UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

NYANKPALA CAMPUS.

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING.

MECHANICAL LAB PRACTICALS 3.

A REPORT ON ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS.

COORDINATORS: DR. ASUAKO LARSON, ING. M.K BOADU AND MR.

EMMANUEL AKUGRE AKURUGU.

DATE: 20TH JUNE, 2023.

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 STUDENTS’ CREDENTIAL
NAME INDEX NUMBER SIGNATURE

BAWA BRIGHT BOIN MEN/0034/20

BONDOUG PRAISE MEN/0039/20

WINDHAM

ADDAI TAKYI BARNABAS MEN/0008/20

MICHAEL APURI WEZAANE MEN/0025/20

PRECIOUS AYAMGA MEN/0031/20

GROUP 7A

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................................i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY........................................................................................................ii
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
PRACTICAL APPLICATION..................................................................................................2
OBJECTIVE...........................................................................................................................2
METHOD...............................................................................................................................2
EQUIPMENT.........................................................................................................................2
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION..................................................................................................3
THEORY....................................................................................................................................4
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE............................................................................................6
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS.........................................................................................7
Raw Data Tables................................................................................................................7
CALCULATIONS...................................................................................................................9
Result Table............................................................................................................................9
OBSERVATION......................................................................................................................11
RECOMMENDATION...........................................................................................................13
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................14

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we would like to thank God Almighty for the gift of life, insight,
guidance and protection throughout the entire course of study.

We would also like to express our heartfelt gratitude to Ing. Prof. Shaibu Abdul Ganiyu
(Dean of the School of Engineering), Dr. Maxwell (Vice Dean), Ing. Dr. Enoch Larson
(Head of Department, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering) for their support in making
this year's Mechanical Laboratory Course a success in spite of the Challenges.

We also say a very big thank you to Mr. Emmanuel Akurugu, Ing. Michael K. Buadu and all
the lecturers of the School of Engineering.

Appreciation to Ing. Naim Makhzuon and the various lab technicians at Tamale Technical
University for both theoretical and practical knowledge inculcated in us during our course of
study at the Tamale Technical University, they saw it to it that all the theoretical and
practical lessons are well understood by the students.

Finally, our undisputable appreciation goes to our Parents and my Colleagues for their
immense contribution towards this Course, without their generous support, this project would
not have been possible.

May God bless you all.

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is a summary of the findings of Mechanical Laboratory III practical held at the
Tamale Technical University. It deliberates on the principles and operation of energy loss in
bends and fittings. Energy losses in pipes used for the transportation of fluids (water,
petroleum etc.) are essentially due to friction, as well as to the diverse singularities
encountered. These knowledge of data of such transformation allows the determination of the
necessary power needed for the transportation of the fluid between two points.

It constitutes the necessary calculation basis necessary for the design and analysis of transport
and distribution networks. The review of the different relationships allowing the
determination of these losses and their comparison to the experimental results obtained by the
authors constitute the object of this study.

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 INTRODUCTION
In fluid mechanics, fluids experience losses during their flow through a pipe from one point
to another. These losses can be grouped into two types. The two types of energy losses
predominate in fluid flow through a pipe network are
i. major losses and
ii. minor losses.
Major losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of
the medium and roughness of the pipe wall.
Minor losses, on the other hand, are due to pipe fittings, changes in the flow direction, and
changes in the flow area.
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to evaluate the energy loss in a pipe system:

In this equation, and z are pressure head, velocity head, and potential head, respectively. The
total head loss, hL, includes both major and minor losses.

Due to the complexity of the piping system and the number of fittings that are used, the head
loss coefficient (K) is empirically derived as a quick means of calculating the minor head
losses.

