight spell cooler weather
for the Northern Hemisphere. Reduced sunlight, lower air temperatures, and cooling
breezes stimulate the beautiful pageantry of fall colors.

In some years around the middle of autumn, there is an unseasonably warm

spell, especially in the eastern two-thirds of the United States. This warm period,
referred to as Indian summer, may last from several days up to a week or more. It
usually occurs when a large high-pressure area stalls near the southeast coast. The
clockwise flow of air around this system moves warm air from the Gulf of Mexico into
the central or eastern half of the nation. The warm, gentle breezes and smoke from a
variety of sources respectively make for mild, hazy days. The warm weather ends
abruptly when an outbreak of polar air reminds us that winter is not far away.

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Length of Time from Sunrise to Sunset for Various Latitudes on Different Dates
in the Northern Hemisphere

On December 21 (three months after the autumnal equinox), the Northern

Hemisphere is tilted as far away from the sun as it will be all year. Notice that daylight
decreases from 12 hours at the equator to 0 (zero) at latitudes above 66½°N. This is
the shortest day of the year, called the winter solstice—the astronomical beginning of
winter in the northern world. On this day, the sun shines directly above latitude 23½ °S
(Tropic of Capricorn). In the northern half of the world, the sun is at its lowest position
in the noon sky. Its rays pass through a thick section of atmosphere and spread over a
large area on the surface.

With so little incident sunlight, Earth’s surface cools quickly. A blanket of clean
snow covering the ground aids in the cooling. In northern Canada and Alaska, arctic air
rapidly becomes extremely cold as it lies poised, ready to do battle with the milder air
to the south. Periodically, this cold arctic air pushes down into the northern United
States, producing a rapid drop in temperature called a cold wave, which occasionally
reaches far into the south. Sometimes these cold spells arrive well before the winter
solstice—the “official” first day of winter—bringing with them heavy snow and blustery
winds. Three months past the winter solstice marks the astronomical arrival of spring,
which is called the vernal (spring) equinox. The date is March 20 and, once again, the
noonday sun is shining directly on the equator, days and nights throughout the world
are of equal length, and, at the North Pole, the sun rises above the horizon after a long
six-month absence.

At this point it is interesting to note that although sunlight is most intense in the
Northern Hemisphere on June 21, the warmest weather in middle latitudes normally
occurs weeks later, usually in July or August. This situation (called the lag in seasonal
temperature) arises because although incoming energy from the sun is greatest in
June, it takes time for oceans and landmasses to release the large amounts of incoming
energy they have absorbed. As a result, incoming energy still exceeds outgoing energy

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from Earth for a period of at least several weeks. Once the incoming solar energy and
outgoing earth energy are in balance, the highest average temperature is attained.
When outgoing energy exceeds incoming energy, the average temperature drops. As
in the summer, there is also a seasonal temperature lag in winter. Because outgoing
Earth energy exceeds incoming solar energy well past the winter solstice (December
21), we normally find our coldest weather occurring in January or February.

Up to now, we have seen that the seasons are controlled by the amount of solar
energy striking our tilted planet as it makes its annual voyage around the sun. And we
know that the tilt of Earth causes a seasonal variation in both the length of daylight and
the intensity of sunlight that reaches the surface.

Seasons in the Southern Atmosphere

On June 21, the Southern Hemisphere is adjusting to an entirely different

season. Notice that this part of the world is now tilted away from the sun. Nights are
long, days are short, and solar rays come in at a low angle. All of these factors keep air
temperatures fairly low. The June solstice marks the astronomical beginning of winter
in the Southern Hemisphere. In this part of the world, summer will not “officially” begin
until the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S)—remember that this occurs on
December 21. So, when it is winter and June in the Southern Hemisphere, it is summer
and June in the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely, when it is summer and December
in the Southern Hemisphere, it is winter and December in the Northern Hemisphere. If
you are tired of the cold, December weather in your Northern Hemisphere city, travel
to the summer half of the world and enjoy the warmer weather. The tilt of Earth as it
revolves around the sun makes all this possible.

