Syllabus unit 2: Measurement Techniques

2.2 Errors and Uncertainties

a) understand and explain the effects of systematic errors

(including zero errors) and random errors in measurements.
b) understand the distinction between precision and
accuracy.
c) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple
addition of absolute, fractional or percentage
uncertainties.
Reading and Measurement

To make careful and accurate observations in physics,

measurements are inevitable.
In scientific terminology measurements and readings have
different meanings:
A reading is a single determination of the value of an
unknown quantity. It is the actual reading taken during an
experiment.
A measurement is the final result of the analysis of a series
of readings.
Error or Uncertainty

A measurement is only accurate up to a certain degree

depending on the instrument used and the physical
constraints of the observer.

Any quantity measured has an amount of uncertainty or

error in the value obtained.
Error or Uncertainty

Error is the difference between actual value of a quantity

and the value obtained in measurement.
For example: Assume a stick rod of true value of 25 cm and
a measured value of 24 cm, here error is 1 cm.

Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the

measurement result.
Types of Errors

Error is the difference between actual value of a quantity

and the value obtained in measurement.

There are two main types of error:

 Random error
 Systematic error
Random Error

Random errors arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition of

the measuring instrument or observation of the observer.
It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.
For example, during the determination of acceleration due to gravity, T is
measured by a stop watch and l is measured by a metre scale. If the stop watch
is not rightly started or stopped while noting time, then error will appear in T.
During the measurement of l, if the index does not coincide with a particular
mark but stays between the two marks, then it is difficult for the observer to take
correct reading, consequently error will come in l. These types of errors are
called random errors.
Random errors are variable. Sometime the measured value is greater and
sometime lower than the actual value, so the error may be positive or negative
or both.
Random Error: Causes and Remedy

 Random error may occur due to following reasons

a) factors that are beyond the control of the experimenter.
b) Lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond to
the small change.
c) natural errors such as changes in temperature or wind, while the
experiment is in progress.
d) wrong technique of measurement, for example parallax error.

 Random error can be reduced by

a) repeat readings and find the average.
b) Using correct technique (e.g. avoid parallax error).
Systematic Error

Systematic errors are errors in the experimental method or equipment where readings
are always and systematically become either less or more than the actual value.
Systematic errors are not random but constant.
 Examples of systematic errors are
a) Zero error, which cause by an incorrect position of the zero point,
b) an incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument.
c) consistently improper use of equipment.

 Systematic errors cannot be reduced by averaging but they can be eliminated if

the errors are known. For example
a) By making zero correction (eliminate zero error).
b) By calibrating equipment in the same environmental conditions where the
experiment is conducting.
c) By repeating the experiment using different instrument.
Expressing Uncertainty

Result of any measurement can be expressed as

(measured value ± uncertainty) units

For example

g ± Δg = (9.81 ± 0.01) m/s2

Expressing Uncertainty

Uncertainty can be expressed in three ways as:

 Absolute uncertainty
 Fractional or relative uncertainty
 Percentage uncertainty
Expressing Uncertainty

A measurement of 3.62 mm obtained using a micrometer screw gauge

is written as (3.62 ± 0.01) mm to denote the uncertainty or error.
The value of 0.01 mm is the absolute error in the measurement of a
length of 3.62 cm.
Error can also be stated in the form of fractional error. The fractional
error in the measurement of (3.62 ± 0.01) mm is
0.01
3.62 = 0.00276
0.01
Whereas percent error is x 100 = 0.276%
3.62
Expressing Uncertainty

When expressing a measurement and its associated

uncertainty as
(measured value ± uncertainty) units
 Round the uncertainty to one significant digit, then
 round the measurement to the same precision as the
uncertainty.

For example, round 9.802562 ± 0.007916 m/s2 to

g ± Δg = (9.803 ± 0.008) m/s2

Accuracy

A measurement is said to be accurate if it is close to the actual value.