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 PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The term “minor losses”, used in many textbooks for head loss across fittings, can be
misleading since these losses can be a large fraction of the total loss in a pipe system. In fact,
in a pipe system with many fittings and valves, the minor losses can be greater than the major
(friction) losses. Thus, an accurate K value for all fittings and valves in a pipe system is
necessary to predict the actual head loss across the pipe system. K values assist engineers in
totaling all of the minor losses by multiplying the sum of the K values by the velocity head to
quickly determine the total head loss due to all fittings. Knowing the K value for each fitting
enables engineers to use the proper fitting when designing an efficient piping system that can
minimize the head loss and maximize the flow rate.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to determine the loss coefficient (K) for a range of pipe
fittings, including several bends, a contraction, an enlargement, and a gate valve.

METHOD
The head loss coefficients are determined by measuring the pressure head differences across
a number of fittings that are connected in series, over a range of steady flows, and applying
the energy equation between the sections before and after each fitting.

EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipe fittings experiment:

• F1-10 hydraulics bench,

• F1-22 Energy losses in bends apparatus,

• Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement,

• Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes,

• Spirit level, and

• Thermometer.

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 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The energy loss in fittings apparatus consists of a series of fittings, a flow control valve,
twelve manometers, a differential pressure gauge, and an air-bleed valve (Figure 3.1).

The fittings listed below, connected in a series configuration, will be examined for their head
loss coefficient (K):
• long bend,

• area enlargement,

• area contraction,

• elbow,

• short bend, • gate valve, and

• mitre.

Figure 3.1: F1-22 Energy Losses in Pipe Fittings Apparatus

The manometers are tapped into the pipe system (one before and one after each fitting,
except for the gate valve) to measure the pressure head difference caused by each fitting.
The pressure difference for the valve is directly measured by the differential pressure gauge.

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 The air-bleed valve facilitates purging the system and adjusting the water level in the
manometers to a convenient level, by allowing air to enter them. Two clamps, which close
off the tappings to the mitre, are introduced while experiments are being performed on the
gate valve. The flow rate is controlled by the flow control valve [3].

The internal diameter of the pipe and all fittings, except for the enlargement and contraction,
is 0.0183 m. The internal diameter of the pipe at the enlargement’s outlet and the
contraction’s inlet is 0.0240 m.

THEORY
Bernoulli’s equation can be used to evaluate the energy loss in a pipe system:

In this equation, and z are pressure head, velocity head, and potential head, respectively. The
total head loss, hL, includes both major and minor losses.

If the diameter through the pipe fitting is kept constant, then . Therefore, if
the change in elevation head is neglected, the manometric head difference is the static head
difference that is equal
to the minor loss through the fitting.

in which and are manometer readings before and after the

fitting.

The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting can also be expressed as a fraction (K) of the
velocity head through the fitting:

where:

K: loss coefficient, and

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v: mean flow velocity into the fitting.

Because of the complexity of the flow in many fittings, K is usually determined by

experiment [3]. The head loss coefficient (K) is calculated as the ratio of the manometric
head difference between the input and output of the fitting to the velocity head.

Due to the change in the pipe cross-sectional area in enlargement and contraction fittings, the
velocity difference cannot be neglected. Thus:

Therefore, these types of fittings experience an additional change in static pressure, i.e.:

This value will be negative for the contraction since and it will be positive for enlargement.
because
From Equation (5), note that will be negative for the enlargement.

The pressure difference ( ) between before and after the gate valve is measured directly
using the pressure gauge. This can then be converted to an equivalent head loss by using the
conversion ratio:

1 bar= 10.2 m water

The loss coefficient for the gate valve may then be calculated by using Equation (4).

To identify the flow regime through the fitting, the Reynolds number is calculated as:

where v is the cross-sectional mean velocity, D is the pipe diameter and is the fluid
kinematic viscosity (Figure 3.2).
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 Figure 3.2: Kinematic Viscosity of Water (v) at Atmospheric Pressure

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
In this part, head losses caused by fittings, except for the gate valve, will be measured;
therefore, this valve should be kept fully open throughout Part A. The following steps should
be followed for this part:

• Set up the apparatus on the hydraulics bench and ensure that its base is horizontal.

• Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench flow supply, run the outlet extension tube to
the volumetric tank, and secure it in place.