We know Earth comes nearer to the sun in January than in July. Even though
this difference in distance amounts to only about 3 percent, the energy that strikes the
top of Earth’s atmosphere is almost 7 percent greater on January 3 than on July 4.
These numbers might lead us to believe that summer should be warmer in the Southern
Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. However, this is not so. A close
examination of the Southern Hemisphere reveals that nearly 81 percent of the surface
is water compared to 61 percent in the Northern Hemisphere. The added solar energy
due to the closeness of the sun is absorbed by large bodies of water, becoming well
mixed and circulated within them. This process keeps the average summer (January)
temperatures in the Southern Hemisphere cooler than the average summer (July)
temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Because of water’s large heat capacity, it
also tends to keep winters in the Southern Hemisphere warmer than we might expect.

Local Seasonal Variations

In the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere objects facing south will
receive more sunlight during a year than those facing north. This fact becomes strikingly

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apparent in hilly or mountainous country. Hills that face south receive more sunshine
and, hence, become warmer than the partially shielded north-facing hills. Higher
temperatures usually mean greater rates of evaporation and slightly drier soil
conditions. Thus, south-facing hillsides are usually warmer and drier as compared to
north-facing slopes at the same elevation. In many areas of the far western United
States, only sparse vegetation grows on south-facing slopes, while, on the same hill,
dense vegetation grows on the cool, moist slopes that face north.

In the mountains, snow usually lingers on the ground for a longer time on north
slopes than on the warmer south slopes. For this reason, ski runs are built facing north
wherever possible. Also, homes and cabins built on the north side of a hill usually have
a steep pitched roof, as well as a reinforced deck to withstand the added weight of snow
from successive winter storms.

The seasonal change in the sun’s position during the year can have an effect on
the vegetation around the home. In winter, a large two-story home can shade its own
northside, keeping it much cooler than its south side. Trees that require warm, sunny
weather should be planted on the south side, where sunlight reflected from the house
can even add to the warmth.

The design of a home can be important in reducing heating and cooling costs.
Large windows should face south, allowing sunshine to penetrate the home in winter.
To block out excess sunlight during the summer, a small leave or overhang should be
built. A kitchen with windows facing east will let in enough warm morning sunlight to
help heat this area. Because the west side warms rapidly in the afternoon, rooms
having small windows (such as garages)can be placed here to act as a thermal buffer.
Deciduous trees planted on the west side of a home provide shade in the summer. In
winter, they drop their leaves, allowing the winter sunshine to warm the house. If you
like the bedroom slightly cooler than the rest of the home, face it toward the north. Let
nature help with the heating and air conditioning. Proper house design, orientation, and
landscaping can help cut the demand for electricity, as well as for natural gas and fossil
fuels, which are rapidly being depleted.

Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment Task – DIAGRAM

Directions: Create an illustration showing:
• the phase changes of matter; and
• mechanisms of heat transfer.

Assessment Task – ESSAY

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively.
1) Why are carbon dioxide and water vapor called selective absorbing greenhouse
gases?
2) Explain how Earth’s atmospheric greenhouse effect works.

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 3) Why does the albedo of Earth and its atmosphere average about 30 percent?
4) In the Northern Hemisphere, why are summers warmer than winters even
though Earth is actually closer to the sun in January?
5) During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the daylight hours in northern
latitudes are longer than in middle latitudes. Explain why northern latitudes are
not warmer.
References
Ahrens, C. Donald & Henson, Robert. (2018). Essentials of Meteorology – An Invitation
to the Atmosphere (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Cruz, R. V. O., Aliño, P. M., Cabrera O. C., David, C. P. C., David, L. T., Lansigan, F.
P., Lasco, R. D., Licuanan, W. R. Y., Lorenzo, F. M., Mamauag, S. S., Peñaflor,
E. L., Perez, R. T., Pulhin, J. M., Rollon, R. N., Samson, M. S., Siringan, F. P.,
Tibig, L. V., Uy, N. M., Villanoy, C. L. (2017). 2017 Philippine Climate Change
Assessment: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation. The Oscar M. Lopez
Center for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Management
Foundation, Inc. and Climate Change Commission.

Prepared by:

Mr. MHARVIN S. DALANGIN

Instructor

Checked by:

Dr. AIDA A. CASAS

Head, Education Department

Noted by:

Dr. RANDY M. BAJA, FRIEdr, CESE

College Dean

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