The accuracy of a measurement is given by the percentage error. The
smaller the percentage error, the higher the accuracy.
Consider the two lengths of (10.0 ± 0.1) cm and (20.0 ± 0.1) cm
measured by using a ruler. Both the readings have the same precision,
i.e. to 0.1cm. The percentage errors of the two readings are
0.1
10.0
x 100% = 1% and 0.1
20.0
x 100% = 0.5% respectively.
Therefore the reading of (20.0 ± 0.1) cm has a higher degree of
accuracy.
Measurements are accurate if the systematic error is small.
Precision

Precision is getting consistent results of repeated measurements.

In other words, precision is the variation in measurements obtained

when measuring the same part several times with the same instrument.
It also means, how close the readings are to each other.
The precision of an instrument is limited by the smallest division on the
measurement scale.
Measurements are precise if the random error is small.
Accuracy vs Precision
Accuracy and Precision in Graphs

Graphs can be used to help us identify different types of error.

Low precision is represented by a wide spread of points around an
expected value.
Low accuracy is represented by an unexpected intercept on the
y-axis. Low accuracy gives rise to systematic errors.
How to Avoid Uncertainty

It is important to reduce uncertainty for an accurate measurement. One simple

method of reducing uncertainty is to repeat the measurement and find the
average measured value.
Here some points can help you with more confidence in the measurement process,
 Reduce the random effect by repeating the measurement process.
 Use the best measuring instruments.
 Always use the calibrated instrument for measurement.
 Apply correction if you know any systematic effect.
 Record the most common uncertainty components.
 Avoid mistakes by checking calculations.
 Check your measurement by different operator or method.
Calculation of Uncertainty
(1) Addition and Subtraction
Suppose that a physical quantity S is related to two other physical quantities x and
y as follows:
S = x + y
If ± Δx and ± Δy are the uncertainties in the measurement of x and y respectively,
then the uncertainty in the measurement of S is:
± ΔS = ± (Δ x + Δy)
Also if D = x - y
Then ± ΔD = ± (Δx + Δy)

In general, if U = x ± y , then ± ΔU = ± (Δx + Δy)

Calculation of Uncertainty
(2) Multiplication and Division
Suppose that product, P = xyz with uncertainties in x, y and z are ± Δx, ±Δy and ± Δz
respectively.
Then maximum fractional uncertainty in P is
Δ𝑷 Δ𝒙 Δ𝒚 Δ𝒛
𝑷
= ±
𝒙
+[𝒚
+
𝒛
] ⇒ ΔP = ± [Δ𝒙𝒙 + Δ𝒚𝒚 + Δ𝒛𝒛 ] x P
𝒙
Now suppose quotient, Q =
𝒚
If ± Δx and ±Δy are uncertainties in x and y respectively, then the maximum fractional
uncertainty in Q is
Δ𝑸 Δ𝒙 Δ𝒚
𝑸
= ±
𝒙
[
+
𝒚
] ⇒ ΔQ = ± [Δ𝒙𝒙 + Δ𝒚𝒚 ] x Q
Calculation of Uncertainty
(3) Constant Power

If K = xp , where p = constant, then maximum fractional

uncertainty in R is:
Δ𝑲
= ± 𝒑∆𝒙
𝒙
𝑲
Calculation of Uncertainty
(4) Multiply with a Constant
If A = cx, where c = constant and ± Δx is the uncertainty in x, then
uncertainty in A is:
± ΔA = ± cΔx
Maximum fractional uncertainty in A is:
Δ𝑨 𝒄𝜟𝒙
= ±
𝑨 𝒄𝒙
𝜟𝒙
= ±
𝒙
Calculation of Uncertainty
(5) General Case
Suppose that
𝒄𝒙𝒑 𝒚𝒒
U = 𝒛𝒓
Where c, p, q and r are positive constants and x, y and z have
uncertainties ± Δx, ± Δy and ± Δz respectively.
Then the maximum fractional uncertainty in U is:

Δ𝑼
= ± 𝑝∆𝒙
𝒙
+ 𝑞 ∆𝑦
𝑦
+ 𝑟 ∆𝑧
𝑧
𝑼
Summary
Some Past Paper Questions
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