• Open the bench valve, the gate valve, and the flow control valve, and start the pump
to fill the pipe system and manometers with water. Ensure that the air-bleed valve is
closed.

• To purge air from the pipe system and manometers, connect a bore tubing from the
air valve to the volumetric tank, remove the cap from the air valve, and open the air-
bleed screw to allow flow through the manometers. Tighten the air-bleed screw when
no air bubbles are observed in the manometers.

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 • Set the flow rate at approximately 17 liters/minute. This can be achieved by several
trials of timed volumetric flow measurements. For flow measurement, close the ball
valve, and use a stopwatch to measure the time that it takes to accumulate a known
volume of fluid in the tank, which is read from the hydraulics bench sight glass.
Collect water for at least one minute to minimize errors in the flow measurement.

• Open the air-bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers; re-
tighten the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. All of the
manometer levels should be on scale at the maximum flow rate. These levels can be
adjusted further by using the air-bleed screw and the hand pump. The air-bleed screw
controls the air flow through the air valve, so when using the hand pump, the bleed
screw must be open. To retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must
be closed after pumping [3].

• Take height readings from all manometers after the levels are steady.

• Repeat this procedure to give a total of at least five sets of measurements over a flow
range of 8 – 17 liters per minute.

• Measure the outflow water temperature at the lowest flow rate. This, together with
Figure
3.2, is used to determine the Reynolds number.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

Please visit this link for accessing excel workbook for this experiment.

9.1. RESULTS
Record all of the manometer and pressure gauge readings, as well as the volumetric
measurements, in the Raw Data Tables.
Raw Data Tables
Part A – Head Loss Across Pipe Fittings

Test No. 1: Volume Collected (liters): Time (s):

Fitting h1 (m) h2 (m)
Enlargement 376 375

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Contraction 375 373
Long Bend 376 375
Short Bend 374 372
Elbow 337 367
Mitre 361 357
Test No. 2: Volume Collected (liters): Time (s):
Enlargement 391 394
Contraction 394 381
Long Bend 395 391
Short Bend 381 369
Elbow 330 340
Mitre 313 289
Test No. 3: Volume Collected (liters): Time (s):
Enlargement 414 424
Contraction 423 490
Long Bend 423 415
Short Bend 391 363
Elbow 331 298
Mitre 238 185
Test No. 4: Volume Collected (liters): Time (s):
Enlargement 425 437
Contraction 436 395
Long Bend 435 425
Short Bend 395 360
Elbow 331 278
Mitre 200 132
Test No. 5: Volume Collected (liters): Time (s):
Enlargement 437 440
Contraction 440 401
Long Bend 440 438
Short Bend 401 359

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 Elbow 334 259
Mitre 166 84

CALCULATIONS

Calculate the values of the discharge, flow velocity, velocity head, and Reynolds number for
each experiment, as well as the K values for each fitting and the gate valve. Record your
calculations in the following sample Result Tables.

Result Table

Part A – Head Loss Across Pipe Fittings

Test No: Flow Rate Q (m3/s): Velocity v (m/s):

h1 =h1– h2 Corrected v2/2g (m) Reynolds

Fitting h2 (m) K
(m) (m) (m) Number

Enlargement 408.6 414 -5.4 5.4 4.128*10-4 13080 2,426.97

Contraction 413. 408 5.6 5.6 4.44*10-4 12612.857 1,919.1

6 1

Long Bend 413. 408.8 5.0 5.0 3.539*10-4 14126.4 1,713.5

8

Short Bend 388. 364.6 23.9 23.9 8.087*10-3 2955.3138 8,190.4

5

Elbow 332. 308.4 24.2 24.2 8.291*10-3 2918.9677 8,293.3

6 7

Mitre 255. 209.4 46.2 46.2 0.03021 1528.8312 15,832.6

6

Velocity, v (m/s) (m)

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0.09 5.4

0.0933 5.6

0.0833 5.0

0.3983 23.9

0.4033 24.2

0.77 46.2

Flowrate, Q/m3s-1 K

4.1122*10-5 13080

2.4777*10-5 12612.8571

2.212*10-5 14126.4

1.0579*10-4 2955.3138

1.0597*10-4 2918.96777

2.0447*10-4 1528.8312

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 HEAD LOSS IN PIPE FITTING
50
45
40
35
30
HEAD LOSS

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
VELOCITY

K VALUE
16000

14000

12000

10000
K VALUE

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FLOW RATE

OBSERVATION
At the end the experiment we were able to draw the following observations:

i. The Reynolds number for the fluids in pipes differed and so we recorded the lowest value
in the Long bend and highest in the miter.

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ii. Reynolds number < 2000 indicates laminar
iii. 2000 < Reynolds number > 4000 indicates transitional flow
iv. Reynolds > 4000 indicates turbulent flow
v. The experiment led by the technician had an effect on the flow rate which therefore
affected the Reynolds number leading to fluctuation.

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 RECOMMENDATION
In summary, the following recommendations can help minimize energy losses in bends and
fittings:
1. Optimize System Design: Utilize larger bend radii and smooth, streamlined fittings to
reduce turbulence and pressure drops. Employ gradual expansions or contractions to
minimize sudden changes in flow velocity.
2. Implement Flow-Enhancing Devices: Consider using turbulence reducers or flow
straighteners to promote laminar flow and reduce energy losses caused by turbulence.
3. Utilize Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Employ CFD simulations to analyze and
optimize fluid flow within complex systems, allowing for accurate prediction and reduction
of energy losses in bends and fittings.
4. Conduct Experimental Testing: Perform physical tests to validate and refine system design,
ensuring that energy losses are minimized and efficiency is maximized.
5. Continual Monitoring and Maintenance: Regularly monitor fluid flow systems to identify
and rectify any issues that may lead to increased energy losses, such as obstructions, leaks, or
degradation of fittings.
6. Stay Informed about Industry Standards: Keep abreast of industry standards and guidelines
for fluid flow system design, including recommendations for bends and fittings, to ensure
compliance and optimal performance.
By implementing these recommendations, system operators can effectively reduce energy
losses in bends and fittings, leading to improved overall system efficiency, reduced energy
consumption, and cost savings.

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 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the energy lost in bends and fittings is a significant factor to consider when
analyzing fluid flow systems. Throughout this report, we have explored the causes and
consequences of energy losses in bends and fittings, as well as the methods used to mitigate
them.
Bends and fittings introduce additional resistance and turbulence to the fluid flow, resulting
in pressure drops and energy dissipation. This phenomenon is primarily caused by changes in
direction, sudden expansions or contractions, and flow obstructions within the system. The
energy losses associated with bends and fittings can have detrimental effects on overall
system efficiency, performance, and operating costs.
Various factors contribute to the magnitude of energy losses, including the degree of bend
curvature, the smoothness of the fitting surfaces, and the velocity and viscosity of the fluid.
Understanding these factors enables engineers to optimize system design, minimize energy
losses, and enhance fluid flow efficiency.
To mitigate energy losses in bends and fittings, several strategies can be employed. These
include using larger bend radii, employing gradual expansions or contractions, utilizing
streamlined fittings, and implementing flow-enhancing devices such as turbulence reducers
or flow straighteners. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and experimental
testing are valuable tools for analyzing and optimizing fluid flow within complex systems.
By reducing energy losses in bends and fittings, system operators can achieve improved
overall efficiency, lower energy consumption, reduced pressure drops, and increased
equipment longevity. Furthermore, minimizing energy losses contributes to environmental
sustainability by reducing energy waste and associated greenhouse gas emissions.
It is essential for engineers, designers, and operators to recognize the impact of bends and
fittings on fluid flow systems and implement effective strategies to mitigate energy losses.
Ongoing research and development in this field, along with advancements in materials,
manufacturing techniques, and computational modeling, will continue to drive improvements
in fluid flow system design and efficiency.
In conclusion, understanding and addressing energy losses in bends and fittings are crucial
steps toward optimizing fluid flow systems, enhancing performance, and achieving energy
efficiency goals in various industries and applications.

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